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Digitized  byGoOl^le 


DijilizcdbyGoOl^le 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


THE 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 

AMERICANA 


In  Thirty  Volumes 


1918 

THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  AMERICANA 

CORPORATION 

NEWYORK  CHICAGO 


CopyucBT,  191S 


The  Encyclopedia  Ahericaka  Corporation 


Digitized  by  GOOI^IC 


227052 
RUG  -2  «I9 

-■A.      , 

^     PARTIAL  LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS  TO  VOLUME  III 


ABBOTT,  AUXANDBR  C,  HJ>.,  Sc.D. 


BCCLES,  F.  Y^  A.H. 

Ljtterataiu,  Londoii,  Bdi_ 

BALZAC,  HONORS  DE 


ALEXIS,  JOSEPH,  A.B.,  A.U. 

Profmof  of  OsRiunic  LanguagM  and  Utentim, 
Unjvw»ilr  of  NcbrMi™ 

BANKRUPTCY,  A 
BEACHAH,  ROB^T  J. 

Secietary,  Baltimon  Hochsati  and  Maacdactnren 

BALTIMORE.  MD. 
BBSRT,  OEORGB  IL,  PtLD.,  DJ>. 

ProfoHor  of  Hennenentics  and  Old  Tegtament  Hia- 
tory  and  TbeDlngy,  Colaste  Uoivsnity 

BIBLICAL  CRITICISM 
BKEWSTER,  WILUAH  T.,  A.H. 

Pidewn-  at  Enalisli.  Columbja  Uoivastir 

BAB  BALLADS,  THE 
BAGEHOT,  WALTER 
BARRY  LYNDON 


BERNHARDI,  FRIEDRICH  VON 
BSCHBR,  ITRAHKLIH 

Lectonroa  Fonjgn  BachaagM 

BANKS    AND    BANKING  — FOREIGN 

EXCHANGE 
BANKING,  INVESTMENT 

FEBBIS,  RICHARD,  CJB.,D.Sc. 

Editorial  3taS  of  The  Americana 

BIMETALLISM 
FINCK,  HBNRT  T.,  A3. 

Uoaical  Critic  "  Evcnios  Fort."  New  Yotk 

BACH,  JOHANN  SEBASTIAN 
BEETHOVEN,  LUDWIG  VON 


BANKS,  POSTAL  SAVINGS 
CAIRKS,  WILLIAM  B.,  I%.D. 


BACKLOG  STUDIES 
COUIIBB,  CLBHEHT  W. 

Tedmical  Ait  Bipcrt 

BASILICA 
BARDS 
CRBIGHTON,  JAHBS  E.i  Ph.D.,  LLJ}. 

Pntcaot  of  Philiiiophv,  ComcD  UniTCnitir 

BBRGSONISM 
DARTON,  UraSOIl  H. 

Omted  States  Ow1o(ical  Sam? 

BAD  LANDS 
DBL  HAR,  AL^UHDBR 

Aathor  "  Hiatory  of  Uonatair  Syitema."  eta. 

BANKS  AND  BANKING  —  ORIGIN  AND 

DEVELOPMENT 
BARCELONA,  BANK  OF 
DOLE.  NATHAN  HASKELL,  A3. 

Bditoi- "  TolMor'*  CoBeMad  Woria  " 

BALMONT,  KONSTANTIN  DMITRIYfi- 
VITCH 

DOnOLAS,  D.  S. 

Bditona]  Staff  of  The  Amoicana,  Tornito 

BEACONSPIELD 

drurt,  wells 

Secretary,  Berkeley  Chamber  s 

BERKELEY,  CAL, 


OOVB,  AARON,  LL.D. 

RtpWBtatiTt  el  th*  Boat  Soaar  I^aatry  ■«  tha 
iGidStatv 

BEET  SUGAR 
HALrai,  PATRICK  A.,  PbJ>. 

ProftBT  of  Bthica,  New  Rocbdle  Cdke« 

BENEDICT  XV,  GUCOMO    DELLA 
CHIESA 


HEBRICK,  CLAT 

Anthor  of  "  Tnat  Compaain  " 
BANKS  AND  BANKING— TRUST  COU- 

PANY 

HIRSCHBERG,  E.,  Ph.D. 

Diiectoi  of  Ststutkal  Bunau  of  Beribi 

BERLIN,  GERMANY 
IHGBRSOLL,  ERNEST 

Natuialkt  and  Author 

BASS,  CULTURE  OP 

BIOLOGY 

BIRDS 

BIRDS,  FOSSIL 

BIRDS,  NESTS  OF 

BIRDS,  PROTECTION  OP 


y  Google 


Contributors  to  Volume  III— Contiiiued 


niOERSOLL.  HELEN 
NMuikHat 
BEACH  PLANTS 
BIRDS,  PLANTS  ATTRACTIVE  TO 

ISAACS,  LEWIS  U.,  Ph3^  LL3. 
MusicaJ  Critic  mnd  Compowr 
BARBER  OP  SEVILLE,  THE  (Opera) 


BALKAN  LEAGUE 

BALKAN  PENINSULA 

BALKAN  WARS 

BELGIUM 

BELGIUM  AND  THE  WAR 

KDIFFIN,  WILLIAM  H.,  JR. 

Vi»-Pt«idenl,  B»4ilc  of  Rockville  Centre;  tomi 
Secfetary  Suvioge  Bank  Section.  American  Br 
en'  Allocution 

BANKS    AND    BANKING— COMME 

CIAL  PAPER 
BANKS.  SAVINGS 

ERAPP,  GEORGE  P.,  FliJ>- 

Initnictor  in  Eogliali.  Columbia  Dniwraity 

BEDE 
LAHHAH,  CHARLES  ROCEWELL,  Pb.D. 

ProIesKi  of  Sanikrit,  Harwd  Uoivenity 

BIDPAI 
LAWRSHCB,  WILLIAM  W.,  PhJ).,  LittD. 

ProhHot  o[  Engluli,  Columbia  Univenit)' 

BATTLE  OF  MALDON,  THE 
BEOWULF 

LEOnABD-STOART,  CHARI^BS,  B.A. 
HBITBI  F.  KLEIN 

Staff  Editon,  The  A^ 

BAVARIA 


PAINB,  WILLIS  S^  A3.,  LLD. 

Author  Pains'i  "  Banldns  La«  " 

'  BANK  SUPERVISION 
PILLSBURT,  WALTER  B.,  Ph.D. 

PiQtessor  of  Pircbolosr,  Univtrnty  of  MtcUsui 

BEHAVIOR  AND  BEHAVIORISM 
REIHL,  CHARLES  W. 

Ponner  Bank  and  Ckaring  Hooae  Eaminer 

BANK    ORGANIZATION    AND    MAN- 
AGEMENT 

BINES,  GEORGE  BDWHf 


.  Co-editor 

_.    ;ydop«Ua    o£    Latbi    Amtric*'; 

ina  Editor  of  "'  The  Geiman   Claiaics  "; 

■•-  -  Building  of  the  Nation,"  etc. 


Manatnna 

BANCROFT,  GEORGE 
BEECHER.  HENRY  WARD 
BEECHER,  LYMAN 

ROBERTS,  GEORGE  B. 

Aniitaat  (o  tha  Pceiiitait.  NMioittl  City  Bank. 
New  York 

BANKS  AND  BANKING— WORLD  SYS- 
TEMS—TYPES 

ROBINSON,  FRED  TX^  PhJ>. 

Pnfeaar  of  Engliib.  Uarvard  Uni-mnitr 

BACON.  FRANCIS 


of  "  A.  B.  C  o(  Bm  CotMre  "  and  Editor  ol 


iiung)  in  Bee  Culture 


LIVINGSTON,  ARTHUR 

Pialegaot  of   RDOUnoe 

verdty.  London,  Ont. 

BETROTHED,  THE 


llACGRBGOR,  T.  D. 

Vice-PRsident.  Edwin  Bird  Wilnm.  Inc. 

BANK  AND  TRUST  COMPANY  ADVER- 
TISING 

HcDONNELL,  JOHN  B. 

Editorial  Staff.  The 

BALUCHISTAN 
NEILSON,  WILLIAM  A.,  PliJ>. 

Profia^r  of  English,  Harvard  Uni' 

BALLAD 


BEE-KEEPING 


SLOSSON,  GEORGE  F. 

American  Billiard  Eipcrt 

BILLIARDS 
SMTra,  WILLIAM  BENJAMIN,  PhJ>..  LLJ>. 

Emeritus  Profeaor  of  Philosopby.  Tulana  Uoivenitir 

BIBLE,  THE 

BIBLE,  HISTORY  OP  OLD  TESTAMENT 

INTERPRETATION 


BIBLE,  VERSIONS  OF  THE 
BIBLICAL    ARCHiEOLOGY,     OLD 

TESTAMENT 
BIBLICAL    ARCHAEOLOGY,  NEW 

TESTAMENT 

SPRAOUE,  OLIVER  H.  W.,  Pb.D. 

Profeiaor  of  Banldns  and  Finance,  Harrard  U 

BANKS,  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF 
THORNDIKE,  ASHLEY  H.,  L.B.D.,  PhJ). 

Prof^Kir  ot  Engliih.  Columlria  UniTernty 

BEAUMONT  AND  FLETCHER 


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Contributors  to  Volume  III— Ck>ntlziued 


TOCEBK,  UARIOK,  FhJ). 

Prnffim-  ul  Bngtith.  Tbe  Polytechnic  ImtitBtB  at 
Brooldyi) 

BARRACK-ROOM  BALLADS 
BIGLOW  PAPERS,  THE 

UHDBKHILL,  JOHN  GABBBTT,  PIlD. 

AdUuk  of  "  Spaoiih  litanton  in  tht  BsAnil  ol 
(heTudofi.-'^ 

BENAVENTE  Y  MARTINEZ,  JACINTO 
VAN  DOSBN,  CARL,  Ph.D.. 

Amocuu  Profcaoi  of  Engliih,  ColnmbU  Uni' 

BARCHESTER  TOWERS 
VAHDBSUP,  FBAHK  A.,  A.1L,  LLJ}. 

Pnddont,  Nmtional  Citr  Bulk.  Saw  YoA 

BANKING,  INTERNATIONAL 
TEDDER,  HBHRT  CLAT,  D.D. 

PiofoKir  o(   Chimh  Uiitory,   CroicT  Thsolc^icat 

BAPTISTS 
WELLS,  BENJAMIN  W.,  Ph.D. 

Aothor  of  "  Modem  Gemuin  Liter»liii«,"  etc 

BARBER  OP  SEVILLE,  THE 
WHITPORD,  NOBLE  E. 

Seuor   Amituit   BagiiieeT.    Dtpaitnwit  of  Sttta 


BALBOA,  VASCO  NUREZ 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 

WnilS,  H.  PARKER 

SscnUry,  Pedoal  RsHrvs  Boaid,  Wuhswtao 

BANKS  AND  BANKING  — FEDERAL 
RESERVE  SYSTEM 

WRIGHT,  HENRY  W^  PhJ). 

Profgnor  of  PhiloniAy.  Lake  POrst  Collage 

BERKELEY,  GEORGE 
WOLFE,  O.  HOWARD 

CMhitr,  Philiulelptui  Nutknul  Bi 
retary  Clearing  House  Section, 
AMOdatkm 

BANKS  AND  BANKING  —  THE  CLEAR- 
ING HOUSE 


c;  formarly  Sao- 


BARGE  CANAL,  NEW  YORK  STATE 


BANK  NOTE  ISSUES 

BANKING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

BANK  DEPOSITS,  GUARANTY  OP 

BANKING  SYSTEM,  NATIONAL 

BANKS,  PRIVATE 

BANKING  SYSTEM,  STATE 


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KEY  TO   PRONUNCIATION. 


3  far,   father 

&  fate,  hate 

a  or  3     at,  fat 

3  air,  care  ' 

9  ado,  sofa 

i  all,  fall 

ch  choose,  church 

e  eel,  we 

e  or  e      bed,  end 

t  her,  over :  abo  Fr.  e,  as  in  dc; 

boeuf,  cotur;  Ger.  5   (or  oe), 
as  ia  okotiomU. 

f  befall,  elope 

e  agent,  trident 

fF  off,  trough 

g  gas,  get 

gw  anguish,  guava 

h  hat.  hot 

b  or  H     Ger.  ch,  as  in  nichi,  wacht 

hw  what 

■  file,  ice 

i  between     e     tind     i,     mostly     in 

Oriental     final     syllables,     a\ 
Ferid-ud-din 


mingle,  Paging 
bank,  ink 
no,  open 
r  5     not,  on 

atom,  symbol 

book,  look 

oil,  soil;  also  Ger.  eu,  as  in  beittei 
:   oo    fool,  rule 
irow  allow,  bowsprit 

satisfy,  sauce 

show,  sure 

thick,  thin 

father,  thither 

mute,  use 
ru       but,  us 


(consonanial)  yes,  younc 
pleasant,  rose 

azure,  pleasure 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


B, 


guages  except  th#  Russian  and  two 
or  three  others,  as  Serbian  and  Bulgarian : 
in  these  alphabets  the  symbol  B  holds  the 
third  place,  yet  it  stands  not  for  our  mute 
B  but  for  a  labial  (not  denti-labial)  V  or  W ; 
while  in  the  second  place  stands  a  modified 
form  of  B  with  the  same  phonetic  value  as  our 
B.  The  Russian  alphabet  is  derived  from  the 
scheme  of  the  monk  Cyril,  one  of  the  first 
evangelists  of  Bulgaria,  who  translated  into 
the  language  of  the  Sdavonians  parts  of  the 
Bible.  To  do  this  it  was  necessary  to  con- 
trive new  characters  for  designation  of  sounds 
alien  to  the  Greek  language  and  to  modify 
existing  Greek  characters.  But  as  in  his  time, 
—  the  9th  century, —  and  at  a  much  earher 
datCi  the  current  phonetic  value  of  B  was,  as 
it  still  is,  labial  V,  Cyril  retained  the  symbol 
B  as  representing  that  V  sound,  while  tor  the 
mule  labial  B  he  devised  the  symbol  b.  With 
this  exception  the  character  B  has  from  im- 
memorial time  held  the  second  place  in  the 
alphabets  of  all  the  Aryan  lauKuages  of 
Eurojw,  as  well  as  in  Hebrew  ana  Aramaic, 
Phcetucian,  Arabic  and  Coptic.  The  most 
ancient  form  of  this  symbol,  both  in  Greek 
and  Latin,  was  B,  with  two  angular  loops, 
which  were  afterward  rounded.  The  most 
ancient  form  of  the  symbol  E  among  the 
Phoenicians  was  not  unlike  the  Arabic  figure 
9,  namely,  5.  The  Greeks  not  only  added  a 
second  loop  but  they  reversed  the  position  of 
the  loop  by  setting  it  on  the  right  of  the  up' 
right  stem ;  and  they  similarly  transposed  the 
loop  of  the  Phcenician  sign  q  which  they 
made  P  (rho,  our  R).  The  difference  be- 
tween the  two  labials  B  and  P  is  that  P  is 
an  absolute  mute,  in  pronouncing  which  the 
voice  is  completely  obstructed  before  the  lips 
are  drawn  apart,  while  B  is  sonant,  thoueh 
the  lips  be  still  compressed  r  in  the  effort  to 
.  pronounce  B  the  voice  is  heard  even  before 
the  lips  are  parted;  but  in  pronouncing  P  no 
sound  is  heard  while  the  lips  are  compressed ; 
and  when  they  are  opened  there  is  emission 
of  breath  but  no  voice.  B  and  P  substitute 
each  other  in  words  common  to  two  or  more 
langiiag^s  and  in  transmutations  of  words 
within  one  language.  Examples :  Latin  pila  is 
English  and  German  ball.  Brctzel  is  com- 
monly pronounced  pretiel:  but  it  is  of  the 
same  origin  as  the  English  word  bracelet, 
from    Latin    brachiale,    an    armlet,    bracelet : 


and  bretzel  means  also  handcuffs.  B  is  nearly 
allied  also  to  F,  Th.  V  and  W;  thus  beech 
(German  buche)  is  represented  in  Greek  Iq" 
phegos  and  in  Latin  by  tagus;  whale  is  from 
the  same  source  as  Greek  phalaina  and  Latin 
balsna ;  habere  in  Latin  becomes  in  French 
avoir;  caballus,  Latin,  is  French  cheval;  Ger- 
man Liebe,  English  love ;  Latin  labium,  French 
IJvre.  V  and  B  are  little  discriminated  in 
Spanish  and  we  have  in  one  of  the  epigrams 
of  Martial  proof  that  in  his  day  natives  of 
Vasconia  (Navarre)  pronounced  B  as  V  and 
vice- versa  when  he  wittily  scores  the  bibu- 
lous habits  of  that  people  by  saying  that  for 
them  not  without  reason  vivere  (to  live)  U 
lubere  (to  drink)  :  so  that  one  of  that  nature 
might  say  vivimus  ut  bibamus,  and  the  mean- 
ing would  be  either,  we  live  to  drink  or  we 
dnnk  to  live.  In  the  Roman  catacombs  in 
sepulchral  inscriptions  of  the  2d  and  3d  cen- 
tures  of  our  era,  vixit  (lived),  is  in  very 
many  instances  written  bixit ;  and  the  name 
of  a  virgin  martyr  of  that  age  is  written 
Bibiana  and  that  form  is  retained  in  the  Rom- 
an martyrology  instead  of  the  correct  form 
Viviana. 

B  is  used  also  as  a  symbol  and  in  abbre- 
viations. In  chemistry  B  stands  for  boron, 
one  of  the  elements.  In  music  B  denotes  the 
seventh  or  leading  tone  of  the  diatonic  scale 
of  C.  In  nautical  charts  b  signifies  a  "blue 
sky."  In  academic  degrees  B.  is  an  abbrevia- 
tion of  Baccalaureus,  Bachelor.  See 
Grimm's  Law;  Philology;  Phonetics,  Con- 
suh  Pettie,  'The  Formation  of  the  Alphabet' 
(London  1912)  ;  Prou,  'Manuel  de  paleog- 
raohie'  (3d  ed.  Paris  1910)  and  Thompson, 
E.  M.,  'Introduction  to  Greek  and  Latin 
Palaeography'     (Oxford    1912).. 

B.  A.  C.  the  abbreviation  used  by  astron- 
omers in  referring  to  'The  Catalogue  of  Stars 
of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science;'  by  Francis  Baity,  London, 
1845. 

BAADER,  ba'dir,  Benedict  Pranz  Xaver 
Ton,  German  Roman  Catholic  theologian  and 
philosopher:  b.  Munich,  27  March  1765;  d 
there,  21  May  1841.  He  was  the  third  son  of 
the  court  physician  to  the  Elector  of  Bavaria. 
He  studied  medicine  at  Ingolstadt  and  Vienna, 
and  was  graduated  in  1784.  He  assisted  his 
father  in  medicine,  but  soon  ^ve  up  its  practice 
to  study  engineering  in  the  mining  regions.  He 
resided  in  England  in  1791-96,  and  there  be- 
came acquainted  with  rationalistic  ^losophy. 


=,  Google 


BAAL  — BAALBEK 


which  jdid  not  apiwal  to  him.  He  became  de^^ 
interested  in  the  religious  speculations  of  Eck- 
hart,  Saint  Martin  and  Bohme,  and  was  the 
intimate  of  Jacob),  and,  for  a  time,  of  Schelling. 
He  was  appointed  consulting  engineer  of  the 
Bavarian  mines  in  1796  and  soon  after  won  a 

Kiie  for  his  discovery  that  Glauber's  salt  might 
substituted  for  potash  in  the  manufacture  of 
glass.  For  his  valuable  services  he  was  en- 
nobled in  1813,  and  was  superintendent  of 
mines  in  1817-20.  His  'Fermenta  Cognitionis> 
(1^3-25)  combats  modem  philosophy  and  ad- 
vocates that  of  BShme.  Baader  became  pro* 
fessor  of  philosophy  and  speculative  theology 
in  the  new  University  of  Munich  in  182&  In 
1838  his  opposition  to  Roman  Catholic  inter- 
ference  in  civit  matters  led  to  his  interdiction 
preventing  him  from  lecturins  again.  He 
severely  criticised  the  papacy  ana  advocated  its 
abolition,  but  recanted  before  his  death.  He 
U  considered  the  greatest  speculative  Roman 
Catholic  theologian  of  modem  times  and  his 
influence  has  exceeded  the  bounds  of  his 
Church.  His  works,  together  with  a  bio^phy 
by  F.  Hoffman,  were  published  at  Leipzig  (16 
vols.,  1851-60).  Consuh  Claason,  J.,  'Fran* 
von  Baader's  Lebcn  und  theosophische  Werke 
aU  InbegrifF  christlidber  Fhitosophie :  Voll- 
Btandigcr,  wortgelrcuer  Auszug  in  geordneten 
Einzelutxen'  (Stuttgart  1886-^) ;  Welier  and 
Welte,  <Kirchcnlexikon>  <VoL  I,  Freiburg 
1877). 

BAAL,  ba-il,  a  primitive  title  of  divinities 
which  is  found  among  all  branciies  of  the 
Semitic  race,  originally  rignifying  *awnei'  or 
"possessor."  In  its  pnmaiy  sense  the  husband 
■was  the  "baal*  of  the  wife,  the  ■proprietor/ 
the  "baal*  of  his  field.  As  a  title  of  divinity  ■ 
its  application  is  entirely  secondary,  the  "baal* 
in  this  sense  having  the  same  meaning  as  the 
other,  and  probably  the  possessor  also  of  some 
attribute.  Baals  were  as  numerous  as  the  ob- 
jects or  places  or  diies  which  they  inhabited. 
There  were  baals  of  springs,  trees,  animals, 
mountains,  stones  and  sanctuaries,  as  well  as' 
celestial  baals,  baals  of  the  sky,  of  one  or  other 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  or  of  some  atmospheric 
phenomenon.  The  belief  was  strong  among 
all  Semitic  races,  as  among  all  primitive  and 
ancient  peoples,  that  every  natural  object  that 
could  do  something,  or  was  supposed  to  be 
able  to  do  something,  should  be  reverenced  as 
divine.  In  (^naan  and  Phoenicia,  in  Syria  and 
south  Arabia,  tn  Asia  Minor  and  Mesopotamia, 
and  also  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  baat- 
cults  sprang  up.  Mythologists  and  students  of 
comparative  religions  were  for  lon^  inclined  to 
Iht  view  ttiat  'Baal*  is  identical  wilh  the  sun- 
god— the  Bd  or  Belas  of  the  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians.  According  to  Hastings'  'Dictionary 
of  Religion  and  Ethics.'  while  it  is  admitted 
that  the  sun  was  worshipped  as  a  baal,  identi- 
fication of  baal  as  the  sun-god^  'is  without 
scientific  foundation."  'Except  in  late  theo- 
logical abstraction,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a 
god  Baal.* 

After  the  Israelites  had  been  brought  out 
of  ^ypt,  and  had  conquered  Canaan,  the  rural 
distncts  were  chiefly  occupied  by  the  invaders, 
and  the  cities  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
ori^nal  inhalntants.  In  process  of  time  race 
assimilation  began,  and  with  it  the  taking  over 
of  tlte  local  baals  or  gods.    The  domestication 


tested  by  the  frequency  with  which  the  word 
baal  appears  as  a  component  part  of  the  names 
of  towns  and  cities,  as  Baalath,  Baal-meon, 
Baol-peor  and  Baal-tamar.  .  Concurrently  with 
Jahweh,  the  national  god,  the  local  baals  were 
worshipped;  indeed  Jahweh  appears  to  have 
been  worsMpped  as  a  baal.  The  national  unity 
was  thus  endangered^  the  people  splitting  up 
into  small  communities  and  worshipping  the 
local  deities.  The  rapid  development  of  the 
Philistine  power  awakened  consciousness  of 
this  peril;  the  absorption'  of  baal-warship  in 
that    of    jahweh    beran.      When    Kjng    Abab 

'  ;    deity, 

s  issue, 
ship  ol 

Jahweh  and  Melkart  as  mutually  exclusive,  and 
sou^t  to  free  the  former  of  its  foreign  cle- 
'     and  accretions.     The  Old  Testament  re- 


of  purging,  Jerusalem  became  the  recognized 
sole  sanctuary  for  the  worship  of  Jahweh,  and 
during  the  Persian  period  baal  worship  dis- 
appeared. 

Mythologists  wlio  regarded  Baal  as  synony- 
mous with  the  sun-EO(L  associated  his  worship 
as  having  prevailed  through  ancient  Scandi- 
navia, ana  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  general 
in  the  British  Isles.  In  Ireland  and  in  some 
parts  of  Scotland  Beltain   (1   May  O.  5.)   was 

■one  of  the  festival  days.  In  the  former  country 
fires  were  made  early  on  the  tops  of  the  bills, 
and  all  cattle  were  made  to  pass  through  tjiem, 
Thid  fumigation  was  supposed  to  guard  them 
a^nst  disease  for  that  year.  In  Sir  John 
Sinclair's  'Statistical  Account  of  Scotland'  he 
describes    the    ceremonies    observed    in    that 

.cotmtry, 

BAALBEK,  bilTiik,  a  riiined  city  in  Sy- 
ria, on  the  lower  slope  of  the  Antilibanus,  3,839 
feet  above  sea-level,  40  miles  from  Damascus, 
famous  for  its  magnificent  ruins.  Irregular  in 
form,  and  encompassed  by  a  wall  two  miles  in 
circumference  it  was  once  the  most  magnificent 
of  Syrian  cities,  and  is  the  Heliopolis  of  the 
Graeco-Roman  world.  Of  its  ruins,  the  chief 
is  the  temple  of  the  Sun,  built  either  by  Anto- 
nius  Pius  or  by  Septimius  Sevenisj  a  rectangu- 
lar building  290  by  160  feet.  Some  of  the 
blocks  used  in  its  construction  are  60  feet  long 
by  13  thick;  and  its  54  columns,  of  which  six 
are  still  standing,  were  72  feet  high  and  22  in 
circumference.  Near  it  is  a  temple  of  Jupiter, 
of  smaller  size,  though  still  larger  than  the 
Parthenon  at  Athens,  which  has  been  described 
as  *at  once  the  most  perfect  and  the  most  mag- 
nificent monument  of  ancient  art  in  Syria." 
Standing  in  the  village  of  Baalbek  —  now  a 
cluster  of  mean  dwellings  —  3(X)  yards  from  the 
other  buildings,  is  a  circular  temple  containing 
six  columns  in  the  mixed  Ionian  and  Grecian 
style.  The  quarries  from  which  the  temples 
were  reared  are  in  the  immediate  vicinity. 
Originally  a  centre  of  the  sun-worship,  it  became 
a  Roman  colony  under  Julius  Cxsai,  was  gar- 
risoned by  Augustus  and  under  Trajan  ac- 
quired renown  as  the  seat  of  an  oracle.  Under 
Conslantine  its  temples  became  churches,  but 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


BAAHITBS  —  B  ABBAOB 


after  being  sacked  by  the  Arabs  in  748,  and 
more  completely  pillaged  by  Tamerlane  in  I40I, 
it  sank  into'hopetess  decay.  The  work  ofde- 
stniction  was  completed  by  an  earthquake  in 
1759.  The  Prussian  government  began  im- 
portant excavatiaas  in  1902.    Consult  Baedeker, 


book  to  Syria  and  Palestine';  Puchstein,  in 
■Jahrbuch  des  deucschen  Archxologischen  In- 
stiluts'  (Berlin  1902) ;  'Fiihrer  durch  die 
Ri^inen  von  Baalbek*  (Berlin  1905);  Thomp- 
son, W.  M..  'The  L^d  and  the  Book'  (Vol. 
Ill,  New  York  1886} ;  Wood  and  Dawkins, 
*The  Ruins  of  Baalbek'   (Londoii  1757).  . 

BAANITBS.  ba-a-nits.  See  Reugious 
Sects. 

BAAS,  bar,  a  plateau  in  Gennany,  in 
Baden  and  Wurtemberg,  formerly  constitutii^ 
a  cotm^  of  the  Furstenberg  principality,  fi 
contains  the  sources  'of  the  Danube. 

BAB  BALLADS,  The.  Tbe  <Bab  Bal- 
lads' by  W.  S.  Gilbert,  the  most  famous  of 
British  light  opera  librettists,  is  one  of  the 
most  popular  collections  of  humorous  and  gently 
satiric  verses  in  the  English  language.  At 
first  published  in  the  sixbes  in  Fun  and  col- 
lected from  time  to  time  in  book  form  with 
additions,  the  ballads  in  their  final  editions  con- 
tain  also  many  of  the  songs  from  such  well- 
known  operas  as  'Pinafore,'  'The  (iondolier' 
and  'The  Mikado.  >  About,  170  titles  comprise 
the  collection,  which  is  also  enlivened  by  Gil- 
bert's humorous   drawings. 

In  general  ihe  humor  of  the  ballads  lies  in 
odd  and  nonsensical  situations  and  is  enhanced 

San  unfailing  wit  and  a  buoyant  mastery  of 
yme  and  meter.  Good  examples  are  such 
masterpieces  as  'General  John,'  'Ferdinando 
and  Elvira,*  'Lorenzo  de  Lardi,'  'Babette's 
Love'  and  the  well-known  'Yarn  of  the  Nancy 
Bell.'  In  addition  to  these,  many  of  the  bal- 
lads are  also  satirical  in  a  very  mild  and  eood- 
humored  way.  "His  foe  was  folly  and  his 
weapon  wit,'  reads  the  inscription  on  the 
memorial  to  Gilbert,  and  a  large  number  of 
follies,  affectations  and  oddities  current  among 
his  countrymen  are  handled  in  light  nonsensical 
vein,  but  never  with  ridicule  or  indignation. 
Characteristic  of  this  group  are  'The  English- 
men,' 'The  Disagreeable  Man.'  'Bob  Poller,' 
'The  .Ssthet^  'To  the  Terrestrial  Globe'  and 
'Etiquette.'  The  mildly  satirical  turn  is  per- 
haps best  illustrated  in  the  well-known  first 
lord's  song  from  'Pinafore,'  "When  I  was  a 
lad  I  served  a  term,"  but  the  satirical  touch,  as 
well  as  the  purely  humorous  attitude,  is  in 
nearly  all  the  poems. 

WiLUAK  T.  Bkewstek, 
Professor  of  English,  Columbia  University, 
•  BAB-EL-MANDEB,  bab'il-man'dSb  (Ar- 
abic, the  ^te  of  tears  go  called  from  the 
danger  arising  to  small  vessels  from  strong 
currents),  the  name  of  the  strait  between 
Arabia  and  the  continent  of  Africa,  bv  which 
ibe  Red  Sea  is  connected  with  the  Gulf  of 
Aden  and  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  Arabian 
Peninsula  here  throws  out  a  cape,  bearing  the 
same  name  as  the  strait,  rising  to  the  height 
of  S65  feet.  About  20  miles  (Uatant  stands 
the  wall-like  coast  of  Africa,  rising  in  Riis-es- 
Sean  to  the  height  of  over  400  fcet.     Within 


the  strait,  but  nearer  to  Arabia,  lies  the  bare, 
rocky  island  of  Perim,  since  1857  occupied  bf 
the  British  as  a  fort;  its  guns  commanded 
the  entrance  to  the  Red  Sea.  The  strait  on 
the  east  side  of  this  island  is  called  the  Little 
Strain  and  that  on  the  west  the  Great  Strait 

BABA,  ba'ba  (the  old),  in  Slavonic  my- 
thology, a  thunder-witch  (the  devil's  grand- 
mother), represetited  as  a  little,  u^y  old 
woman,  with  a  monstrous  nose,  long  teeth  and 
disheveled  hair,  flying  through  the  sky  in  an 
iron  cauldron.  By  the  Czechs  she  is  called  now 
the  iron,  now  the  golden,  Baba.  It  is  also  a 
Turkish  word  signifying  father,  originating, 
like  our  word  papa,  in  the  first  efforts  of  chil- 
dren to  speak.  In  Persia  and  Turkey  it  is 
prefixed  as  a  dtle  of  honor  to  the  names  of 
ecclesiastics  of  distinction,  especially  of  such 
as  devote  themselves  to  an  ascetic  life;  it  is 
often  affixed  in  courtesy,  also,  to  the  names  of 
other  persons,  as  Ali-Baba.  A  cape  near  the 
northwest  point  of  Asia  Minor  is  known  at 
Baba. 

BABA  BUDAN,  baTia  boo'dSr.  a  spur  of 
the  West  Ghits,  Mysore,  India,  extending  east 
for  15  miles,  leaving  a  narrow  opening  at  its 
west  end  for  the  passage  of  the  Bhadra,  and 
then  south  in  an  unbroken  line  for  20  miles, 
enclosing  between  itself  and  the  main  chain 
of  the  Ghats  a  rich,  but  unhealthy,  valley.  To 
this  spur  belong  three  peaks  above  6,000  feet 
high,  among  these  Mnlaina-giri,  6,317  feet,  the 
highest  in  the  West  GhSts.  On  the  slopes  of 
ECalhatti,  one  of  these  peaks,  is  a  hill  station, 
a  resort  of  Europeans  during  the  heat. 
Coffee  was  first  planted  in  India  on  another 
part  of  this  spur  toward  the  close  of  the  17th 
centutT,  by  a  Mohammedan  saint  named  Biba 
Bfidan. 

BABADAGH,  balta-daH'  Rumania,  town 
in  the  district  of  Tultcha,  in  the  Dobrudja, 
31  miles  southwest  of  Ismail.  It  is  situated 
in  a  marshy  district  and  has  considerable 
e  with  the  ports  of  the  Euxine 
the  port  of  Kara-Herman.  Sheep 
aie  raised  in  the  district  and  the  wool  trade  is 
considerable.  The  town  was  founded  by 
Bajaiet  I,  who  peopled  it  wiUi  Tatars  and 
named  it  after  a  saint,  to  whose  Comb  in  the 
nei|Hiborfaood  pilgrims  flock  anttually.  P^ 
about  3,00a 

BABBAOE,  Charles,  English  mathema- 
tician and  inventor  of  a  calculating  machine: 
b.  near  Teignraondi,  England,  26  Dec  1792; 
d.  18  Oct.  1871.  He  graduated  at  Peter- 
house  Colle^  Cambridge.  Being  in  posses- 
sion of  an  independent  fortune,  Babbage  was 
in  a  position  to  devote,  all  his  time  and  ener- 
gies to  his  favorite  studies  —  mathematics  and 
mechanics.  In  1822  wc  find  him  broaching 
the  idea  of  a  dtffereBce  engine,  by  which  in- 
tricate arithmetical  calculations  could  be  cor- 
rectly and  raindly  performed.  Through  the 
recommendation  of  the  Royal  Society  he  re- 
ceived, in  1823,  a  grant  from  the  government 
of  i\,SO0  for  the  constmction  of  such  a  ma- 
chine. After  a  series  of  experiments  lasting 
eisfit  years  and  an  expenditure  of  £17,000 
(tf>,OBO  of  which  was  sunk  by  the  originator 
of  the  scheme,  the  balance  voted  by  the  gov- 
ernment), Babbage  alandoned  the  undertak- 
ing in  favor  of  a  much  more  complicated 
wotI^  an  analytical  engine,,  worked  srith  cards 


t,zcd=y  Google 


BABBITT—  BABCOCK 


like  the  Jacquard  loom.  The  gavcmment, 
alarmed  ai  the  probable  demandi,  refused  to 
support  Babbagc  in  his  new  adventure,  and 
as  a  quarrel  ensued  with  bis  engineer,  who 
withdrew  his  tools,  the  pet  project  was  never 
completed.  The  machine,  along  with  some  400 
or  500  plans,  was  presented  in  1843  to  King's 
College  Museum,  London.  Among  the  many 
treatises  he  published  on  subjects  connected 
with  mathematics  and  mechanics,  the  most 
valuable  and  interesting  are  'On  the  Economv 
of  Machinery  and  Manufactures';  'The  De- 
cline of  Science^ ;  and  an  autobioKraphic 
sketch,  'Passages  in  the  Life  of  a  Philoso- 
pher.' In  1^  he  was  appointed  Lucasian 
professor  of  mathematics  in  bis  university,  an 
office  he  held  for  11  years  without,  however, 
delivering  lectures.  He  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  Royal  Astronomical  and  Statistical 
Societies. 

BABBITT,  Irvine,  American  educator: 
b.  Dayton,  OUo,  2  Aug.  1865.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  University  in  1889  and 
studied  in  Paris  in  1891-92.  He  was  instruc- 
tor in  romance  languages  at  Williams  Col- 
lege 1893-94  and  in  the  latter  year  wag  ap- 
pointed instructor  in  French  at  Harvard,  be- 
coming assistant  professor  in  1902  and  pro- 
fessor in  1912.  He  is  a  member  of  the  Mod- 
em Language  Association  and  has  published 
'Literature  and  the  American  College' 
<1908);  'The  New  Laoco5n>  (1910);  'The 
Masters  of  Modem  French  Critidsm>  (1912). 
He  edited  Taine's  'Introduction  k  Thistoire 
de  la  littirature  anglaise'  (1898);  Kenan's 
'Souvenirs  d'enfance  et  de  jcunessc'  (1902); 
Voltaire's  <Zadig>  (1905);  and  Racine's 
<PhMre>  (1910).  He  is  a  frequent  contribu- 
tor   to    magazines    and    reviews    on    Utetai; 

BABBITT,  lusc,  American  inventor:  b. 
Taunton,  Mass,  26  July  1799;  d.  26  May  1862. 
He  learned  the  goldsmith's  trade;  earlv  be- 
otme  interested  in  the  productiq;9  of  alloys; 
and  in  1824  manufactured  the  first  britannia 
ware  in  the  United  Sutes.  In  1839  he  dis- 
covered the  well-known  anti- friction  metal 
which  bears  his  name.  Babbitt  metal  (q.v.). 
For  this  discovery  the  Massachusetts  Chari- 
table Mechanics'  Association  awarded  him  a 
gold  medal  in  1841  and  subsequently  Omgress 
voted  him  $20,000.  Babbitt  founded  the  well- 
known  soap  works  bearing  his  name. 

BABBITT  HB'TAL,  an  alloy  of  copper, 
tin  and  antimony,  invented  and  patented  in 
1839,  by  Isaac  Babbitt  (q.v.}  of  Boston.  It 
is  soft  and  nearly  white  and  is  widely  used  as 
an  anti-friction  metal.  The  proportions  of 
the  constituent  metals  vary  considerably  in 
modem  practice.  Babbitt's  original  alloy  con- 
tained 24  parts  of  tin,  4  parts  of  copper  and 
8  parts  of  antimony.  Many  ettgineers  prefer 
a  larger  proportion  of  tin  and  the  following 
— ""' —    recommended    r-    —■-—    ~    ■ ' 


copper,  4  parts;  antimony,  8  parts.  Lead 
also  added  in  many  cases  on  account  of  its 
cheapness.  In  small  amomits  it  is  not  usual^ 
objectionable,  but  the  Babbitt  metal  that  is 
sold  in  the  market,  ready-mixed,  usually  con- 
tains a  considerably  larger  proportion  of  lead 
than  its  price  would  indicate.  The  alloy  is 
tiinally  melted  and   run,   while  fluid,  directly 


which  it  is  to  be  used,  a 
space  from  an  eighth  to  half  an  inch  thick 
being  left  for  it  between  the  box  and  the 
shaft  that  b  to  be  -supported. 


After  considerable  work  with  the  United 
States  Geological  Survey  he  was  appointed  in 
1902  director  of  the  Slate  School  of  Mines  of 
North    Dakota,    professor    6f    chemistry    and 

Bology  and  in  1898  dean  of  the  College  of 
ining  Engineering,  University  of  North 
Dakota.  He  is  the  author  of  many  special 
scientific  articles  and 'of  geological  reports. 

BABCOCK,  James  Francis,  American 
chemist:  b.  Bostoii,  23  Feb.  1844;  d.  Dor- 
chester, Mass,  20  July  1897.  He  studied  at 
Lawrence  Scientific  School  and  became  an 
analytical  chemist  and  chemical  expert.  He 
was  State  assay er  and  inspector  of  liquors 
in  Massachusetts,  1875-85,  and  city  inspector 
of  milk  in  Boston,  1385^.  While  State  as- 
sayer  he  brought  about  the  insertion  in  the 
liquor  statutes  of  the  definition  of  the  term 
■intoxicatinff  liouor,"  known  as  the  3-per-cent 
limit.  He  is  tne  inventor  of  the  fire  extin- 
guisher which  bears  his  name;  a  popular  lec- 
turer on  scientific  subjects;  appeared  as  an 
expert  chemical  witness  in  important  trials; 
and  published  several  reports  on  sanitation  and 
the  chemistry  of  food. 

BABCOCK,  Ualtbie  Davenport  Ameri- 
can Presbyterian  clergyman:  b.  Syracuse,  N. 
Y„  3  Aug.  1858;  d.  Naples.  Italy,  18  May 
1901.  He  was  graduated  at  Syracuse  'Uni- 
versity in  1879  and  Auburn  Theological  Sem- 
inary in  1883.  He  filled  most  successful  and 
popular  pastorates  at  Lockport  N.  Y.,  Balti- 
more, Ud.,  and  at  the  Brick  Presbjrterian 
Church  in  New  York.  While  on  a  visit  to 
the  Levant  in  1901  he  was  seized  with  the 
Mediterranean  fever  and  died  in  the  Inter- 
national Hospital  at  Naples.  A  posthumous 
volume  of  his  prose  and  verse,  edited  by  his 
wife,  appeared  in  1901,  entitled  'Thoughts  for 
Every-Day  Living'  (New  York  1901).  Con- 
sult his  Ufe  by  Robinson  (New  York  1904) 
and  Stone,  'Footsteps  in  a  Parish'   (ib.  1908). 


. member  of  General  Grant's  staff  and  W  — 

made  a  brigadier-general  of  the  regular  arm^ 
at  the  close  of  the  war  for  'gallant  and  meri- 
torious service.*  When  Grant  was  elected 
President,  Babcock  became  his  private  secre- 
tary, and  the  superintending  jcngineer  of  sev- 
eral important  public  works.  He  was  indicted 
in  1876  for  taking  part  in  revenue  frauds,  but 
on  his  trial  was  acquitted. 

BABCOCK,  Stephen  Honlton,  American 
educator:  b.  Bridgewater,  N.  Y.,  22  Oct.  1843. 
He  was  graduated  at  Tufts  College  in  1866; 
studied  at  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  Cor- 
nell University  and  (SotUngen,  Germany,  where 
he  received  the  degree  Ph.D.  in  1879;  and 
LL.D.  at  Tufts  1901 ;  instractor  at  Cornell 
1875-77  and  1881-82;  chief  chemist  to  the  New 
York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  1882-88; 
professor  of  agricultural  chemistry,  and  chief 
dwmist  at  the  Agricnhoral  Experiment  Station, 


vCiOotjIe 


BABCOCK  — BASI 


Umvenity  of  Wisconsin,  1888-1913;  cmentus 
professor  University  of  Wisconsin,  since  1913. 
Assistant  director  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station  1900-13.  He  has  given  special 
attention  to  the  chemistry  of  milk  and  its  prod- 
ucts, and  has  contributed  many  articles  re- 
lating to  dairy  problems  to  the  annual  re- 
ports of  the  New  York  and  Wisconsin  ^ri- 
cultural  ExMriment  Stations ;  was  awarded 
the  Grand  Prize  at  the  Paris  Exposition  in 
1900  and  also  at  the  Saint  Louis  Exposition  in 
1904,  for  the  milk  test  that  bears  his  name.  He 
b  joint  author  with  G.  C  Caldwell  of  'A  Man- 
ual of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.* 

BABCOCK,  WKBhineton  Irving,  American 
naval  architect  arid  shipbuilder:  b.  Stonington, 
Conn.,  26  Sept  185&  He  was  graduated  at 
the  Brocddyn  Polytechnic  Institute  in  1876,  and 
at  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute  in  1878.  He 
was  employed  at  the  Roach  Shipyard,  Chester, 
Pa.,  in  1878-85,  with  the  Providence  and  Ston- 
ington  Steamship  Compaiw,  New  York,  in  1885- 
87;  was  superintendent  of  the  Union  Dry  Dock 
Company,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  in  1887-89;  manager 
of  the  Chicago  Shipbuilding  Company,  in  1889- 
99,  becoming  president  of  the  latter  in  1900. 
He  is  a  member  of  societies  of  naval  architects 
at  home  and  abroad,  and  also  of  several  clubs 
of  professional  engineers  and  marine  architects. 

BABCOCK,  Wfamifred  Batoa  («Oirorrp 
Watanna*),  American  author;  b.  Nagasaki, 
Japan,  1879.  She  was  educated  at  Montreal, 
Canada,  and  at  Columbia  University,  New  York. 
In  1901  she  was  married  to  Bertrand  W.  Bab- 
cock.  Since  1893  she  has  written  many  short 
stones  for  leading  magazines.  Her  first  stoiy, 
'A  Poor  Devil,'  a^eared  as  a  serial  in  the 
Metropolilan  Magastne  of  Montreal.  She  went 
to  the  West  Indies  in  1895  and  worked  as  gen- 
eral writer  and  reporter  on  the  Jamaica  News 
Letter.  Her  first  Japanese  stories  and  a  serial, 
'The  Old  Jinrikishi'  appeared  in  Conkey's 
Magasine  in  1895.  She  also  contributed  serials 
and  short  stories  to  the  WomcH's  Home  Com- 
panion; Good  Housekeeping;  The  Eclectic; 
The  Ladies'  Home  Journal;  Saturday  Evening 
Fast,  etc  Her  published  volumes  include  'Miss 
Numi  of  Japan'  (1899)  ;  'A  Japanese  Nightin- 
gale' (1901);  'Wooing  of  Wistaria>  (1902): 
'Heart  of  Hyacinth*  (1903):  'Daughters  of 
Nijo'  (1904);  'Love  of  Azalea'  (1904);  <A 
Japanese  Blossom'  (1906) ;  'Diary  of  Delia* 
(1908)  ;  <Tama>  (1910)  ;  'The  Honorable  Miss 
Moonlight'  (1912)  ;  "Chinese- Japanese  Cook- 
Book'    (1914),  with  Sara  Bosse. 

Babel,  Tower  of,  the  name  of  a  structure 
in  the  Plain  of  Shinar,  Mesopotamia.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Uth  chapter  of  Genesis,  it  was  begun 
by  the  descendants  of  Noah  subsequent  to  the 
deluge,  but  not  allowed  to  proceed  to  comple- 
tion. It  has  commonly  been  identified  with  the 
great  temple  of  Belus  or  Bel,  one  of  the  chief 
edifices  in  Babylon,  and  the  huge  mound  called 
Birs  Nimrud  is  generally  regarded  as  its  site, 
though  another  mound,  which  to  this  day  bears 
the  name  of  Babil,  has  been  assigned  by  some 
as  its  site.  Babel  means  literally  *g3te  of  God.* 
The  meaning  'confusion"  assigned  to  it  in  the 
Bible  really  belongs  to  a  word  of  similar  form. 
See  Babylon. 

BABENBERG,  baliin-biig,  a  princely 
Franconian  family,  whose  castle  occupied  the 


site  of  the  later  Bamberg  Cathedral  in  northern 
Bavaria.  They  were  most  prominent  in  the 
wars  of  the  IDth  century.  The  Austrian 
dynasty  of  976-1246  was  formerly  believed  to 
be  spru^  from  them. 

BABER,  baTrfr  (or  "The  Tiger»),  the  his- 
torical surname  of  Zehir-ed-din- Mohammed, 
the  conqueror  of  Hindustan  and  founder  of  the 
so-called  Mogul  dynasty:  b.  14  Feb.  1483;  d.  26 
Dec.  1530.  Baber  was  of  mixed  Turkish  and 
Mongol  ori^n,  but  in  feeling  as  in  personal 
characteristics  he  was  a  Tartar  (Turk),  and 
often  in  his  memoirs  speaks  most  contemptu- 


:stablished  in  India  as  that  of  the  Great  Mogul. 
At  the  age  of  12,  on  bis  father's  death,  he  as- 
cended the  insecure  throne  of  Ferghana  in 
Turkestan;  soon  after  he  was  attacked  on  all 
sides  by  his  uncles  and  other  neighboring 
princes,  which  obliged  bim,  in  his  turn,  to  as- 
sume the  aggressive.  Accordingly,  at  the  age 
of  IS,  Baber  seized  on  Samarcand,  the  capital 
of  Timour,  but,  while  thus  engaged,  a  revolu- 
tion at  home  deprived  him  of  his  sovereignty. 
After  many  years  of  an  adventurous  and 
romantic  career,  be  raised  an  army,  entered 
Hindustan,  and  was  met  by  Ibrahim,  ue  ruling 
Sultan  of  that  country.  The  two  armies  fought 
the  battle  of  Paniput,  which  decided  the  fate 
of  India,  on  21  April  1526.  Baber,  with  his 
army  of  12,000  men,  completely  overthrew  that 
of  Ibrahim,  numbering  100,000,  and  entered 
Delhi  in  triumph.  Difficulties  and  fresh  foes 
had  still  to  be  encountered  and  mastered  but 
in  the  battle  of  Sakri,  in  Februaiy  IS27,  Baber 
utterV  defeated  the  opposing  Hindu  princes, 
and  then  proclaimed  himself  Padidiah,  or 
Emperor  of  Hindustan.  Brilliant  as  a  military 
leader,  be  was  alsf)  an  enlightened  ruler,  in- 
troduced important  reforms  in  bis  dominions 
and  had  a  taste  for  science  and  art.  >Consulthis 
own  'Memoirs'  translated  by  Leyden  and 
Erskine  (London  1844),  and  'Lives*  by  Calde- 
cott  (London  1844)  and  Lane-Poole  (London 
1899).   ' 

BABES  IN  THE  WOOD,  a  nursery  Ule 

and  ballad  of  unknown  origin,  found  in  Percy's 
^Reltques*  and  other  collections.  Two  children 
are  left  to  perish  in  the  forest  by  a  relative 
who  hopes  to  profit  1^  their  death.  See  Chil- 
dren in  THE  Wood, 

BABEUF.  b&-bif',  or  BABfSUF,  Fran- 
(Ois  NoiSl,  French  communist,  who  called  him- 
self Caius  Gracchus:  b.  Saint-Quentin  1760; 
d.  28  May  1797.  He  founded  in  Paris  a  journal 
called  the  Tribime  of  the  People  (1794),  in 
which  he  advocated  his  system  of  communistnt 
known  as  Babceuvism,  and  contemplating  abso- 
lute equality  and  community  of  property.  His 
followers  were  called  Babceuvists.  Betrayed  in 
a  con^iracy  against  lite  Directory,  aiming  to 
put  his  theories  into  practice  he  was  guillotined 
m  Paris.  His  principal  woiks  were  'Perpetual 
Register  of  the  Survey  of  Lands'  (1780),  and 
'Of  the  System  of  Population'  (1794).  Sec 
Advielle,  'Histoire  de  Babeuf  et  du  Babou- 
visme*  (1884). 

bAbI,  biil)«,  the  name  of  a  modem  Persian 
sect,  derived  from  the  titl^  Bab-«d-Din  (gaU 


t,zcd=y  Google 


BABINQTON-^  BABOON 


of  th«  faith),  assumed  by  its  founder,  Mina 
Ali  Mohammed,  a  native  of  Shiraz,  who  in 
1843  undertook  to  establish  a  new  religion  from 
a  mixture  o£  Mohammedan,  Christian^  Jewish 
and   Parsee   elements.     His  controversies   with 


trines,  privately  instructed  his  disciple 
increased  his  pretensions.  The  sect  soon  be- 
came numerous ;  but  on  the  accession  of  Nasir- 
ed'Din  in  1848,  apprehending  persecution,  they 
took  up  anns,  proclaiming  the  advent  of  the 
Bab  as  universal  sovereign.  The  insuTgents 
were  reduced  by  fatnine,  and  most  of  them 
executed  (184*-S0).  The  Bab  had  held  aloof 
from  the  revolt,  but  was  arrested  and  put  to 
death,  after  a  long  imprisonment,  in  1850.  His 
successor  was  recognized  in  the  youthful  son 
of  the  governor  of  Teheran,  who  retired  to 
Bagdad,  where  he  afterward  lived  quietly.  An 
attempt  of  three  Iwlievers  to  assassinate  the 
Shah,  in  1852,  led  to  a  persecution  of  the  sect; 
numbers  were  tortured  and  burned,  among  them 
Gurred-ui-Ain.  Biibism  is  at  present  widely 
diffused  in  Persia;  its  members  live  in  apparent 
conformity  to  orthodox  Hohammedanism,  but 
privately  holding  in  Bab's  doctrines,  which  are 
contained  in  an  Ai^bic  treatise,  'Biyan'  (the 
exposition),  written  by  the  founder  himself. 
They  form  essentially  a  system  of  Pantheism, 
with  Gnostic  and  Buddhistic  additions.  All 
behiKS  are  emanations  from  the  Deity,  hy  whom 
they  will  ultimately  be  reabsoihea.  Babism 
enjoins  few  prayers,  and  those  only  on  fixed 
occasions;  encounges  hospitality  and  charity; 
prohibits  polygamy,  concubinage  and  divorce- 
discourages  asceticism  and  mendicancy ;  and 
directs  women  to  discord  the  veil,  and  «ure  as 
equals  in  the  intercourse  of  soaal  life.  (See 
Bahisu).  Consult  Andreas,  'Die  Babis  in 
Persicn'  (LeipziK  1896);  Browne,  <A  Travel- 
er's Narrative'  Written  to  Illustrate  the  Epi- 
sode of  the  Bab  (Cambridge  1892) ;  Beha- 
Ullah,  'Lcs  Precopte*  du  B^haisme'  (Paris 
1906) ;  Huart,  'La  reUgion  de  Bab>  (ib.,  1889) ; 
Dreyfus,  'Essai  sur  le  BdiaUme'  (ib.,  1909): 
Mini  Huseyn,  *Le  Bfo-an  arabe  le  livre  sacrt 
du  Babysme>  (Paris  1905) ;  Phelps  'Life  and 
Teachings  of  Abbas  Effendi*  (New  York  1903). 
BABINGTON,  Anthony,  Ei^lish  Roman 
Catholic  conspirator :  b.  Oetbick,  Derbyshire, 
1561 ;  d.  20  Sept  1586.  His  father  died  wheu 
he  was  10  years  of  age,  leaving  him  ample 
estates.  He  founded  in  1580  a  society^  for  the 
protection  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  in  Eng- 
land, and  served  for  a  time  as  pa^e  to  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots,  then  a  prisoner  in  Enf^land. 
With  Ballard,  a  Jesuit,  and  other  Catholic 
emissaries,  he  formed,  in  1586,  a  plot  for  the 
murder  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  the  rescue  of  Mary 
and  the  re-establishment  of  the  Catholic  re- 
lurion  in  England.  In  the  woridog  out  of  the 
plot  Babington  behaved  with  indiscretion 
prompted  by  his  vanity;  he  sent  letters  to  Mary, 
and  in  rejdy  die  impnsoned  Queen  approved  of 
the  plot.  Walsingham,  Elizabeth's  secretary, 
by  means  of  ills  spies,  had  all  the  correspond- 
Nice  of  the  conspirators  intercepted,  oopied 
and  sent  on  to  their  destinations.  Then  at  the 
right  moment  the  conspirators  were  arrested 
and  brought  to  trial,  and  among  others  Gabing- 
ton  was  executed.  Babington's  correspondence 
with  Mary  in  the  subsequent  trial  of  that  Prio- 


BABINGTON,  Churchill,  English  philol- 
ogist: b.  Leicestershire,  11  March  1821;  d.  12 
Jan.  1889.  He  was  educated  at  Saint  John's 
College.  Cambridge,  and  was  Disney  professor 
of  archaeology  there  in  186S-80,  and  was  rector 
of  Cockfield,  Suffolk,  from  1866  until  his  death. 
He  was  a  botanist  and  ornithologist  of  high 
repute,  wrote  also  on  arcfuEology  and  nuims- 
maties,  and  cootrilnited  largely  to  Smith's 
'Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiquities.* 

BABINGTONITE,  a  native;  anhydrous 
silicate  of  calcium,  iron  and  manganese,  asso- 
ciated with  an  iron  silicate  having  the  composi- 
tion Fei(SiOi)i.  It  is  greenish-black  in  color, 
with  a  vitreous  lustre,  and  crystallizes  in  the 
triclinic  system.  It  occurs  in  Norway,  Italy, 
and  the  British  Isles,  and  in  the  United  States 
has  been  found  at  (louvemeur,  N.  Y.,  and  at 
Athol,  Mass.  Its  hardness  varies  from  5.5  to 
6,  and  it  has  a  specific  gravity  of  about  3.36. 
"The  mineral  was  named  after  Dr.  William  Bab- 
ington. 

BABIRUSSA,  Ubl-roo'sa,  a  wild  hog  of 
the  East  Indies,  remarkable  for  the  long,  ex- 
posed, canine  teeth  «t  the  male.  The  upper 
tusks,  instead  of  growing  downward  in  the 
usual  way,  turn  and  grow  upward  through  the 
sldn  on  each  side  of  ue  snout  and  curve  back- 
ward until,  in  old  animals,  they  may  be  8  or 
10  inches  lonK,  and  reach  nearly  to  the  eye. 
These  hogs,  which  inhabit  Celebes  and  Borneo, 
are  almost  hairless,  long-legged  and  active, 
and  feed  upon  fallen  fruits  instead  of  rooting 
in  the  ground.  One  cannot  see  that  the,  great 
tusks  are  of  any  present  use,  but  Wallace  sug- 
Keits  that  they  were  useful  to  the  ancestors  of 
these  pigs  under  different  conditions,  and  were 
then  kept  worn  down  by  service. 

BABISH,  bab'Izm.    See  Babi. 

BABOO,  bS^oo,  or  BABU,  a  Hindu  title 
of  respect  equivalent  to  Sir  or  Mr.  It  is  usually 
given  to  wealthy  and  educated  native  gentle- 
men, especially  when  of  the  mercantile  class. 

BABOON,  bib-oon',  a  large,  long-haired, 
terrestrial  monkey  of  Africa  or  Arabia,  be- 
longing to  the  ^enus  Cynocephaltts,  of  the  fam- 
ily Cercopitheeida.  All  are  of  large  size,  have 
elongated,  blunt  muzzles,  with  nostrils  at  the 
extreme  end,  and  great  canine  teeth  which 
together  give  the  face,  when  'seen  in  profile,  a 
dog-like  aspect  The  naked  parts  of  the  face, 
as  well  as  the  great  callosities  upon  the  but- 
tocks, are  often  brilliantly  colored.  Some  also 
have  shaggy  manes,  and  all  add  to  their  re- 
pulsive appearance  a  fierceness  of  disposition 
which  makes  them  more  feared  than  perhaps  is 
necessary,  for  they  rarely,  if  ever,  have  attacked 
human  beings.  All  of  the  species  go  about  in 
troops  under  the  guidance  and  protection  of 
several  old  males.  They  are  rare  in  wooded 
repions,  preferring  rocky  and  bushy  districts, 
like  those  in  norSiem  Africa,  in  Arabia  and 
in  southeastern  Africa.  As  their  fore  and  hind 
limbs  are  of  nearly  equal  lengtli,  and  very 
stout  they  go  mostly  on  all  fours  galloping 
swiftly  and  climbing  rocks  with  apiity.  They 
climb  trees  with  greater  difficulty,  and  generally 
keep  on  the  ground  away  from  forest  regions. 
Their  food  ts  principally  vegetable— fruits, 
berries,  young  sprouts,  etc;  hut  they  also  cat 


.Google 


B  ABRIU8  —  BABYLONIA 


buects,  wonns,  snails  and  nidi  young  birds 
or  small  animals  as  they  are  aue  to  catch. 
They  do  great  damage  to  the  plantations  of 
tbe  native  Africans,  ruthlessly  similing  much 
more  than  they  are  able  to  eat.  The  ancient 
Eg^rptians  seem  to  have  trained  them  to  jpick 
fruits,  but  within  recent  times  their  confine- 
ment  in  menageries,  where  they  live  and  breed 
well,  is  the  extent  of  their  domestication. 
There  is  nothing  attractive  about  any  of  them, 
either  in  appearance  or  disposition. 

Among  the  best  known  is  the  great  Aratuan 
or  sacred  baboon,  or  hamadryad  iCynocepkaiits 
hamadryat),  the  one  represented  uoon  E^^tian 
monuments,  and  venerated  by  me  primitive 
Egyptians.  It  is  suj^scd  that  their  habits  of 
noisy  activity  at  sunnse,  as  though  adoring  the 
sun-god,  is  the  basis  of  this  very  ancient  lonn 
of  worship.  Mummies  of  baboons  are  com- 
monly found  in  tombs  in  the  Nile  Valley:  and 
the  species  itself  is  still  abundant  from  the 
Sudan  to  southern  Arabia.  It  is  ashy  gray  in 
color,  and  has  a  heavy  mane.  The  ^reat  baboon 
of  south  Africa^  common  in  the  wilder  moun- 
tains of  Cape  Colony,  is  the  chacma  {Cynoce- 
tkalus  porcorius),  which  is  dark-brown  and 
as  long  hair  but  no  mane,   and  a  tail  about 


seen  in  menageries.  The  mandril  {Cynoce- 
pkalus  Mormon)  is  still  larger,  exceewng  a 
mastiff  in  size.  It  has  short  legs,  a  mere  stump 
of  a  tail  and  an  enormous  head,  with  a  crest 
of  greenish  hair  upon  the  forehead,  and  a  beard 
which  is  orange-yellow;  while  the  naked  parts 
of  the  face  consist  mainly  of  a  hu^e  note, 
light-blue  in  color,  the  sldn  of  which  ts  folded 
into  ridges.  The  naked  buttocks  are  bright 
scarlet.  This  ugly  brul«  is  one  of  the  roost 
ferocious  and  justly  dreaded  animals  of  the 
Kongo  forests.  In  the  same  region  lives  a 
second  similar  species  called  the  drill  (Cynoce- 
pkaliu  leucopheius),  which  differs  mainly  in 
lacking  the  bright  colors  and  ribs  of  the  nose 
of  the  mandril  Several  other  baboons  live  in 
west  Africa,  but  are  not  well  known,  although 
one  reddish-brown  species,  the  Guinea  baboon 
ICynocepkatus  tphinx)  is  commonly  seen  in 
ihe  hands  of  showmen.  A  large  monkey  of 
southern  Abvssinia,  looking  like  a  black,  clipped 
French  poodle,  is  substantial^  a  true  babixin, 
although  it  belongs  to  another  genus;  it  is  the 
gelada  (Theropilhecut  gelada).  Constilt 
'Cassell's  Natural  History,'  Vol.  I  (1885); 
Elliot,  'A  Review  of  the  Primates'  (New 
York  1913). 

BABRIUS,  a  Greek  fabulist  whose  fables 
in  verse  are  variously  referred  to  the  time 
immediately  preceding  the  Augustan  Age,  and 
to  the  3d  century  of  our  era:  his  name  also 
shows  variants,  as  Babrias,  Gabrius.  Till  1842 
only  a  few  fragments  of  Babrius  were  known 
to  be  extant;  but  in  that  year,  in  the  Laura  of 
Mount  Athos,  was  discovered  a  manuscript  con- 
taining 123  of  his  fables,  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  In  1846  Sir  Oor^e  Comewall  Lewis 
published  them  together  with  the  pre-existing 
fragments,  and  in  1859  or  1860  appeared  a  good 
English  version  by  James  Davies.  Others, 
*T^dentIv  from  the  same  hand,  were  discovered 
by  Knoll  in  1877,  and  by  Van  Assendcltt  in 
189T.  The  fables  have  also  been  edited  by  W. 
G.  Rutherford  (London  1883)  and  by  Cnisius 
(Leipzig  1897).     Consult  Conjogton,. 'Uiscel- 


laneous  Writings'  (Vol.  II,  Londm  1872)  ;  and 
Fusci.  'Babriano>  (1901). 

BABSON,  Roger  Ward,  American  statis- 
tician: b.  Gloucester,  Mass.,  6  July  1W5.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technolo^.  He  founded  the  Babson  Statistical 
Organization  of  which  he  became  president. 
It  nas  branch  offices  in  New  York.  Philadel- 
phia, (Chicago  and  London.  He  is  publisher  of 
'Moody's  Manual  of  Railroad  and  Corpora- 
tion Securities,'  vice-president  of  the  Gloucester 
Safe  De|>osit  and  Trust  Company,  and  lecturer 
on  statistics  and  economics  at  the  Massa- 
chusetts Institute  of  Technology-  He  is 
special  writer  for  the  Curtis  Publishing  Com- 
pany, the  New  York  Timet  and  other  periodi- 
cals. He  has  published  'Business  Barometers' 
(1909) ;  'Selected  Investments'  (1911)  ;  'Bonds 
and  Stocks'  (1912) ;  'Commercial  Paper' 
(1912),  with  Ralph  May;  'The  Future  of  the 
Woricing  Oasses*  (1913).  He  is  a  fellow  of 
the  Royal  Statistical  Society  of  London  and 
member  of  the  executive  committee  of  the 
American  Economic  Association. 

BABUYANES,  baTjoo-yaD'ei.  or  MAD- 
JICOSIMA  ISLANDS,  a  number  of  islands 
lying  about  30  miles  north  of  Luzoit,  and  gen- 
cralfy  considered  the  most  northern  of  the 
Philippines.  The  chief  islands  are  Kamiguia, 
area  65  square  miles;  Babuyan  Qaro,  38  square 
miles;  Calay&n,  30  souare  miles;  Fuga,  21 
square  miles;  and  Dalupiri,  20  square  mile*. 
Pop,  about  12.000. 

BABYLANS  or  BABYLLUS,  Sunt,  a 
bishop  of  Antioch  between  237  and  250.  He 
declined  to  admit  to  public  worship  the  Em- 
peror Philip,  who  had  murdered  his  brother 
Gordianus  in  order  to  gain  the  throne.  In  the 
Roman  calendar  his  day  is  celebrated  on  24 
January;  in  the  Greek  on  4   September. 

BABYLON.    See  Basylonia. 

BABYLON,  N.  Y,  village  in  SufToBc 
Coun^,  Long  Island,  3/  miles  east  of  New 
York  on  Great  South  Bay,  here  crossed  l^ 
steam  ferrv  to  Fire  Island  and  Oak  Island 
Beach,  and  on  the  Lqng  Island  Railroad; 
popular  as  a  summer  resort  on  account  of  its 
fine  beach,  and  as  a  rendezvous  for  sportsmen 
by  reason  of  its  opimrtunities  for  fishing.  The 
surrounding  r^on  is  adapted  to  geno^  farm- 
ing.   Pop.  ^6S(X 

BABYLONIA.  Discoveries  of  the  recent 
decades  seem  to  confirm  the  idea  that  Babyloiua 
was  the  cradle  of  dvilization.  The  country, 
which  is>  nearly  enclosed  by  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates  from  Bagdad  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Mesopotamia;  on  the 
east  by  the  plain  of  Elam;  on  the  south  by  the 
Persian  Gulf;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Arabian 
desert  It  constitutes  the  lanjest  portion  of  the 
country  now  known  as  "Iraq  el  Arabi.'  A 
considerable  part  of  this  alluvia)  plain  has  been 
made  through  deposits  by  the  river.  This  land- 
making  process  continues  at  the  present  time 
at  the  rate  of  about  70  feet  per  year. 

At  one  time  the  plain  was  covered  with  a  com- 
plicated network  of  canals  which  carried  agri- 
cultural  prosperity  to  every  part  of  the  land. 
The  neglect  of  these  has  changed  the  condi- 
tions of  the  country  so  completely  that  instead 
of  a  fertili^  which  was. once  the  wonder  of  the 


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ancient  world,  a  cheerless  waste  now  greets 
the  eyes.  Some  months  of  the  year  the  country 
is  ^rtiaUy  covered  with  swamps  and  marshes, 
while  the  remaining  portion  is  a  desolate  plain. 

Here  and  there  tnrouKhout  the  land  are  to 
be  seen  mounds  of  debris,  every  one  of  which 
covers  the  remains  of  a  long  forgotten  civiliza- 
tion. About  the  tniddle  of  the  ust  century  a 
number  of  English  explorers,  Loflus,  Layard 
and  Taylor,  visited  the  ruins  of  some  of  the 
important  cities.  Through  their  tentative  in- 
vestigations Niffer  (Nippur),  Warka  (Uruk  or 
Erech),  Senkera  (Larsa),  Muqayyar  (Ur), 
Abu  Shahraia  (Eridu),  besides  Babyloa,  Bor- 
sippa  and  other  cities  were  located.  A  few 
deutdes  later  Rassam,  also  an  Englishman,  dis- 
covered that  the  ruins  known  as  Abu-Habba 
represented  the  ancient  Sinpara;  and  decided 
definitely  also  that  Tell-lDrahim  was  Kutha 
(Cutha).  The  ancient  names  of  most  of  these 
cities  were  known  through  the  Old  Testament 
For  excavations  see  Assyriology. 

The  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  count ly, 
which  was  known  in  the  early  period  as  Shumer 
(Biblical  Shinar),  are  called  Suraerians. 

These  Sumenans  spoke  an  agglutinative 
tongue  which  belongs  to  that  great  unclassifi- 
able  group  of  languages  known  as  Turanian. 
Clay  was  principally  used  as  their  writing 
material.  The  impression  made  by  the  stylus 
upon  the  soft  clay  has  the  appearance  of  a 
wed^  for  which  the  Latin  word  trtmeiu  is 
used;  hence  cuneiform  writing.     See  AssYU- 

OLOGY. 

Through  other  sources,  particularly  the 
Babylonian  duplicates  found  m  Asurbanipal's 
library  at  Nineveh,  considerable  is  known  con- 
cerning the  literature  of  the  Babylonians. 
Notably  might  be  mentioned  the  Creation  and 
Gilgamesh  epics,  the  Deluge  story,  which  re- 
semble the  Biblical  accounts:  Ishtar's  descent 
into  Hades;  the  Etana  legend;  Adapa  and  the 
South  Wind,  etc.  Here  properly  should  be 
mentioned  aUo  the  codes  of  laws  upon  which 
the  decisions  of  the  kings  and  judges  were 
made,  particularly  the  code  of  Hammurabi 
(Amrarfiel,  Gen.  xiv),  discovered  by  the 
French,  in  Susa,  under  de  Uorean.  It  consists 
of  282  laws  written  on  a  stela  wbich  stands  over 
seven  feet  high.  This  had  been  carried  away 
by  the  old  national  enemy  of  Babylonia,  the 
Elamites.  Very  extensive  also  is  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  cu~stoms  and  manners  of  the  people 
gained  through  the  thousands  of  contract 
tablets  dated  in  the  reigns  of  kings  of  all 
periods.  Practically  every  kind  of  legal  and 
domestic  contract  imaginable,  mortgages,  deeds 
of  sale,  promissory  notes,  guarantees)  etc..  the 
archives  of  business  firms,  notably  the  Egibi 
House  of  Babylon,  and  the  Murashu  Sons  of 
Nipjlur,  have  been  found.  Most  valuable  for  the 
decipherment  of  the  inscriptions  have  been  the 
syllabaries,  or  sign  lists,  in  wluch  the  different 
values  of  characters  are  ^ven.  Commentaries ; 
lists. of  gods,  names,  places,  temples,  animals. 
stones,  etc. ;  incantations,  hymns,  penitential 
psalms,  prayers,  are  included  among  the  tablets 
discovered. 

The  earliest  inscriptions  reveal  a  polytheism 
in  a  developed  state.  Most  of  the  gods  have 
Sumerian  as  well  as  Semitic  names.  Until  the 
religion  of  the  Sumerians,  or  of  the  Semites, 
orior  to  their  occupation  of  this  county  is 
better  known,  it  will  be  impossible  to  ascertaio 


with  whicJ]  people  die  different  gods  and 
religious  conceptions  originated.  The  pantheon, 
wbich  was  practically  different  in  every  period 
of  Babylonian  bisloiy,  is  exceedingly  large. 
Some  of  the  ^ods  mentioned  most  frequently 
in  the  inscriptions  are:  Anu,  Bel  and  Ea,  the 
important  triad  of  the  early  period ;  Merodach, 
Shamasfa,  Sin,  Ishtar,  Nergal,  Nebo,  Nusicu, 
Ninib,  Quia,  etc. 

Each  city  had  its  temple,  which  was  dedi- 
cated to  some  particular  god;  for  example, 
Ekur,  at  Nippur,  was  sacretfto  Bel;  Esagila,  in 
Babylon,  to  Merodach.  In  addition  to  the 
patron  aeity,  shrines  to  other  gods  were  found 
in  each  sanctuary.  At  Nippur,  besides  Bel,  24 
other  gods  were  worshipped,  for  whom  shnnes 
were  set  up  within  me  temple  precincts. 
Through  the  researches  of  Professor  Hilprecht 
in  the  trenches  at  Nippur,  and  in  connection  with 
the  inscriptions  discovered,  the  real  conception 
of  a  Babylonian  temple  and  its  tower  is  made 
known  for  the  first  time.  The  temple  had  an 
inner  and  outer  court,  both  of  which  were 
nearly  square,  the  latter  being  somewhat 
smaller  than  tne  former.  The  prominent  fea- 
ture of  the  temple  architecture  was  the  ziggurat, 
or  sloried'tower,  which  occnined  nearly  one- 
third  of  the  area  of  the  inner  court.  In  close 
proximity  to  the  tower  stood  the  temple  proper, 
where  the  sacrifices  were  offered.  The  ziggurat 
consisted  of  quadrangular  platforms,  one  super- 
imposed upon  the  other,  on  the  top  of  which 
was  to  be  found  the  shrine.  The  number  of  plat- 
forms varied  according  to  the  period  and  aUlity 
of  the  builder.  In  the  3d  millennium  b.c  the 
number  generally  appears  to  have  been  three. 
The  liggurat  had  its  origin  in  the  earliest  pre- 
Semitic  period,  when  it  was  regarded  as  the 
tomb  of  the  god.  At  that  time  it  vras  the 
Kntral  feature  of  a  fire-necropole,  or  cemetery. 
The  Sumerians  cremated  their  dead.  In  an 
early  stratum  at  Nippur  one  of  their  crema- 
toriums was  found.  The  remains  of  the  in- 
cineration were  placed  in  jars,  thousands  of 
which  were  found  buried  around  the  ziggurat. 
It  is  not  known  what  the  Semites  did  with  their 
dead,  but  when  they  became  the  dominant  peo- 
ple of  the  land  the  conception  of  the  temple  and 
ziggurat  seems  to  have  been  changed,  for  there- 
after no  burials  are  found  within  the  courts  of 
the  temple. 

In  their  cosmology  the  Semitic  Babylonian 
conception  of  the  earth  was  a  mountain  over 
which  the  god  Bel  ruled.  This  they  believed 
extended  down  into  Ea's  region  (subterranean 
waters),  and  also  that  it  reached  up  unto  that 
of  Anu  (Heaven).  They  regarded  the  lig- 
gurat  as  symbolical  of  the  earth,  the  dominion 
of  Bel.  In  their  inscriptions,  therefore,  con- 
cerning the  building  or  restoratioiis  of  these 
towers,  the  following  expression  is  repeatedly 
found:  *I  laid  the  foundations  of  the  ziggurat 
in  that  breast  of  the  earth  and  built  it  up  so 
that  its  head  was  in  the  heavens*  {compare  the 
story  of  Babel,  Gen.  xi),  thus  showing  that  the 
ziggurat  was  a  representation  of  Bel's  kingdom, 
the  earth. 

In  connection  with  the  temple  library  at  Nip- 
pur a  school  or  department  of  instruction  was 
found.  Within  its  rooms  were  discovered  text- 
books, and  exercises  of  the  students.  At  SipaiJ 
a  school  similar  in  character  was  also  found. 
The  comotete  excavation  of  all  important  Baby- 
Ionian   cities   will   doubtless   bring  to  Hght  a 


,  Google 


—  HouoiU  corerint  tte  Templi  «l  B< 


U  Nippni,  49N  B.  C 


:y  Google 


1.  C.    Pie-Sartooie  M 


;c?5"®e"!^lc 


BABYLOHIAK  EXILE 


Umplc,  a  Kbrary  and  a  school  in  each.  On 
history  sec  Assyriolocy. 

BibUomphr.—  <More  detailed  Bibli(^ 
raphv  under  AssYRioutcv). 

Hirtory.— Maspero :  I  <The  Dawn  of  Civ- 
ilization* ;  II.  'The  Stru^le  of  Natioos' ; 
III.  ^Thc  Passing  of  the  Empires' ;  Rogers, 
'Histoi;  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria'  (6th  ed, 
1915);  King,  I-.  W^  'A  Histpry  of  Sumer 
and  Okkad>  (1910);  also  <A  History  of  Baby- 
lon*   (1915). 

Exptoratians. —  Hilprecht,  'Explorations  in 
Bible  Lands  During  the  19tb  Century'  (1903) ; 
Works  of  John  P.  Peters,  R.  Zehnpfund,  R. 
Koldewey,  M.  J.  de  Morgan. 

RelatWH  to  Ike  Old  Teslamenf.— ^Die  Kdl- 
inschriften  und  das  Alte  Testament'  {3te  Aui!., 
1901-03)  ;  Price,  'The  Monumenta  and  the  Old 
Testament'  (6th  ed,  19051);  McCurdy,  'His- 
tory,   Prophecy    and    the    Monuments'     (1894- 


RriiyiiMi.— Sayce,  'History  of  the  Babj" 
Ionian  and  Egvptian  Religion'  (1902) ;  Jas- 
trow,  M.,  Jr.,  *Religion  of  Babylonia  and  As- 
syria' (1J©8);  new  revised  and  xre^lly  en- 
lai^d  edition  in  German  (1905-12). 

TrOKslaiions. —  Schrader  (editor),  'Keilin- 
schriftliche  Bibliothek'  (6  voh.,  1889) ;  Har- 
per (editor),  'Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Liter- 
ature* (1901).  Also  many  translations  of  in- 
dividual inscriptions  in  works  of  more  or  less 
technical  character. 

BABYLONIAN  EXILE,  or  CAPTIV- 
ITY.  It  seems  to  have  been  part  of  the  state- 
craft of  the  ancient  Assyrians  to  remove  the 
peoi^c  of  conquered  nations  and  plant  them  in 
unoccupied  parts  of  the  dominion,  as  far  dis- 
tant as  possible  from  the  home  coimtrf  of  the 
victims.  This  custom  grew  out  of  civil  and 
geographical  conditions.  Hie  degree  of  tia- 
ttonal  intercourse  requisite  for  maiataininf^  a 
proper  ascendency  over  the  subjugated  nation 
could  not  be  mjtmluned  if  they  were  allowed 
to  remain  in  their  own  land.  Consequently, 
deportation  was  necessary  —  a  process  which 
has  come  to  be  designated  in  our  language  by 
the  word  captivity.  Anciently,  deported  na- 
tions were  not  treated  with  that  cruelty  we  are 
in  the  habit  of  associating  with  the  captive. 
The  captivity  of  the  Jews,  who  are  more  espe- 
cially to  be  treated  in  this  article,  demands  the 
preceding  remarks  in  order  to  aid  in  a  proper 
understanding  of  the  frequent  notices  we  nnd 
in  the  Scriptures  of  the  consequence  to  whicb 
thetc  people  attained  in  their  foreign  residences. 

There  are  two  Babylonish  captivities  of  the 
Jews,  baying  their  beginning  at  different  times, 
althoi^^  their  endings  were  synchronous.  In 
the  civil  dissensions  following  the  death  of 
Saul  and  culminating  at  the  death  of  Solomon, 
the  tribes  north  of  the  mountains  of  Ephraim 
and  those  east  of  Jordan  separated  from  the 
rest,  leaving  Judah  and  Beniamin  in  ihe  nat' 
nrally  fortined  province  of  the  soath.  To  the 
north  of  the  revolted  tribes  lay  the  kingdom 
of  Syria,  then  powerful  and  extensive.  Syria 
had  an  old  feud  with  Israel  ever  since  David 
had  made  Damascus,  the  Syrian  capital,  tribu- 
taiy  to  himself.  Reton  had  regained  uie  city 
under  Solomon,  but  was  "an  adversary  to 
Israel  all  the  days  of  Solomon.'  The  attention 
of  Syria  was  now  turned  to  the  defensekas 
condition  oi  the  revolted  tribes.    They  had  no 


._  the  northern 

plainB  at  the  foot  of  the  Anli-Lebanon.  Judah 
had,  meanwhile,  made  a  treaty,  in  the  reign  of 
Asa,  her  third  King,  with  the  Syrian  power, 
who,  by  his  counsel  and  stratagem,  had  been 
inducecl  to  break  a  former  league  with  Israel 
(I  Kings  xv).  Judah  also,  fearing  inroads 
from  the  north,  had  built  two  new  fortifica- 
tions in  the  passes  of  Benjamin  (Geba  and 
Mizpah),  and  used  all  her  arts  to  keep  herself 
in  favor  with  Syria  and  on  the  other  hand 
turned  her  pampered  ally  against  the  revolted  * 
and  tmprotected  tribes  at  the  north.  Israel, 
tired  at  length  of  the  continual  exposures  to 
Syrian  invasion  and  exasperated  at  the  im- 
munity   and    prosperity    of    the    rival    Jndah, 


against  her  southern  antagonist.  In  the  emer- 
gency Judah  appealed  to  the  Assyrian  power 
and  Tiglath  Pifeser  came  against  Israel  (733), 
carried  captive  a  portion  of  its  inhabitatiu^  and 
then  marcned  upon  Syria,  slew  its  king,  sub- 
dued its  capital  and  absorbed  it  into  the  Assy- 
rian empire  from  which  it  reappears  only  in 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  The  suc- 
cesaor  of  Pileser,  exasperated  by  an  attempted 
conspiracy  of  HoShea  with  the  King  of  £gypt< 
took  Samaria  and  subdued  Israel  to  a  tributary 
relation,  taking  away  to  BaWlon  the  people 
whom  Pileser  had  left  in  the  hist  deportation. 
Thus  was  accomplished  the  first  captivity  of 
the  numerically  most  powerful  branch  of  the 
divided  house  of  Israel  (721  ac).  They  were 
first  in  the  subjugation  to  foreign  power  from 
purely  geographical  considerations. 

A  little  more  than  a  himdred  years  after, 

Judah,  from  her  mountain  fastnesses,  fol- 
owed  Israel  into  the  Assyrian  empire,  ui  the 
second  great  Babylonish  captivity.  Disregard- 
ing some  chronological  differences,  Judah  seems 
to  have  been  progressively  carried  into  captiv- 
ity, like  Israel,  by  at  least  two,  and  perhaps 
three,  successive  deportations.  The  first  was 
598  B.C.,  and  was  probably  made  with  the  direct 
abject  of  colonizing  the  city  of  Nineveh,  whicb 
the  Assyrian  monarch  was  then  endeavoring 
to  restore.  The  second  was  in  the  reign  of 
Zedeldah.  Judah  had  for  three  successive 
rdens  been  heavily  tributary  to  Assyria.  Zede- 
ldah rebelled  against  the  tribute  and,  like 
Israel,  further  exasperated  her  master  by  call- 
ing upon  Egypt  in  her  extremiQr.  In  revenge, 
Nebuchadnezzar  burnt  the  temple  and  city,  put 
out  the  eyes  of  Zedekiah  and  led  away  the 


the  second  captivity,  the  permission 
turn  was  given,  only  a  very  small  part  of  the 
Jewish  people  were  in  a  condition  to  desire  a 
removal,  having  become  thoroughly  naturalized 
in  their  foreign  dwellings  \  and  even  if  they  had 
desired  it,  it  would  have  been  only  a  return  to 
a  Medo-Feraian  satrapy,  not  to  the  glory  of 
their  ancient  kingdom  and  temple- wor^p. 
See  Damiei.;  Ezekiel;  Ezra-  Jews. 

The  term  "Babylonish  Captivity*  is  fre- 
quently applied  by  writers  of  Church  history 
to  the  residence  of  the  Popes  at  Avignon  for 
nearly  70  years. 

BibHoprmtdiy.—  Ewald,  <Tbe  History  of  Is- 
rael,' translated  by  Marttneau,  Vols,  IV,  V 
(4th  ed.,  London  1873-S6)  ;  Cheyne,  (Jewish 


Google 


BACA  w.  BACCHUS 


Ufe  after  the  Ewie'  (New  York  18W)  ;  Kent, 


BACA,  The  VaUey  of,  a  vale  throuE^ 
which  the  tMlgrims  had  to  pass  on  the  way  to 
Zion  (Ps.  84-6).  It  has  been  variously  identi- 
fied with  the  Valley  of  Aeher,  the  Valley  of  Re- 
phain  and  with  a  Sinaitic  valley  of  a  similar 
name.  It  is  also  said  to  have  been  the  last 
station  on  the  caravan  route  from  the  north  to 
Jerusalem.  Biblical  criticism  is  uncertain  as 
to  whether  the  Valley  of  Baca  is  a  real  place 
or  only  used  as  an  emblem  of  life  intended  to 
teach  the  lesson  tliat  perseverance  and  trust  not 
only  overcome  difficulties  but  tum  them  into 
blessii^fs. 

BACACAT,  bs-ldl^  Philippines,  a  town  in 
the  province  of  Albay,  Luzon  island.  It  is  sit' 
uated  on  the  Gulf  of  Albay.    Pop.  about  15,000. 

BACALAO,  balc^-la'fi.     See  Cod. 

BACARRA,  bf-kar'ra,  Philipjiines,  a  town 
of  Luzon  in  the  province  of  Ilocos  Norte. 
Pop.   14,800. 

BACCANARISTS.  See  Jesuits. 
"baccarat,  ba-k»-W',  a  town  of  Frajict 
in  the  department  of  Meurthe-et-Moselle,  lo 
miles  by  rail  southeast  of  Lun^ville,  having 
the  most  important  plate  glass  works  in  France, 
esublished  here  in  1765.    Pop.  (1911)  7,277. 

BACCARAT,  a  game  of  Italian  ori^n 
played  with  ordinary  playinK  cards ;  very  sint- 
pie  in  details  and  freer  from  complications 
than  most  games  at  cards.  Any  number  of 
players  may  participate  and  as  many  pack^  of 
cards  may  be  used  as  necessary,  tne  number 
being  increased  to  comspond  with  the  number 
of  players.  The  member  of  the  party  selected 
to  act  as  banker  deals  out  the  cards  from  a 


the  face  cards  and  tens  have  no  value  and  the 
naturals  are  8  and  9,  count  10  and  the  others 
according  to  the  numbers  of  their  spots.  After 
the  bell  nave  beeu  made,  the  banker  deals  two 
cards  to  each  of  the  players,  including  himself, 
but  the  other  players  must  receive  their  cards 
before  the  banlcer  is  served.  The  aim  of  play- 
ers is  to  make  the  numbers  9,  19,  29,^  or  as 
nearly  those  as  possible,  as  8,  18  and  28.     Any 

Slayer  is  at  liberty  either  to  'stand*  or  to  be 
content*  with  the  two  cards  at  first  dealt  or 
to  call  for  more,  at  the  risk  of  exceeding  29, 
when  his  stake  is  forfeited  to  the  dealer.  If, 
after  the  first  distribution  of  two  cards  to  each, 
any  player  has  a  •natural,* —  fliat  is,  a  sum 
making,  or  next  in  value,  19, —  be  declares  it 
wins  and  the  banker  pays  all  who  hold  superior 
hands  to  his  own  and  claims  from  those  hold- 
ing inferior  hands.  T^e  players  stake  their 
money  separatel3;,  there  being,  in  fact,  as  many 
separate  games  in  progress  as  there  arc  play- 
ers and  the  spectators  may  wager  their  money 
on  any  one  of  them,  all  of  which  must  be  ac- 
cepted by  the  banker.  Prior  to  the  banker 
making  a  start,  he  names  the  amount  of  the 
bank.  Any  one  sitting  down  at  the  table  has 
the  right  to  call  the  whole  of  the  bark,  select- 
ing the  left  or  the  right  on  which  to  pick  up 
the  cards.  Previous  to  the  banker  dealing  the 
cards,  it  is  the  duty  of  two  croupiers,  one  on 
the  right  and  the  other  on  the  left;  to  count 


up  the  stakes  deposited  on  either  side  and  then 
make  up  the  bank.  Thus  the  banker  knows, 
to  the  smallest  coin,  the  exact  amount  of  his 
liabilities. 

BACCHANAUA,  biklcf-nili-^  feasts  in 
honor  of  Bacchus,  or  Dionysos,  characterized 
by  licentiousness  and  revelry  and  celebrated  in 
ancient  Athens.  In  the  processions  were  bands 
of  Bacchantes,  of  both  sexes,  who  wandered 
about  rioting  and  dancing.  They  were  clothed 
in  fawn  skins,  crowned  with  ivy  and  bore  in 
their  hands  Ihyrsi,  that  is,  spears  entwined 
with  ivy,  or  having  a  pine  cone  stuck  on  the 
point.  These  feasts  passed  from  the  Greeks 
lo  the  Romans,  who  celebrated  them  with  still 

Sealer  dissoluteness  till  the  Senate  abolished 
em,  186  B.C.    See  Bacchus. 

BACCHANTE,  biUc-kln'ie,  a  person  taking 
part  in  revels  in  honor  of  Bacchus.  The  name 
of  several  British  warships. 

BACCHIGLIONB,  baklcc-lye'ne,  a  river 
of  northern  Italy.  It  rises  in  the  Alps,  passes 
through  the  towns  of  Vicciua  and  Padua  and 
enters  the  Adriatic  near  Chioggia  after  a 
course  of  about  90  miles. 

BACCHUS,' bik^s,  or  DIONYSOS,  the 
god  of  wine.  His  history  is  one  of  the  most 
perplexing  in  the  Greek  tnvthology.  Semele 
was  pregnant  with  him  by  Zeus,  but  became  a 
victim  of  the  craft  of  Hera.  Zeus  hastened  to 
save  the  unborn  fruit  of  his  embrace  and  con- 
cealed it  till  mature  in  his  own  thigh.  He 
afterward  committed  the  infant  to  Hermes, 
who  carried  him  to  the  nymphs  of  Nysa  in 
India,  where  he  grew  and  prospered  His 
teacher  was  SUenua,  afterward  his  constant 
companion. 

In  the  vales  of  Nysa  Bacchus  invented  the 
preparation  of  a  beverage  from  grapes  and 
taught  the  planting  of  vues.  To  spread  the 
knowledge  of  his  invention  he  traveled  over 
almost  the  whole  known  world  and  recnved 
in  every  quarter  divine  honors.  Drawn  1^ 
lions  he  began  his  march,  which  resembled  a 
triumphal  pomp,  with  a  great  suite  of  men  and 
women,  Sileni,  Satyrs  and  Mcenades.  Insinred 
ty  the  presence  of  (he  god,  rejoicing,  brandish- 
ing  the   thyrsus  and   crowned  with  vines^  and 


the  tones  of  Phrygian  flutes  and  timbrels.  The 
Thebans  wonld  not  acknowledge  his  divinity 
and  Pentheus  armed  himself  a^nst  him. 
Bacchus  resolved  to  punish  the  crime  and  in- 
spired the  women  with  a  fury  which  drove 
them  from  their  dwellings  to  wander  on  Mount 
CitJueron.  Pentheus  himself  was  torn  in  pieces 
by  his  own  mother  and  her  risters,  to  whom  he 
appeared  a  wild  beast.  Bacchus  punished  the 
daughters  of  Uynias,  who  derided  his  feasts, 
with  frenzy  and  transformation.  At  Naxos 
some  Tuscan  sailors  attempted  to  carry  him 
off  to  Italy,  supposing  him  from  his  purple 
robe  to  be  the  son  of  a  king.  They  fettered 
him;  but  the  fetters  fell  off.  vines  and  ivy  en- 
twined the  vessel  and  kept  it  fixed  in  the  midst 
of  the  sea:  the  god  transformed  himself  to  a 
lion  and  the  seamen,  seized  with  madness, 
leaped  into  the  waves,  where  they  were  changed 
into  dolphins.  On  the  other  hand,  he  rewarded 
such  as  recdved  him  hospitably  and  rendered 
him  worship,  as,  for  instance,  Midas,  who  re- 
stored to  him  the  faithful  Silenus. 


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BACCHUS  AND  ARIADNE  — BACH 


It 


His  love  was  shared  by  several-  but  Ariadne, 
whom  he  found  deserted  upon  Naxos,  alone 
was  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  a  wife  and 
became  a  sharer  of  Sis  immortality.  To 
confer  the  same  favor  on  hii  mother,  Semele^ 
he  descended  into  the  realms  of  Pluto  and  con- 
ducted her  to  Olympus,  where  she  was  hence~ 
forth  called  Thyone.  In  the  dreadful  war 
with  the  giants  he  fought  heroically  and  saved 
ihe  gods  from  impending  ruin.  Durine  the  re- 
joicing for  victory  Zeus  joyfully  crieato  him, 
"Evan,  evoel'  (Well  done,  my  soni),  with 
which  words  Bacchus  was  afterward  usually 
saluted.  We  find  him  represented  with  the 
round,  soft  and  graceful  form  of  a  maiden 
rather  than  that  of  a  young  man.  An  orna- 
ment peculiar  to  him  is  the  tiara.  His  long 
waving  hair  is  gathered  behind  in  a  knot  and 
wreathed  with  sprigs  of  ivy  and  vine  leaves. 
He  is  usually  naked ;  sometimes  he  has  an 
ample  mantle  hung  negligently  round  his 
shoulders;  sometimes  a  fawn  skin  hangs  across 
his   breast.     The   earlier   bearded   Bacchus   ii 

Croperly  of  Indian  or  Egyptian  origin.  His 
ead  is  sometimes  shown  with  small  horns 
(the  symbol  of  invincible  force).  In  his  hand 
is  borne  a  lliyrttu,  or  a  drinking  cup.  The 
bull,  panther^  ass  and  Koat  were  symooticaily 
associated  with  this  god. 

The  feasts  consecrated  to  Bacchus  were 
termed  Bacchanalia,  Dionysia,  or  in  general 
Orgia.  They  were  celebrated  with  peculiar 
solemnity  in  Athens,  where  the'  years  were  uni- 
versally reckoned  by  them  and  during  their 
continuance  the  least  violence  toward  a  citizen 
was  a  capital  crime.  The  great  Dionysia  were 
celebrated  in  spring,  The  most  important  part 
of  the  celebration  was  a  procession  represent- 
ing the  triumi^  of  Bacchus.  This  was  cont- 
posed  of  a  train  of  Bacchantes  of  both  sexes, 
who  were  masked,  clothed  in  fawn  skins, 
crowned  with  ivy  and  bore  in  their  hands 
drinldng  cups  and  rods  entwined  with  ivy 
(thyrsi).  Amidst  tlus  mad  crowd  marched  in 
beautiful  order  the  delegated  bodies  of  the 
phralria  ^corporations  of  citizens).  They  bore 
upon  their  beads  consecrated  baskets,  which 
(oniained  first-fruits  of  every  kind,  i^es  of 
different  shape  and  various  mysterious  sym* 
hols.  This  procession  was  usually  in  the 
night-time.  The  day  was  devoted  to  spectacles 
and  other  recreations.  At  a  very  early  hour 
they  went  to  the  theatre  of  Bacchus,  where 
musical  or  dramatical  performances  were  ex- 
hibited. ThcsfHS,  known  as  the  inventor  of 
tragedy,  ts  said  to  have  introduced  into  the 
Bacchic  performance  an  actor  who  carried  c- 


dialogue  with  the  coryikceus  (leader)  regard- 
ing the  myths  narrated  of  Bacchus  or- some 
other    divinity.      The   chorus,    surrounding   its 


ot] 


leader,  stood  on  the  steps  of  the  altar  of  Bac- 
chus, while  the  actor  occupied  a  table.  Some 
regard  this  as  the  origin  of  the  stage.  The 
■  vintage  festivals  in  rural  districts  were  cele- 
brated by  Bacchic  processions,  ruder  in  form 
than  those  of  Athens,  but  characterised  by  the 
same  wild  license  and  ribaldry.  Coarse  ridi- 
cule of  individuals  was  a  marked  feature  of 
these  occasions.  In  the  course  of  time  the 
mysteries  celebrated  became  occasions  for  in- 
toxication and  gross  licentiousness.  The  Bac- 
chanalia were  introduced  imo  Rome  about  200 
B-c.  and  at  first  were  celebrated  by  women 
ooly.     Later  men  were  admitted,  evening  cele- 


brations introduced  and  celebrations  held  fre- 
quently instead  of  only  three  days  in  the  year 
as  at  first  Gross  immoralities  were  pnKtised 
and  finally  in  186  B.C  the  Senate  ordered  th« 
arrest  of  the  priests  and  forbade  further  meet- 
ings in  Italy.  Consult  'Senatus  Consultum  de 
Bacchanalibiis'  in  'Corpus  Inscriptionum 
Latinarum';  Frazer,  'The  Golden  Bough* 
n913);  Famell,  'Cults  of  the  Greek  States* 
(Vol.  V.  Oxford  1910)-  Grujipe,  O.,  'Griech- 
ische  '  Jjythologie  una  Religionsgeschichte' 
{Vol.  II  1907). 

BACCHUS  AND  ARIADNE,  a  painting 
by  Titian  (1523).  It  is  founded  on  the  Greek 
stonf  of  the  marriage  of  Dionysius  to  the  wife 
of  Theseus.  It  represents  Anadne  in  a  back- 
ground of  sedge  and  ocean  turning  away  as 
the  leopard-drawn  chariot  descends,  bearing 
the  goa  and  surrounded  by  satyrs.  The  pic- 
ture hangs  in  the  National  Gallery,  London. 

BACCHYLIDES,  bak^Hl^-dex,  Greek  poet 
who  flourished  about  470  b.c.  ;  a  native  of  lulls, 
a  town  on  the  Island  of  Ceos.  He  was  a 
nephew  of  the  still  more  famous  lyric  poet 
Simonides,  with  whom  he  remained  for  some 
time  at  the  coun  of  Hiero  I  in  Sicily.  He 
traveled  also  in  the  Peloponnesus  and  is  said 
to  have  been  a  rival  of  Pindar.  Until  recently 
this  poet  was  known  to  the  modem  world  on^ 
in  fragments  of  beautiful  versification.  In 
1895,  however,  a  well  preserved  text  was  dis- 
covered and  puUished  and  Baccbylides  has  now 
taken  permanent  place  as  a  master  of  Greek 
verse.  He  was  master  of  a  style  at  once  per- 
spicuous and  simple,  tasteful  in  expression  and 
with  an  artist's  eye  for  picturesque  detail.  An 
English  translation  of  the  poems  edited  by  F. 
G.  Keayon  ap|>eared  in  1897.  Consult  also  Sir 
K.  J  ebb's  edition,  with  introduction,  notes, 
translation  and  bibliography  (1905). 

BACCIOCCHI,  bi-ch/afcTce.  Felice  Pas- 
qaile,  Corsican  captain:  b.  Corsica,  18  May 
1762;  d.  Bologna,  27  April  1841.  In  1797  he 
married  Maria  Elisa  Bonaparte.  In  180S,  when 
Napoleon  made  his  sister  Princess  of  Lucca 
and  Piombino,  Bacciocchi  was  crowned  with 
his  wife.  After  the  Emperor's  fall  he  lived 
quietly  and  in  reduced  circumstances  at  Bo- 

BACCIOCCHI,  Maria  Anna  Bliaa  Bona- 
parte, the  eldest  sister  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte : 
b.  Ajaccto,  Corsica,  1777;  d.  7  Aug.  1820.  She 
married  Felice  Bacciocchi  and  was  created  by 
her  brother  in  1805  Princess  of  Lucca,  Piom- 
bino Mass  a  and  Carrara  and  in  1809  Grand 
Duchess  of  Tuscany.  She  shared  her  brother's 
fall  and  spent  her  last  years  in  Austria,  dyine 
on  her  estate  near  Trieste.  Her  only  son  died 
in  1833  and  her  only  daughter,  the  Countess 
Camerala,   in   1869. 

BACH,  biiH,  Alexander,  Bason,  Austrian 
statesman:  b.  Loosdorf,  4  Jan.  1813;  d.  13 
Nov.  1892.  He  was  Minister  of  Justice  during 
the  troublous  period  in  1848;  of  the  Interior 
in  1849-59;  and  subsequently  Ambassador  to 
Rome.  In  1855  he  n^otialed  the  concordat 
between  Austria  and  the  Roman  Cilhurch.  In 
1859-67  he  was  Ambassador  at  Rome.  As  a 
minister  he  was  an  opponent  of  liberalism  and 
in  favor  of  a  strong  centralizing  policy. 

BACHj  Hcinrieh,  German  musician;  b.  16 
Sept.  1615;  d.  10  July  1691.    He  was  the  father 

Google 


of    Jotuuin    Giristoph    and    Johann    Michael 
Bach;  organist  at  Amstadt 

BACH,  Johann  Christian,  German  musi- 
cian: b.  Erfurt  1640'  d.  1682.  He  was  a  son 
of  Johannes  Bach,  tne  great  uncle  of  Johann 
Set»stian  Bach.       _ 

BACH,  Johann  Christiati,  German  musi- 
cian: b.  Leipiig  173S-  d.  1782.  He  was  a  son 
of  Johann  Sebastian  Bach  and  was  organist  in 
the  Cathedral  of  Milan  1760-62.  From  the 
latter  year  he  resided  in  London  and  became 
music  master  to  the  Queen.  From  his  resi- 
dences at  Milan  and  London  he  is  called  'the 
Milanese"  and  ■the  EnKlish»  Bach.  The  ele- 
gance and  brilliancy  of  his  pianoforte  com- 
positions made  him  the  favorite  of  — — •— " 
in  that  instrument;  hut  only  in  his  m 
Tt  Deums  are  to  be  heard  echoes  of  the 


BACH,  Johum  Christoph  Pricdilch,  Ger- 
man musician:  b.  Leipzig  1732;  d.  1755.  He 
was  a  son  of  Johann  Sebastian  Bach  and  was 
for  a  long  period  music  master  to  Count 
Sdiaumburg  at  Biickeburg. 

BACH,  Johaua  Uichael,  German  com- 
poser and  instrument-makeT ;  b.  1648;  d.  1694. 
He  waa  a  son  of  Heinrich  Bach  and  the  father- 
in-law  of  Johann  Sebastian  Bach. 

BACH,  Johann  Sebastian,  German  musi- 
cian and  composer :  b.  Eisenach,  21  March 
1685;  d.  Leipiig,  28  July  I?SO.  Bach  was  the 
most  profound  and  ori^nal  musical  thinker  the 
world  has  ever  seen.  He  is  the  master  of  mas- 
ters; from  lUm  most  of  the  great  composers 
have  drawn  inspiration.  When  Mozart  heard 
one  of  his  pieces  at  Leipzig,  in  1788,  he  ex- 
claimed :  ■Thank  Heaven !  here  at  last  is  some- 
thing new  that  I  can  leani  from.*  *Not  Bacfa 
(brook)  but  'Ocean*  should  be  his  name,* 
Beethoven  exclaimed.  Mendelssohn  made  en~ 
thusiastic  efiorts  to  revive  the  interest  in  Bach. 
Schumann  helped  to  found  the  Bach  Society 
and  ursed  students,  if  they  would  become 
tborout^  musicians,  to  make  Bach  their  daily 
bread.  Chopin  confessed  that  before  giving  a 
concert  he  locked  himself  up  a  fortnight  with 
nothing  but  pach  to  play.  Franz  devoted  a 
great  part  of  his  life  to  adapting  this  master's 
works  for  use  in  modem  concert  halls.  Liszt 
and  Rubinstein  adored  and  played  him.  Wag- 
ner, as  he  grew  older,  played  Bach  more  and 
more ;  his  vocal  compositions  he  pronoiuiced 
^e  most  perfect  ever  written;  and  he  said  that 
the  proper  interpretation  of  them  was  the 
noblest  task  of  contemporary  musicians.  The 
only  dissenting  voice  in  this  chorus  of  praise 
was  that  oE  Berlioz;  but,  as  Saint-Saens  (one 
of  the  principal  worshipers)  has  pointed  out, 
this  was  due  solely  to  the  fact  that  Berlioz  was 
not  familiar  with  the  works  of  Bach.  His  pre- 
eminence is  the  more  remarkable  when  we  re- 
member that  he  was  bom  as  early  as  1685;  but 
it  seems  perhaps  a  trifling  less  astonisliing  when 
we  bear  in  mind  that  Johann  Sebastian  inher- 
ited the  accumulated  musical  gifts  of  a  long 
line,  of  ancestors.  'Throughout  six  genera- 
tion's,' say^  Forfcel,  'there  were  hardly  two  or 
three  inembers  of  this  family  who  did  not 
inherit  a  natural  talent  for  music,  and  make 
the  cultivation  of  tUs  art  die  principal  occupa- 
tioa  of  their  life.*    For  more  than  a  century 


there  were  so  man^  representatives  of  this 
widely-scattered  family  that  in  one  place,  at  any 
rate  (Erfurt),  town  musicians  came  to  be  called 
■Bachs,*  even  when  that  family  did  not  happen 
to  be  represented  among  them.  After  the  cul- 
mination had  been  reached,  however^  in  Johann 
Sebastian,  the  family-tree  soon  withered,  al- 
though some  of  his  sons  play  a  quite  consider- 
able role  in  musical  history. 

At  the  ^  of  10,  Johann  Sebastian  was  left 
an  orphan,  m  care  of  his  older  brother,  John 
Christoph,  who  appears  to  have  been  jealous  of' 
the  boy's  musical  gifts.  CThristoph  had  got  to- 
gether a  collection  of  the  best  German  organ 
music  of  the  time,  which  Sebastian  was  very 
eager  to  get  at  ana  sttidy.  Denied  access  to  it, 
be  managed  to  smuggle  it  into  the  garret, 
where,  for  six  months,  he  busied  himself  mak- 
ing a  copy  of  it  on  moonlit  nights.  But  the 
brother  at  last  discovered  his  secret  and  took 
away  from  him  both  the  copy  and  the  original. 
This  is  only  one  instance  of  many  showing 
how  Sebastian  was  determined  to  educate  him- 
self in  face  of  all  obstacles.  Several  times  he 
went  on  foot  to  Hamburg  —  a  distance  of  2S 
miles  —  to  hear  the  famous  orgatiist  Reinken; 
subsequently  he  made  a  similar  trip  to  hear  the 
illustrious  organist  Buxtehude  at  Lubeck.  This 
happened  when  he  himself  was  already  busy  as 
organist  and  choirmaster  at  Arnstadt.  Previ- 
ously to  thai  he  had,  as  a  boy,  helped  to  support 
himself  by  joining  a  choir  of  boys  who  sang  at 
funerals  and  wedding,  as  well  as  in  church  and 
in  the  street  He  missed  no  chance  to  practise 
on  the  violin,  the  organ  and  the  piano  —  or, 
rather,  the  harpsichord  and  clavichord,  which 
were  the  predecessors  of  the  [uanoforte.  To 
these  tasks  and  in  his  efforts  at  composition,  he 
often  devoted  whole  nights.  He  got  his  first 
salaried  position  (as  violinist)  in  1703  at  Wei- 
mar, but  left  this  post  after  a  few  months  for 
tliat  of  organist  at  Amstadt  It  was  thence 
that  he  made  the  trip  (a  fool  tour  of  over  200 
miles)  to  Lubeck,  already  referred  to,  to 
hear  Buxtehnde.  He  had  obtained  a  four 
weeks'  leave  of  absence,  but  was  so  delighted 
with  his  opportunities  for  improvement  at  Lil- 
beck  that  he  remained  four  months,  until  per- 
emptorily called  back.  The  church  consistory 
of  Amstadt  took  this  occasion  to  reprimand 
him,  not  only  for  prolonging  his  leave  of  ab- 
sence, but  for  neglecting  rehearsals,  goin^  to  a 
wine  cellar  dunng  the  sermon,  allowing  a 
strange  maiden  to  make  music  in  the  choir,  and 
for  *having  made  extraordinary  variations  in 
the  chorals,  and  intermixing  many  strange 
sounds,  lo  that  thereby  the  congregation  were 
confounded.*  Yet,  with  all  his  faults,  the^  loved 
him  still  and  allowed  him  to  remain  at  his  post, 
till  he  left  of  his  own  accord,  having  secured  a 
position  as  organist  at  Miihlhausen.  Here,  too, 
however,  he  did  not  remain  long,  as  stilt  better 
opportunities  presented  themselves  to  him  at 
Weiraar,  where  the  Duke  Wilhelm  Ernst  had 
his  court.  This  duke  was  deeply  interested  in 
the  religion  of  the  German  Protestant  Church 
and  was  glad  to  avail  himself  of  the  services  of 
Bach,  who  was  destined  to  become  the  chief 
representative  of  the  music  of  that  church,  as 
Palestrina  was  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Here 
Bach  remained  nine  years,  during  which  time 
he  wrote  many  of  his  master  worics  for  organ 
and  church  choir.  In  1717  he  accepted  a  posi- 
tion   in    KStben    which    involved    a    complete 


change  in  his  activity.  Instead  of  having  an 
organ  and  choir  to  occupy  his  time  he  haa  the 
duty,  as  Kapellmeister,  of  writing  and  rebears' 
ing  works  for  the  orchestra  as  a  whole  or  for 
groups  of  orchestral  instruments  (chamber 
music).  In  1720  he  was  a  candidate  for  the 
post  of  organist  at  the  Jacobi  Kiiche  in  Ham- 
but^;  but,  although  he  was  at  this  time  already 
famous  as  an  organist,  he  failed  to  get  tlie 
place,  an  obscure  young  man  having  secured  it 


schule  at  Leipiig  and  director  of  the 
the  two  principal  churches;  this  po&ition  he 
held  27  years,  ull  his  deatl^  28  July  1750,  at  the 
age  of  &. 

Bach  was  twice  married  and  became  the 
lather  of  20  children;  five  sons  and  five  daugh- 
ters died  before  him,  while  six  sons  and  four 
daughters  survived  bim.     His  first  wife  was 
also  a  Bach  —  a  cousin;  she  died  in  1720,  while 
he  was  on  a  concert  tour.     Eighteen  months 
after  her  death  he  married  a  K>rl  of  21  who  was 
also  musical;  yet  none  of  the  13  children  by 
this  second  marriage  attained  as  l^gh  a  rank  as 
some  of  the  seven  by  the  first  wife.    The  sec- 
ond wife  helped  him  copy  his  M5S.    (which 
he  was  constant^  revising)  and  in  course  of 
time  her  handwriting  came  to  resemble  his  so 
cbsely  that  the  two  were  hard  to  distinguish. 
In  no  way  did  Bach  differ  more  widely  from 
his   great   contemporarv,    Handel,   than   in   his 
(amily   Efe;    Handel   (£ed   a   bachelor.     There 
were  times  when  Bach  found  it  di&ult  to  bear 
the  material  burden  of  his  large  family,  but 
he  was  not  so  poor  in  his  lifetime  as  b  usually 
supposed     His  income  from  various  sources 
was,  it  is  true,  only  about  $500  at  the  best;  but 
the  purchasing  power  of  that  sum  was  equal  to 
IUjQ^|n  our  day.    It  was  after  his  death  that 
J.-  i<u"iL.l  of  poverty  was  felt;  his  widow  died 
in  an  almshouse;  he  himself  was  buried  in  a 
pauper's  grave.     For  more  than  a  century  no 
one  knew  the  exact  place  of  this  grave;  the 
circimistances  of  its  discovery  read  like  a  de- 
tective story.    Some  years  ago  it  became  neces- 
sary to   reouitd  the  old  Johannis   Church  in 
Leipzig,  and,  in  connection  with  this,  to  remove 
the  bones  from  that  part  of  the  adjoining  cem- 
etery in  which  Bach  was  believed  to  have  been 
buned.     The  director  of  the  archives,  Wust- 
mann,    took    this    opporlunilv    to    search    for 
Bach's  grave.    He  had  founa  in  the  books  of 
the  Johannis  Hospital  an  item  stating  that  $4 
bad  been  paid  for  Johann  Sebastian  Bach's  oak 
coffin,  which  gave  him  his  principal  clue,  for 
3ak   coflins   were   seldom   used   in   those   days, 
Kear  the  place  where  Bach  was  believed  to 
lave  been  buried  he  found  two  oak  coffins,  one 
TOntaining  the  remains  of  a  young  woman,  the 
ither  the  bones  of  a  man,  whose  skull  was  so 
mique  as  to  arouse  the  suspicion  at  once  that 
'  was  Bach's.    It  was  placed  in  the  hands  of 
le    famous    anatomist.    Professor    His,    who, 
fter  a  long  series  of  comparative  investiga- 
ons,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  there  could 
;    no    doubt    whatever    that   the    skull    was 
aeh's.      He    embodied    his    argument    in    a 
■ochure,    'Forschungen    iiber    Bach's    Grab- 
Uie  und  Gebeine,",    The  fact  that  Bach's  con- 
nporaries  thus  took  no  note  of  his  burial  place 
convincing  evidence  that  they  never  dreamed 
was  destined  to  rank  as  the  greatest  of  all 
isical  geniuses.    Farther  evidence  of  this  ties 


graving  them 
serious  trouble  with  &s  eyes:  two  operations 
by  an  English  surgeon  were  followed  by  total 
blindness,  which  made  it  impossible  for  him 
to  complete  his  great  work,  *The  Art  of 
Fugue."  He  dictated  for  its  final  number  a 
choral,  'When  we  were  overwhelmed  by  Woe,* 
and  died  not  long  afterward. 

The  thematic  catalogue  of  his  works  con- 
tains 1,110  instrumental  and  1,936  vocal  num- 
bers. All  of  them  combined  probably  never 
brought  him  in  as  much  as  the  $1,175  paid  at 
a  Berlin  auction  sale  a  few  years  ago  for  three 
.of  his  MSS.  Until  1829,  when  Mendelssohn, 
after  overcoming  a  good  deal  of  opposition,  suc- 
ceeded in  producing  the  wonderful  'Saint  Mat- 
thew's Passion'  in  Berlin,  for  the  first  tim« 
since  its  composer's  death,  the  great  Leipzig 
Cantor  was  looked  on,  in  Mendelssohn's  words, 
as  *a  mere  old-fashioned  big-wig  stuffed  with 
learning."  That  work  opened  the  eyes  of  the 
musicians  to  their  colossal  stu^dity,  and  from 
that  year  to  the  present  time  Bach's  fame  has 
been  growing  in  a  steady  crescendo.  In  1851 
a  Bach  Society  was  formed  at  Leipzig  for  the 
printing  of  a  monumental  edition  oi  Bach's 
works  Tjy  Breitkopf  and  Hartel.  For  nearly 
half  a  century  (up  to  1896)  a  huge  folio  vol- 
ume was  issued  every  year,  and  after  its  com- 
pletion the  Bach  Society  began  to  make  efforts 
tor  multiplying  performances  of  these  worics, 
the  majori^  of  which  constitute  even  now  an 
unsurveyed  Klondike.  Bach  himself  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  chained  by  the  neglect 
of  his  works  during  his  lifetime.  "We  find  in 
him,*  writes  Abdy  Williams,  "Uttle  of  that  de- 
sire for  applause,  for  recognition,  which  is  usu- 
ally one  of  Ae  strongest  motives  in  an  artist 
He  was  content  to  Tabor  as  few  men  have 
labored,  in  a  remote  corner  of  Germany,  simply 
for  art  and  art  alone.*  To  cite  Bach's  own 
words:  *The  sole  object  of  all  music  should 
be  the  glory  of  God  and  pleasant  recreation.* 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  obvious  that  he  would 
have  been  gratified  if  he  had  won,  as  composer; 
some  of  the  honors  which  fell  to  him  abun- 
dantly as  player.  Of  the  esteem  in  which  he  was 
held  as  organist  and  clavidiordist,  two  anec- 
dotes give  the  best  illustration.  In  1717,  while 
on  one  of  his  concert  tours,  he  happened  to  be 
in  Dresden  at  the  same  time  as  the  famous 
French  organist  and  harpsichord  plaver  Mar- 
chand  1%e  Dresdeners  thou^t  this  was  a 
good  chance  for  an  international  contest,  and 
Bach  was  induced  to  offer  the  Frenchman  a 
challenge.  It  was  accepted  and  all  the  details 
had  been  arranged;  but  when  the  hour  arrived 
there  was  no  Marchand.  He  had  taken  "French 
leave*  that  morning  on  the  fast  coach  1  Many 
years  later,  in  1747,  Bach  accepted  a  repeatedly 
cnven  invitation  to  visit  Frederick  the  Great  at 
Potsdam.  The  King  was  delighted  to  see  him. 
Without  allowing  htm  to  take  off  his  traveling 
clothes,  he  made  htm  improvise  on  all  the  pianos 
and  organs  in  his  palace,  and  again  and  again 
he  exclaimed:      "There  is  only  one  Bach!* 

It  has  been  said  of  Bach  that  music  owes 
almost  as  much  to  him  as  a  religion  does  to  its 
founder.  This  is  true  especially  of  two  branches 
—  the  organ  and  choral  music.  Both  as  a  writer 
for  the  organ  and  a  player  be  has  had  no  egual. 


Lioogle 


>  make  if , 

s^iit*  He  refers  to  the  great  composer 
*tbe  man-  who  suddenly  surpassed  all  that  had 
been  done  before  him  while  at  the  same  time 
antidpating  all  thai  was  to  be  written  in  the 
future.'  The  organ  works  are  contained  in 
Vols.  XV.  XVII,  XXXVIII  and  XL  of  the 
Breitkopf  and  Hartel  edition.  Some  of  them 
arc  best  known  to  music  lovers  through  their 
superb  arrangements  for  pianoforte  tv  Liszt, 
Busoni  and  others.  Quite  as  striking  is  Bach's 
pre-eminence  in  choral  music.  The  vocal  works 
make  up  more  than  30  volumes;  among  them 
there  are  four  of  chamber  music  with  voice, 
nine  of  passions,  oratorios  and  masses;  and  no' 
fewer  thao  17  of  church  cantatas.  It  is  known 
that  he  wrote  five  complete  sets  of  these  can- 
tatas for  all  the  Sundays  and  holidays  in  the 
year;  probably  there  were  about  350  in  all,  but 
of  thoM  only  about  200  have  been  preserved. 
The  greatest  choral  works  in  existence  are 
Bach's  'Saint  Matthew  Passion'  and  his  Uass 
in  B  minor.  Schumann  preferred  the  'Saint. 
John  Passion'  even  to  the  Saint  Matthew. 
Three  other  passions  written  by  Bach  are  lost. 
Concerning  tnis  class  of  works  Wagner  ex- 
claimed: *What  opulence,  what  fullness  of  art, 
what  power,  clearness,  ana  withal  simple  purity, 
speak  to  us  from  these  unrivalled  master- 
worksl*  They  are  made  up  of  arias,  recita- 
tives, chorals  and  other  choruses,  beside  the 
instrumental  accompaniment  The  arias  ar« 
sometimes  embroidered  after  the  fashion  of  the 
time,  but  usually  they  are  simple,  chute  and 
delightfully  melodious.  Indeed,  Bach  was  so  full 
of  melody  that  it  overflows  into  his  recitatives, 
which  are,  at  the  same  time,  often  hishly 
dramatic  and  emotional,  foreshadowing  Wag- 
ner's. If  Bach  had  written  operas  they  would 
have  been  more  dramatic  than  Handel's;  but 
the  opera  was  (apart  from  the  Litd,  or  lyric 
art  BOng,  which  had  not  yet  been  created),  the 
one  form  of  music  whiui  Bach  avoided.  As 
for  the  choruses  in  bis  works,  they  arc  of  in- 
comparable Krandeur,  and  at  the  same  time  ol 
^eat  difficult]^.  All  the  parts  are  melodious; 
mdeed  there  is  in  these  works  little  practical 
difference  between  the  chorus  singers  and  the 
soloists.  Many  of  the  choruses  are  stately 
chorals  —  the  t^mns  introduced  into  the  Church 
by  Luther  and  perfected  by  Bach.  These  were 
sung  W  the  trained  choir,  the  harmonies  being 
too  elaborate  for  the  congregation.  In  his  own 
churches  Bach  found  the  means  of  execution 
lamentably  inadequate,  The  singers  asd  stu- 
dents could  barely  master  the  technique;  of  the 
inner  spirit  they  had  no  ccmception. 

Of  Bach's  orchestral  scores,  also,  it  ma^  be 
said  that  all  the  players  are,  in  turn,  soloists. 
His  harmony  is  *a  manifold  melody*;  it  forms 


t  playing  a  duet  with  the  solo 
works  for  orchestral  instruments  alone  com- 
prise three  overtures  and  six  concertos.  Among 
his  compositions  for  violin  there  are  three 
suites  and  three  sonatas  that  are  unique,  inas- 
much as  they  have  no  iHanoforte  accompani- 
ment but  are  complete  in  themselves,  the  poly- 


jdioDic  or  faannonic  accompcuument  bang 
played  together  with  the  melody  by  tbe  violin- 
ist; for  the  violoncello,  also,  there  are  six  son- 
atas and  suites  of  this  Idnd.  While  it  b  true 
that  in  all  of  his  works  the  organ  style  prevail* 
more  or  less,  there  is  nevertheless  a  keen  in- 
stinct (far  ahead  of  the  time  in  which  he  lived) 
for  what  is  idiomatic,  or  Peculiar  to  eatii  in- 
strument This  is  particularly  true  in  rcsard 
to  the  pianoforte  compositions.  In  th^e,  Badi 
is  more  modem  than  Haydn,  Moiart  or  even 
Beethoven.  While  writing  for  the  imperfect 
clavichords  and  harpsichords  of  his  time  ne  had 
in  his  mind  a  pro^etic  vision  of  the  modem 
grand  piano;  on  that  alone  can  justice  be  done 
to  his  superb  compositions  of  diis  class.  His 
preludes  and  fugues,  his  inventions,  suites, 
toccatas,  fantasias,  etc.,  are.  the  fountain  bead 
of  modem  music  Of  special  importance  is  the 
'Welt-tempered  Clavichord,*  a  collection  of  48 
preludes  and  fugues,  two  in  each  key,  arranged 
in  the  order  of  chromatic  ascent  Hans  von 
Billow  called  this  *the  Old  Testament  in  music*' 
It  is  indispensable  to  every  student;  but  it  is 
infinitely  more  than  a  group  of  studies.  "We 
find  these  fugues,"  wrote  Rubinstein,  'of  a  re- 
ligious, heroic,  melancholy,  grand,  serious  char- 
acter; in  one  respect  only  are  "ley  alike  —  in 
their  beauty  t  And  then  the  preludes,  whose 
charm,  variety,  perfection  and  splendor  are 
simply  incomparable  t  "That  the  same  composer 
who  wrote  tnose  organ  compositions  of  over- 
whelming grandeur  could  also  write  such  de- 
lightfully humorous  gavottes,  bourr^s,  gi^es, 
such  melancholy  sarabandes,  short  piano  pieces 
of  such  charming  simplicity,  transcends  belief. 
These  remarks  refer  to  his  mstrumental  works 
alone,  but  if  we  do  add  to  them  his  gigantic 
vocal  compositions,  we  are  led  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  the  time  will  come  when  U.jaull..ttt^ 
said  of  Bach  as  of  Homer:  'This  was  not 
written  by  one  man  but  by  several*  ■  Rubin- 
stein's reference  to  tbe  gavottes,  etc.,  calls  at- 
tention to  the  fact  that  Bach  was  not  ^bove 
writing  dance  music ;  a  great  deal  of  it,  in  fact. 
He  also  did  much  to  improve  the  technique  of 
pianoforte  playing,  especially  in  the  matter  of 
fingering  (use  of  thumbs).  -He. would  havf 
been  the  first  to  adopt  all  modem  improve- 
ments, and  in  playii^  him,  therefore,  the  pedal, 
for  instance,  should  be  used  as  freely  as  in  play- 
ing Chopin.  And  while  it  was  not  customary 
in  Bach's  day  to  write  expression  marks,  it  is 
idiotic  to  suppose  that  be  played  his  pieces  with- 
out changes  in  loudness  and  pace.  Here 
students  should  follow  the  guidance  of  Liszt 
and  Bulow.  The  more  Bach's  works  are 
studied  from  this  point  of  view,  the  more  does 
he  seem  a  modem  romanticist,  and  his  woHls 
music  of  the  future,  even  more  than  music  of 
the  past  Mendelssohn  all  his  life  furthered 
.the  cause  of  Bach  and  his  efforts  resulted  in 
the  erection  of  the  first  statue  of  the  Altmeisler, 
as  Bach  has  been  affectionately  called,  at  Leip- 
zig in  1842.  In  1884  a  fine  bronze  statue  was 
erected  at  Eisenach,  and  in  1900  a  full-sized 
bronze  statue  was  unveiled  with  imposing  cere- 
monies in  Leipzig.  In  addition  to  the  60  vol- 
umes of  Bach  published  by  Hartel  and  Haupt- 
mann,  new  volumes  have  been  published  an- 
nually since  1904  by  the  Neue  Bach  (jesell- 
schaft  appearing  as  the  <Badi  Jahrbuch.'  In 
1907    the    Bachr  birthidace    at    Eisenach   wu 


.Google 


BACH  — B  ACHE 


Mcned  as  a  Bach  UuMuffli.  Ttaere  are  now 
AkJi  societies  io  several  countiies. 

BibBoETftphy. —  Spitta's  'Bach,'  m  2  vols. 
(English  by  Bell  &  UaitUnd,  London  1899) 
is  the  most  elaborate  and  authoritative  worlc 
Of  the  ^loiter  books  the  most  serviceable  is 
that  by  Abdy  Williams,  which  also  contains  a 
classtbed  list  of  Bach's  works  and  a  bibliog' 
raphy.  Consult  also  Fariy,  'The  Evolution  of 
the  Art  of  Uusic>  and  'Johann  Sebastian 
Bach'  (New  York  1909}  ;  Apthorp.  'Musicians 
and  Music  Lovers' ;  Franz,  R.,  'Gesammelte 
Schriften  iiber  die  Wiederbdebung  Bach'scher 
iind  Handel'scher  Werke'  (Ldpsig  1910); 
Wotfmm,  Ph^  'Johann.  Sebastian  Bach'  (2 
vols.,  Lequig  1910) ;  Schweitzer,  A.,  'J.  S. 
Bach,  le  musicien-poete*  (ib.  1905),  and  VoL 
IV  of  the  'Oiford  History  of  Music' ;  'The 
Age  of  Bach  and  Handel'  ny  Fuller  Uutland. 
Htmy  T.  Fihck, 

Musical  Critic,  Evening  Post,  New  York. 

BACH,  Karl  Pbilipp  Emannel,  (German 
m&sidan:  b.  Weimar,  14  March  1714;  d.  14  Dec 
1788.      He   was   the   son   of   Johann    Sebastian 

Frederick  the  Great  in  1746^  afterward  hold- 
ing an  appointment  at  Hamburg.  He  Wrote  on 
the  theory  of  piano  playing  ana  was  a  volumi- 
nous composer  of  Passion  music,  pianoforte 
compositions  and  of  two  oratorios,  one  'Israel 
in  the  Wilderness.' 

BACH,?  WUbdm  Friedeouuui,  known  as 
the  'Halle'  B&ch,  German  composer  and  musi- 
cian: b.  Weimar,  22  Nov.  1710;  d.  Berlin,  1 
'uly  1784.  He  was  the  oldest  of  the  sons  of 
[<mann  Sebastian  Bach,  from  whom  he  received 


r  the 


i 


of  Saint  Sophia,  Dresden,  from  1733  to  1747, 
and  of  Saint  Mai^s,  Halle,  from  1747  to  1764. 
His  irregular  habits  and  addiction  to  drink  led 
to  his  dismissal,  and  he  never  afterward  ob- 
tained a  position,  but  wandered  from  city  to 
city  and  £ed  in  squalor  in  Berlin.  He  wrote 
several  works  for  piani^  containing  concertos, 
souatu,  a  suite  of  tantasiat ;  these  were 
edited  by  Riemano.  An  organ  concerto  and  . 
fngtie  were  edited  by  Stradal.  All  his  workjt/ 
show  an  extraordinary  talent  \^r 


bling  in  a  degree  the  performances  at  Bayreuth 
and  Oberammei^u.  The  festival  arose  in  con- 
nection with  the  Moravian  church  of  Bethle- 
heiiL  the  Utur^  of  which  has  a'  strong  mtisical 
tenancy.  Eo^  in  its  history  Bethldiem  had 
in  orchestra,  prot^bly  the  first  in  America,  and 
in  its  chnnjies  were  employed  flute&  horns, 
violas  and  trombones,  which  undoubtedly  ori^ 
■Dated  and  led  up  to  the  gala  performi^cc^of 
the  present  day. .  Its  resemblance  to  Oberaih- 
mergau  is  in  its  rcli^ous  character,  the  Protest- 


in  the  music  of  Bach.  In  1901  Bach's  'Christ- 
mas Oratorio'  was  performed  for  the  first  time 
in  America  in  its  entirety.  Under  the  direction 
of  J.  Frederick  Walle  oHiers  of  Bach's  greatest 
works  have  been  presented.  'The  choir  consists 
of  110  members,  with  a  separate  chorus  of  100 
bays,  and  an  orchestra  of  60  instrumentalists. 
From  1906  to  1912  annual  Bach  festivals  were 
given  at  Berkeley,  Cal.,  by  Mr.  Wolle,  but  on 


festivals  were  resumed  at  Bethlehem,  Pa. 

BACHARACH,  bia'a-ras,  permany,  a 
town  on  the  Rhine,  12  miles  south  of  Coblenz. 
liie  vicinity  produces  excellent  .wine,  which  was 
once  highly  esteemed  as  annual  tribute  by  Em- 
peror Weniel  and  the  Pope.  The  view  from 
the  ruins  of  the  castle  is  one  of  the  finest  oa 
the  Rhine.    Pop.  about  1,900. 

BACHE,  bach,  Alexander  Dallms,  Ameri- 
can scientist :  b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  19  July  1806; 
d.  17  Feb.  1867.    He  was  a  grandson  of  Ben- 

emin  Franklin,  and  was  graduated  at  the 
nited  States  Military  Academy,  at  the  head  of 
his  class,  in  1825'  became  professor  of  natural 
philosophy  and  chemistry  at  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  1828-37;  was  the  organizer  and 


meteoroiogicai  observatory;  he  bore  a  prominent 

eirt  in  developing  the  system  of  iree  educaticMi 
Philadelphia,  and  was  appointed  superintend- 
ent of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey  in  1843. 
In  the  last  ofhce  he  performed  services  of  lasl- 
mg  and  invaluable  character.  He  was  regent  of 
the  Smithsonian  Ihstitutionjn  1346-67;  an  active 
member  of  the  United  States  Sanitary  Commis- 
sion during  the  Gvil  War,  and  president  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences  in  1863,  to  which 
he  bequeathed  $42,000  for  scientific  research. 
Besides  a  long  series  of  notable  annual  reports 
of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey,  he  published 
a  report  on  "Education  in  Europe*  (1839),  and 
'Observations  at  the  Magnetic  and  Ueteorolog- 
ical  Observatory  at  the  Girard  College*  (3 
vols,  1840-47). 

BACHB,  George  M„  American  naval  offi- 
cer: b.  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  12  Nov.  , 
1840;  d.  II  Feb.  1896.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
United  Sutes  Naval  Academy,  in  1861,  and 
commanded  the  ironclad  Cincinnati  in  the  vari- 
ous engagements  on  the  Mississippi  River,  un- 
til she  was  sunk  by  the  Vicksburg  batteries,  22 
May  1863.  He  was  highly  commended  by  Ad- 
miral Porter,  General  Sherman  and  Secretary 
Welles  for  his  conduct  in  the  last  engagement 
Subsequently,  he  took  part  in  both  attacks  on 
Fort  Fisher,  and,  in  the  second  one,  IS  JaiL 
1865,  led  the  naval  assault  on  the  fort  He 
retired  with  the  rank  of  commander,  5  Aprfl 
187S. 

BACHX,  Hartmao,  American  military  en- 
gineer: b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  3  Sept  1798;  d. 
8  Oct  1872.  He  entered  the  United  States 
.Topographical  Corps;  and  for  4?  years  was 
constantly  employed  on  survey's  and  on  works  of 
hydrography  and  civil  _  engineering.  On  13 
March  lEJiSS  he  was  appointed  brigadier-genera^ 
and  7  March  1867  was  retired.  His  most  not- 
able achievements  were  the  building  of  the 
Delaware  breakwater  and  the  application  of 
iron-screw  piles  for  the  foundation  of  light- 
houses npon  sandy  shoals  and  coral  reefs. 


180B.  She  was  the  only  daue^ter  of  Beoiamin 
Franklin,  and  the  wife  of  Ricmrd  Bache.  Dur- 
ing the  Revolutionary  War  she  organized  and 


iizodsi  Google 


le 


B ACHE— BACHELOR'S  BUTTOH 


BACHX,  Wklter.  EncUiIi  pianist:  b.  Bir- 
min^iani,  19  June  184Z;  d.  London,  26  Uarcb 
188&  In  1858  he  studied  music  in  the  Leipzig 
Conserve  to  rium  under  HaupUnann,  Rictter, 
Plaidy  and  Moscheles.  In  1862  he  went  to 
Rome,  and  from  that  time  till  1865,  when  he 
returned   to    London,    studied  with   Liszt,   of 


instituted  annual  concerts,  at  which  he  put  for- 
ward Liszt's  music,  and  lived  long  enough  to 
see  the  indifference  of  the  public  toward  his 
master  change  to  open  admiration-  For  several 
years  Bache  was  professor  of  the  [nanofoTte 
at  the  Royal  Academy  of  MusttL  and  it  wai 
mainly  due  to  his  efforts  that  the  IJsit  scholar- 
ship was  established  in  that  institution. 

BACHBLDBR,  Hkfaitm  Jori^,  American 
politician:  b.  Andover,  N.  H.,  3  Sept  18S4. 
Educated  at  Franklin  Academy,  Taunton  Hill 
School,  Andover,  he  became  a  prominent 
fanner;  was  nominated  by  the  Republicam  and 
elected  governor  of  New  Hampshire  in  1902. 
H«  was  ma*t«r  National  Grange,  19(fi-tl,  and 
recdved  degreei  from  Dartmouth  and  New 
Hampshire  College*. 


Inffiieure,  1820;  d.  1879.  He  was  educated  at 
the  Ecole  Normale,^  and  after  serving  as  pro- 
fessor of  history  in  various  institutions,  in- 
cluding the  Rouen  Lyceum,  he  became  librarian 
of  Rouen.  His  publications  include  <La  guerre 
dc  cent  ans'  (1852);  <Cours  d'historie'  (3 
vols.,  186S-75')  1  'Dictionnaire  g£nirak  de  bi- 
ographie  et  dhistorie,'  with  C.  Dezobry  (12th 
ed;,  1902);  'Dictionnaire  g^irale  des  lettres, 
des  beaux-arts,  des  sciences  morales  et  poUti- 
<iues>   (7th  ed.,  1902). 

BACHELLER.  Addiaon  Irving,  American 
noveUst;  b.  Pierpont.  NTy.,  26  SepL  18S9.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  Saint  Lawrence  Univer- 
Hty  in  1882:  1882-^  was  a  member  of  the  staff 
of  the  Daily  Hotel  Reporter  of  New  York 
d^  and  in  1884  became  a  reporter  for  the 
Brooklyn  Times.  In  the  latter  year  he  estab- 
lished the  Bacheller  Syndicate  for  the  purpose 
of  supplying  literary  matter  to  perio<UcaIs  and 
for  14  years  was  a  director  of  that  syndicate. 
He  was  for  a  short  time  editor  of  The  Packet 


that  capacity  for  a  short  time  only.  His  novels, 
the  scenes  of  which  are  laid  in  northern  New 
York,  include  <The  Master  of  Silence'  (1890) ; 
<Eben  Holden>  (1900);  <D'ri  and  I'  (1901); 
<DarreI  of  the  Blessed  Isles'  (1903);  <Virpl- 
ius>  (1904);  'Silas  Strong'  (1906):  <E6en 
Holden's  Ijist  Day  a-Fishing'  <1906) ;  'The 
Hand-Made  Gentleman'  (1907);  — '  " 
Mfof 

'Charge 
iming    of     C  '      '    ' 

.,-..'    i'19M^r   <T 

m  the  aearing'   (1916). 

BACHELOR,  a  term  anciently  applied  to  a 
person   in   the   first   or   probationary   stage   of 


title  "Sir"  of  a  kn^^  bachelor  is  not  hereditary. 
It  also  denotes  a  person  who  has  taken  the 
first  d^ree  in  the  liberal  arts  and  sciences,  or 
in  divinity,  law  or  medicine,  at  a  college  or 
university;  or  a  man  of  any  age  who  has  not 
been  married,  the  most  usual  meaning  of  the 
term.  Taken  as  a  class  in  a  conununitv,  bache- 
lors have,  from  the  earliest  times,  been  the 
subjects  of  much  and  varied  legislation.  In 
nearly  every  country,  at  some  period  in  iti 
history,  penalties  have  been  imposed  upon  male 
celibates  through  the  legislative  branch  of  the 
government,  the  general  basis  tor  such  legis- 
lation being  the  principle  that  the  citizen  was 
under  moral  obli^ration  to  the  state  to  rear  up 
a  family  of  legitimate  children,  at  least  should 
he  be  capable,  morally,  physically  and  finan- 
daliy.  The  old  Jewish  command  to  "be  fruitful 
and  multiplv*  was  faithfolly  carried  out  by  the 
Hebrew!  who  regarded  marriage  as  a  duty. 

In  such  nations  as  Sparta,  where  individual 
interests  were  always  subservient  to  those  of 
the  state,  the  laws  were  more  severe,  and 
criminal  proceedings  were  instituted,  under  the 
laws  of  LycuTgus,  both  against  those  who  for 
any  unreasonable  excuse  failed  to  marry,  and 
aeainst  those  who  through  marri^e  in  late 
lite  made  probable  children  of  unh^thy  con- 
stitution. At  Athens,  though  formerly  regarded 
as  a  crime  by  the  laws  of  Solon,  celibacv  was 
not  severely  punished,  and  later,  though  the 
practice  was  oiscouraeed,  interference  with  the 
mclinations  of  individuals  in  this  respect  grad- 
ually became  of  little  practical  value,  and  the 
laws  finally  fell  into  disuse. 

In  Rome,  the  imposition  of  heavy  penalties 
upon  male  celibates  was  instituted  at  a  very 
early  period,  and  later  even  women  were  suth- 
j  ected  to  the  same  rigid  laws.    According  to  the 


age,_  and  an  unmarried   person  could 

not  come  into  possession  of  a  legacy  un> 
less  he  be  married  within  a  hundred  days 
after  the  testator's  death.  The  provisions 
of  the  law  allowed  widows  a  year  in  which 
to  comply,  and  divorced  women  sir  months 
from  the  date  of  divorce,  but  these  pe- 
riods were  later  changed  and  extended  to  two 
years^  a  year  and  six  months,  respectively. 
This  law  aid  not  apply,  however,  to  men  above 
60  years  of  age,  and  women  above  50  years.  In 
cases  of  childleis  persons  (males  from  25  to  60 
years  of  agt  and  females  trom  20  to  50  yean) 
who  should  become  beneficiaries  under  a  legacy, 
one-half  of  the  value  of  such  l^acy  was  for- 
fdted.  In  later  years,  espedally  in  England, 
France  and  the  United  States,  taxes  upon 
bachelors  have  been  proposed  more  for  pur- 

EDses  of  state  revenue  than  to  compel  marna^ 
ut  thoui^  such  legislation  has  bwn  pushed  in 
some  instances  with  great  vigor,  the  success  of 
not  been  m*arked. 


BACHELOR,  a  local  name  in  the  Missis- 
sii»i  Valley  for  the  small  bass,  more  usually 
called  crappie  (q.v.). 

BACHELOR'S  BUTTON,  the  double  yel- 
low buttercup  (^Ronvnculiu  acrit).  Similar 
forms,  as  R.  aconilifoUui,  are  often  called 
white  bachelor's  buttons.  The  name  is  also 
given  to  Cenlmtrea  eyanus  (see  Cmnflowee) 
and  to  Gompkrena  globosa. 


Google 


BACHES— BACKGAMMON 


It 


BACKER,  baH'er,  Wilhelxa,  Jewish  theo- 
logian and  Orientalist:  b.  Lipto-Szent-Uiklos, 
Hungary,  1850;  d.  1913.  He  was  educated  in 
the  universities  of  Budapest  and  Breslau  and 
ai  the  Jewish  Theolc^cal  Seminary  of  Breslau. 
He  was  appointed  professor  in  1877  and  in 
1912  direcMr  of  the  rabbinical  public  schools 
of  Budapest  He  published  'Nizamis  Leben 
und  Werke>  (1872);  »Die  ;^da  der  Baby- 
lonitchen  Amor^er'  (1878) ;  'Die  Agfida  der 
Sannaiten'  (2  vols.,  1889-90)  ;  'Die  Agada  der 
Palastineasiscben  Aiooraer*  (3  vob^  1892-99)  ; 
'Die  Anfange  der  Hebraischen  Crammatik' 
(1895) ;  £in  Herbaisches  Worterbuch  aus  den 
Vierzehnten  Jahrbucdert'  (1900);  'Die  Affada 
der  Tannaiten  und  Amoraer;  BibektelleaT^s- 
ler*  (1902) ;  'Aus  dem  Worterbuche  Tanchum 
Jeniscbalemis'    (1903). 

BACHIAN,  or  BATJAN,  bach-yan',  one 
of  the  Molucca  Islands,  immediately  south  of 
the  equator,  and  southwest  of  Gilolo;  area,  914 
square  miles.  It  is  ruled  Iw  a  committee  of 
native  chiefs  under  the  Dutoi,  and  has  a  pop- 
ulation of  about  13,000. 

BACHMAN,  bi'mqn,  John,  American  cler- 
gyman and  naturalist :  b.  Dutchess  County, 
N.  Y.,  4  Feb.  1790;  d.  25  Feb.  1874.  He  became 
pastor  of  a  Lutheran  church  in  Charleston,  S. 
C,  and  published,  among  other  works,  'Charac- 
teristics of  .Genera  and  Species  as  Applicable  to 
the  Doctrine  of  the  Unity  of  the  Human  Race' 
(1854).  He  is  best  known  by  reason  of  his 
association  with  Audubon  in  the  making  of  the 
'Quadrupeds  of  North  America,*  he  writing  tbe 

Snncipal  part  of  the  text,  whidi  Audubon  and 
is  sons  illustrated. 

BACHMUT,  or  BAKHMUT,  b^ch-moof, 
Russia,  a  town  of  the  government  of  Ekater- 
inoslav,  with  a  trade  in  cattle  and  tallow.  It 
has  coal  mines  and  salt  wells,  and  soda  is  ex- 
tensively manufactured.    Pop.  19,500. 

BACHTOLD,  Jakob,  German  literary 
historian:  b.  Schleitheim,  Switzerland,  1848;  d. 
Zurich  1897.  He  was  educated  at  Heidelbei^ 
and  later  studied  at  Munich,  Tiibin^n,  Paris 
and  London,  and  in  1872  became  an  instructor 
in  the  ScJothum  GymnaKiian.  He  was  ap- 
fHiinted  professor  of  the  German  langu^e  and 
literature  at  Zurich  in  18^.  His  most  import- 
ant  works  are  'Cjeschichte  der  deulsehen  Lit- 
teraiur  in  der  Schweiz*  (1887-92);  'Deutsche 
Hand  sdirif  ten  aus  dem  Britischen  Mu- 
seum' (1873);  'Gottfried  Kellers  Leben'  (3 
vols,,  1894-97).  He  also  edited  Goethe's  'G6ti 
von  Berlichingen'  (1882)  'Iphigema*  (1883); 
'Dichtung  und  Wahrhdt'  (1890J)1>.  With 
Vetter  he  edited  the  'Bibliothdc  alterer  Schrift- 
werke  der  deutschen  Schweiz  und  ihres  Greni- 
gebietes.'  Vetter  published  'Kleine  Schriften 
von  Jakob  Bachtold*   (1899). 

BACILLUS.    See  Bacteria. 

BACK,  SiK  George,  English  explorer:  b. 
Stockport,  6  Nov.  1796;  d.  London,  23  June 
1878.  He  entered  the  British  navy  in  1808,  and 
in  1817  was  in  the  expedition  to  Spitzbergen. 
He  accompanied  Sir  John  FrankUn  to  the  Arctic 
regions  in  1819  and  again  in  1825,  and  in 
1833  led  a  party  in  search  of  Sir  John  Ross, 
then  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  in  1836,  tn  com- 
mand of  the  Terror,  made  his  last  trip  to  the 
north.  The  (geographical  Society  awarded  him 
a  gold  medal   in    1837,   and  in    1839  he  waa 

*oi.3-i 


knighted.  He  became  admiral  in  1867.  Among 
his  works  are  <A  Narrative  of  the  Arctic  Land 
Expedition'  (1836);  a  "Narrative  of  the  Expe- 
dition in  Her  Majes^'s   Ship  Terror'    (1838). 

BACK  BAY,  a  fashionable  residential  dis- 
trict in  Boston,  made  by  filling  in  an  enlarg«- 
ment  of  the  Charles  River,  formerly  called  Sae 
Back  Bay,    See  Bobton. 

BACK  LAND,  name  applied  to  the  region 
around  the  Arctic  Circle,  in  British  North 
America.  It  was  explored  by  Captain  Back 
In  1831. 

BACK-STAFF,  an  instnmient  invented  by 
Captain  Davies,  about  A.a  159C^  for  taking  the 
altitude  of  the  sun  ai  sea.  It  consisted  of  two 
concentric  arcs  and  three  vanes.  The  arc  of 
the  longer  radius  was  30",  and  that  of  the 
shorter  one  60° ;  thus  both  together  constituted 
90°.  It  is  now  obsolete,  hting  superseded  by 
the  sextant. 

BACKBITE,  Sa  Benjamin,  an  evil-minded, 
sharp-tongued  character  in  Sheridan's  comedy, 
'School  for  Scandal.' 

BACKER,  Jakob,  Dutch  punter:  b.  Haer- 
lingen  1608;  d.  1651.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Lam- 
bert lakobsz  at  Leuwarden  and  later  of  Rem- 
branat  at  Amsterdam.  His  work  shows,  the 
influence  of  the  latter.     His  greatest  masler- 

Seces  are   'Lady  Regents  of  the  Amsterdam 
rphan  Asylum,'  still  in  place,  and  the  "Guild 
of  Archers'  in  the  Amsterdam  Town  Hall. 

BACKGAMMON  is  a  game  in  which  two 
opposing  players  move  symbolic  men  into  or 
out  of  each  other's  territory  on  a  board,  ac- 
cording as  ihcy  are  respectively^  entitled  to  do 
so  by  the  throw  of  dice.  Without  question 
a.  game  of  that  nature  was  played  among  the 
Aztecs  of  Mexico  centuries  before  the  landing 
of  Cortez,  and  it  is  probable  that  it  was  broiight 
from  Asia  to  the  Paci^c  coast  by  the  original 
immigrants.  Francisco  Lopez  de  Gomara  de- 
scribed it  in  1552,  and  Joan  de  Torquemada  in 
1616  gave  additional  details  of  the  game,  meit- 
tioning  that  the  little  stones  of  each  contestant 
varied  in  color.  The  Iroquois  Indians  had  a 
dice  game  of  a  somewhat  similar  sort.  Modem 
backgammon  is  played  bv  two  players  who 
have  between  them  a  board,  each  side  of  which 
has  alternate  black  and  white  angular  marks 
projecting  like  rays  from  the  rim.  Each  player 
has  15  flat  tablets  (similar  to  those  with  which 
drafts  is  played)  called  men.  One  player's 
men  are  blade,  the  others  are  white.  Each 
player  has  a  dice  box  for  his  own  use  but  the 
two  dice  are  used  abemately  by  them  both. 
Each  die  has  a  number  on  each  face  numbered 
from  one  spot  to  six.  Each  player  throws  the 
dice  in  ttim  on  to  the  centre  of  the  board :  and 
moves  two  men,  one  man  according  to  the  dis- 
tance indicated  by  one  of  the  dice  and  the  other 
according  to  the  number  on  the  second  dice. 
So  the  game  proceeds  in  the  usual  manner,  the 
players  throwing  and  moving  their  men  alter- 
nately into  and  out  of  each  other's  territoryj 
until  one  player  has  carried  all  the  men  from 
the  opposite  home  (or  inner  table)  into  the 
outer  table:  and  thence  into  his  own  outer 
table  and  finally  into  his  own  home  or  inner 
table.  The  simpleet  textbook  on  the  subject 
is  that  of  A.  Howard  Cady.  Consult  also 
Pardon  and  Anderson.  "Backgammon  and 
Draughts'    (New   York   1889). 


t,zcd=y  Google 


18 


BACKHAU8  —  BACON 


■  BACKHAUB,  Wnhelm,  ftmous  Geraian 
pianist:  b.  LeipEig,  26  March  1884.  When 
seven  y«ars  of  aee,  he  received  regular  piano 
instruction  from  A.  Reclcendorf.  He  also  spent 
four  years  (1894-98)  at  the  Leipzig  Conserva- 
tory, durit%  which  period  he  continued  his 
studies  with,  Reckendorf.  He  also  studied  for 
a  time  at  Frankfurt  under  Eugen  d' Albert,  and 
began  his  concert  career  in  190C^  when  his 
success  was  immediate  and  complete.  He  won 
immediate  recognition  in  England  and  in  1905 
was  appointed  professor  of  pumo  at  the  Royal 
College  of  Music,  Manchester.  He  won  .the 
Rubinstein  Prize  in  the  same  year  and  there- 
after gave  all  his  time  to  concert  tours.  He 
visited  America  in  1912  and  received  generous 
recognition.  He  is  ranked  among  tne  most 
artistic  of   living  pianists. 

BACKHUYSBN,  baklioi-zen,  or  BAK- 
HUYSBN,  Lodolf,  celebrated  painter  of  the 
Dutch  school  particularly  in  sea  pieces:  b. 
Emden,  18  Dec.  1631;  d.  1709.  His  most 
famous  picture  is  a  sea  piece  which  the  burgo- 
masters of  Amsterdam  commissioned  him  to 
paint  as  a  present  to  Louis  XVI,  and  which 
u  still  at  Paris. 


1872,  though  most  of  the  papers  had  already 
appeared  in  Scribne/s  Monthly.  The  title 
•studies'  may  be  misleading,  since  the  pleasant, 
informal  personal  essays  touch  but  lightly  on 
any  question  of  literature,  art  or  politics,  and 
do  not  go  deeply  into  the  philosophy  of  life. 
They  celebrate,  as  a  sort  of  central  theme  the 
joys  of  the  open  fire,  and  they  call  up  for  brief 
comment  many  of  the  things  that  might  be  dis- 
cussed  by  an  intelligent  lamily  group  about 
the  hearth  —  contemporary  fashions  in  church 
and  in  domestic  architecture,  the  ways  and 
the  whims  of  reformers,  the  influence  of  cos- 
tume on  acting,  etc.  Some,  though  not  usually 
the  best,  parts  are  in  the  form  of  conversa- 
tions in  which  The  Mistress,  The  Fire-Tender. 
Our  Next  Door  Neighbor,  The  Young  Lady 
who  is  Staying  with  Us,  and  others  take  part; 
but  usually  the  author  speaks  in  his  character 
as  an  alert  and  sli^tly  whimsical  New  Eog- 
lander.  To  readers  of  American  essays  the 
book  naturally  calls  to  mind  the  'Breakfast- 
Table'  series  by  Dr.  Holmes,  and  less  forcibly 
the  lighter  writings  of  Donald  G.  Mitchell. 
Notwithstanding  a  strong  protest  in  one  of  the 
studies  against  the  comparative  method  in  criti- 
cism, it  may  be  said  that  these  papers,  though 
sometimes  almost  over-clever,  are  less  brilliant 
and  less  urbane  than  the  "Autocrat  of  the 
Breakfast-Table,>  and  are  freer  from  excess 
of  sentiment  than  the  'Reveries  of  a  Bache- 
lor.' 

William  B.  Caikks. 
BACKLUMD.  Tohan  Oakar,  Swedish  as- 
tronomer: b.  Lengfiem  1846.  In  187S  he  was 
appointed  lecturer  at  the  University  of  Upsala, 
and  became  assistant  at  the  Stockholm  Obser- 
vatory 1W6,  and  in  the  same  year  observator 
at  the  Dorpat  Observatory.  Later  he  became 
adjunct- astronomer  at  the  Pulkowa  Observa- 
tofy,  Russia,  and  in  1895  was  appointed  direc- 
tor there.  His  investigations  have  been  chiefly 
concerned  with  the  prt^ressive  decrease  in  the 
period  of  Encke's  comet,  and  in  this  connec- 
tion he  has  formulated  his  well-known  'theory 


of  disturbances.*  He  has  published  'Observa- 
tions de  Pulkowa*  (1888)  j  and  'The  Develop- 
ment of  Celestial  Mechanics  during  the  Nine- 
teenth Century*  (1906). 

BACKUS,  Azil,  first  president  of  Hamilton 
College,  Clinton^ N.  Y. :  b.  Norwich,  Conn.,  13 
Oct.  1765;  d.  9  Dec.  1817.  After  graduatine  at 
Yale  in  1787,  he  served  the  church  at  Bethle- 
hem, Corm.,  until  he  became  president  of  Ham- 
ilton College  in  1812. 

BACKUS,  Isaac,  Baptist  clergnnan  and 
author:  b.  Norwich,  Onn.,  9  Jan.  1724;  d.  20 
Nov.  1806.  He  was  ordained  in  1748  and  be- 
came pastor  of  a  Congregational  church  in 
MtddleboTOu^  Mass.  Some  of  his  congr^- 
tion  sympathmng  with  the  Baptists  he  united 
with  them  and  formed  a  Baptist  church  in 
1756.  Throughout  fais  Ufe  he  was  a  persistent 
advocate  of  me  widest  religious  freedom,  hold- 
ing open  communian  for  many  years.  For  34 
Gars  he  was  a  trustee  of  the  present  Brown 
niversity,  then  Rhode  Island  College.  As  a 
delegate  to  the  convention  that  adopted  the 
Federal  Constitution,  he  voted  in  its  favor.  Of 
his  numerous  writings  the  most  important  is 
'A  History  of  New  England  with  Special  Ref- 
erence to  the  Baptists'  (3  vols.,  1777-96;  new 
ed.  by  D.  Weston,  2  vols.,  1871),  a  partisan  but 
valuable  work.  His  'History  of  Middleborough* 
is  in  Massachusetts  Historical  Society  Collec- 
tions (Vol.  Ill,  1st  Series.  1794;  repr.  1810). 

BACKUS,  Trtunan  Jay,  American  educa- 
tor: b.  Uilan^  N.  v.,  11  Feb.  1842;  was  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Rochester  in  1864; 
was  professor  of  English  literature  at  Vas- 
sar  College,  I867'fi3 ;  then  became  president  of 
the  Packer  Collegiate  Institute  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.  After  going  to  Brooklyii,  he  served  on 
several  State  commissions.  His  publications  in- 
clude 'Great  English  Writers,'  'Outlines  of 
English  Literature,'  and  a  revised  edition  of 
Shaw's   'History  of  English  literature.' 

BACLBR  D'ALBE,  b^ldir',  dtlb',  LouU 
Albert  Gbiilain,  Babok,  French  artist,  soldier 
and  military  cartographer:  b.  1762;  d.  1824.  He 
served  in  all  of  Napoleon's  campaigns  and  at- 
tained the  rank  of  brij^dier-general.  Two  cel- 
ebrated painting}  by  him,  'The  Battle  of  Ar- 
eola,' and  'The  Battle  of  Rivoli,'  are  in  the 
Sllery  of  Versailles.  He  published  'C^rte  du 
iatre  de  la  guerre  en  Itahe'  (54  parts.  1802) ; 
and  'Souvenirs  pittoresques  contenant  la  cam- 
pagne  d'Espagne'  (1824).  and  among  other 
works  a  series  of  fine  lithographic  views. 

BACON,  AlUon  Pellowi,  American  social 
reformer:  b.  Evansville,  Ind.,  1865;  sister  of 
Annie  Fellows  Johnston  (q.v.).  She  married 
Hilary  E.  Bacon,  of  Evansville,  in  1888.  She 
early  became  noted  as  an  omnizer  and  leader 
of  men's  circles  of  "Friendly  Visitors";  was 
leader  of  the  Flower  Mission  for  five  years, 
and  organizer  of  the  Anti -Tuberculosis  League, 
Monday  Night  Club,  Working  Girls'  Associa- 
tion; ojrector  of  the  National  Housing  Asso- 
ciation; and  closely  connected  with  the  District 
Nurse  Circle,  Civic  Improvement  Society,  State 
Federation  of  Women's  Oubs  and  other  similar 
orRani rations.  She  became  noted  as  the  author 
and  leading  advocate  of  the  State  tenement 
law  of  1909,  and  is  known  as  a  lecturer  and 
writer  on  tenement  reforms.  Author  of  'Songs 
Ysame'  (with  her  sister,  Anme  Fellows  Johns- 


.Ciooglc 


ton,  181V) ;  *Wh3t  Bad  HouGinB:  M«ans  to  the 
Cnnimiiuty';  <Tbc  Awakening  of  ttte  SUte* 
(IWI). 

BACON,  Alice  Mabel,  American  educator: 
b.  New  Haven.  Conn.,  26  Feb.  1858;  was 
educated  privately  and  took  the  Harvard  ex- 
aminations in  1^1 ;  taught  at  the  Hampton 
Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute  in  188^-88, 
and  in  Toldo,  Japan,  in  1883-89;  returned  to  the 
Hampton  Institute  in  1889,  and  founded  the 
Dixie  Hospital  for  training  colored  nurses  in 
1890.  She  published  'Japanese  Girls  and 
Women,'  'Japanese  Interior,'  <In  the  Land 
of  the  Gods>   (1905),  etc 

BACON,  Augustus  Octavln^  American 
legislator:  b.  Bryan  County,  Ga.,  20  Oct  1839; 
d.  Washington,  D.  C;,  U  Feb.  1914.  He  was 
graduated  from  the  University  of  Georgia  in 
1S59,  from  the  law  department  of  the  University 
in  1860;  entered  the  army  of  the  Confederate 
States  at  the  banning  of  the  Civil  War,  and 
was  adjutant  of  the  9th  Georgia  reeiment  in 
the  Arqiy  of  Northern  Virginia,  and  later  pro- 
moted captain  and  assigned  to  general  staff 
duty;  and  in  1866  b^an  the  practice  of  law 
at  Macon,  Ga.  In  1880  he  was  president  of 
the  State  Democratic  convention,  and  in  1884 
a  delegate  from  the  State  at  large  to  the  na- 
tional Democratic  convention.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Georgia  house  of  representatives  in 
1871-82,    1892   and  1893.  and  for  the  greater 

Cirt  of  the  time  its  speaker.  Elected  to  the 
nited  SUtes  Senate  in  November  1894,  he 
was  re-elected  in  1900,  1907  and  1913  — the 
last  time  hy  direct  popular  vote.  Upon  the 
death  of  Vice-President  Sherman  he  was,  al- 
ternately with  Senator  Gallinger,  president  pro 
tempore  of  the  Senate,  in  which  capacity  he 
presided  at  the  impeachment  proceedings  against 
judge  Archbold  in  1912.  In  1913  be  was  chair- 
man of  the  Senate  committee  on  foreign  re- 
lations, where  bis  conservative  attitude  toward 
Mexico  was  effective  in  delaying  radical  action 
by  Congress.  He  was  a  trustee  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Georgia  and  a  regent  of  the  Smithson- 
ian Institution. 

BACON,  Benjamin  Wianer,  American 
theologian:  b.  UtcMeld,  Conn.,  15  Jan.  1860; 
studied  in  Germanv  and  Switzerland ;  and 
was  graduated  at  Yale  Colle^  in  1881;  held 
several  important  Congregational  pastorates ; 
and  in  1696  became  professor  of  New  Testa- 
ment criticism  and  exegesis  in  Yale  Universi&. 
Author  of  "Genesis  of  Genesis'  (1891)  ;  'Triple 
Tradition  of  the  Exodus'  (1894);  'Introduc- 
tion to  the  New  Testament'  (1900)  ;  'The  Ser- 
mon on  the  Mount'  (1902);  'The  Story  of 
Saint  Paul'  (1904) ;  'Beginning  of  Gospel 
Story'  (1909);  'Founding  of  the  Cburdi' 
(19(»>;  'Commentary  on  Galatians'  (1909): 
'The  Fourth  Gospel  m  Research  and  Debate' 
(1909)  ;  'Jesus  the  Son  of  GoA'  (1911)  ;  'Mak- 
ing of  the  New  Testament'  (1912);  'Theodore 
T.  Munger,  New  England  Minister'  (1913); 
'Christianity  Old  and  New'   (1913). 

BACON,  Delia  Salter,  American  author: 
b.  Tallmadge,  Ohio,  2  Feb.  1811 ;  d.  2  ScpL  1859. 
She  wa«  prominent  in  her  day  as  a  teacher,  and 
wrote  several  stories,  but  is  now  remembered 
as  an  insistent  advocate  of  the  theory  that  the 
plays  of  Shakespeare  were  written  by  hername- 
salce,  Lord  Bacon.  She  did  not  originate  die 
idea,  but  was  the  first  to  give  it  any  currency,  in 


her  'Pliilosopby  of  the  Plays  of  Shakespeare 
Unfolded'  (1857).  The  bo<^  had  the  honor  of 
a  preface  from  the  pen  of  Nathaniel  Hawthorne, 
and  the  theory  was  accepted  bv  a  few  persons 
in  both  England  and  the  United  States.  I.  Don- 
nelly (q-v.)  and  others  wasted  not  a  little  in- 
gemous  reasonit^  in  its  advocacy. 

BACON,Bdwin  Uunroe,  American  author: 
b.  Providence,  li.  I-  20  Oct.  1844.  He  re- 
ceived an  academical  education;  was  on  the 
staff  of  several  Boston  papers ;  and  wrote 
'King's  Handbook  of  Boston';  'Boston  Illus- 
trated'; 'Historic  Pilgrimages  in  New  Eng- 
land' ;  'Literary  Pilgrimages  in  New  England' : 
'Boston  of  To-day';  'Bacon's  Dictionary  of 
Boston' ;  'Walks  and  Rides  to  the  Country 
Round  About  Boston';  'Walks  on  the  Nortn 
Shore';  'Massachusetts  Bay'  (1903);  'Yester- 
days in  Journalism' ;  'Direct  Election  and  Law 
Making  by  Popular  Vote,'  etc 

BACON,  Prands,  English  sutesman,  ahi- 
losopher  and  essayist:  b.  London,  22  Tan.  l561; 

Highgate,  London,  9  April  1626.    Bacon  was 

ng  li 

1  the  „ 

count  Saint  Alban.  He  was  the  youngest  at 
eight  children  of  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  the  Lord 
Keeper,  six  of  whom  were  by  a  former  mar- 
riage.  His  mother  was  Ann^  daughter  of  Sir 
Anthony  Cooke,  and  her  sister  married  Sir 
William  Cedl  (Lord  Burghley).  The  family 
thus  stood  in  a  position  of  exceptional  influence 
at  the  court  of  Elizabeth,  but  Bacon  profited 
little  by  the  fact  in  bis  official  career.  He 
entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  1573  and 
was  admitted  to  Grays  Inn  in  1575.  In  1576 
he  went  to  France  as  a  member  of  the  embas^ 
of  Sir  Atnias  Paulet,  and  remained  there  unt» 
the  death  of  his  father  in  1579.  I<  then  became 
necessary  for  him  to  return  to  England  and 
take  up  his  le^l  studies  with  a  view  to  pro- 
fessional practice.  In  1582  he  was  admitted 
to  the  bar.  Already  before  this  time  he  had 
entertained  hopes  of  a  political  career  and  had 
made  unsuccessful  appeals  to  Lord  Burriiley 
for  support;  and  in  1584,  being  elected  to  Par- 
liament from  Melcombe  Regis,  he  began  a  long 
and  conspicuous  service  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. He  produced  at  once  a  political  docu- 
ment, entitled  'A  Letter  of  Advice  to  Queen 
Elizabeth,'  in  which  the  religious  situation,  and 
particularly  the  Catholic  question,  was  discussed 
with  wisdom  and  moderation.  In  1589  he  wrote 
a  second  paper^  'An  Advertisement  Concerning 
the  Controversies  of  the  Church  of  England,' 
reiterating  his  policy  of  moderation  with  more 
especial  reference  to  Puritanism.  Bacon's  nat- 
ural instinct,  in  both  religious  and  political 
controversies,  was  conciliatory,  and  he  exerted 
himself  in  favor  of  moderate  measures  through- 
out Elizabeth's  reign  and  after  the  accession  of 
James.  He  manifested  also,  at  the  beginning  of 
his  career,  some  power  of  acting  with  disinter- 
ested independence, —  a  capacity  which  was  less 
evidently  displayed  in  his  later  life.  In  1593 
he  led  (he  opposition  of  the  Commons  to  the 
proposal  of  the  Lords  for  S  joint  settlement  of 
a  question  involving  subsidies  and  thus  falling 
within  the  prerogatives  of  the  lower  House. 
In  his  prolonged  resistance  to  (he  subsidy  legis- 
lation he  earned  the  tfisfavor  of  both  Burghley 
and  the  Crown.    His  oppoMtion,  which  was  ap- 


gle 


fiO 


parently  consdentious,  may  Iiave  been  the  cause 
of  his  failure  to  obtain  the  vacant  attomc^- 
geneialship  in  1594  and  the  solid  to  r-generalsbip 
in  1595,  though  in  the  former  instance  his  claun 
was  urged  1^  Eiseac  and  in  the  latter  by  both 
Essex  and  Burehley.  The  attomey-«eaeralabip 
was  given  to  Sir  Edward  Coke,  who  was  re- 
peatedly a  rival  and  enemy  of  Bacon's  in  later 

Bacon's  association  with  Essex,  which  con- 
Stituted  one  of  the  most  important  of  his  per- 
sonal relations,  began  in  1591.  He  aitadied 
himself  to  the  rising  young  nobleman  in  the 
hope  of  obtaining  political  advancement.  But 
it  is  not  necessary  to  deny  him  all  sentiment  of 
personal  attachment  or  all  real  belief  in  the 
availability  of  Essex  for  the  public  service.  He 
received  from  Essex  earnest  patronage,  as  has 
been  already  shown,  and  when  recommendations 
failed,  Essex  gave  his  follower  a  valuable  estate 
by  way  of  consolation.  In  1597  Essex  tried  to 
arrange  a  marri^e  between  Bacon  and  Lady 
Hatton,  but  Coke  again  proved  a  successful 
rival.  Bacon,  on  his  side,  undertook  to  advise 
Essex  and  to  manage  his  career  ; 


of  Tyrone's  Irish  rebellion, —  an  undertaking 
which  led  to  the  dismissal  of  Essex  from  office 
in  disgrace.  Bacon's  conduct  in  the  investiga- 
tion is  hard  to  trace,  but  he  may  perhaps  be 
granted  to  have  acted  in  the  interests  of  Essex, 
though  he  was  formally  one  of  his  prosecutors. 
Later,  however,  in  1601,  when  Essex  rebelled 
openly  ^inst  the  throne.  Bacon  helped  to 
secure  his  conviction,  and  after  his  execution 
prepared  the  of&cial  aeclaration  of  his  treasons. 
For   this    active,    and    apparently    unnecessary, 

Ertidpation  in  the  prosecution  of  his  friend 
con  has  probably  received  more  blame  than 
for  any  other  act  of  his  life.  It  may  be  urged 
in  extenuation  that  Essex  was  actually  a  dan- 
gerous person  to  the  state,  and  that  Bacon 
steadily  warned  him  that  he  would  not  prefer 
the  claims  of  friendship  to  the  public  good.  It 
is  true,  too,  that  Bacon's  position  was  olfficult  as 
between  such  a  reckless  friend  and  the  jealous 
and  imperious  queen  whose  favor  he  desired 
both  for  his  friend's  interest  and  hit  own.  Yet 
in  the  last  analysis  there  is  little  defense  to  be 
made  for  Bacon's  willingness  to  profit  by  the 
ruin  of  Essex. 

After  the  accession  of  James  I  Bacon  con- 
tinued bis  active  service  m  Parliament.  He 
published  papers  on  the  religious  situation  and 
on  the  imion  of  the  English  and  Scottish 
crowns,  and  he  served  on  a  commission  to  ar- 
range the  terms  of  the  union.  In  1603  he  was 
knighted,  and  in  160*  given  a  pension  of  itO. 
In  1605  he  offered  to  King  James  the  very 
important  treatise  or  the  'Advancement  of 
Learning,'  which  will  be  more  particularly  dis- 
cussed Mow  among  Bacon's  writings.  In  1606 
he   married   Alice    Bamham,   a   London   alder- 

dowiy.     He 

of  his  domestic  life  except  that  it  ended 
pleasantly.  In  his  last  will  he  revoked  *'iar 
lUst  and  grave  causes*  such  provisions  as  he 
had  made  earlier  for  his  wife's  benefit  In 
June  1607,  Bacon's  long  deferred  advancement 
came  and  he  was  made  Solicitor-General.  At 
this  period  the  unfortunate  estrangement  be- 
tween the  King  and  the  Commons  vat  steadily 


progressing,  and  Bacon,  who  clearly  saw  the 
danger  that  attended  upon  this  breach  of 
sympathy,  took  an  earnest  part  in  the  struggle. 
Qliite  apart  from  his  personal  aims,  he  seems 
to  have  been  genuinely  distrustful  of  the  gOv- 
enmiental  capacity  of  the  Commons  and  con- 
sequently to  have  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
monarchy,  becoming,  as  he  described  himself, 
a  "peremptoiy  royalist,'  His  policy  was 
doomed  to  failure;  but  it  is  only  just  to  recog- 
nize that  it  had  elements  of  moderation  and 
statesmanship,  contemplating  to  be  sure  the 
royal  prerogative,  yet  aiming  at  religious  tolera- 
tion, the  amelioration  of  the  lot  of  the  humbler 
classes,  and  a  friendly  relation  with  Parhament. 
After  the  death  of  Salisbury  in  1612  he  under- 
took to  manage  the  King's  interests^  and  in  the 
Parliament  of  1614  he  continued  his  efforts  to 
reconcile  the  Crown  and  the  people  by  the  policy 
to  which  in  'Commentary'  he  gives  the  name 
"e  Gemino.*  But  his  attempt  was  unsuccessful- 
the  Parliament  was  dissolved,  and  the  King  ana 
the  people  took  different  courses.  From  this 
time  forth  Bacon  seems  on  the  whole  to  have 
relinquished  his  higher  political  aims  and  to 
have  given  himself  over  to  the  struggle  for  per- 
sonal advancement.  In  politics,  as  in  friend- 
ship, he  was  incapable  of  serious  self-sacrifice; 
or  at  least  he  always  persuaded  himself  that 
he  could  best  serve  the  public  good  by  having 
due  regard  to  his  own  interests. 

In  1613  he  had  been  promoted  to  the  at- 
torney-generalship. In  1615  he  prosecuted  Baron 
St,  John  for  denoundng  benevolences,  and  in 
the  same  year  he  consented  to  the  torture  of 
Edmund  Peacham,  who  was  charged  with  hav- 
ing written  a  treasonable  sermon.  He  came  in 
the  latter  case  into  conflict  with  his  old  enemy. 
Coke,  who  denied  Peacham's  guilt,  and  who 
also  objected  to  the  separate  consultation  of 
the  judges  !w  the  Attorn ey-Generai.  In  1617 
Bacon  helped  to  secure  Coke's  removal  from 
the  Kin^s  Bench  for  insuffident  subserviency 
to  the  Crown.  Coke's  personal  independence 
throughout  the  controversy  has  been  often 
praised,  and  stands  in  favorable  contrast  with 


volvcd  a  real  issue  between  the  le^al  and  the 
political  powers,  and  that  Bacon,  in  resistinc 
Coke's  eltort  to  make  the  court  an  arbiter  ol 
the  Constitution,  was  iif^ting  for  the  principle 
which  actually  prevailed,  though  under  changed 
conditions,  in  English  government. 

Bacon  took  part  in  I6I6  in  the  prosecution 
of  the  Earl  of  Somerset  lot  the  murder  of  Sir 
Thomas  Overbury,  and  after  Somerset's  fall  he 
attached  himself  with  ardor  to  George  VillieTS, 
the  King^s  new  favorite,  in  whom  he  seemed, 
alon^  with  many  others,  to  be  for  the  time 
genuinely  decdved.  Through  Villiers  (after- 
ward Earl  and  Duke  of  Buckingham)  Bacon 
recrived  a  succession  of  royal  favors.  In  1616 
he  was  made  Privy  Councillor,  in  1617  Lord 
Keeper  and  in  16IS  Lord  Chancellor.  In  July 
1618  he  was  elevated  to  the  peerage  as  Baron 
Venilam,  and  in  1621  he  was  made  Viscount 
St.  Alban.  But  his  adherence  to  Bucking- 
ham, yibo  was  growing  steadily  unpopular,  led 
at  last  to  disaster.  In  1621  the  CcHnmons,  led 
by  Coke,  would  have  called  Bacon  to  account 
for  defending  Buckingham's  increase  of 
monopoly  patents,  if  the  King  had  not  inter- 
fered.    Therettpon  diey  tent  to  the  L.ord5  a 


vCiOogIc 


FRANCIS  BACOn 


tizcdbyGoOl^Ie 


DijilizcdbyGoOl^le 


Eontud  accttsation  that  Bacon  had  takni  brib« 
from  suitors  in  his  court.  Bacon  at  fint  treated 
tlie  charges  with  imconcem.  Then,  when  he 
found  that  the  Lords  meant  to  investigate 
them  saiousl)',  he  cottapsed  and  offered  no 
defense.  He  was  fined  £40,000,  imprisoned 
and  banished  from  Parhament  and  the  court. 
In  June  Iffil,  he  was  released  from  the  Tower, 
and  retired  to  his  family  residence  at  Gorham- 
bury;  and  in  September  of  the  same  year  the 
KJmg  pardoned  him,  though  without  restoring 
him  to  Parliament  and  the  court  fiacon 
begKed  Soth  Jamee  and  Charles  without  avail 
for  a  further  remission  of  his  penalty.  _  While 
admitting  the  justice  of  his  condemnation,  he 
protested  that  there  had  been  no  justcr  ju^e 
m  England  for  50  years;  and  there  is  of  course 
an  important  difference  between  corruption  and 
perversion  of  justice.  Although  he  constantly 
accepted  gifts  from  suitors  while  their  cases 
were  pendiiig,  it  does  not  appear  that  he  ever 
perverted  justice  for  money,  and  some  of  the 
cases  urged  against  him  were  those  in  which  the 
suitors  had  lost  after  giving  him  ^fts.  But 
this    record   is   not   so  clear   in   cases   where 


friends,  and  in  at  least  one  instance  he  allowed 
a  decision  of  his  court  to  be  practically  set 
aside  at  that  favorite's  request. 

Forbidden  to  re-enter  the  field  of  politics. 
Bacon  devoted  the  last  years  of  his  life  to  the 
literary  and  acientific  labors  which  had  always 
divided  his  time  and  which  he  had  professed  to 
regard  as  his  real  and  proper  work;  and  he 
met  his  death  as  a  resuh  of  a  scientific  experi- 
ment. In  March  1626,  he  caught  cold  while 
stuffing  a  fowl  with  snow  in  order  to  observe 
the  effects  of  refrigeration  on  the  preservation 
□f  meat  On  9  April  he  died  of  what  is  now 
known  as  bronchitis  at  the  house  of  Lord 
Arundel,  where  he  had  been  carried  at  the  time 
of  his  attack.  He  was  buried  in  Saint  Michael's 
Church,  Saint  Albans. 


dinary  mental  powers  and  a  keen  interest 
philosophical    pursuits.      Throughout    his    life 
kis  labors  in  authorship  kept  pace  closely  with 
his  political  work,  and  prone  as  he  was  to  yield 


to  the  temptations  of  wealth  and  power,  he 

seems  really  to  have  accorded  ihe  first  p\; 

in  Kfe  to  what  he  called  his  *contemplat 


place 


His  strictly  phitoso|4iical  writings  may, 

therefore,  properly  claim  first  attention  among 
fais  works.  At  the  age  of  23  he  produced  aa 
essay  irtiich  bore  the  ambitious  title,  'The 
Greatest  Birth  of  Time,  or  the  Great  Renewal 
of  the  Empire  of  Man  Over  the  Universe.'  The 
work  is  DOW  lost,  but  the  title  shows  that  the 
jTDung  author  had  already  conceived  some  no- 
tion of  a  *gTeat  instauration.*  The  'Partus 
Masculus  Temporis>  ("The  Male  Birth  of 
Time*),  a  fragment  winch  is  also  of  early  date, 
is  perhaps  a  modification  of  previous  woric  It 
contains  little  more  than  an  attack  on  the  false 
fancies  <*idols*)  of  the  older  t^losophics,  and 
is  Bacon's  first  plea  for  a  rational  union  be- 
tween the  mind  of  man  and  the  luivcrse.  Hie 
'Conference  of  Pleasure*  (written  for  Essex 
in  1592),  <Gesta  Grayonim>  (1594),  and  the 
'Device  on  the  Queen's  Day>  (159S>  are  not 
primarily  philoso^cal  wotli^  but  they  contain 
man^  expressioos  of  Bacon's  intellectual  idnls; 
and  m  tne  'Gesta  Grayorum*  there  is  an  elabo- 


rate proposal  for  die  endowment  of  Ubraries, 
museums  and  establishments  of  research. 
'Valerius  Terminus,  of  the  Interpretation  of 
Nature,  with  the  Annotations  of  Hermes 
Stella'  (written  about  1603)  is  a  fragmentary 
treatise  anticipating  some  of  the  most  familiar 
matter  in  the  later  philosophical  works.  In  it 
Bacon  defends  the  study  of  science  from  the 
charge  of  impiety,  urges  the  importance  of  an 
encyclopedic  survey  of  human  knowledge,  and 
mtations  for  the  first  time  (though  without  ex- 
plainii^  them)  the  four  classes  oi  'idols*  which 
were  afterward  discussed  in  the  'Novum  Or- 
ganum.'  In  1605  Bacon  presented  to  King 
James  an  Ejiglish  treatise  of  enduring  value, 
'The  Advancement  of  Learning.'  This  was  a 
Splendid  attempt  to  defend  and  magnify  the  pur- 
suit of  learning  and  then  to  survey  the  existing 
state  of  himian  knowle^e,  Part  of  the  argu- 
ment of  the  first  part  has  lost  its  cogency,  or 
even  its  relevancy,  to-day.  But  in  breadth  of 
view  and  fertility  of  suggestion  the  work  is 
extiaordinaiy.  As  a  statement  of  intellectual 
ideals,  and  a  program,  or  even  a  prophecy,  of 
their  accompUshment,  it  stands  among  the  most 
significant  productions  of  the  Renaissance.  When 
Bacon  sketched  a  few  years  later  the  plan  of 
his  'Great  Instauration,'  he  designated  the 
'Advancement  of  Learning,'  as  a  temporary  fill- 
ing of  die  first  place  on  the  *partitiones  scien- 
tiarum,*  and  in  bis  last  years  he  made  a  greatly 
amplified  Latin  translation  of  it  ('De  Aug- 
mentis  et  Dignitate  Scienda:')  to  be  incor- 
porated in  the  great  work.  In  1606-^  he  pub- 
lished the  'Outline  and  Argument'  ('Delineatio 
et  Ai^iunentum')  of  the  second  part  of  the 
Instauratioo,  ^ving  a  brief  general  account  of 
his  new  induction.  In  1607  the  'Cogitata  et  Visa 
de  Interpretatione  NaturK,  stve  de  Sdentia 
Operativa'  Were  published  as  an  introduction  to 
some  investigations  on  motion.  The  'Cogitata' 
cover  most  of  the  ground  afterward  traversed 
in  the  first  book  of  me  'Novum  Organum.'  The 
'Redargutio  Philosophiarum'  (1605),  one  of  the 
best  specimens  of  Bacon's  Latin  st);le,  contains 
an  imaginary  speech  of  a  French  philosopher  to 
his  disciples,  and  sets  forth  anew  the  author's 
ideas  about  the  f  ruitlessness  of  the  older  philoso- 
phies. The  <De  Sapientia  Veterum,'  though  it 
lies  outside  the  immediate  scheme  of  the 
'Instau ration'  and  might  perhaps  be  mentioned 
rather  among  Bacon's  Uterary  works,  is  a  very 
characteristic  production  containing  an  expo- 
sition of  his  theory  of  andent  mythology  as  an 
aUcRorical  embodiment  of  moral  and  scientific 
wiaoom.  This  primitive  wisdom  he  was  fond 
of  extolling  to  the  disparagement  of  the  later 
philosophy  of  Aristotle,  against  which  he  was 
In  revolt  In  1611  and  1612  fall  a  number  of 
scientific  treatises  of  less  importance.  Not 
until  16%  after  his  long  stm^le  to  political 
power  and  on  the  eve  of  his  falL  did  Bacon 
publish  the  'Novum  Organum,'  tuougfa  much 
of  its  material  had  been  anticipatea  in  his 
earlier  writings.  Prefixed  to  the  work  b  a 
■distribntio  operis'.for  the  whole  'Instaura- 
doci,'  which  was  plumed  to  contain  the  fol- 
lowing parts:  1.  Partitiones  Scientianmi  (re^ 
resentea  temporarily  by  the  EJigUsb  'Advance- 
ment of  Learning' )i  2.  Novum  Orsanum  (the 
new  instrument  of  inductive  method) ;  3.  Phe- 
nomena UniverM;  4.  Scala  Inteltectus  (by 
which  fanciful  title  he  meant  to  imj&cate  the 
operation  of  the  new  method  in  passing  gndu- 

Ciooglc 


■per  scalam  veram*) ;  S.  Prodromi  Philosoi  .... 
Secuii<ke  (to  contain  such  tentative  discoveries 
as  Bacon  had  made  without  usin^  the  new 
method) ;  6.  Philosophia  Secunda,  nve  Scientis 
Activa  <a  final  embodiment  of  the  resuhs  of  the 
new  philosophy).  The  first  book  of  the  'Novum 
Organum'  was  still  introductory  in  character, 
discussing  the  uselessness  of  the  older  philoso- 
phies, the  traditional  errors  of  mankind,  and  the 
grounds  of  hope  in  the  future  of  science.  Ba- 
con's optimistic  devotion  to  science  has  been  not 
ineptly  compared  with  that  of  the  young  Renan. 
His  classification  of  the  "idols*  (phantasms  or 
delusions}  of  the  tribe,  the  cave,  the  market- 
place and  the  theatre,  has  become  a  literary 
commonplace.  In  the  second  book  the  new 
indnction  itself  is  finally  expounded  and  illus- 
trated by  a  study  of  the  nature  of  heat.  The 
exposition  is  incomplete  and  falls  short,  as  in 
the  nature  of  things  it  was  bound  to,  of  what 
Bacon  himself  apparently  hoped  to  achieve, 
namely,  a  mediamcal  method  of  invention.  Ba- 
con never  pursued  the  theory  furtlier,  and  in  his 
later  works  he  turned  from  the  new  method,  or 
instrument,  toward  other  parts  of  his  great 
scheme.  The  'Parasceve  ad  Historiam  Natura- 
lem*  (1620)  is  a  brief  and  incomplete  {irepara- 
tion  for  the  third  part  of  the  Instauration,  and 
was  followed  in  1622  by  the  'Natural  and  Ex.- 
perimental  History  for  the  Foundations  of  Phi- 
losophy, or  Phenomena  of  the  Universe,  being 
the  Third  Part  of  the  Great  I nstau ration.'  This 
treatise  ^ich  was  to  take  up  winds,  densi^  and 
rarity,  gravity,  igympathy  ana  antipathy  of  tttings, 
and  a  variety  of  other  topics,  was  also  left 
in  a  fragmentary  state.  In  1623  appeared  the 
'De  Auementis,'  which  was  to  supersede  the 
English  'Advancement  of  Leamii«'  as  the  first 
portion  of  the  Instauration.  Probably  about 
1624  Bacon  wrote  the  'Sylva  Sylvanun'  (pub- 
lish in  1627),  an  ill-classifica  collection  of 
materials  for  natural  history.  Its  contents  be^ 
long  in  considerable  degree  to  the  realm  of  folk- 
lore and  superstition,  and  Bacon's  detractors 
have  found  in  the  work  some  of  their  best 
grounds  of  attack  on  his  character  as  a  man  of 
science.  It  was  his  belief,  however,  stated  in 
the  'Advancement  of  Learning,*  that  a  collec- 
tion and  comparison  even  of  the  erroneous 
opinions  of  mankind  mi^t  give  useful  guidance 
in  the  pursuit  of  truth.  Under  the  titles  'Scala 
Inteilectus*  and  ^Prodromi  sivc  Antidpationes 
Philosophise  Secunds'  Bacon  wrote  at  a  later, 
but  uncertain,  date  two  mere  prefaces  which 
filled  the  fourth  and  fifth-  gaps  in  the  <Instanra- 
tion.'  They  were  bis  last  philosophical  writ- 
ings. 

Bacon's  position  in  the  histoiy  of  science  and 
of  philosopiiy  has  been  vei^  differently  esti- 
mated. He  constructed  no  philosophical  svstem, 
and  one  would  search  his  writings  in  vain  for 
much  discussion  of  the  great  problems  which 
have  divided  the  schools  of  metaijhystcs  since 
Descartes.  As  a  man  of  science  his  shortcom- 
ings are  still  more  notable..  He  was  commonW 
unsuccessful  tn  his  own  investigations  and  ill- 
informed  about  the  best  work  of  his  contem- 
poraries. He  was  hardly  possessed  at  all  of 
what  is  now  understood  by  the  scientific  mind. 
Yet  there  is  much  justification  for  the  tradi- 
tional view  of  him  as  the  father  of  modem 
pUlosophy  and  theprimary  instigator  of  modern 
sdcntiiic  progress.    If   not  the  origin&tor,  be 


made  himself  at  least  the  leading  exponent  of 
the  revolt  against  the.  Aristotelian,  or  more 
properly  the  scholastic,  tradition,  and  he  pro- 
foundly tnfiuenced  the  English  realists  of  du 
next  generations.  In  ethics  his  distinction  be- 
tween 'individual  or  self-good*  and  'good  of 
communion*  {Mints  forward  to  the  doctrine  of 
the  later  utilitarians.  And  science  certainly 
owed  bim  a  Urge  debt  for  the  formulation  and 
urgent  presentation  of  the  'new  induction.' 
Mo  one,  of  course,  will  maintain  that  Bacon  in- 
vented induction.  Uacaulay,  in  his .  familiar 
account  of  the  plain  man  and  the  minced  jries, 
has  made  some  sport  of  his  claims  to  originality 
in  this  matter.  But  a  more  judicious  estimate 
would  recognize  the  hi^  and  lasting  educa- 
tional value  of  the  'Novum  Organum.'  And 
Bacon's  broad  outlook  and  fertile  imagination 
enabled  him  to  lay  down  the  lines  of  scientific 
progress  and  to  win  recruits  for  the  work.  He 
furnished  his  followers  not  only  with  an  im- 
proved method,  but  also  with  a  more  vital  aim 
—  that  of  practical  service.  In  his  revolt 
against  Aristotle  and  the  schoolmen  he  con- 
stantly dwelt  i4)on  the  fruitlessness  of  the 
earlier  philosophies,  and  one  of  the  most  elo- 
ciuent  passages  in  the  'Advancement  of  Learn- 
ing' sets  forth  the  ideal  of  human  service  as  the 
goal  of  scientific  effort.  This  aim  has  come  to 
be  called  Baconian  so  much  so  that  Bacon  is 
often  charged  with  havitw  ignored  or  denied  the 
more  jjurely  intellectual  purposes.  But  the 
charge  is  extreme.  He  thought  it  wise,  in  view 
of  the  sentiment  of  his  time,  to  emphasize  par- 
ticularly the  practical  aim;  but  he  recognized 
veritat  and  uKlitas  ('Novum  Oraanum'  L  Ap. 
124)  as  co-ordinate  ends  of  study.  Finally,  m 
spite  of  his  deficiencies  in  investigation,  Bacon 
inade  some  noteworthy  discoveries  in  pure 
science.  His  explanation  of  heat  as  a  mode  of 
motion  is  quoted  by  Tyndall  as  a  striking  an- 
ticipation of  the  modem  doctrine.  On  the 
whole,  however,  it  was  as  a  prophet  or  leader, 
rather  than  as  a  productive  scholar,  that  Bacon 
served  learning  best 

By  far  the  ^ater  part  of  Bacon's  writings 
(aiart  from  his  state  papers,  legal  works  and 
copious  personal  memoranda)  dealt  with  phi- 
losophy and  science,  and  bore  directly  or  indi- 
rectv  upon  the  construction  of  the  '(ireat  In- 
stauration.' Some  of  his  more  important  state 
papers  have  been  already  mentioned  in  the  ac- 
count of  his  life.  His  strictly  professional 
writings  (treatises  on  English  law)  will  be 
found  in  the  seventh  volume  of  the  Spedding 
and  Ellis  edition  of  his  collected  works.  His 
personal  memoranda,  which  permit  an  intimate 
view  of  his  life  and  character,  are  published  in 
Speddin^s  'Letters  and  Life'  (the  highly 
characteristic  'Commentarius  Solutus,'  of  the 
year  1608,  in  the  fourth  volume).  Besides  all 
these  productions  of  his  scholarship  and  his 
professional  life  he  made  eminent  contribu- 
tions to  history  and  to  pure  letters.  His  'His- 
tory of  Henry  VIP  (1621),  which  has  been 
accepted  by  later  scholars  as  essentially  sound, 
ranks  with  the  best  historical  writing  of  its  age 
In  England.  Bacon  wrote  also  a  memorial  of 
Elizabeth  ('In  Felicem  Memoriam  Elizabethz' 
(1607),  another  of  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales, 
who  died  in  1612,  and  fragments  on  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII  and  on  the  accesnon  of 
James  L 


vCiOogIc 


In  pure  literature  Bscon's  rniutatioD  resti 
chiefly  on  three  works:  the  *  Advancement  of 
Learning'  (which  has  been  already  disciused), 
the  "Essays'  and  the  "New  Atlantis.'  The 
first  two  of  these,  curiously  enough,  he  trans- 
lated, or  had  translatei  into  Latin  in  order  to 
secure  them  a  wider  and  more  permanent  public. 
The  'New  Atlantis'  (first  published  by  Rawley 
in  1627.  but  probably  written  between  1622  and 
1624),  IS  a  fragmentary  sketch  of  an  ideal  com- 
monwealth, and  in  particular  of  an  ideal  'palace 
of  invention"  called  "Solomon's  House,*— a 
great  establishment  of  scientific  research  such 
as  Bacon  longed  to  see'  founded.  The  boolc, 
which  expresses  the  idealistic  spirit  of  the 
Renaissance,  shows  Bacon  at  his  best.  The 
description  of  Solomon's  house  is  said  to  have 
led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Royal  Sodety. 
The  'Essays,'  which  were  designed  to  'come 
home  to  men's  business  and  bosoms,'  are  better 
known  than  anything  else  that  Bacon  wrote. 
They  deal  with  many  subjects  and  are  char- 
acterized by  ripe  rcnection  and  consummate 
mastery  of  style.  Bacon  had  them  in  hand  dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  his  mature  life.  He 
published  the  first  edition  in  1S97,  and  twice  re- 
vised and  enlarged  the  collection  (in  1612  and 
1625).  The  title  is  supposed  to  have  been  sug- 
gested by  the  'E^sais'  of  Montaigne,  and  there 
are  occasional  resemblances  between  the  two 
works  in  subject  matter;  but  Bacon  was  not 
largely  indebted  to  any  source,  and  his  concep- 
tion of  the  essay  was  totally  different  from  the 
personal  and  leisurely  discourses  of  Montaigne. 
•Brief  thoughts,  set  down  rather  significantly 
than  curiously,'  was  his  own  characterization 
of  them  in  the  dedication  of  the  second  edition ; 
and  although  some  of  the  later  essays  contain 
passages  ot  adorned  and  sustained  eloquence 
such  as  were  lacking  in  the  earlier  ones,  the 
general  type  was  maintained  to  the  end.  _ 

A  st)|all  number  of  reUgions  worics.  In  ele- 
vated tbouf^t  and  style,  remain  to  be  men- 
tioaed:  the  'Medltatioaes  Sacne'  (published  in 
1597),  the  ^Confession  of  Faith*  (written  be- 
fore 1603),  several  prayers,  and  Bacon's  only 
accredited  verse,  <A  Translation  of  Certain 
Psahas  into  English  Verse*  (1624).  A  poem 
on  'The  World,'— "The  world's  a  biAble,  and 
tfie  iiie  of  man  less  than  a  apan.'~is  some- 
times ascribed  to  him,  but  is  of  doubtful  author- 


nSee  Essays  or  BACOif. 
IbUocnpby^~  Hm  dates 

works  ba_ve  Seen  mentioned  in  the  body  of  the 


pby.-~'nie  dates  of  Bacon's  chief 


article.  The  standard  ctdlcctcd  e<Etioa  is  that 
of  Spedding,  EJlis  and  Heath  (London  1857- 
59).  Sin^  works  have  in  several  cases  been 
pablished  separately  with  more  elaborate  anno- 
tation; among  die  best  of  such  eifitions  beine 
flie  *Novum  Organum'  by  T.  Fowler  (Oxford 
1878),  the  'Advancement  of  Learning'  by  W. 
A-  Wright  (Oxford  1896),  the  'Essays'  by 
Aidibishop  Whataly  (London  1856),  E,  A.  Ab- 
bott (Undon  1896)  and  5.  H.  Reynolds  (Ox- 
ford 1890),  and  the  'New  Atlantis'  by  G.  C. 
Moore  Smith  (Cambrid^  1900).  A  useful 
reprint  of  the  three  editions  of  the  'Essays' 
has  been  published  by  Edward  Arber,  English 
Reprints,  No.  27  (1871).  For  the  life  of  Bacon 
the  srreat  source  of  original  materials  ia  Sped- 
ding's  'Letters  and  life  of  Bacon*  (7  vols., 
1861).  A  brief  digest  of  the  material  was  is- 
sued in  two  volumes.  'The  Life  and  Times  of 
Frauds  Bacon'   (Trubner  1878).     Short  biog- 


raphies of  value  have  been  written  by  R.  W. 
Church,  'Frands  Bacon'  (London  1884). 
Thomas  Fowler,  'Francis  Bacon'  (New  Yone 
1881),  E,  A.  Abbott,  'Frands  Bacon,  an  Ac- 
count of  His  Life  and  Works'  (London  1885), 
S,  R.  Gardiner  (in  the  'Dictionary  of  National 
Biography'),  ana  Tohn  Nichol,  'Frands  Bacon, 
His  Life  and  Philosophy'  (London  1898-99). 
Macaulay's  essay  on  Bacon  furnishes  a  brilliant 
though  By  no  means  just  or  satisfactory  esti- 
-mate  of  the  man  and  his  work.  On  Bacon's 
philosophical  doctrines  and  influence  one  should 
consult,  besides  the  standard  histories  of  phi- 
losophy, Ellis's  general  introduction  to  the  phil- 
oso^cal  wor^,  Kuno  Fischer's  'Frands 
Bacon  of  Venilam:  Realistic  Philosophy  and 
Its  Age'  (Engl,  translation  l^  John  Oxenford  , 
1857),  Fowlers  elaborate  commentary  on  the 
'Novum  Organum'  and  bis  'Frands  Bacon.' 
The  history  of  Bacon's  reputation  and  influence 
is  treated  with  some  fullness  in  Dr.  Fowler's  in- 
troduction to  the  'Novum  Organum.'  An  idea 
of  the  arguments  of  Bacon's  adverse  critics  can 
be  derived  from  Joseph  de  Maistre,  'Examen  de 
la  Philosophie  de  Bacon'  (Paris  1836),  Sir 
David  Brewster,  *Hemoirs  of  the  Life,  Writ- 
ings^ and  EMscourses  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton* 
(Edmbui^  18SS),  and  Justus  von  Liebi^, 
'Ueber  Frands  Bacon  von  Verulam  und  die 
Methode  der  Naturforschung*  (Munich  1863) 
More  recent  studies  are;  Booth,  W.  S.,  'Some 
Acrostic  Signatures  of  Frands  Bacon*  (Bos- 
ton 1909)  and  Cunningham,  G.  C,  'Did  Bacon 
TAe  in  1626?*  (Baconiana,  series  3,  London 
1916). 

Ftten  N.  RobimsoHj 
Professor  of  English,  Harvard  Universtty. 

BACON,  Henry,  American  architect:  b. 
Watseka,  111.,  28  Nov.  1866.  He  was  graduated 
at  the  University  of  Illinois  in  188S,  where  he 
won  the  Rotch  traveling  scholarship,  under 
which  he  spent  two  years  in  study  in  Europe. 
From  1888  to  1897,  with  the  exception  of  1890- 
91.  he  was  wlA  the  firm  of  MclGm,  Mead  and 
White,  In  1897  he  helped  form  the  firm  of 
Brite  and  Bacon.  Since  1903  he  has  practised 
alone.  He  has  designed  several  important 
buildings  and  was  the  winner  in  the  competi- 
tion for  the  Lincoln  Memorial  at  Washington 
in  1913.  He  is  a  fellow  of  the  American  In- 
stitute of  Architects  and  member  of  the 
National  Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters. 

BACON,  John,  English  sculptor:  b.  Lon- 
don 1740;  d  4  Aug.  17W.  In  early  life  he  was 
employed  in  modelling  small  porcelain  orna- 
ments, and  while  ^et  an  apprentice  he  formed 
a  protect  for  malong  statues  of  artificial  stone. 
In  1763  he  began  to  work  in  marble;  and 
shortly  afterward  invented  an  instrument  for 
transferring  the  form  of  the  model  to  the 
mart>1e.  In  1768  he  became  a  student  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  and  next  year  he  obtained  the 
first  gold  meoal  for  sculpture  given  by  that 
sodetjy;  the  following  year  he  was  chosen  an 
associate,  and  in  17!%  made  a  full  member. 
His  chief  worics  are  two  groups  for  die  interior 
of  the  Royal  Aca'demy,  the  statue  of  Tudge 
Blackstone  for  All  Souls'  Collie,  Oxford;  an- 
other of  Heors'  VI  for  Eton  College;  the 
monument  of  Lord  Chatham  in  Westminster 
Abbey'  and  the  statues  of  Dr.  Johnson  and  the 
philanthropist  Howard  in  Saint  Paul's  Cathft- 


tizcri.v  Google 


S.  C,  19  Feb.  1897.  He  was  graduated  at 
South  Carolina  College,  18S1;  Litchfield 
(Conn.)  Law  School,  and  admitted  to  the  bar, 
1854.  He  was  secretary  of  the  United  States 
legation  at  Saint  Petersburg,  and  married  a 
daughter  of  ex-Govemor  Pickens,  then  Minister 
to  Russia.  He  resigned  in  1860,  entered  the 
Confederate  army,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
major.  He  was  one  of  the  negotiators  for  the 
restoration  of  South  Carolina  to  the  Union, 
1866;  and  to  him  was  chiefly  due  the  reopening 
of  South  Carolina  College  t^  act  of  the  legisla- 
ture in  1873.  In  1886  he  was  appointed  chargi 
d'affaires  in  Uruguay  and  Paraguay. 

BACON,  Joba  Hacketuie,  English  clergy- 
man and  scientist:  b.  1846;  d.  1904.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and 
entered  the  ministry  of  the  Church  of  England 
in  1870.  In  1889  his  publication,  'The  Curse  of 
Conventionalism:  a  Remonstrance  by  a  Priest 
of  the  Church  of  England,'  caused  widespread 
op^sition  and  led  to  his  retirement  from  the 
mmistry.  He  at  once  entered  on  the  study  oi 
astronomy  and  aeronautics.  He  led  two  eclipse 
expeditions  of  the  British  Astronomical  Asso- 
ciation—that to  Buxar,  India,  in  1898,  and  that 
to  Wadesboro.  N.  C.  in  1900.  He  made  a 
record  voyage  in  English  balloonii^  in  1899. 
He  demonstrated  that  sound  travels  more 
rapidly  downward  than  upward,  and  that  the 
ocean  Soor  is  visible  from  great  heights  and 
can  be  photographed.  His  'By^  Land  and  Sky* 
(1900)  coatauis  accounts  of  his  ballooning  in- 
vestigations and  the  results  of  his  experiments 
in  acoustics,  meteorology  and  other  subjects. 
He  published  also  'The  Dominion  of  the  Air' 
(190&>. 

BACON,  John  Hosby,  American  militaiy 
officer:  b.  Kentucl^.  17  April  1844;  d.  Portland, 
Oi«,  19  March  1913.  He  served  in  the  Union 
army  through  the  Civil  War;  was  appointed 
captain  in  ftie  9th  United  States  Cavalry,  in 
1866,  and  colonel  of  the  8th  Cavalry  in  1897. 
On  4  May  1898,  he  was  appointed  brigadier- 
general  of  volunteers  and  placed  in  command 
of  the  Dei^rtment  of  Dakota.  Subsequently, 
he  was  assigned  to  duty  in  Cuba,  till  8  May 
1899.    He  was  retired  in  1902. 

BACON,  Joaephine  Dod|e  Daakam. 
American  author:  b.  Stamford,  CamL,  17  Feh, 
1876.  She  was  graduated  at  Smith  Collie, 
A.B.,  1898,  bcinK  class  orator  on  graduation, 
and  while  in  college  was  editor-in-cnief  of  the 
Smith  CoiUge  Monthly.  Since  graduation  has 
been  continuously  occupied  with  literature  as 
contributor  of  stories  and  poems  to  magadnes, 
and  at  author  of  books :  'Sister's  Vocation, 
and  Other  Stories'  (1900) ;  'Smith  College 
Stories"  (1900) ;  'The  Imp  and  the  Angel' 
(1901):  'Fables  for  the  Fair'  (1901);  'Whom 
the  (kids  Destroyed'  (1902)  ;  'Poems)  (1903)  : 
•Middle-Aged  Love  Stories'  (1903);  'Memoirs 
of  a  Baby'  (1904) ;  'Domestic  Adventures' 
(1907);  <Ten  to  Seventeen'  (1907);  <An  Idyll 
of  All  Fools'  Day'  (1908)  ;  'Margarite's  Soul' 
fl909);     'In    the     Border    Country'     (1909): 


'Open    Market'    (1915).     She   also   compiled 
'Best  Nonsense  Verse'   (1901). 

BACOH,  Leonard,  American  clergyman: 
b.  Detroit,  Mich,  19  Feb.  1802 ;  d.  24  Dec.  1881. 
He  was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1820,  and  studied 
theology  at  Andover,  Mass.  In  1825  he  became 
pastor  of  the  First  Con^cgational  Church  in 
New  Haven,  a  post  which  he  held  of&cially, 
though  not  always  actively,  until  his  death.  He 
was  professor  of  didactic  theology  in  Yale 
(1866-71).  He  was  throughout  his  life  an  ac- 
tive opponent  of  slaven'.  In  1847  he  joined 
with  Drs.  Storrs  and  .Tliompson  to  found  the 
New  York  Independent,  in  the  joint  editorship 
of  which  he  continued  for  16  years.  Besides  a 
vast  number  of  reviews  and  pamphlets,  he 
published  'Views  and  Reviews'  (l&tO); 
'Slavery  Discussed  in  Occasional  Essays* 
(1846) ;  and  'Genesis  of  the  New  England 
Churches.' 

BACON,  Leonard  W00IM7,  American 
cle^yman:  b.  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1830;  d. 
1907^  A  son  of  Leonard  Bacon,  he  was  grad- 
uated at  Yale  in  18S0,  and  was  successively 
Eastor  of  Congr^tignal  churches  in  Litch- 
eld,  Conn,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y,  and  Stamford 
Conn.  He  spent  several  years  in  Europe,  and 
was  en^ged  in  Geneva  as  a  student,  preacher 
and  wnter.  He  returned  to  America  in  187& 
and  from  that  year  until  1882  was  pastor  of 
the  Park  Congregational  Church  of  Norwich. 
(Tonn.,  and  subsequently  of  other  (Congrega- 
tional and  Presbyterian  churches.  He  edited 
Luther's    'Deutsche   geistlicbe    Lieder'    (New  1 

York    1883),   and    puWished    'A    Life    Worth  I 

Living:    Ufe   of   Emily   BHss   Gould'     (1878):  1 

'Irenics  and  Polemics,  with  Sundry  Essays  in  > 

durch    History'     (1898) ;     'History    q{  the  I 

American  Christianity'    (1898);    'Young  Peo-  I 

pie's  Societies,'  with  C  A.  Northmp  (1900);  I 

'The  Congregationalists'   (1904).  I 

BACON,  Nathaniel,  American  insurrec- 
tionary leader:  b.  Friston  HalL  Suffolk,  Eng- 
land. 2  Jan.  1642 ;  d.  26  Oct.  1676.  His  great- 
grandfather was  cousin  to  Lord  Bacon ;  his 
mother,  a  Brooke,  was  daughter  of  a  Suffolk 
knight.  He  entered  Saint  Catherine's  College, 
Cambridge  in  1660;  took  MA.  1667;  studied 
law  at  Gray's  Inn,  London,  and  traveled  on  the 
Continent  He  found  life  too  straitened  in 
England  on  the  income  his  father  allowed  him, 
and  the  latter  gave  him  il^  outright  to  emi- 
grate to  Virginia,  where  his  cousin,  Nicholas  , 
Bacon,  had  been  living  since  1650.  He  arrived  | 
in  the  latter  part  of  1673  with  a  young  wife, 
daughter  of  Sir  Edward  Duke,  and  soon  became  | 
a  member  of  the  governor's  council,  as  was  hii  , 
cousin;  and  settled  on  a  plantation  some  20  | 
miles  below  Richmond,  on  the  James,  called  1 
•Curie's  Wharf."  He  also  had  another  on  a  | 
part  of  the  site  of  Richmond,  the  attack  on  1 
which  by  the  Indians  was  part  of  the  raid  that 
brought  on  the  imbroglio  known  as  'Bacon's 
Rebellion,*  which  see  for  his  career  and  fate, 
BACON,  StR  Nicholas,  English  statesman 
and  father  of  Francis  Bacon :  b,  Chislehurat, 
1509;  d,  1579,  He  was  graduated  at  Corpus 
CThristi  College,  Cambridge,  in  1527,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1S33,  He  received  a  large 
property  from  confiscated  monastery  lands  and 
was  ap^pointed  attorney  to  the  Court  of  Wards 
and  Liveries.  He  stood  in  hi^  favor  with 
Edward  VI,  and   although  he  was  a  stanch 


Protestant,  was  not  persecuted  and  even  re- 
tained his  office  of  attorney  during  the  reign 
of  Uary.  From  1558  to  1579  fae  was  Lord 
HJKh  Chancellor  and  Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal 
imder  Elizabeth.  By  virtue  of  his  office  he 
presided  over  Elizabeth's  £rst  Parlianient  He 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  debates  preceding 
the  Act  of  Supremacy.  He  eenerall^  supported 
tlie  policies  of  Cecil,  Us  tirother-in-law,  al- 
though at  times  in  favor  of  a  stronger  Prot- 
estant policy.  His  able  Qualities  as  a  states- 
man were  mvahlable  at  the  critical  period  in 
English  history  when  Elizabelli  succeeded  to 
the  throne. 

BACON,  Robert,  American  financier  and 
diplomat:  b.  Boston  Mass.,  5  July  1860.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1880,  and  soon 
after  entered  the  banking  firm  of  Lee,  EKsgin- 
son  &  Company  of  Boston ;  from  1833  to 
1894  he  was  a  member  of  the  firm  of  E.  Rol- 
lins Morse  &  Brother  and  of  J.  P.  Morgan 
&  Company  from  1894  to  1903,  when  he  re- 
tired from  active  business  life.  He  had  been 
long  a  close  student  of  foreign  affairs  and  in 
190S  was  appointed  first  assistant  Secretary  of 
State  under  Elihu  Root.  When  the  latter 
entered  the  Senate  in  1909  Mr.  Bacon  became 
Secretary  of  State,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
named  by  President  Taft  Ambassador  to 
France,  serving  from  1909  to  1912.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  board  of  overseers  of  Harvard 
University.  1889-1901  and  1902-08,  and  was 
made  a  fellow  of  the  University  in  1912. 

BACOH,  Roxer,  English  monk  and  philos- 
opher: b.  near  Ikhester  about  1214;  d.  1294. 
He  first  entered  the  University  of  Oxford,  and 
afterward  went  to  that  of  Paris,  where  he 
seems  to  have  distinguished  himself  much  by 
successful  study  and  teaching,  and  received  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  theology.  About  1250  be 
returned  to  England,  where  he  entered  the 
order  of  Franciscans,  fixed  his  abode  at  Ox- 
ford, and  devoted  himself  to  his  studies  in 
natural  philosophy,  chiefly  in  alchemy,  chem- 
istry and  optics.  Means  were  furnished  him 
)fy  generous  friends  of  science,  whose  contri- 
butions enabled  him  to  purchase  books,  to  pre- 
pare instruments  and  to  make  the  necessary 
experiments.  In  examining  the  secrets  of 
nature  he  made  discoveries  and  deducted  re- 
tults  which  appeared  so  extraordinary  to  the 
ignorant,  that  they  were  believed  to  be  works 
of  magic  and  be  was  brought  under  suspicion 
as  a  dealer  in  the  black  art.  There  is  clear 
evidence  in  his  writipg;  that  he  accepted  the 
Aristotelian  theory  of  stellar  influence  on  the 
minds  and  wills  of  men,  not  indeed  directly, 
but  through  the  medium  of  the  body.  Such 
views  brought  him  into  conflict  with  the  teach- 
ings of  the  Church  on  free  will,  and  in  1257  he 
was  sent  to  Paris,  where  he  was  kept  in  con- 
finement for  10  years.  In  1267  Bacon  wrote 
a  work  under  the  title  of  'Opus  Majus,' — 
see  article  following  —  giving  a  connected  view 
of  the  different  branches  of  numan  knowledge, 
supplemented  soon  after  by  two  other  works, 
namely,  'Opus  Secundum'  and  "Opus  Tertium,' 
Under  Oemenfs  successor,  Nicholas  III,  the 
general  of  the  Franciscans,  Jerome  of  Ascoli, 
declared  himself  against  Bacon,  forbade  the 
reading  of  his  writings,  and  issued  an  order  for 
his  imprisonment,  which  was  confirmed  by  the 
Pope.    This  new  confinement  lasted  from  1278- 


92;  and  when  Jerome  of  Ascoli  was  elected 
Pope,  under  the  name  of  Nicholas  IV,  Bacon 
vainly  endeavored  to  convince  him  of  the  in- 
nocence and  utility  of  his  labors,  by  sending 
him  a  treatise  'On  the  Means  of  Avoidiog  the 
Infirmities  of  Old  Age.'  After  the  deam  of 
Nicholas  IV  he  regained  his  liberty,  and  re- 
turned to  Oxford,  where  he  wrote'  a  "Com- 
pendium of  Theology'  (1292), 

Though  an  extraordinary  man,  Bacon  was . 
a  child  of  his  age,  and  not  free  from  current 
errors.  He  believed  in  the  philosopher's  stone 
and  in  astrology.  There  are  to  be  found  in  his 
writings  new  and  ingenious  views  on  optics; 
for  example,  on  the  refraction  of  light,  on 
the  apparent  magnitude  of  objects,  on  the 
magnified  appearance  of  the  sun  and  moon  when 


the  nature  and  effects  of  coilvex  a 
lenses,  and  speaks  of  their  application  to  the 
purposes  of  readingj  and  of  viewing  distant 
objects,  both  terrestnal  and  celestial ;  and  it  is 
easy  to  prove  from  his  writings  that  he  was 
either  the  inventor  or  improver  of  the  tele- 
scope. He  also  gives  descriptions  of  the  camera 
obseara,  and  of  the  burning-glass.  He  also 
made  several  medical  discoveries.  The  dis- 
covery of  gunpowder  has  been  attributed  to 
him.  His  writmgs  contain  the  chemical  for- 
mula for  it,  but  it  is  generally  supposed  that  he 
obtained  it  from  the  Arabs,  from  whose  writ- 
he derived  other   suggestions.     He  was 


causes,  and  made  a  corrected  calendar.  In 
moral  philosophy,  also.  Bacon  laid  down  some 
excellent  precepts.  His  principal  works,  edited 
by  Professor  Brewer,  were  published  in  bis 
'Opera  Inedita'    (1859). 

BACON,  Ro^er,  his  Opus  Majoa  <1267 
A.D.).  Newly  edited  and  published  with  intro- 
duction and  full  English  analysis  of  the  Latin 
text,  by  I.  H.  Bridges  (2  vols.,  1897).  An  ade- 
quate puoHcalion  after  630  years  of  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  productions  of  the  human 
mind.  The  work  is  an  exhortation  addressed 
to  Pope  Clement  uivii%  him  to  initiate  a  re- 
form of  Christian  education  in  order  to  estab- 
lish the  ascendency  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  over  all  nations  and  religions  of  the 
world.  Its  central  theme  was  the  consolidation 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  as  the  supreme 
agency  for  the  civilization  of  mankind.  Its 
author  wished  to  see  recognition  of  "all  the 
sciences,'  since  all  are  part  of  one  and  the 
same  complete  wisdom.  He  first  gave  experi- 
ment the  distinct  and  supreme  place  which  was 
later  revived  by  Descartes,  and  carried  out  in 
modem  science.  He  formed  a  clear  conception 
of  chemistry,  in  his  day  not  yet  separated  from 
alchemy;  and  of  a  science  of  living  things,  aS 
resulting  with  chemistry  from  physics.  In  the 
part  of  his  work  dealing  with  moral  philosophy. 
Bacon  makes  the  first  attempt  ever  made  at  the 
comparative  study  of  the  religions  of  the  world. 
His  protests  against  the  intellectual  prejudices 
of  the  time,  his  forecasts  of  an  age  of  industi^ 
and  invention,  the  prominence  given  to  exptn- 
ment,  sMke  as  to  the  test  of  received  opinion 
and  uie  guide  to  new  fields  of  discovery,  render 
comparison  with  Francis  Bacon  unavoidable. 
In  wealth  of  words,  in  brilliancy  of  imagina- 
tion,   Francis    Bacon    was    immeasurably    Us 


BACON  — BACON'S  REBELLION 


su^rior.  But  Roger  Bacon  had  Ae  sounder 
estimate  and  the  firmer  Erasp  of  that  com- 
Unation  of  deductive  with  inductive  method 
which  marks  the  scientific  diKoveiy. 

BA'C6n,  Philippine  Tskuids,  a  toini  in  the 
province  of  Albay,  Island  of  Luzon.  Pop. 
about  14,5itO. 

BACON,  the  name  given  the  sides  of  a  fUg 
which  have  been  cured  or  preserved  by  salting 
with  salt  and  saltpetre,  and  afterward  drying 
with  or  without  wood  smoke.  By  the  old  proc- 
ess of  rubbing  in  the  saline  mixture,  the  curing 
occupied  from  three  to  four  months.  The 
method  now  adopted  on  a  larger  scale  is  to 
place  the  prepared  flitches  in  a  fluid  pickle. 
The  pickling,  drying  and  smoking  now  occupy 
not  more  than  six  weeks.  Bacon  may  be  called 
the  poor  as  well,  as  the  rich  man's  food.  By 
the  former  it  is  priced  as  a  necessary  of  life; 
by  the  latter,  for  its  exquisite  flavor.  The 
nitrogenous,  or  flesh- forming,  matter  in  bacon  is 
small,  one  pound  yielding  less  than  one  ounce 
of  dry,  muscular  substance,  while  the  amount 
of  carbon  compounds,  or  heat  givers,  is  large, 
exceeding  60  per  cent  Its  digestibility,  how- 
ever, owing  to  the  large  proportion  of^  fat  it 
contains,  is  not  less  than  that  of  beef  or  mutton. 

BACON  BEETLE  (DermesUi  lardarttu). 
an  insect,  the  larva  of  which  destroys  bacon, 
lard  and  furs. 

BACONIAN  PHILOSOPHY,  the  indtic- 
tive  philosophy  of  which  it  is  sometimes  said 
that  Lord  Bacon  (q.v.)  was  the  founder.  This, 
however,  is  an  exaggerated  statement.  What 
Lord  Bacon  did  for  ttiis  mode  of  ratiocination 
was  to  elucidate  and  systematize  it ;  to  point  out 
its  great  value,  and  to  bring  it  prominently 
before  men's  notice;  lending  it  the  support  of 
his  great  name  at  a  time  when  most  of  his 
contemporaries  were  satisfied  with  the  barren 
lo^c  of  the  schools.  The  triumphs  of  modem 
saence  have  arisen  from  a  resolute  adherence 
on  the. part  of  its  votaries  to  the  Baconian 
method  of  inquiry. 

BACON'S  REBELLION,  in  Virginia, 
1676.  The  English  Navigation  Acts  of  1651  and 
1660,  restricting  colonial  trade  to  Ejiglish  ves- 
sels, had  produced  universal  distress  in  Vir- 
ginia, forcmg  it  to  buy  and  sell  to  the  home 
monopolists  at  their  own  price;  tobacco,  not 
only  the  chief  produce,  but  the  chief  currency, 
became  almost  worthless.  In  1667  the  smaller 
landholders  were  reported  on  the  brink  of  re- 
bellion, and  in  1673  there  were  meetings  to 
refuse  painncnt  of  taxes.  Meantime  the  corrupt 
dvil  service  of  the  colony,  place-hunters  sent 
over  by  Charles  11  to  be  nd  of  them,  


Ham  Berkeley  (q.v.);  and  the  latter  was  fat' 
tening  on  a  fur  trade  with  the  Indians.  To 
save  himself  from  the  opposition  of  criticism 
of  the  masses  whom  he  hated  and  despised, 
and  to  perpetuate  the  oligarchy  of  the  small 
group  of  rich  planters  who  formed  his  coun- 
cil, he  kept  his  legislature  of  1662,— strongly 
royalist  from  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Restora- 
tion,—  in  office  till  1676  by  annual  adjournments 
without  new  elections-  he  had  also  aboli^ed 
universal  suffrage  and  substituted  a  property 
([ualification.  This  built  up  a  strong  opposition, 
including  some  of  the  most  solid  citizens.     In 


governor. 


167S  a  terrible  Indian  war  broke  out,  »._„_„ 
the  frontier  in  fire  and  blood;  36  whites  were 
murdered  in  one  day  of  January  1676,  Berke- 
ley, implored  to  protect  the  settlements,  ordered 
out  a  force  under  Sir  Henry  ChicheW,  then 
suddenly  dissolved  it,  recalled  Chichele/s  com- 
mission and  refused  to  do  anything  more  till 
the  assembly  met  in  Uarch.  'The  result  was 
frightful ;  within  17  days  60  of  the  71  planta- 
tions in  Rappahannock  parish  were  destroyed, 
and  by  the  time  of  the  March  meeting,  over 
300  victims  had  perished,  a  large  part  by  fiend- 
ish tortures.  Even  tben,  under  Berkelej^'s 
orders,  the  "Long  Assembly*  (so  called  in 
allusion  to  the  Long  Parliament)  merely  com- 
mitted another  outrage:  instead  of  authoris- 
ing an  army,  they  autnoriied  frontier  forts,  to 
have  a  garrison  of  500  soldiers  (from  the  sea- 
board counties,  not  the  frontier  one  which  suf- 
fered from  the  Indians,  and  hated  the  gover- 
nor). _  No  attack  on  the  Indians  was  to  be  per- 
tpt  under  specific  orders  from  the 
Two  million  pounds  of  tobacco 
more  were  added  to  their  taxes  for  this  mock- 
ery of  protection,  and  most  of  that  was  em- 
bezzled and  the  forts  built  so  as  to  be  worth- 
less even  for  the  little  service  they  could  do. 
The  people  petitioned  for  leave  to  form  expe- 
ditions at  their  own  charge  under  any  leader 
Berkeley  might  appoint;  he  forbade  any  further 
petitions  of  the  sort  under  heavy  penalties.  It 
was  the  universal  belief  that  his  one  solicitude 
was  to  save  his  Indian  trade  monopoly  from 
harm.  Finally  the  people  of  Charles  City 
County  petitioned  once  more  for  leave,  in  face 
of  actual  ravages  then  going  on;  and*  once 
more  the  obstinate  and  avaricious  old  man 
refused  it.  Men  could  bear  no  more;  they 
raised  300  volunteers  on  their  own  risk  and  by 
acclamation  placed  at  their  head  Nathaniel 
Bacon  (q.v.),  a  young  planter  recently  from 
England,  and  one  of  the  governor's  coundL 
He  accepted  it  and  wrote  to  Berkeley  for  a 
commission ;  Berkeley  returned  an  evasive 
answer  and  Bacon  started  on  his  expedition 
wi^out  it.  Berkeley  hearing  of  it  sent  an 
order  for  the  company  to  disperse;  all  but  a 
few,  however,  kept  on  and  dispersed  the  In- 
dians. Berkeley  collected  a  troop  of  horse- 
men, and  set  out  to  arrest  Bacon,  when  he  heard 
that  the  colony  was  all  in  revolt  behind  him: 
and  he  hurried  back  to  Jamestown,  dissolved 
his  14-year-old  assembly  and  issued  writs  for 
a  new  one.  Despite  his  suffrage  restriction, 
there  was  a  very  heavy  majority  against  him; 
Bacon  being  one  of  the  new  members.  As  the 
latter  approached  Jamestown,  be  was  arrested 
and  brought  before  Berkeley,  who.  in  view  of 
the  uprismg,  did  not  dare  proceed  to  extremi- 
ties, but  paroled  him,  and  on  Bacon's  making 
submission  for  attacking  the  Indians  without 
license  allowed  him  to  take  his  seat,  with  a  tacit 
agreement  to  g^ve  htm  bis  commission  to  finish 
the  Indian  war.  The  new  legislature,  besides 
restoring  universal  suffrage  and  making  other 
reforms  very  distasteful  to  Berkeley,  provided 
for  raising  an  army  of  1,000  men  for  Indian 
service.  But  Bacon,  still  refused  the  commis- 
sion, and  privately  warned  that  bis  life  was  in 
danger,  fled,  shortly  returned  with  600  men, 
and  forced  Berkeley  to  sign  his  commission  as 
major-general  for  the  Indian  campaign,  and 
also  a  memorial  to  the  King  in  tus  favor  and 


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BACOOR  —  BACTBRIA 


redtiiig  the  colonial  grievances.  This  latter 
was  aeot  ofl  with  a  secret  note  from  Berkeley, 
<liuvowing  iL  Bacon  within  a  month  had 
nearly  put  down  the  Indian  outbreak,  especially 
by  a  crushing  victory  at  Bloody  Run  (near 
lOchmond),  when  he  heard  that  the  sovemor 
had  proclaimed  him  and  bis  party  rebels,  and 
to  escape  popular  wrath  had  fled  across  the 
peninsub  to  Accomac  Bacon  marched  back  to 
Middle  Plantation  (the  site  of  Williamsburg), 
launched  a  manifesto  against  Berkeley,  and 
drew  around  him  a  gathering  of  some  promi- 
nent men  and  a  vast  number  of  penniless  ones 
(for  the  movement  was  largely  a  democratic 
revolt  against  an  overweening  aristocracy). 
They  agreed  to  stand  by  him  even  against  a 
ro^al  army;  feehng  that  they  were  compro- 
mised beyond  retreat  at  best,  and  hoping  to  hold 
out  till  the  King  couW  be  correctly  informed 
and  pardon  them.  Bacon  carried  on  the  Indian 
campaign  till  September,  thoroughly  stamping 
out  the  danger  to  the  colony;  meantime  sending 
an  expedition  to  capture  Berkeley,  which  was 
itself  captured.  Berkeley  gathered  about  1,000 
mihtia  oy  promising  them  the  confiscated 
estates  of  the  rebels,  and  reoccupied  James- 
town; Bacon  marched  against  him,  drove  him 
to  Accomac  once  mor^  and  burnt  Tamestown 
to  the  ground.  But  he  had  taken  malaria  there, 
and  whle  invading  Gloucester  County  to  attack 
Uajor  Brent  was  stricken  down,  and  died  26 
October.  The  rebellion  at  once  collapsed,  and 
Berkeley  wreaked  a  frightful  vengeance  upon 
Bacon's  adherents.  See  Berkelcv,  Sib  Wil- 
liam. For  auihorities,  besides  new  documents 
published  in  yirginia  Magaaine  of  History 
(1893-98),  consult  the  Century  Magaaine.  Vol 
XL,  under  'Under  Nathaniel  Bacon,*  hv  Ed- 
ward Eogleston ;  and  John  Fiske's  'Old  Vir- 
^ia  ai3  Her  Neighbors,'  1897,  Vol.  II). 

BACOOS,  ba^&-6r',  Philippine  Islands,  » 
town  of  the  province  of  Cavite,  on  the  idand  o{ 
Ltuon,    Pop.  about  12,600. 

BACSANYI,  b6'chan-ye,  Janos,  Hungarian 
poet:  b.  Tapolcia,  11  May  1763:  d.  12  May 
1845.  His  lirst  work,  published  in  1785,  pro- 
cured him  an  appointment  in  a  jmblic  office,  but 
a  liberal  poem  cost  him  this  tn  1793,  as  well 
as  his  liberty  the  year  after.  Some  of  his 
finest  elegies  were  composed  in  prison.  la 
1796  he  went  to  Vienna,  and  there  he  married 
a  few  years  later  the  German  poet,  Gabrielle 
Baumgarten  —  an  unhappy  match.  In  1S)9, 
Bacsanyi  fell  under  suspicion  of  translating 
Napoleon's  proclamation  to  the  Hungarians, 
and  was  afterward  obliged  to  take  refuge  in 
Paris.  After  the  Peace  of  Paris  he  lived  at 
Linz,  where  he  died.  His  collected  poems 
appeared  at  Budapest  in  1827, 

BACTERIA.  Literal^  the  word  bacte- 
rium, bacteria  being  its  plural,  means  a  tiny  rod 
or  stick.  As  understood,  however,  by  biolo^ts. 
bacteria  constitute  a  genius  of  lowly  organiiea 
microscopic  plants  having  forms  other  than  that 
indicatea  by  the  literal  meaning  of  the  word. 
Briefly  defined,  bacteria  are  unicellular  vegeta- 
bles that  multiply  by  the  simple  process  of 
transverse  division  —  they  are,  therefore,  schii- 
omycetes.  In  sire  they  are  all  of  microscopic 
dimensions  requiring  in  most  cases  to  be  ma^- 
fied  from  600  to  1,000  diameters  before  becom- 
ing visible  and  even  then  they  appear  In  many 


instances  as  scarcely  more  than  tiny  points. 
As  encountered  in  nature  they  assume  a  variety 
of   forms  which  may  be  conveniently  arranged 


cal,  the  rod-like  a. ,    , 

cal  forms  the  name  cocci  or  micrococci  (coccus, 
singular)  is  given,  and,  according  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  these  tiny  spheres  develop  and 
their  prc^^eny  adhere  to  one  another  they  are 
further  severally  designated  as  staphylococci, 
that  is,  cocci  clustering  irregularly  together  like 
grapes  in  a  bunch;  streptococci,  that  is,  cocci 
adhering  together  like  beads  or  pearls  in  a 
strand;  diplo-cocci,  that  is,  cocci  occurring  in 
pairs;    tttracocci,    that   is,    cocci    clustered  in 

To  the  rod-like  group  —  that  is,  those  which 
are  straight,  having  one  diameter  longer  than 
another  —  the  designation  bacilli  (bacMus,  sin- 
gular) is  given,  while  the  structure  and  mode 
of  multiphcation  of  man^  of  the  bacilli  is  as 
simple  as  is  that  of  the  micrococci  —  that  is.  one 
cell  divides  into  two,  two  into  four,  and  so  on 
wf  infinitum,  without  variation  it  is  neverthe- 
less in  the  grou]^  of  badlli  that  we  encounter  a 
number  of  speaes  provided  by  nature  with  a 
more  highly  organized  and  complicated^  means 
for  propagation  and  perpetuation.  It  is  here 
that  we  encounter  species  in  the  course  of 
whose  Ufe  i^de  there  develops  within  each 
rod  a  single  tiny,  oval,  highly  resistant  body,  a 
spore  as  it  is  called,  which  mav  be  fairly  com- 

Sred  to  the  seeds  of  higher  plants  and  which, 
e  the  seed,  may  be  gathered  and  kept  for 
almost  indefinite  periods,  without  losing  their 

Kwer  of  germinatioa  Since  such  spores  of 
cteria  are  markedly  tenacious  of  fife  even 
under  the  most  unfavorable  of  circumstances 
it  is  obvious  that  the  power  to  form  spores  is 
an  important  provision  for  the  preservation  of 
the  species.  It  is  of  passing  interest  to  know 
that  the  ability  to  form  spores  is  possessed  by 
some,  but  not  many  of  the  disease-producing 
bacteria,  a  fact  that  serves  to  explain  in  part 
the  difiiculdes  experienced  I^  the  sanitarian  in 
eliminating  certain  types  of  infection;  for  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  infective  species 
capable  of  entering  the  spore  si&gt  are  by  vir- 
tue of  that  property  much  less  vulnerable  to  the 
action  of  disinfectants  and  disinfecting  proc- 
esses than  are  the  specie*  not  so  endowed. 

The  spiral  forms,  spirilla,  as  they  are  called, 
comprise  those  bacteria  having  one  or  more 
curves  in  tbeir  long  axis,  that  is,  those  that  are 
twisted  like  a  corkscrew.  They  are  sometimes 
seen  as  homogeneous,  long  spiral  threads  with- 
QUt  segmentations,  while  again  they  may  con- 
sist of  short  curved  segments  adhering  end  to 
end.  Spore  formation  is  not  a  characteristic  of 
the  spiral  bacteria. 

In  structure  bacteria  are  non- nucleated 
masses  of  protoplasm  surrounded  by  an  en- 
veloping zone  appearii^  in  some  instances  to 
be  but  a  condensation  of  the  central  protoplasm, 
while  in  others  it  partakes  somewhat  of  the 
nature  of  mucin.  Many  of  the  bacteria  exhibit 
no  evidence  of  independent  mobility,  while 
others,  by  virtue  of  special  locomotive  appara- 
tus (ftagella)  move  themselves  about  in  nuids 
in  a  most  energetic  manner.  As  Cbeir  structure 
is  exceedingly  simple,  in  so  far  as  formed  ele- 
ments are  concerned,  their  mode  of  nutrition 
is,  physically  speaking,  cocrespoodingly  simple 


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BACTERICIDE 


—  that  is,  die  nourishment  is  absorbed  and  their 
waste  products  discharged  directly  through 
their  enveloping  membranes  by  the  process  of 
osmosis.  This  being  the  case  it  is  obvious  that 
bacteria  can  multiply  and  perform  their  physi- 
ological functions  only  under  conditions  of 
moisture.  Unlike  the  more  highly  organiced 
plants  bacteria  are  apparently  without  special 
provisions  for  gaseous  exchange,  that  is,  they 
are  devoid  of  chlorophyl.  They  obtain  their 
oxygen  as  such  from  the  free  air  or  from 
easily  decomposable  oxygen  compounds.  In  the 
course  of  his  early  investigations  in  this  field 
Pasteur  discovered  a  group  of  bacteria  that 
have  ever  proven  to  be  of  the  greatest  interest 
^a  group  that,  paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  not 
only  does  not  require  free  oxygen  for  its  hfe 
processes  but  to  the  growth  of  which  free  oxygen 
IS  actually  prohibitive.  To  these  species  he  gave 
the  designation  ancerobic  to  distinguish  tnem. 
from  the  majority,  the  arobic  varieties,  to 
which  free  oxygen  is  essential.  In  their  rela- 
tions to  hi^er  Ufe  bacteria  may  be  regarded  as 
allies  or  as  enemies,  according  to  the  nature  of' 
the  species  under  consideration.  Contrary  to 
notions  that  have  been  more  or  less  prevalent 
the  majority  of  bacteria  have  nothing  to  do 
with  disease  production.  Their  natural  rote  is 
that  of  scavengers.  They  are  concerned  in 
natifre's  great  laboratory,  the  soil,  in  working 
over  dead  organic  matters  into  forms  appro- 
priate to  the  nourishment  of  growing  vegeta- 
tion. Since  in  the  course  of  this  conversion 
dead  bodies  that  would  otherwise  encumber  the 
earth  are  caused  to  disappear  they  must  from 
both  the  Eesthetic  and  economic  standpoints  be 
regarded  as,  in  the  main,  benefactors.  In  this 
group  of  saprophytic  bacteria,  as  they  are  called, 
that  is,  those  that  live  on  dead  matters,  we 
encounter  species  of  the  greatest  interest  and 
importance.  It  is  here  that  we  perceive  the 
omnipresent  forms  concerned  in  the  reduction 
of  dead  animal  and  vegetable  tissues  into  such 
simple  forms  as  carbon  dioxide,  ammonia  and 
water  to  be  used  by  higher  plants.  It  is  in  this 
group  that  we  find  the  ever-present  nitrifying, 
denitrifying  and  nitrogen  fixmg  species  —  that 
is.  those  peculiar  ferments  that  assist  the  legu- 
minous plants  in  assimilating  free  atmospheric 
nitrogen;  those  that  oxidize  the  ammonia  of 
decomposition  to  the  nitrous  and  nitric  acids  so 
essential  to  plant  life,  and  those  that,  by  their 
reducing  function,  reverse  this  phenomenon ; 
those  that  convert  the  objectionable  organic 
matter  of  sewage  and  polluted  waters  into  an 
inert  inor^nic  form  and  those  that,  through 
their  specific  activities,  supply,  where  circum- 
stances are  favorable,  the  entire  commercial 
world  with  its  supply  of  saltpetre. 

The  saprophytic  group  also  comprehends 
many  species  used  in  the  arts  and  industries  — 
such,  for  instance,  as  those  concerned  in  the 
production  of  certain  organic  acids;  those  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  of  indigo  by  the 
fermentation  process  and  in  the  preparation  of 
hemp;  and  those  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of 
cheese  and  butter.  In  the  study  of  this  large 
group  one  constantly  encounters  other  species 
presenting  most  engaging  characteristics  — 
some  of  these,  the  chromogenii:  varieties,  have 
the  property  of  producing  during  the  course  of 
their  growth  pigments  of  great  beauty  —  bril- 
liant reds,  delicate  pinks,  nch  purples,  yellows 


ranging  from  the  palest  lemon  to  the  deepest 
orange,  are  those  most  often  encountered.  In 
another  group,  the  photogenic,  we  meet  with 
species  having  the  emission  of  light  as  their 
most  singular  peculiarity.  When  growing 
these  forms  glow  with  a  peculiar  phosphores- 
cence, and  it  is  significant  to  note  that  these 
luminous  varieties  have  been  most  frequently 
encountered  in  the  sea  and  upon  articles  from 
the  sea.  The  evil  odors  of  putrefaction  are 
the  results  of  saprophytic  bacterial  development. 
In  the  parasitic  group  of  bacteria  we  encounter 
those  species  that  exist  always  at  the  expense 
of  a  living  host,  either  animal  or  vegetable,  and 
in  doing  so  not  only  appropriate  materials 
necessary  to  life,  but  give  off  in  return  waste 
products  that  may  act  as  direct  poison  to  die 
host.  Fortunately  this  is  a  much  smaller  group 
than  is  the  saprophytic  m'entioned  above.  In  no 
particulars,  save  for  their  ability  to  exist  at  the 
expense  oi  a  living_  host  and  cause  disease,  are 
the  disease-producing  bacteria  distinguishable 
from  the  innocent  varieties.  The  essential  dif- 
ference between  the  disease-producing  and  the 
innocent  bacteria  species  is  that  the  former 
possess  as  their  most  striking  physiological 
peculiarity  the  power  of  elaborating  poisons, 
toxins,  technically  speaking,  that  have  a  direct 
destructive  action  upon  the  tissues  of  their  host. 
In  some  cases  the  poisons  may  properly  be  re- 
garded 33  secretions  of  the  bacteria,  and,  under 
artificial  conditions  of  cultivation,  may  easily 
be  separated  from  the  living  bacteria  elaborat- 
ing them.  This  is  especially  true' of  the  poisons 
ol  diphtheria  and  tetanus  or  lock-jaw.  When 
thus  separated  such  poisons,  entirely  independ- 
ent of  the  living  bacteria,  retain  the  s~pecific 
property  of  causing  the  symptoms  and  ittany  of 
the  pathological  changes  that  characterize  the 
growtlr«f  tac  living  bacteria  in  ihe  tissues.  In 
other  oases  the  poisons  cannot  'be  so  "rftadily 
separated;  they  appear  to  be  an  integral  con- 
stituent of  the  protoplasm  of  which  the  hacMria 
are  composed.  This  is  especially  the  case  with 
the  toxihs,  of  bacillus  typhosus,  bacillus  dysen- 
ieria  and  spirillum  ckolera  Asiatics  —  ihe  or- 
ganisms concerned  in  the  causation  of  typhoid 
fever,  epidemic  dysentery  and  Asiatic  cholera, 
respectively.  In  the  case  of  'still  other  patho- 
genic species  there  is  little  doubt  that  specific 
mtoxicants  are  in  one  way  or  another  elabo- 
rated during  infection,  but  as  yet  they  have  not 
been  satisfactorily  demonstrated.  Nevertheless, 
it  ma;^  be  said  that,  in  general,  infection  by 
bacteria  is  to-day.  regarded  as  essentially  a 
chemical  phenomenon  — that  is,  as  a  reaction 
between  the  poisons  elaborated  by  the  bacteria 
and'^e  tissues  with  which  they  come  iq^  con- 
tact ;  the  result  of  th*  reaction  being  the  partial 
or  cotfiplete  death  of  the  host  in  which  the 
phenonxnon  is  in  operation. 


and  Spitta,  'An  Atlas  of  Bacteriology'; 

G.  Sims  Woodhead,  M.D.,  'Bacteria  and  "nieir 
Products.* 

A.  C.  Abboit, 
Bacteriologist,  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
BACTERICIDE,  any  agent  capable  of 
killing  bacteria.  The  older  terms,  antiseptic, 
germicide,  etc.,  cover  too  broad  a  field,  and  the 
word  bactericidal  has  come  to  mean  something 
more  definite  and  exact  than  the  older  terms. 


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BACTBSIOLOGY 


Heat  is  one  ol  the  best  bacterial  agenti.  Cold 
ia  not  bactericidal.  Even  the  lowest  tempera' 
tares  do  not  destroy  the  life  of  bacteria.  The 
metallic  salts  and  me  phenols  are  the  bacteri' 
ddal  agmits  most  in  use.  The  aldehydes,  for- 
maldehydes, bengal  dehydes  are  also  cffidenL 
See  Antiseptic;  Gbrwicides. 

BACTBSIOLOGY.  Though  generally 
considered  a  modem  science,^  and  perhaps  prop- 
erly as  regards  certain  of  its  most  important 
,  develonmcntal  aspects,  bacteriology  in  reality 
dates  trom  the  observations  of  the  Dutch  inves- 
tigator Leeuwenboek  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
I/tb  century.  With  simple  lenses  ground  by 
himself,  Leeuwenboek  discovered  in  the 
noutb,  in  the  excreta,  in  water  and  in  other 
matters  examined  by  bim,  the  presence  of 
countless  bodies  of  smaller  dimensions  than 
,'Uiylhing  hitherto  seen.  These  "animalcules,* 
as  he  called  them,  were  often  observed  to  move 
themselves  about  in  a  remarkably  energetic 
manner,  and,  judging  from  his  text  and  illustra- 
tions, they  were  doubtless  the  bodies  we  now 
recognize  as  bacteria.  Leeuwenhoek's  observa- 
tions were  immediately  seized  upon  by  the 
jihilosopbers  of  the  day  as  offering  an  explana- 
tion for  many  hitherto  unexplained  phenomena. 
So  general  became  the  belief  in  a  casual  rela- 
tion between  the  'animalcules"  and  all  mamier 
of  disease  conditions  that  for  a  time,  we  are 
told,  there  prevailed  ahnost  a  'germ  mania." 

To  the  investigators  of  the  time  the  <^uestion 
of  greatest  fascination  in  connection  with  this 
newly~<liscovered  world  was  as  to  its  origin. 
Uany  believed  and  stoutly  maintained  that  the 
•aniniaicules"  were  the  products  of  metamor- 

Ehosis  of  either  living  or  dead  tissues  of  more 
ighly  organized  beings;  others  that  they  arose 
de  ttovo  in  'putrescent  atmospheres*;  many 
suspected  them  of  spontaneous  generation  in 
some  other  mysterious  way;  while  a  few  main- 
tained, on  experimental  evidence,  that  they  were 


it  took  nearly  two  centuries  to  close  £nal|v  that 
debate  and  to  prove  that  the  dictum  of  Harvey 
'ontnt  vivum  tx  ovo°  or  better,  its  appropriate 
inodification  'omne  vivum  ex  vivo'  was  as  ap- 
alicable  to  the  microscopic  as  to  the  world  of 
higher  beings.  In  its  modem  asjKct  bacteriol- 
ogy dates  from  the  epoch-making  investigations 
especially  of  Koch  and  of  Pasteur  conducted 
during  the  8th  decade  of  the  19th  century. 
I>urins  that  period  observations  were  made  and 
methods  of  work  devised  that  went  far  toward 
starting  the  subject  on  its  career  as  a  science. 
In  the  study  of  bacteria,  as  of  all  otber  fonns 
of  life,  it  is  essential  to  a  correct  interpretation 
of  form  and  physiological  function  that  the  ob- 
servations be  made  upon  isolated,  species. 
Prior  to  the  period  mentioned  this  was  not 
possible,  for  the  methods  in  vogue  were  insuffi- 
cient for  the  separation  of  these  minute  crea- 
tures  from  one  another.  For  the  development 
of  the  science  probably  the  most  important  step 
was,  therefore,  the  introduction  by  Koch  ot 
trustworthy  methods  for  the  separation  of 
individual  bacterial  qwcies  from  mixtures  of 
them^  and  for  the  more  or  less  complete  de- 
termination of  their  specific  mor^iola^cai 
and  physiological  peculiarities;  that  is,  for  tbe 
isolation  and  study  of  bacteria  in  *pure  cultiva- 
tioii,*  M  it  is  tedmically  called.    Up  to  tbe  time 


of  Koch's  classical  research  upon  the  methods 
of  investJgatinR  bacteria,  tbeir  study  bad  been 
conducted  in  fluid  materials;  that  is,  in  infu- 
sions of  either  vegetable  or  animal  matters,  in 


ipeciet  are  indistinguishable  from  one  another 
1:^  their  size,  shape  and  general  aniearance,  it 
was  obviously  impossible,  by  the  older  methods 
of  study,  either  to  be  certain  if  one  were  deal- 
ins  with  one  or  more  species  in  the  fluids  in 
wluch  they  were  growing,  or  to  separate  the 
one  from  the  other  in  case  of  confu»on,  Koch 
appreciated  this  defect  and  suggested  the  usa 
of  solid  materials  as  culture  media,  hoping 
thereby  to  reproduce  the  conditions  so  often 
seen  when  such  organic  matters  as  bread, 
potato,  cheese,  etc,  become  moldy  on  exposure 
to  air.  Here  one  sees  the  mold  not  always  as 
an  inerlricable  mixture  of  different  species,  but 
often  as  sharply  isolated  islands  of  beginning 
growth  —  as  mold  colonies  —  so  to  speak. 
These,  on  examination^  are  usually  found  to 
consist  of  single  species,  and  on  a  slice  of 
moistened  bread  one  maj  often  observe  several 
colonies  of  distinct  species  growing-  side  1^ 
side  without,  for  a  time  at  least,  encroaching 
one  upon  another.  By  appropriate  methods  it 
is  easily  possible  to  transplant  such  colonies, 
free  from  admixture  with  other  forms,  and 
Study  them  as  'pure  cultures.*  But  such  sub- 
stances as  bread,  potato,  etc.,  are  not  in  general 
as  well  adapted  to  the  study  of  bacteria  as  to 
that  of  molds.  Appreciating  this  Koch  demon- 
strated that  tbe  addition  of  gelatin  to  the  in- 
fusions that  had  been  employed  for  the  success- 
ful cultivation  of  bacteria  converted  them  into 
practically  solid  culture  media  without  robbing 
them  of  any  of  their  useful  properties;  ana 
that  by  the  appropriate  employment  of  such 
solid  media  it  was  easilv  possible  to  separate  as 
pure  cultures  the  individual  species  composing 
the  mixtures  of  bacteria  that  one  desired  to 
analyze.  Thus,  for  example,  if  a  tube  of  gela- 
tinized beef  tea.  freed  from  all  living  bacteria  . 
by  heat,  be  gently  warmed  until  liquified,  and  be 
then  inoculated  with  a  mixture  of  several  spe- 
cies of  bacteria,  growth  at  once  begins  and  if 
left  in  the  test-tube  progresses  in  about  the 
same  manner  as  if  the  beef  tea  did  not  contain 
gelatin;  but  if  while  still  warm  and  fluid  the 
contents  of  the  tube  be  poured  out  upon  a  flat, 
cold  surface,  the  increased  area  causes  the 
bacteria  to  become  more  widely  separated  from 
one  another  and  the  lower  temperature  results 
in  the  solidification  of  the  gelatin,  so  that  each 
bacterium  is  fiiied  in  its  new  position.  It  at 
once  begins  to  germinate,  and  presently  a 
'colony*  results:  tie  surface  ultimately  becom- 
ing studded  witn  such  cplonies.  As  the  colo- 
nies from  the  different  species  difier  from  one 
another  in  mamr  ways  —  in  outline,  texture, 
color,  effect  of  their  growth  on  the  gelatin,  etc 
—  it  is  ea^ly  possible,  after  a  little  practice,  to 
distinguish  them  by  the  naked  eye  and  by 
transplanting  them  to  tubes  of  sterile  culture 
media  to  study  them  without  die  disturbing 
presence  of    other   species ;    that  ts,    in    pure 

The  introduction  of  this  method  for  the 
isolation  and  study  of  bacterial  species  in  pure 
cultivation  certainly  constitutes  the  most  im- 
portant Btimulua  to  the  development  of  modem 


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30 


BACTEKIOLOGY 


bacteriology.  By  it  results  were  placed  upon  a 
more  secure  basis  than  ever  before,  and  a  con- 
fidence in  tbe  work  such  as  baxl  never  existed 
was  awakened  in  the  minds  of  all  students  of 
the  subject. 

The  studies  that  had  been  made  by  Pasteur 
upon  fermentation;  upon  the  souring  of  wines; 
upon  the  maladies  of  silk  worms,  and  Upon 
certain  fatal  eiMzootics  of  fowls  and  domestic 
cattle ;  together  with  Koch's  fundamental 
studies  upon  the  infections  of  wounds  and  the 
appropriate  methods  of  analyzing  than  were 
rich  in  suggestion  to  the  pioneers  in  this  new 
field.  WtOun  a  comparatively  brief  period  af- 
ter the  adoption  of  the  new  methods  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  exciting  causes  of  many  hitherto 
obscure  diseases  was  greatly  extended;  it  was 
shown  to  be  possible  to  determine  the  modes  of 
their  transmission  and  the  channels  through 
which  infection  occurred.  The  conditions  most 
favorable  to  the  successful  action  of  a  host  of 
substances  employed  for  the  purpose  of  disin- 
fection were  accurately  determined.  And  earl^ 
in  the  work  observations  were  made  that  indi- 
cated the  possibility  of  successful  vaccination 
against  disease  through  the  use  of  attenuated 
(weakened)  living  cultures  of  specific  disease- 
producins  bacteria.  One  of  the  most  important 
outgrowtns  of  modern  bacteriology  has  resulted 
from  its  application  to  the  problems  of  the  sani- 
tary engineer.  As  a  result  of  these  studies  we 
know  that  sewage,  polluted  waters  and  polluted 
soils  tend  naturally  to  revert  to  a  state  of  purity 
if  their  pollution  be  checked  and  that  this  pro- 
gressive purification  is  due  in  large  part  to  the 
activities  of  the  bacteria  located  within  them. 
It  has  been  found  that  by  the  appropriate  ad- 
justment of  conditions  the  normal  activity  of 
the  bacteria  may  be  so  greatly  accentuated  as  to 
constitute  them  the  most  important  factors  in 
the  purification  of  polluted  waters  and  sewage. 
The  utilization  of  these  facts  is  conspicuously 
illustrated  in  the  purification  of  water  by  the 
process  of  natural  sand  filtration  and  in  the 
inirification  of  sewage  by  irrigation;  by  the  sep- 
tic tank  process,  etc  In  these  methods  liv 
ing  bactena  and  other  living  microscopic  organ- 
isms, and  they  alone,  are  the  instruments 
through  which  the  results  are  attained.  The 
sand  grains  in  the  filters  and  the  particles  of 
soil  in  the  irrigation  fields  serve  only  as  objects 
to  wluch  the  micro-organisms  can  attach  them- 
selves and  multiply.  By  the  normal  life  proc- 
esses of  the  bacteria  the  polluting  organic 
matters  in  the  fluids  to  be  purified  are  used  up 
and  inert  matters  given  off  as  a  result 

In  the  study  of  agricultural  phenomena  from 
the  bacteriological  standpoint  knowledge  has 
been  equally  extended.  At  one  time  it  was 
taught  that  atmospheric  nitrogen  —  represent- 
ing roughly  80  per  cent  of  the  air  by  volume  — 
was  of  no  direct  biological  significance.  This 
view  has  tn  late  years  been  entirely  revised.  We 
have  Teamed  that  the  leguminous  plants  when 
assisted,  symhiotically,  by  certain  soil  bacteria, 
are  enabled  to  make  up  uieir  nitrogen  deficit  in 
large  part  from  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air;  a 
fact  that  sheds  important  light  upon  the  signifi- 
cance of  plants  of  this  type  in  the  practice  of 
"rotation  of  crops."  Under  normal  conditions 
instead  of  impoverishing  the  soil,  the  legumens 
—  clover,  peas,  beans,  etc. —  with  the  aid  of  the 
bacteria  attached  to  their  roots,  may  actually 
enrich  it     The   application  of  bactcriolo^c^ 


methods  to  the  stnd^  of  dairy  processes  has  re- 
vealed the  interesting  fact  that  the  delicate 
flavors  to  which  butters  and  cheeses  owe  their 
commercial  value  are  directly  due  to  the  prod- 
ucts of  growth  of  certain  species  or  groups  of 
species  of  bacteria  and  more  tu^ly  organized 
molds.  A  number  of  such  species  have  been 
isolated  and  are  kept  in  ^ure  cultivation  —  so 
that  by  purposely  inoculating  the  fresh  cream 
with  them  butter  of  uniform  flavor  may  with 
comparative  ease  be  produced. 

Probabl)^  the  most  important  results  of  ap-  < 
plied  bacteriolo^  are  those  in  connection  with 
preventive  medicme.  Early  in  the  course  of  the 
work  it  was  discovered  by  Pasteur  tliat  certain 
virulent  pathogenic  bacteria  when  kept  under 
particular  conditions  gradually  lost  their  dis- 
ease-producing power,  wholly  or  in  part,  with- 
out their  other  life  properties  bein^  conspicu- 
ously disturbed.  If  injected  into  animals  when 
in  this  attenuated  state  the  result  was  a  mild, 
temporary  and  modified  form  of  infection  usu- 
ally followed  by  recovery.  With  recovery  the 
animals  so  treated  were  immune  from  the  ac- 
tivities of  the  fully  virulent  bacteria  of  the  same 
species ;  in  other  words,  they  had  been  protected 
from  the  fatal  injection  by  vaccination  with  an. 
attenuated  species.  The  subsequent  develop- 
ments growing  out  of  this  observation  have  re- 
sulted in  the  annual  saving  of  millions  of  money 
throu^  the  successful  vaccination  of  sheen 
horses  and  bovines  against  the  fatal  infection 
known  as  splenic  fever  or  anthrax,  and,  thou^ 
less  successful^  of  other  domestic  animals 
against  other  infections  also.  In  the  closer 
analysis  of  the  means  by  which  infective  bac- 
teria cause  disease  it  soon  became  evident  that 
it  is  through  the  elaboration  of  specific  poisons; 
sometimes  easily  separated  from  the  bacteria, 
at  others  so  intimately  associated  with  the  bac- 
terial tissues  as  to  make  their  separation  diffi- 
cult or  impossible.  The  question  arose  as  to  the 
effect  of  me  poisons,  separated  from  the  living 
bacteria,  upon  the  animals  susceptible  to  infec- 
tion by  the  bacteria  themselves,  and  it  was 
found  that  fatal  intoxications  often  accom- 
panied by  the  same  constitutional  symptoms  and 
pathological   lesions    followed   the   use   of   the 

foisons,  just  as  they  would  follow  inoculations 
y  the  tracteria  W  which  they  were  produced. 
In  pursuance  of  this  topic  it  was  discovered  that 
if  very  small,  only  mildly  intoxicating,  doses  of 
these  specific  poisons  of  bacterial  ongin  were 
repeatedly  injected  into  susceptible  animals, 
after  a  while  the  tatter  acquired  not  only 
B  sort  of  tolerance  to  them,  but  a  tolerance  that 
was  accompanied  by  the  presence  in  the  circu- 
lating blood  of  an  antidote  for  these  poisons  — 
an  •antitoxin,'  as  it  is  called.  This  reaction  has 
been  shown  to  be  possible  for  a  number  of 
specific  infections,  and  in  the  case  of  diphtheria 
has  met  with  sooi  practical  success  as  to  be 
deservedly  regarded  as  the  triumph  of  modem 
medicine. 

Bibliography.—  Abbott,  'Principles  of 
Bacteriology*^  (Philadelphia  1909)  ;  Ball.  *Es- 
sentlals  of  Bacteriology'  (ib.  1913);  FltiEEe, 
'Die  Mikroo^nismen* ;  Friedlandcr.  'Mi- 
krosko^sche  Technik*  (Berlin  1900) :  Koch, 
'Zur  Untersuchung  von  pathenogenen  (jrganis- 
men*  f!881)  ;  idj.  'Untersuchungen  iiber  <Ue 
Aetiologie  der  Wundiofections-Krankheiten' ; 
Leeiiwenhoek  Antonio  von,  'Arcana  NaturK* 
<]695);    Loffler,    'Vorlesungen    nber    die    g»- 


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BACTXRTOLYTIC  —  BAD  LANDS 


SI 


schichtUdie  Entwickelang  der  Lehre  von  den 
Bakterien* ;  Mallory  and  Wright.  'Pathological 
Technique)  (Philadelphia  1913) ;  Mason, 
'Water  Supply  from  the  Sanitary  Standpoint'; 
'MetcfanUcatt,  'L'lmmaniti  dans  les  mala<Ues 
infectieuses'  <1901);Muir  and  Ritchie, 'Manual 
of  Bacteriok^'  (New  York  1913) ;  Newman, 
'Bacteriology  and  the  Public  Health'  (Phila- 
delphia 1904) ;  Park,  'Bacteriolo^  in  Medicine 
and  Surgery*;  Reckets  and  Didc,  'Infection, 
Immunin'  and  Serum  Therapy' ;  Russel,  'Out- 
lines of  Dairy  Bacteriology'  (1899) ;  Sternberg, 
<BacteTioloBy'  (New  York  1901) ;  Thoma, 
'Lehrbuch  der  pathologischen  Anatomic'  (trans. 
by  Bmce,  London  1896);  Tyndall,  'Essays  on 
tne  Floatmg  Matter  in  tne  Air> ;  VaUeryRadot, 
<lite  of  Pasteur' ;  Zinsser,  'Infection  and  Re- 
sistance' (New  York  1914). 

Alexandeb  C.  Abbott, 
Bacterioiogiit,   University  of  Pennsylvimia. 

BACTERIOLYTIC,  an  agent  capable  of 
destroying  bacteria  and  usually  applied  to  some 
product  of  the  human  body  or  of  an  animal 
body,  notably  blood  serum,  which  when  in- 
jected into  an  animal  is  capable  of  destroying 
some  form  of  micro-organism  in  that  animaL 
The  production  of  specific  bacteriolytic  scra_  is 
one  of  the  great  advances  in  roodeni  medicine 
and  its  extension  promises  much  hope  for  the 
future  treatment  of  many  of  the  bacterial  dis- 
eases. Bacteriolytic  sera  have  been  made  for 
a  number  of  micro-organisms.     See  luMUNrrv. 

BACTESIUH,  a  genus  of  bacteria  of  the 
family  Bacillariacta,  characterized  by  rod- 
ibaped  forms  and  absence  of  flagella.  They 
are  thus  non-motile.  A  lar^e  numoer  of  path- 
ogenic bacteria  belong  to  this  geniu.  See  Bac- 
tesia;  BAau-us. 

BACTRIAH  CAHBL.    See  Camel. 

BACTRIAHA,  bak-tH-i'na,  or  BACTRIA, 
a  coimtiy  of  the  ancient  Persian  empire,  lying 
north  of  the  Hindu  Kush  Mountains  on  the 
upper  Oxus.  It  corresponded  almost  with  the 
modem  Balkh  in  Afghanistan.  Here  many 
scholars  locate  the  original  home  of  the  Aryan 
or  Indo-European  family  of  nations.  Its  cap- 
ital, Bactra,  or  Zariaipa,  was  also  the  craole 
of  the  Zoroastrian  religion.  Originally  a  pow- 
erful kingdom,  it  maintained  its  independence 
until  its  subjugation  by  Cyrus  about  540  B.C., 
when  it  became  a  satrap};  of  the  Persian  em- 
pire. It  was  included  in  the  conquests  of 
Alexander  and  formed  a  part  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  SeieucidK  until  the  foundation,  about 
2S6  B.C,  by  Diodotus,  of  the  Greek  kingdom  of 
Bactria,  which  extended  to  the  Indus  and 
which,  after  a  long  struggle,  was  overthrown 
by  the  Parthians.  Numerous  coins  with  Greek 
leiirends  have  been  found  in  the  topti  or  burial 
places  to  the  northeast  of  Kabul. 

BACTRIS,  a  genus  of  American  palms, 
numbering  more  than  SO  species.  The  genus 
b  of  commercial  importance,  a  tough  thread 
used  for  net  weaving  being  made  from  the 
6bres  of  Bactris  acantkocarpa.  and  walking- 
sticks  are  manufactured  from  tne  long,  slender 
stems  of  Bactris  maraja.  The  fruit  of  the  lat- 
ter is  considered  a  delicacy. 

BACTRITBS,  bik-trTtez,  a  genus  of  fossil 
ammonites,  with  a  straight  ^ell  and  indented, 
but  not  ramified,  septa.  The  genus  ranges  from 
the  lower  Silunan  to  tfce  Devonian. 


BACTRUS,  the  ancient  name  of  a  river  in 
the  khanat  of  Balkh,  Afghan  Turkestan,  upon 
which  Bactria  was  situated. 

BACULITBS,  bik'u-irtei,  a  genus  of  fossil 
ammonites,  characteristic  of  chalk  formations, 
having  a  straight,  tapering  shell. 

BACITP,  bftk'up,  England,  town  of  Lanca- 
shire, 18  miles  north  from  Manchester.  There 
are  a  number  of  churches,  chapels  and  schools, 
a  mechanics'  institute,  courthouse,  market- 
hall,  large  co-operative  stores,  etc.  The  chief 
manufacturing  establishments  are  connected 
with  cotton  spinning  and  power-loom  weaving; 
there  are  also  iron  and  brass  foundries  and 
macbine-shops,  dye-works,  etc.,  and  in  the 
neighborhood  coal-pits  and  vast  stone  quar- 
ries. Its  charier  of  incorporation  was  granted 
in  18S2  and  since  that  time  great  improvements 
have  been  made  in  its  condition  and  appear- 
ance. It  has  a  sewage  farm  for  the  utilization 
of  town  refuse.    Pop.  about  22,500. 

BAD  LANDS,  a  name  applied  to  portions 
of  the  arid  regions  of  the  west,  which  present 
wide  areas  of  hills  and  riches  of  moderate 
he^cht,  bare  .of  sod  and  intricately  broken  by 
numerous  gtillies  and  ravines.  The  principal 
areas  are  in  the  western  Dakotas  and  central 
Wyoming  and  smaller  examples  of  bad-land 
topography  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
and  r^ons  in  various  portions  of  the  world. 
In  the  Big  Bad  Lands  of  western  South  Dakota, 
east  of  the  Black  Hills,  there  is  an  area  ol 
about  2,000  square  miles  which  consists  largely 

~f  bad  lands  occupyi ' — ■•—  ' — '• —  — '  ■- 

plateau  along  the  \ 


of  bad  lands  occupying  extensive  basins  cut  ii 
aplateau  along  the  White  and  Cheyenne  rivers. 
They  present  wonderfully  weird  scenery,  but 


are  rarely  visited  by  the  average  si^tse 
An  extensive  area  in  the  valley  of  the  Little 
Missouri  River  is  crossed  by  the  Northern 
Pacific  Railroad  in  the  vicinity  of  Medora  and 
many  bad-land  features  are  visible  near  the 
railroad.  Typical  bad  lands  present  ridges 
and  mesas  from  200  to  400  feet  hi^  in  greater 
part,  eroded  into  fantastic  shapes  and  cut  by 
ravines  and  gullies  into  an  endless  variety  of 
rugged  buttresses  and  pinnacles.  The  male- 
rials  are  mainly  light-coloredj  sandv  clays  and 
soft  sandstones  in  nearly  honzontal  strata  and 
their  bare  slopes  are  dazzling  in  the  bririit 
sunlight.  Most  bad  land  regions  were  table- 
lands originallv  and  areas  of  the  old  surface 
remain  in  level-topped,  grass-covered  mesas  of 
various  sizes,  with  bad  land  slopes  extending 
to  flat-bottomed  valleys  of  greater  or  less 
width.  Bad  lands  exhibit  clearly  the  close  re- 
lations  of  topc^raphic  form  to  rock  texture, 
the  homogeneous  clays  being  carved  into  re^- 
lar  slopes  in  which  sandstone  layers  give  nse 
to  benches  or  protect  columns  and  pinnacles 
of  clay.  Bad  lands  are  developed  in  soft 
rocks  where  a  region  has  been  so  uplifted  that 
there  is  rapid  erosion,  under  arid  or  semi-arid 
climatic  conditions.  The  occasional  rains  cut 
gullies  which  eventually  are  deepened  into 
ravines  and,  as  the  rocks  are  soft,  the  erosion 
progresses  more  rapidly  than  vegetation  can 
establish  itself.  In  regions  of  abundant  rain- 
fall, vegetation  is  so  vigorous  that  it  usually 
forms  3  protective  mantle  on  all  but  the  steeper 
slopes,  but  in  arid  lands  a  thin  sod  is  the 
principal  growth  and  it  is  quickly  removed  by 
the  rapid  run-off  of  the  torrential  rains.  The 
Big  Bad  Lands  of  South  Dakota  have  yielded 


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BADAGSI  —  BADEN 


large  numbers  of  fossil  animals  of  late  Eotene 
age,  which  have  made  the  rc^on  famous  as  a 
collecting  ground. 

N.  H.  Dabton, 
United  States   Geological  Survey. 

BADAGRI,  ba'd4-gre,  or  BADAGRY,  a 
seaport  of  southern  Nigeria,  British  West 
Africa.  Eariy  in  its  history  it  was  a  noted 
slave  mart  contained  important  manufac- 
tories, and  had  a  population  of  10,000.  It  was 
from  this  place  that,  in  1825,  Clapperton  and 
Lander  started  to  explore  the  African  interior. 

BADAJOZ.  ba'da-hoth',  the  capital  of  the 
Spanish  province  of  Badajoz,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Guadiana,  which  is  crossed  by  a  granite 
bridge  of  28  arches.  It  is  a  bishop's  see  and 
has  an  interesting  cathedral  begun  id  the  mid- 
dle of  the  13th  century,  its  choir  richly  and  tine' 
ly  carved  in  the  Renaissance  style.  The  city, 
which  is  only  five  miles  from  the  Portuguese 
boundary,  is  a  place  of  great  strength,  as  be- 
fits   its    stormy   history,    and    with    its    walls. 


and  it  was  besieged  by  the  Portuguese  in  1660 
and  1705.  During  the  Peninsular  War  Bada- 
ioi  was  besieged  t»  Marshal  Soult  and  taken 
by  him  in  March  1911  as  the  result  of  treach- 
ery. British  forces  twice  unsuccessfully  at- 
tempted its  recapture  on  5  and  29  May  1811; 
it  was  besieged  by  Wellington  on  16  March 
and  taken  6  April  1812  An  abortive  revolu- 
tionary rising  took  place  here  in  1812.  Bada- 
ioz  was  the  birthplace  of  Morales  the  painter. 
Pop.    (1910)    35,0S», 

BADAKHSHAN.  ba'd^kh-shan',  a'province 
of  Afghanistan.  It  has  the  Oxiis  on  the  north 
and  the  Hindu  Kush  on  the  south;  and  has 
lofty  mountains  and  fertile  valleys;  the  chief 
town  is  Paizabad  There  are  lapis  lazuli  and 
ruby  mines.  The  inhabitants  —  Tajiks  and 
Turks  —  prof  ess   Mohammedanism.     Pop.   100,- 


lona.  It  is  situated  in  a  fertile  region  which 
produces  grain,  oranges  and  a  great  variety 
of  vegetables.  The  town  has  experienced  rapid 
industrial  growth  and  manufactures  wine. 
There  are,  besides,  shipyards,  sugar  and  petro- 
leum refineries  and  glass  works,  the  latter  the 
largest  in  Spain.  A  considerable  coastwise 
trade  is  carried  on.     Pop.    (1910)  20,957. 

BADDBCK',  a  (iahing  village  and  sununer 
resort  on   Cape  Breton  Island. 

BADDERLOCKS  (alaria  esculenla),  an 
olive-colored  sea  weed  which  grows  on  rocks 
in  deep  water  on  the  shores  of  Europe  and 
Iceland.  It  has  a  short  cylindrical  stem  with 
lateral  spore -bearing  process  and  a  membra- 
nous olive-green  frond  of  2  to  12  feet  long, 
with  a  stout  midrib.  This  midrib,  together 
with  the  fruits,  is  eaten  by  the  inhabitants  of 
the  sea  roasts  of  Iceland,  Denmark,  Scotland, 
Ireland,  etc.,  and  is  said  to  be  the  best  of  the 
esculent  algx  *when  eaten  raw.'  The  name 
is  supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  balder-locks. 

BADEAU,  b^-do',  Adam,  American  mil' 
itary  officer:  b.  New  York.  29  Dec.  1831;  d 
19  March  1895 ;  was  educated  at  private  schools. 
He  served  with  gallantry  in  the  Union  army 
during  the  Civil  War;  was  on  the  staff  of  Gen- 


eral Sherman  in  1862-63  and  secretary  to  Gen- 
eral Grant  in  1864-M;  and  in  the  latter  year  was 

retired  with  the  rank  of  captain  in  the  regular 
army  and  of  brevet  brigadier-general  qf  volun- 
teers and  was  appointed  secretary  of  legation 
in  London.  He  was  consul-general  in  Lon- 
don, 1870-81,  and  during  this  period  was  given 
leave  of  absence  to  accompany  General  Grant 
on  his  tour  around  the  world  (1877-78).  In 
1882-84  he  was  consul-general  in  Havana.  Af- 
ter the  death  of  General  Grant  he  brought  suit 
against  his  heirs  for  payment  of  services  ren- 
dered in  the  preparation  of  General  Grant's 
'Memoirs,'  which  was  satisfactorily  settled 
out  of  court.  His  publications  include  'The 
Vagabond'  (New  York  1889) ;  <Miliury  His- 
tory of  Ulyssea  S.  Grant'  (3  vols.,  1867-81); 
'Conspiracy;  A  Cuban  Romance'  (1885) ; 
'Aristocracy  in  England'  (1886)  ;  and  'Grant 
in  Peace'    (1886). 

BADEN,  ba'din,  a  ^rand  duchy  in  the 
German  empire.  The  Rhine  separates  it  from 
Alsace  on  the  east  and  Wiirtemberg  bounds  it 
on  the  west.  It  has  an  area  of  5^823  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  2,142333  in  19ia 
The  country  is  mountainous,  being  traversed 
by  the  lofty  plateau  of  the  Schwarzwald,  or 
Black  Forest,  which  attains  its  highest  point 
in  the  Feldberg  (4,904  feet).  The  nucleus  of 
this  plateau  consists  of  gneiss  and  granite. 
In  the  north  it  sinks  down  toward  the  Oden- 
wald,  which  is,  however,  of  different  geological 
structure,  being  composed  for  the  most  pari  of 
red  sandstone.  The  whole  of  Baden,  except  a 
small  portion  in  the  southeast,  in  which  the 
Danube  takes  its  rise,  belongs  to  the  basin  of 
the  Rhin^  which  bounds  it  on  the  south  and 
west.  Numerous  tributaries  of  the  Rhine  in- 
tersect it,  the  chief  being  the  Neckar,  Lakes 
are  numerous  and  inclutfe  a  considerable  part 
of  the  lake  of  Constance.  The  climate  varies 
much.  The  hilly  parts,  especially  in  the  east, 
are  cold  and  have  a  long  winter,  while  the  val- 
ley of  the  Rhine  enjoys  the  finest  climate  of 
Germany.  The  principal  minerals  worked  are 
coal,  salt,  iron,  zinc  and  nickel.  The  number 
of  mineral  springs  is  remarkably  great  and  of 


f  great  celebrity.  The 
egelation  is  peculiarly  rich  and  there  are  mag- 
lificent   forests.     The   cereals  comprise   wheat. 


oats,  barley  and  rye.  Potatoes,  hemp,  tobacco, 
wine  and  sugar  beet  are  largely  produced 
Several  gf  the  wines,  both  white  and  red,  rank 
in  the  first  class.  Baden  has  Iotw  been  famous 
for  its  fruits  also.  Of  the  total  area,  42  per 
cent  is  under  cultivation,  37  per  cent  under 
forest  and  17  per  cent  under  meadows  and  pas- 
tures. The  farms  are  mostly  quite  small.  The 
manufactures  are  important.  Among  them  are 
textiles,  tobacco  and  cigars,  chemicals,  ma- 
chinery, pottery  ware,  jewelry  (espcciall;^  at 
Pforiheim),  wooden  clocks,  confined  chiefly 
to  the  districts  of  the  Black  Forest,  musical 
boxes  and  other  musical  toys.  The  mineral 
production  is  comparatively  unimportant;  the 
chief  products  are  salt  and  building  stone.  The 
capital  is  Karlsruhe  (pop.  135,000),  about  five 
miles  from  the  Rhine ;  the  other  chief  towns 
arc  Mannheim,  Freiburg-im-Breisgau,  with  a 
Roman  Catholic  university,  Baden  and  Heidel- 
berg. Heidelberg  has  a  university  (Protes- 
tant), founded  in  1386,  the  oldest  in  the  present 
German  empire.  The  railways  have  a  length 
of  1,450  miles  and  are  nearly  all  state  propeny. 


digitized  byGoOgle 


tc  Badlandi  of  SoaCh  DikoU,  ibowinc  [ilmucla  ol  hard  cliy  capped  ij  undiiooc,  the  udleu  *lnpt, 

"■""" ■"  " ' '  "■"'"" "'  ""  ■'■  ° ■"'"'  lOogle 


b  the  BidUndi  ace  eroded 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


BADBH  — BADKNI 


In  the  time  of  the  Roman  empire,  southern 
Baden  belonged  to  the  Roman  province  of 
Rhvtia-  Under  Che  old  German  empire  il  was  a 
nurgravate,  which  in  \533  was  divided  into 
Baden-Baden  and  Baden-Durlach,  but  reunited 
in  1771.  The  title  of  grand  duke  was  conferred 
by  Napoleon  in  1S06  and  in  the  same  year 
Baden  was  extended  to  its  present  limits.  The 
Constitution  dates  from  22  Aug.  1818  and  was 
modified  in  1904.  Baden  entered  the  North 
German  Confederation  for  the  founding  of  the 
German  empire  by  treaty  of  15  Nov.  1870. 
The  executive  power  is  vested  in  the  grand 
duke,  the  le^slative  in  a  house  of  legisla- 
ture, consi.'^ting  of  an  upper  and  a  lower 
chamber.  The  former  consists  partly  of  hered- 
itary members,  eight  members  elected  for  eight 
years  by  the  landed  nobility,  the  archbishop  of 
Freiburg  and  the  Protestant  prelate  and  two 
representatives  of  state  universities ;  the  latter 
consists  of  elected  representatives  of  the  peo- 
ple. The  revenue  is  mainly  derived  from  taxes 
on  land  and  incomes  and  the  produce  of 
crown-lands,  forests  and  mines.  The  revenue 
in  1912  was  105,146,683  marks.  Baden  sends 
three  members  to  the  German  Bundcsrath,  or 
Federal  CounciL  and  14  deputies  to  the  Reich- 
stag. Two-thirds  of  the  population  are  Roman 
CaUiolics,  the   rest  Protestants. 

BADEN,  Switierland,  town  in  the  canton 
of  Aargau.  The  town  (Obek-Baden,  or  Ba- 
dbn-im-Aabcau)  is  12  miles  northeast  of 
Aarau,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Limmat.  It 
has  a  town-hall,  a  handsome  Roman  Catholic 
church,  a  convent,  monastery,  hospital,  etc., 
and  is  celebrated  for  hot  sulphurous  baths,  em- 
ployed in  treatment  of  gout,  rheumatism  and 
cutaneous  diseases.  The  hottest  springs  have 
a  temperature  of  116°  F.  The  Romans  were 
well  acquainted  with  the  baths  here ;  and  be- 
tween tic  15lh  and  18th  centuries  they  were 
the   most   celebrated   in    Europe.     Pop.   about 

8,5oa 

BADEN-BADEN  (anciently.  CmxAS 
AUBELIA  Aqi;ensis),  Germany,  town  and  wa- 
tering-place in  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  18 
miles  south- southwest  of  Karlsruhe.  The  old~ 
er  part  of  the  town  is  built  on  a  spur  of  the 
Black  Forest,  overhanging  the  valley  of  the 
little  stream  Oosbach.  The  houses  here  are  in 
general  old  and  high;  the  streets  mostly  nar- 
row and  crooked  and  nearly  all  steep.  The 
new  and  larger  poriion  of  the  town  lies  below 
and  is  rich  in  fine  hotels,  elegant  villas  and 
handsome  private  dwellings.  The  edifices 
most  deserving  of  notice  are  the  New  Palace, 
standing  on  an  isolated  height  above  the  town 
and  surrounded  by  fine  gardens ;  the  town  or 
parish  church,  containing  the  tombs  of  14  mar- 

f-aves  of  Baden;  the  Protestant  church,  the 
nglish  church  and  the  new  town-hall,  Ba- 
den has  been  celebrated  from  remote  antiquity 
for  its  thermal  baths,  which  made  it  a  favorite 
resort  of  the  Romans.  The  season  lasts  from 
1  May  to  31  October  and  70,000  visitors  ar- 
rive annually.    Pop.  (1910)  22,066. 

BADEN-BEI-WIBN,  b&'d«n-lM-vHi,  Aus- 
tria, a  watering  place  about  15  miles  south- 
southwest  of  Vienna.  It  was  the  Aquse  Pan- 
nonix,  or  Cethix  of  the  Romans  and  is  still 
famous  for  its  warm  mineral  springs,  which 
are  frequented  during  the  season  l^  from  12,- 
OOO  to  15,000  persons,  cbiefiy  from  the  Aus- 


trian capital.  The  town  has  the  usual  acces- 
sories of  a  fashionable  watering  resort  — 
large  bathing  establishments,  kursaal,  trink- 
halle,  summer  theatre,  etc.  In  the  neighbor- 
hood are  numerous  villas  belonging  to  the  Aus- 
trian nobility  and  some  interesting  ruins.  It 
became  a  ci6'  in  1640.  About  four  miles  from 
Baden  is  Meierling,  a  royal  hunting  lodge 
(now  a  convent),-  where  Crown  Prince  Ru- 
dolph of  Austria  met  his  tragic  death  in  1889. 
The  season  is  from  July  to  September,  -  P<»i. 
(1910)  19.073. 

BADEN-POWELL,  ba'din-pow"I,  Sm 
George  SmTth,  English  politician  and  political 
writer:  b.  Oxford.  24  Dec.  1847;  d.  20  Nov. 
1898.  He  was  official  inquirer  for  the  British 
government  on  several  important  questions, 
notably  on  the  Bering  Sea  disjHite ;  was  a 
member  of  the  joint  commLssion  in  Washing- 
ton in  1892  and  advised  in  the  conduct  and 
pr^aration  of  the  case  before  the  Bering  Sea 
arbitration  tribunal.  He  was  author  of  'New 
Homes  for  the  Old  Country>  (1872)^  a  store- 
house of  information  about  Australia;  'Pro- 
tection and  Bad  Times*  (1879)  ;  'State  Aid 
and  State  Interference*  (1882);  'The  Truth 
About  Home  Rule'  (1888);  'The  Land  Sys- 
tems of  India*  (1892);  etc.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Parliament  for  Liverpool  from  1885 
dll  his  death. 

BADBN-POWELL,  Sir  Robert  Stephen- 


School;  joined  the  13th  Hussars  in  1876;  was 
adjutant  in  India,  Afghanistan  and  south  Af- 
rica: assistant  military  secretary  on  the  staff 
in  South  Africa  in  1887-«»;  took  part  in  the 
operations  in  Zululand,  for  which  he  was  bi^- 
ly  commended,  in  1888;  assistant  mihtary  soc- 
reury  in  Malta  in  1890-93;  on  special  service 
in  Ashanti,  commanding  the  native  levies, 
189S,  for  which  he  was  brevetted  lieutenant- 
colonel;  chief  stafi  officer  in  the  Matabeleland 
campaign,  for  which  he  was  brevetted  colonel 
and  became  lieutenant-colonel,  commanding 
the  5th  Dragoon  Guards  in  1897.  In  the  war 
in  South  Africa  in  1899-1900.  he  signally  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  grand  defense  of 
Mafeking,  Cape  Province,  holding  the  town 
with  a  small  force  against  repeated  attacks,  un- 
der an  almost  continuous  bombardment,  from 
15  Oct.  1899  until  relieved  on  16  May  1900.  In 
recognition  of  this  heroic  defense  the  Queen 
promoted  Baden-Powell  to  be  a  major-general. 
He  founded  the  Boy  Scouts  organization  in 
1908,  His  literary  works  include  'Reconnais- 
sance and  Scouting'  (1890);  'Cavalry  In- 
struction' (1895):  'The  Downfall  of  Prem- 
peh*  (1896) ;  <Thc  Matebele  Campaign* 
(1896);  'Scouting  for  Boys'  (1908):  'My 
Adventures  as  a  Spy'  (1915);  'Indian  Remin- 
iscences*  (1915). 

BADENI,  ba'dJn-^  Caaimir  Felix,  Coont, 
Austrian  statesman:  b.  Poland,  14  Oct.  1846; 
d.  Vienna,  9  July  1909.  His  father,  though 
poor,  was  a  man  of  intellect  and  was  made  a 
count  by  the  King  of  Poland  just  before  the 
birth  of  Casimir.  He  also  fell  heir  to  a  for- 
tune and  his  two  sons  received  a  uuiversi^ 
education.  Casimir  entered  the  Austrian  cird 
service;  became  district  chief  at  Zolkiew  in 
1871 :  Minister  of  the  Interior  in  1873;  govern- 
or of  Galicia  in  1888;  and  Prime  Minister  of 


.Google 


BADEN  WBILER—  BADGER 


Amtria-Hungary,  15  Sept.  1895.  In  April 
1897,  because  of  inabili^  to  maintain  a  Lib- 
eral majority  in  the  newly-elected  Rdchsrath, 
he  resisned  with  his  cabinet,  but  the  Emperor 
decUned  to  accept  his  resignation  and  he  re- 
mained in  office  until  28  November,  when  he 
again  reined  and  a  new  cabinet  was  orgaii'- 
iied.  The  principal  feature  of  bis  administra- 
tion and  the  one  which  not  only  led  to  his  re- 
tirement from  politics  but  to  a  lon^  period  of 
political  agitation  was  his  introduction  of  what 
IS  linown  as  the  "language  ordinance,*  which 
allowed  tbe  oflicial  use  of  the  Czech  language 
in  Bohemia  and  Moravia.  This  measme 
alienated  the  Germans-  and  provoked  a  racial 
conflict  of  a  most  bitter  character  between 
them  and  the  Czechs. 

BADENWSILSH,  ba'din-vi-lir  Ger- 
many, watering  place  in  the  grand  duch]^  of 
Baden,  near  Mulheim.  Iti  mineral  springs 
are  now  rated  among  the  indifferent  waters  and 
it  is  of  interest  chieily  for  the  ruins  of  Roman 
baths  that  were  discovered  in  1847.  The 
foundation  of  the  town  is  referred  to  the 
time  of  Hadrian  and  the  remains  of  the  vapor 
baths,  of  which  there  are  excellent  spedmena, 
are  supposed  to  be  of  the  same  period.  The 
ruins  show  a  division  for  men  ancf  tor  women, 
each  having  a  large  outer  court  opening  into 
a  dressing-room;  Uiere  is  the  hot-air  bath,  the 
warm  bath  and  the  cold  bath.  The  walls  and 
Steps  are  in  their  original  position.  The  whole 
structure  is  318  feet  by  90  feet.  There  are 
beautiful  ^promenades  and  numerous  villas  in 
the  vicinity  and  the  town  contains  a  grand- 
ducal  palace  dating  from  the  16th  century. 

BADGE,  a  distinctive  device,  emblem, 
mark,  honorary  decoration  or  special  cogni- 
zance used  originally  to  identify  a  knight  or 
distinguish  his  followers,  now  worn  as  a  sign 
of  office  or  hcensed  employment,  as  a  token 
of  membership  in  some  sodety  or  generally 
as  3.  mark  showing  the  relation  of  the  wearer 
to  any  person,  occupation  or  order. 

BADGER,    Georgw     Kdmimd,     American 


statesman:  b  Newhem,  N.  C,  13  April  179S; 
d.  13  April  1866;  was  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege in  1813;  became  a  lawyer  at  Raleigh;  and 


tary  of  the  Navy  14  March  1841,  resigning 
after  the  deadi  of  President  Harrison,  and  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  1846 
and  1848.  Jn  1853  he  was  nominated  for  jus- 
tice of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  but 
was  not  confirmed.  He  served  in  the  State 
convention  called  to  pass  on  the  question  of 
secession,  although  opposed  1o  sucA  measure, 
and  after  making  a  strong  speech  in  defense 
of  the  Union,  was  afterward  known  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Conservative  party. 

BADGER,  Joseph,  American  clergyman, 
one  of  the  earliest  missionaries  to  die  country 
northwest  of  the  Ohio  RJver:  b.  Wilbraham, 
Mass.  28  Feb.  1757;  d.  S  May  184ti  He  re- 
ceived his  early  instruction  chiefly  from  hb 
parents  and  at  the  age  of  18  joined  the  Revo- 
lutionary army.  He  remained  in  service  for 
four  years,  then  determined  to  obtain  an  edu- 
cation and  engage  in  the  Christian  ministry. 
Entered  Yale  College  in  1781,  where  he  main- 
tained himself  and  his  scholarship  by  alter- 
nately Btnifying  and  teaching.     He   remained 


a  few  years  in  Connecticut,  then  in  1800  was 
selected  by  the  missionary  sodeU  of  that  State 
lo  visit  the  unsettled  parts  of  Ohio.  His  work 
took  him  from  settlement  to  settlement,  often 
more  than  a  day's  journey  apart,  through  a 
country  where  there  were  no  roads  and  across 
rivers  without  bridges.  During  the  War  of 
1812  he  was  ^pointed  by  General  Harrison 
chaplain  to  the  army  in  that  district  and  his 
knowledge  of  the  country  was  of  great  service 
to  that  commander-in-chief;  but  he  resumed 
his  missionary  functions  at  the  close  of  the 
war  and  conttnued  them  till  1835,  when  be  re- 
tired and  lived  with  his  only  dau^ter.  Dur- 
ing the  latter  years  of  bis  life  be  received  a 
pension  from  the  United  States  government 

BADGER,  Oscar  L.,  American  naval  of- 
ficer; b.  Windham,  Conn.,  12  Aug.  1823;  d. 
20  June  1899;  entered  the  United  States  navy 
9  Sept.  1841 ;  became  lieutenant-commander 
16  July  1862.  commander  25  July  1866;  cap- 
tain 2S  Nov.  "1872;  commodore  15  Nov.  1881; 
and  was  retired  12  Au^.  1885.  He  served  on 
the  steamer  Mississippi  during  the  Mexican 
War,  taking  part  in  the  attack  on  Alvaradot 
1846;  led  the  parly  that  attacked  and  destroyed 
the  village  of  Vutia,  Fiji  Islands,  while  on  the 
stoop  /ohti  Adams,  1855-56;  and  in  the  Gvil 
War  commanded  the  Anacostia  of  the  Poto- 
mac flotilla,  1861-63  and  the  ironclads  Palap- 
sco  and  Monlauk,  in  the  operations  in  Charles- 
ton harbor  in  1863;  and  while  acting  fleet 
captain  on  the  flagship  Weehawken  was  se- 
verely wounded  during  the  attack  on  Fort 
Sumter,  1  Sept.  1863. 

BADGER,  a  stout,  burrowing,  carnivorous 
mammal  of  the  fur-bearing  sub-family  Melina 
in  the  family  Muilelida,  related  to  the  skunks 
and  weasels,   spedes   of   which  inhabit  various 

erts  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  Badgers 
ve  short  legs,  elongated  feet  with  powerful 
toes  adapted  to  digging,  heavy  jaws  with  big 
teeth  and  great  strength,  courage  and  cunning. 
They  wear  coals  of  thick  fur  usually  grirzled 
in  brown  and  fray,  the  face  is  striped  and  the 
paws  are  blackish.  The  fur  is  of  considerable 
value  and  the  hairs  are  used  in  artists' 
brushes.  The  American  badger  (Taxidea 
americana)  was  formerly  distributed  all  over 
the  western  part  of  the  United  States  from  the 
prairie  districts  of  Ohio  and  Wisconsin  to  the 
Padfic  coast,  but  has  been  exterminated  by 
dviliiation  east  of  the  dty  plains,  where  it  is 
still  numerous  although  not  often  seen,  because 
it  rarely  comes  abroad  except  in  the  night. 
It  dwells  in  deep  burrows  which  it  digs  for  it- 
self and  feeds  upon  gophers,  ground-squirrels. 
such  ground -building  birds  and  thdr  e^gs  and 
youn^  as  it  is  able  to  catch  and,  in  times  of 
scarcity,  upon  small  reptiles  and  insects.  Bad- 
gers abound  in  the  vicinity  of  prairie-dog 
towns,  whose  underground  homes  they  can 
enter  or  dig  out  without  ditficultv.  This  spe- 
des is  found  as  far  north  as  Hudson  Bay  and 
south  to  central  Mexico,  where  the  local  varie- 
ty is  called  'tejon."  When  by  rare  chance  a 
Mdger  is  surprised  during  the  day  too  far  away 
from  his  hole  to  escape  into  it  before  being 
observed,  he  squats  down,  withdrawiog  nose 
and  feet  beneath  his  body,  and  remains  ab- 
solutely still,  when  his  griizled  back  looks  so 
much  like  a  mere  hillock  of  earth  th&t  he  is 
likely  to  escape  being  seen  altogether.    The  ex- 


t,zcd=y  Google 


BADOSR  8TATB  — BADOGLIO 


Inordinary  breadth  And  fatneu  of  his  totm  is 
one  of  his  strongest  characteristics.  During 
the  coldest  part  of  the  winter  he  retires  to  hia 
den  and  passes  the  time  when  no  food  is  to  be 
had  in  deep  sleep.  The  best  account  of  this  ani- 
mal is  to  be  found  in  Dr.  Coues'  <Furbcaring 
Animals'  (Washington  1877).  Consult  also 
Ingersoll,  Ernest,  <Wild  Nei^bors'  (New 
York  1897)  and  Seton,  "Life  Histories  of 
Northern  Animals'  (New  York  1909).  Tht 
European  bat^r  (.Mtles  taxtu)  is  very  similar 
in  genera)  appearance  but  differs  in  anatomical 
details,  its  general  habits  and  food  are  like 
those  of  the  American  bad^r  except  that  in  the 
absence  of  open  plains  it  dwells  in  wooded 
regions  and  has  a  fondness  for  honey,  digging 
it  out  of  the  nests  of  bumblebees  and  otners 
which  make  their  homes  in  the  ground.  This 
is  the  animal  formerly  used  in  the  cniel  sport 
of  badger- buting.  A  captive  badger  was  placed 
in  an  overturned  barrel  or  some  similar  place, 
and  dogs  were  set  npon  it  for  the  amusement 
of  seeing  the  fighting  that  resulted.  It  required 
a  powerful  and  active  dog  to  oycrcome  the  little 
anunal.  Frequently,  however,  the  bacter  was 
^veu  no  fair  chance,  but  was  compelleo  to  face 
ID  the  open  two  or  three  dogs.  From  this  un- 
manly sport  b  derived  the  verb  'to  ba^er.' 
Many  references  are  to  be  found  in  early  Eng- 
lish literature  to  this  amusement,  and  to  the 
animal  itself  under  the  old  terms  *grey*  and 
■brock,*  the  latter  still  in  common  nie  in  north- 
ern England  and  Scotland  (Celt,  broc,  badger). 
Vanons  closely  related  species  and  varieties  of 
the  badger  are  to  be  found  in  northern  Aaia, 
and  other  relatives  exist  in  India,  Malay  Islands 
and  Africa.  For  these  see  Sand-badges  ;  Howey 
Badge*  ;  Ratel  ;  Teledu.  Consult  Johnstmi, 
'British  Mammals'  (London  1903). 

BADGER  STATE,  a  nickname  given  to 
the  State  of  Wisconsin. 

BADGHIS,  bad-gez',  a  region  north  of 
Herat,  comprising^  the  country  between  the  Mur- 
^b  and  the  Harirud  rivers,  as  far  north  as  the 
Edge  of  the  desert  It  lies  just  to  the  south  of 
the  boundary  line  between  Afghanistan  and  the 
Russian  territones,  as  defined  in  1837. 

BADOLBT,  Sidner  How,  Canadian 
architect :  b.  near  Kingston,  Ontario,  28  Mav 
1850.     He  studied  architecture  m  Toronto,  and. 


made  a  specialty  of  the  architecture  of  churches 
and  public  buildings,  and  has  planned  and 
ercctra  churches  in  almost  all  parts  of  Canada 
and  the  United  States,  and,  among  other  struc- 
tures, the  Massey  Hall,  Toronto;  Uie  Slooim 
Library  and  Perkins  Observatory,  in  Ohio ; 
Wcsleyan  University,  in  Delaware ;  and  the 
Uedical  College,  Cleveland.  He  published  an 
'Architectural  Souvenir*    (1896). 

BADHAM,  Charles,  English  educator:  h. 
Ludlow.  18  July  1813;  d,  26  I^b.  1884;  was  con- 
sidered one  of  the  most  eminent  clasucal 
scholars  of  his  day;  and  after  serving  for 


professor  of  classics  and  logic  in  the  University 
of  Sydney,  Australia,  1867.  While  in  Sydney 
he  established  a  system  of  teaching  by  corre- 
spondence, similar  to  the  present  university  e:^- 
tension    scheme.     He  published  a   number  of 


worics  on  Greek  classicts  and  'Criticism  Api^ed 
to  Shakespeare'  (1846). 

'  BADIA  Y  LEBLICH,  ba-de'^  «  Ift-blScb', 
Dotniogo,  Spanish  traveler;  b.  1766;  d.  1818; 
be  visited  in  1803  and  the  four  following  years 
the  Mohammedan  countries  bordering  on  the 
Uediterranean.  During  the  whole  of  his  tour 
he  professed  to  be  a  Mussulman,  and  traveled 
under  the  denomination  of  'Ali  Bey  el  Abbassi* 
He  was  so  skilful  in  carrying  out  his  part  that 
he  deceived  Moslem  rulers  and  scholars,  and 
was  at  one  time  in  great  favor  in  the  court  of 
Morocco.  It  is  now  admitted  that  he  was  em- 
ployed as  H  political  a^nt  by  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment at  the  instigaiioh  of  Napoleon  His  pe- 
culiar situation  and  reli^ous  profession  ^ve 
him  opportunities  for  making  many  observattona 
which  could  not  occur  to  other  travelers,  and  he 
published  an  account  of  his  travels,  with  the 
title  'Voyages  d'AJi  Bei  en  Afrique  et  en  Asie 
pendant  les  annecs  1803-07.' 

BADINGUBT,  ba'd5n-ga',  afterward  Ra- 
DOT,  a  Moor,  as  whom  Napoleon  III  masquer- 
aded to  escape  from  the  fortress  of  Ham  in 
1846;  afterward  a  nickname  for  Napoleon  IIL 
He  died  in  1883. 

BADIUS,  ba'de-tis,  French  printer  and 
writer:  b.  1462;  d.  1535.  About  1500  he  founded 
his  printing  establishment  at  Paris,  and  pnb- 
lished  a  number  of  the  classics.  He  annotated 
these  himself  and  wrote  also  a  life  of  'Thomas 
i  Kempis.' 

BAD  LAM,  Stephen,  American  military 
officer:  b.  MUton,  Mass.,  25  March  1748:- d.  24 
Aug.  1815;  entered  the  Revolutionary  army  in 
177S ;  becajne  commander  of  the  artillery  in  the 
department  of  Canada.  On  the  announcement 
of  the  adoption  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, he  took  possession  of  the  heights  oppo- 
site Ticonderoga  and  named  the  place  Mmmt 
Independence.  Subsequently  he  rendered  good 
service  at  Fort  Stanwix,  and  in  1799  was  made 
brigadier-gene  ral. 

BADHAN.  The  Life  tnd  Death  of  Hr., 
an  allegory  hy  John  Bunyan,  published  in  1680. 
It  gives  a  vivid  picture  of  the  life  of  the  com- 
mon people  during  the  time  of  Charles  IL 

BADMINTON.  The  game  now  caUed 
Badminton  is  in  reali^  a  modi&catioD  of  the 
very  ancient  game  of  battledore  and  shuttle- 
cock j  but  it  is  played  on  a  court  44  feet  loag  by 
20  wide  over  a  net  strung  across  the  centre  not 
less  than  18  inches  deep,  with  its  lower  edge 
five  feet  from  the  ground.  The  bat  is  strong; 
like  &  racquet  bat,  and  woghs  about  five  ounces. 
The  shuttlecock  is  feathered  after  the  old 
fashion  and  weighs  from  73  to  85  grains.  The 
service  line  ts  drawn  six  and  one-huf  feet  from 
the  net  on  either  side.  A  line  drawn  down  the 
centre,  joining  the  service  and  base  lines,  fonns 
two  courts  at  each  end.  The  game  can  be 
played  hy  two  or  four,  six  or  eit^t  players. 
Each  striker  scores,  or  is  penalized,  accoraing 
to  the  result  of  the  rules. 

BADOC,  bi-ASk',  Philippine  Islands,  a 
town  of  the  province  of  llicos  Norte,  on  the 
island  of  l.uzon.  It  is  situated  near  the  coast, 
about  22  miles  soudi  of  Laoag.    Pop.  12,564. 

BADOGLIO,  Pietro,  Italian  soldier:  b. 
Piedmont  1871.  A  skilled  artillery  officer,  he 
served  in  the  Tripolits  •  •     -■ 


Google 


86 


BADOURA — BAER 


European  War  distinguished  himself  on  various 
occasions  by  his  resourcefulness  at  critical 
moments  on  the  battlefield.  The  Italian  re- 
verses in  the  great  Austro-German  drive  during 
October  and  November  1917  led  to  a  redistri- 
bution of  commands  in  the  Italian  army.  Gen- 
eral Cadorna  was  replaced  by  Gen.  Armando 
Diai,  to  whose  staff  General  Badoglio  and 
General   Giardina  were   attached. 

BADOURA,  b^-doo'r^  the  daughter  of 
the  King  of  China,  who  falls  in  love  with  the 
sleeping  prince  in  the  story  of  Prince  Cama- 
ralzaman,  in  the  'Arabian  Nights'  Enter- 
tainment.> 

BADRINATH,  ba'dri-nath',  a  peak  of  the 
main  Himalayan  Range,  in  Garhwal  district  of 
the  United  Provinces,  India;  23,210  feet  above 
the  sea.  On  one  of  its  shoulders,  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  !0,4O0  feet,  stands  a  celebrated  temple 
of  Vishnu,  which  some  years  attracts  as  many 
as  50,000  pilgrims. 


B.ffiBIA  GENS,  be'bI-9  jenz,  a  plebdan 
clan  of  ancient  Rome.  The  first  member  of  the 
family  to  obtain  the  consulship  was  Cn.  Bsebius 
Tamf^lus  (182  B.C.).  The  other  distinguished 
ones  are  known  under  their  family  names, 
EHves,  Herenniua,  Sulca,  etc. 

BAEDEKER,  bad'S-kir.  Karl,  German 
publisher:  b.  1801;  d.  IS59.  His  father  estab- 
lished a  printing  and  bookselling  business  in 
Essen  in  1797.  Karl  set  up  in  Coblenti  in  1S27. 
With  Murray's  handbooks  as  a  model,  he  be- 
gan the  issue  of  guidebooks,  the  first  being 
one  on  the  Rhine,  followed  in  1839  by  works  on 
Holland  and  Belgium.  The  firm  removed  to 
Leipzig  in  1872:  in  1861  translations  of  the 
series  De^an  to  appear  in  English,  and  they  are 
also  pubhshed  in  French.  The  name  Baedeker 
is  now  a  synonym  for  guidebooks. 

BABKSLAND,  balce-jand,  Leo  Hendtik, 
Belgian- American  chemist:  b.  Ghent,  14  Nov. 
1863.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Ghent,  where  he  was  graduated  in  1882.  Later 
he  studied  electro-chemistry  at  the  Potytech- 
nicum,  Charlottenburg,  Germany,  He  taught 
for  several  years  at  the  University  of  Ghent 
and  at  the  Normal  School  of  Science  of  Bruges. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1889  an^T  in 
1893  founded  the  Nepera  Chemical  Company 
for  the  manufacture  of  photographic  papers  of 
his  invention,  including  the  well-known  Velox 
paper.  In  1899  he  disposed  of  his  holdings  to 
the  Eastman  Company  and  has  since  enga^d  in 
research  engineering.  His  best  known  mven- 
tion  is  bakelite,  a  chemical  synthesis  from  car- 
bolic acid  and  formaldehyde,  and  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  hard  rubber  and  amber.  He  has 
patented  in  the  United  States  and  abroad  many 
inventions  on  the  subjects  of  organic  chemistry, 
electric  insulation,  synthetic  resins,  plastics. 
lacquers  and  varnishes,  etc  He  was  awarded 
the  Nichols  medal  in  1909,  and  the  Willard 
Gibbs  medal  in  1913  by  the  American  Chemical 
Society.  In  1910  he  was  awarded  the  John 
Scolt  medal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  in  1914 
the  Chandler  medal,  Columbia  University  and 


in  1916  the  Pcrldn  medal  for  industrial  cbemicid 
research.  He  was  president  of  the  American 
Electro-chemical  Society  in  1909  and  of  the 
American  Institute  of  Chemical  Engineers  in 
1912.  He  contributes  to  numerous  publications 
on  professional  topics. 

BAELB,  ba-a1&  an  African  tribe  dwelling 
northeast  of  Lake  Tchad.  It  is  nomadic,  half- 
heathen  and  half-M(Aammedan,  and  owns  large 
herds  of  cattle,  camels,  goats  and  sheep. 

BABNA,  ba-a'na,  Antonio,  Portuguese- 
Brazilian  historian  and  geographer:  b.  Portugal 
about  1795;  d.  28  March  1850;  was  an  officer  in 
the  Portuguese,  afterward  in  the  Brazilian, 
army.  He  studied  the  geography  and  history  of 
the  Amazon  Valley.  His  principal  works  were 
'The  Ages  of  Para'  (183S),  a  historic  com- 
pend  stopping  in  1823,  and  'Chorografjiic  Essay 
on  the  Provmce  of  Para'  [1839),  a  geograph- 
ical and  statistical  worl^  giving  the  details  6i 
explorations  made  by  himself.  These  arc  still 
standard  authorities  on  that  region. 

BAENA,  ba-a'n4,  Spaiti,  town  in  province 
of  Andalusia,  32  miles  southeast  from  Cordova, 
on  the  Marbelta.  It  has  manufactures  of  tex- 
tiles, soap  and  flour,  and  horse-breeding  is  of 
importance.  Large  quantities  of  grain,  oil, 
esparto,  troit  and  wine  are  exported.  There  arc 
a  number  of  interesting  Roman  remains.  Pop. 
(1910)   14,730. 


26*l^t.  ia42;"d.  26  April  1914.    He  v 

cated  ai  Franklin  and  Marshall  College,  served 
throughout  the  Civil  War,  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1864,  becoming  soon  after  the  con- 


the  company  in  1893.  He  became  president  of 
the  Philadelphia  and  Reading  Coal  and  Iron 
Company,  and  of  the  Central  Railroad  of  New 
Jersey.  He  led  the  operators  in  the  anthracite 
coal  strike  of  1902.  Because  of  his  attitude  at 
this  time  he  aroused  great  animosity  among 
American  labor  leaders  and  many  social  re- 
formers. He  was  often  referred  to  as  "Divine 
R^hl"  Baer  because  of  bis  statement  that 
■>Thc  rights  and  interests  of  the  laboring  man 
will  be  protected  and  cared  for  —  not  by  the 
labor  agitators,  but  by  the  Christian  men  to 
whom  God  in  His  inlinite  wisdom  has  given  the 
control  of  the  property  interests  of  the 
country.* 

BAER,  Karl  Ernst  von,  Russian  natu- 
ralist: b.  Piep.  Esthonia.  29  Feb.  1792;  d.  28 
Nov.  1876;  was  professor  of  zoology  at  K6- 
nigsberg  (1819),  and  librarian  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  at  Saint  Petersburg  (1834).  His 
principal  works  were  'History  of  the  Evolu- 
tion of  Animals'  (2  vols.,  1828-37),  and  'Re- 
searches into  the  Development  of  Fishes' 
(1835).  He  is  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
modem  science  of  embryology,  and  his  writings 
are  distinguished  for  their  '  philosophical 
teachings, 

BAER,  William  Jacob,  American  artist: 
b,  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  »  Jan.  1860.  He  was  a 
student  of  the  Munich  Royal  Academy,  1BS5-^ 


BABKT  — BiLPPIH 


receiving  four  medab,  while  one  of  his  woria 
was  purchased  by  tlie  directors  of  the  Academy. 
He  was  awarded  1st  class  medal  for  miniatures, 
New  York,  1897:  1st  class  medal  Paris  Exposi- 
tion, 1900;  1st  class  tnedaL  Buffalo  Elxposition, 
1901;  Charleston  Exposiuon,  1902.  He  was 
made  president  American  Society  Miniature 
Painters;  A.N.A.  (1913).  and  received  a  gold 
medal  at  the  Panama  Pacific  Exposition,  1915. 
Among  the  most  admired  of  his  pictures  are 
'Aurora' ;    'Summer' ;    'Daphne' ;    and    'Pri- 

BABRT  or  BAST,  Jean,  French  miloT: 
b.  Dunkirk  1650;  d.  1702.  He  raised  himself, 
under  Louis  XIV,  to  the  rank  of  commodore, 
and  made  the  French  navy  what  it  was,  at  that 
time.  The  Dutch.  English  and  Spanish  called 
him  the  "French   Devil.*     Bart  brought  into 

Krt  8  nnmber  of  Dutch  and  English  vessels, 
med  others,  landed  at  Newcastle  and  laid 
waste  the  nei^boring  coantry.  In  1M4,  when 
there  was  a  scarcity  of  corn  in  France,  he 
stKceeded  several  tnnes,  notwithstanding  die 
watchfulness  of  the  English,  in  bringing  into 
the  harbor  of  DunUrk  ships  loaded  with  this 
article.  Once  he  delivered  a  number  of  such 
vesseb,  in  the  boldest  manner,  from  the  Dutch, 
into  mose  hands  they  had  fallen,  and  recctve<t 
in  consequence,  letters  of  nobiUty.  In  1695  he 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Englisa  and  broilgfat 
to  Plymouth,  but  managed  to  make  his  escape. 
In  lfSf>  be  met  the  Dutch  fleet  from  the  Baltic 
and  captured  the  escort  mth  40  ships;  but  on 
hii  return  to  Dunkirk  13  Dutch  ships  of  the 
line  appeared,  and  to  avoid  a  very  unequal 
combat  ne  was  obliged  to  bum  the  greater  part 
of  his  captures.  Prom  the  Peace  of  Ryswick  to 
the  breaking  out  of  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession  he  lived  at  Dunldrk.  There  is  al- 
ways a  wartUp  in  the  French  navy  bearing 
the  name  Jea»  Bart. 

BABTHQEM,  bei'gin,  Friedrlch,  German 
theologian:  b.  Lacbem  1849;  d.  190S.  He  was 
educated  at  Gotiingen,  Kiel  and  Berlin,  and 
held  professorships  at  Kiel,  Halle  and  Greifs- 
wald.  In  1895  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of 
Old  Testament  exegesis  and  Semitic  languages 
at  the  University  of  Berlin.  He  published  'Un- 
tersuchungen  iiber  die  Psalmen  der  Peschita' 
(1878);  'Evangelienfragmente>  (1885);  ^TAe 
Psabnen  ubersetit  und  erklarl'   (18K). 

BJSTICA,  be'tT-k«,  the  central  division  of 
ancient  Spain  under  Roman  rule,  famed  for  its 
fertility,  Its  mines  of  iron,  gold  and  silver,  and 
its  dehghtfut  climate.  These  advantages  gave 
rise  to  a  number  of  fabulous  stories^  which 
made  it  the  home  of  Geryon,  an  assailant  of 
HcFculesj  and  placed  there  the  Elysian  Fields. 
It  passea  into  the  hands  of  the  Vandals,  and 
was  the  first  province  conquered  by  the  Moors. 

BABYER,  bi'er,  Adolph  von.  a  pioneer  of 
German  chemistry:  b.  Berlin,  31  Oct.  1835;  d. 
Munich,  24  Aug.  1917.  A  pujul  of  Bunsen  at 
Heidelberg,  be  spent  some  years  in  Berlin  as 
a  private  tutor,  where  he  came  under  the  in- 
'fluence  of  A.  W.  von  Hoffmann,  whose  pupil. 
Sir  W.  H.  Perkin,  discovered  mauve,  the  first 
aniline  dye.  In  1872  Baeyer  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  and  director  of  the 
new  chemical  laboratones  in  Strassburg,  where 


Fisdier. 


discoverers  of  synAetic  tmdder  (or  alicarine), 
which  effectually  killed  the  French  madder  in- 
dustry: In  1875  he  succeeded  to  Liebig's  chair 
in  Munich,  where  he  built  the  new  Chemtschet 
Institut,  in  nUcb  two  generations  of  organic 
chemists  of  all  nationalities  have  received  their 
training.  Baeyer  was  one  of  the  fathers  of 
modern  organic  chemistry,  mudi  of  which  rests 
on  the  foundations  laid  by  himself  and  the 
many  distin^ished  chemists  trained  under  his 
guidance.  In  the  technical  world  he  helped  in 
a  marked  degree  to  build  up  the  position  which 
Germany  held  before  the  war  in  the  chemical 
industry.  His  name  is  inseparably  associated 
with  the  artificial  production  of  indigo,  on 
which  he  began  his  researches  in  1865^  His 
patents  were  acquired  in  1880  by  the  Badische 
Anilin  und  Soda  Fabrik  and  the  Hoecbst 
Farbwerke,  which  concerns  carried  out  conjoint 
research  for  18  years,  spending  about  $5,000,000 
on  the  problem.  Two  satisfactory  processes 
were  finally  developed  for  the  manufacture  of 
indigo  from  coal-tar  products,  one  starting 
from  naphthalene  and  the  other  from  benzene 
via  anilme.  Baeyer  was  awarded  the  Davy 
medal  for  the  Koyal  Society  (England)  in  1881 
for  his  researches  in  indigo  and  receive  the 
Nobel  prise  for  chemistry  in  1905.  His  works 
were  published  at  Brunswick  (2  vols.,  1905). 

BAEYER^  Johsnn  Jakob,  Prussian  soldier 
and  geometrician :  b.  Mii^clsheim,  5  Nov. 
1794;  d.  September  1885;  was  an  army  volun- 
teer in  the  War  of  Liberation,  and  became  a 
lieutenant-general  in  1858.  He  had  cbarEc  of  a 
number  of  geodetic  surveys ;  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  the  Geodetic  Institute  in  Berlin  in  1870; 
and  was  the  author  of  numerous  treatises  on 
the  refraction  of  light  in  the  atmosphere,  the 
size  and  form  of  the  earth,  etc. 

BAEZ,  ba'ith,  Buenaventani,  Dominican 
sUteiman:  h  Azua,  Haiti,  about  1810;  d.  21 
March  1S84;  aided  in  the  establishment  of  the 
Dominican  Republic;  was  its  President  in  18^ 
53;  was  dien  expelled  by  Santa  Ana  and  went 
to  New  York;  was  recalled  in  1856  on  the 
Dzpulnon  of  Santa  Ana,  and  again  elected 
President;  and  was  re-elected  President  in  1865 
and  1866.  During  his  last  term  he  signed  . 
treaties  vntb  the  United  States  (29  Nov.  1869) 
for  the  annexation  of  Santo  Domingo  to  the 
United  States,  and  for  the  cession  of  Samana 
Ba.j(.  Tile  treaties  failed  of  ratification  in  the 
United  States  Senate,  and  caused  the  downfatl 
of  Baei, 

BAEZA,  ba-a'th3,  Spain,  town  of  Andalu- 
sia. 22  miles  east-northeast  from  Ja^  It  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  a  height  amid  rich  and 
well-watered  plains,  and  from  a  distance  pre- 
sents a  very  striking  appearance  with  its  old 
walls,  churches  and  steep-roofed  bouses.  It 
has  several  good  streets  and  three  scguares,  one 
of  which  is  lined  by  a  range  of  porticoes.  The 
principal  edifices  are  the  cathedral,  the  old 
Aliatares  tower,  die  town-hall  with  a  fine 
facade,  and  an  old  monastery,  now  a  theatre. 
The  leading  products  are  barley,  wheat,  veg- 
etables and  oil,  and  there  are  manufactories  of 
spirits,  soap  and  leather.  Many  cattle  are  raised 
in  the  district.    Pop.  (1910)  15,843. 

BAFFIN,  William.  English  navigator 
about  1584:  d.  23  May  16Z£!    He  visrted 


BAFFIN  BAT  — BAGDAD 


inlet  of  the  sea  titice  distinguished  by  the  ap- 
pellation of  Baffin  Bay.  and  also  ditcovered  and 
named  Smith's  Sound,  Lancaster  Sound,  etc. 
In  1617-22  he  was  in  the  emplcmneni  of  the 
East  India  Company,  and  on  board  vcmcIi 
belotiEing  to  them  in  the  Indian  leas.  He  was 
Idtlea  at  the  siege  of  Ormui,  on  the  Persian 
Gulf. 

BAFFIN  BAY,  an  inland  sea  or  gulf  in 
North  America,  part  of  the  extensive  strut 
that  separates  Greenland  from  BaiGn  Land. 
It  is  80O  miles  Ion?,  with  an  average  breadth 
of  280  miles.  Depth,  200  to  1,480  fathoms. 
The  tides  do  not  nse  more  than  10  feet.  The 
surface  of  the  sea  is  covered  with  ice  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  year,  which  extends 
from  shore  to  shore  in  winter,  though  possess- 
ing  a  slow,  southward  movement.  In  spring 
and  summer  the  great  mass,  known  as  the 
middle  ice,  begins  to  move  less  slowly  south- 
ward, leaving  navigable  passages  and  occasional 
channels,  or  crossings,  between  the  coasts.  The 
coasts  are  mountainous,  barren  and  deeply  in- 
dented wilh  faults.  Whale  and  seal  fishing  is 
followed.  This  sea  was  discovered  by  the  Eng- 
lish navigator,  Baffin  (q.vj.  in  1615,  while  In 
search  of  the  North-west  Passage. 

BAFFIN  LAND,  a  barren  island  west  of 
Greenland,  in  the  Canadian  district  of  Franklin. 
Approximate  area,  240,000  square  miles:  the 
fourth  largest  island  in  the  world.  It  is  about 
1,000  miles  in  length,  the  breadth  varying  from 
200  to  500  miles.  The  eastern  side  is  crowned 
by  an  ice-capped  plateau,  from  5,000  to  8,000  feet 
high.  Bernhard  Hantzsch,  a  German  scientist, 
died  here  in  June  1911  while  on  an  exploring 
expedition,  and  his  account  with  maps  was 
published  in  1913. 

BAPULABE,  ba'fC-iab,  a  town  of  the 
French  Sudan,  at  the  junction  of  two  head- 
streams  of  the  Senegal,  connected  by  railway 
with  Kayes  on  that  river. 

BAGAMOTO,  ba'gt-mfl'yav  German  East 
Africa,  a  seaport  and  commercial  centre  op- 
posite Zanzibar,  and  north  of  Dar-es-Salaam. 
It  has  few  stone  houses,  as  the  natives,  who 
constitute  the  bulk  of  the  population,  live 
mostly  in  huts.  Though  it  has  no  harbor  and 
its  coast  is  often  swejrt  by  hurricanes,  it  has  a 
considerable  trade  in  ivory,  copra,  caoutchouc, 
etc.  It  has  a  fort,  government  house,  custom- 
house, post-office  and  telegraph  building  station 
of  the  German  East  African  Association,  gov- 
ernment school  and  a  park,  with  a  monument 
to  the  troops  who  fell  during  an  uprising  of 
the  natives  m  1889.  The  climate  is  unhealthtul 
for  Europeans.    Pop.  about  25,000. 

BAGASSE,  bf-g&s',  the  name  given  to 
sugar  cane  in  its  dry,  crushed  state,  as  deUvered 
from  the  mill,  and  after  the  main  portion  of  its 
juice  has  been  expressed;  used  as  fuel  in  the 
sugar  factory,  and  called  also  cane  trash. 

BAGATELLE,  big'^-til'.  a  table  ball  game 
of  the  class  of  billiards,  played  on  a  table  semi- 
circular at  the  top  end.  The  tables  vary  from 
6  to  7  feet  in  length  and  are  usually  about  3 
feet  6  inches  wide.  The  game  is  played  by  two 
or  more,  one  against  the  oflier.  There  are  nine 
balls,  etght  white  and  one  black,  and  nitw  holes 


The  black  ball  is  placed  o 


a  spot  *  in  front 


of  the  white  balls,  and  placing  it  within  a 
balk  line  at  the  lower  end  of  the  table,  strikes 
it  with  the  cue  in  such  a  manner  that  it  strikes 
the  black  ball;  both  balls  go  on  their  courses 
and  fall,  or  not,  into  one  or  other  of  the  open 
cupt.  Whichever  cup  the  black  ball  falls  into 
counts  double  the  number  of  points  normally 
allotted  to  it  Then  the  player,  in  like  maimer, 
plays  the  remaining  seven  balls  up  the  table, 
ror  so  many  cups  as  he  fills  he  counts  up  his 
dots,  and  that  is  his  score.  The  highest  wins. 
In  France  and  England  the  bagatelle  balls  are 
four  red,  four  white  and  one  black. 

BAGAUD.S,  or  BAGAUDI,  a  body  of 
Gallic  insurrectionists  of  the  rural  class,  who 
revolted  against  the  Romans  ^0  a.d.,  headed 
by  one^  Victoria,  called  1^  the  soldiers  Modier 
of  Legions.  Claudius  tem[)orarily  quelled  them, 
and  Aurdian,  by  a  remission  of  their  taxes  in 
arrears,  and  by  granting  them  a  general 
amnesty,  made  peace  with  them.  Under  Dio- 
cletian, 280  A.D.  they  rose  again,  and  their  two 
leaders  atstuned  the  title  of  emperor;  but  they 
were  soon  compelled  to  capittitate,  though  they 
retreated  to  an  island  formed  by  the  confluence 
of  the  Uame  and  Seine,  and  made  a  desperate 
stand  for  the  victory.  The  place  of  this 
sanguinary  contest  was  long  Imowa  as  the 
Fojsti  des  Bagimdes.  From  this  period,  the 
Bagaudse  may  be  considered  as  gradtialty  trans- 
forming their  activity  into  a  kind  of  brigantbge, 
which  infested  the  forests  and  fastnesses  of 
Gau!  until  the  end  of  the  Western  empire. 

BAQBY,  Georg«  WilUun,  American 
physician  and  humorist :  b.  Buckinriiam  County, 
Va.,  13  Aw.  1828;  d.  29  Nov.  1883;  educated  at 
Delaware  College;  wrote  under  the  pseudonytn, 
Mons  Adduus.  He  was  editor  of  the  Lyndh- 
hMTg  Express  <18S3),  and  SoHthem  Literary 
" (1859);  State  librarian  of  Virginia 


(1868) ;  'What  I  Did  With  My  Fifty  MillioL.„ 
fl875);  and  'Meekins*  Twinses'  (1877).  His 
worlcs  were  collected  in  three  volumes  (Rich- 
mond 1886).  Consult  Trent,  'Southern 
Writers>   (1905). 

BAGDAD,  Turkey,  capital  of  the  vilayet  of 
Bagdad,  situated  on  the  Tigris.  The  old  Bag- 
dad, the  residence  of  the  caliphs,  said  to  have 
had  2,000,000  inhabitants,  was  situated  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  river  and  was  one  of  the 
most  ma^ificent  cities  of  the  Mohammedan 
world.  The  modem  city  lies  mostly  on  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  river  and  is  surrounded 
with  a  brick  wall  about  six  miles  in  circuit, 
partly  in  a  ruinous  condition,  and  with  a  ditch 
from  five  to  six  fathoms  deep,  intended  to  be 
filled  with  water  from  the  Tigris.  The  houses, 
mostly  built  of  brick,  are  but  one  story  high, 
the  streets  unpaved,  and  so  narrow  ttot  two 
horsemen  can  scarcely  ride  abreast    The  faoaies 


BAGDAD  RAILWAY— BAOEHOT 


of  the  weamiy  are  distinguished  by  »  better 
architecture.  Of  the  mosques,  about  100  in 
number,  only  a  few  attna  much  notice,  and 
many  are  in  ruins.  Their  architecture  is  la 
geperal  inferior  to  that  of  other  Mohammedan 
cities,  but  they  have  a  gaudy  appearance  from 
the  glazed  tiles  covering  their  domes  and  min- 
arets, and  arranged  in  a  kind  of  mosaic  work 
in  various  colors.  In  the  vicini^  are  situated 
tombs  held  in  hi^  reverence  by  the  natives  and 
visited  annually  a^  thousands  of  pilgrims.  The 
bazaars  are  spaaous  and  well  stocked  with 
goods.  That  built  by  Daoud  Pasha  still  ranks 
as  one  of  the  most  splendid  in  the  world.  B^ 
dad  long  commanded  a  large  part  of  the  trafitc 
between  Europe  on  the  one  hand,  and  Persia 
and  India  on  the  other.  The  Persian  and  In- 
dian trade  is  still  considerable,  as  also  that  with 
Europe  a  large  portion  of  it  being  carried  on 
bjr  steamers  up  and  down  the  river.  The  trade 
with  Europe  was  fonnerly  more  largely  by  land, 
passing  thcoush  the  Sj^rian  Desert  to  Damascua, 
or  by  way  of  Armenia  northward.  Since  the 
opemng  of  the  Suez  Canal  the  sea  routes  are  of 
far  more  importance.  The  trafBc  from  India 
has  declined  somewhat,  but,  owing  to  develop- 
ment  of  railway  facilities,  it  is  the  mart  through 
which  pass  the  imports  and  exports  of  Mesopo- 
tamia. Wool  is  the  chief  export  to  Europe, 
others  bein^  wheat,  gum,  galls,  dates,  horses, 
various  Oriental  fabrics,  skins,  tragacanth, 
feathers  and  leather  articles.  Imports  include 
iron  and  copper,  suga.-  and  coffee.  There  are 
nimierous  manufactures  of  copper  utensils, 
cloth  and  felts,  etc.  The  heat  of  tne  summer  is 
oppressive  in  Bagdad,  but  the  winter  is  cold 
enough  to  make  a  fire  necessary.  The  climate 
is  on  the  whole  agreeable  and  healthful,  though 
sometimes  the  plague  prevails.  Bagdad  is  in- 
habited by  Turks,  Arabs,  Persians,  Kurds, 
Armenians,  Jews  and  a  small  number  of  Chris- 
tians. The  Turks  compose  three-fourths  of  the 
whole  population.  The  Jews  are  confined  to  a 
certain  district  of  the  city,  and  are  in  a  very 
oppressed  condition.  The  population  of  the 
afy,  according  to  the  most  recent  estimate, 
amounts  to  between  175,000  and  20a(XK). 

Bagdad  was  founded  ia  762  by  the  CaliiA 
Almanzor,  and  was  raised  to  a  high  degree  of 
splendor  in  the  9th  century  by  the  famous 
Harun  al-Rashid,  who  figures  so  often  in  the 
'Arabian  Nights.'  It  then  became  the  chief 
cttv  in  the  Moslem  world  and  a  great  centre  of 
culture  and  teaming,  but  at  present  its  high 
schools  or  medresses  are  few  in  number,  and 
its  importance  rests  solely  on  its  commerce. 
In  the  I3th  century  it  was  stormed  by  Hulagu 
(Holagou),  grandson  of  Genghis-Khan  who 
caused  the  reining  caliph  to  be  slain  and  over- 
threw the  caliphate.  The  descendants  of  the 
conqueror  were  expelled  in  1392  by  Tamerlane. 
In  the  15th  century  Shah  Ismael,  the  &rst 
sovereign  of  Persia  of  the  house  of  Sofi,  took 
possession  of  the  city.  From  that  time  it  was 
a  perpetual  subject  of  contest  in  the  wars  be- 
tween the  Turks  and  Persians.  After  a 
memorable  sie^e  in  1638  it  was  conquered  by 
the  Turkish  Emperor,  Murad  IV,  and  Nair 
Shah  endeavored  in  vain,  in  the  16th  century, 
to  wrest  it  from  the  Turks. 

Early  in  1917  British  forces,  advancing  up 
the  Tigris,  took  Kut  and  pushed  on  toward 
Bagdad  On  10  March  the  last  Turld^  position 
south  of  the  city  vras  attacked,  and  that  ni^t 


die  Turks  evacuated  the  city,  which  at  daybreak 
of  the  11th  was  occupied  by  the  British,  See 
Was,  Eubopean;  Mesopotamia  Campaign. 

BAGDAD  RAILWAY,  Asiatic  Turicey,  an 
enterprise  of  international  importance  in  which 
is  bound  up  the  future  political  control  of  large 
regions  in  Asia  Minor,  Mesopotamia  and  the 
Persian  Gulf.  The  line  over  1,400  miles  long, 
extending  from  Konieh  on  tiie  existing  Anato- 
lian Railway  through  the  Taurus  range,  and  by 
way  of   the  valley  of   the '  Euphrates,   Nisibin, 


___  the  Persian  Gulf,  thus  establishing  through 
connection  from  Europe.  Eneineered  by  Baron 
Marschall  von  Bieberstein,  the  German  diplo- 
mat, on  27  Sept.  and  4  Oct.  1888,  die  first  Ger- 
man company  obtained  power  to  exploit  the 
Haidar-Pasha-Ismidt  Railway  by  the  concession 
for  99  years  of  a  railway  to  run  from  Ismidl  to 
Angora,  This  was  financed  by  the  Anatolian 
Railway,  backed  by  the  Deutsche  Bank.  On 
15  Feb.  1893  the  company  was  authorized  to  ex- 
tend the  railway  from  Ismidt  to  Konieh.  This 
work  covering  tile  first  535  kilometres  of  the 
Bagdad  Railway  was  completed  in  1896.  Early 
in  October  1898,  Kaiser  William  II  vis- 
ited the  Sultan  at  Constantinople,  and  ob- 
tained the  promise  of  a  concession  for  a  rail- 
road from  Konieh  to  the  Persian  Gulf. 
Negotiations  and  surveys  led  in  November  1899 
to  an  trade  approving  of  the  German  offers 
and  to  the  convention  of  16  Jan.  1902,  which, 
definitely  revised  and  brought  up  to  date  S 
March  19(B,  formed  the  charter  of  the  enter- 
prise. The  "Sociiti  Ottomane  des  Chemins- 
de-Fer  de  Baghdad*  was  established  with  a 
capital  of  $3,000,000^  of  which  only  the  half  was 
actually  paid  up.  The  company  acted  as  broker 
between  the  Turkish  government,  which  bor- 
rowed the  sums  necessary  for  the  construction 
of  railways,  and  the  European  capitalists.  A 
series  of  complicated  arrangements  between 
the  two  parties  had  to  be  adapted  to  circum* 
stances  from  year  to  year.  The  entire  network 
of  railways  from  Konieh  to  Basra  was  divided 
into  sections  of  200  kilometres  each.  But  this 
was  fouijd  impracticable  and  the  sections  had 
to  be  built  of  unequal  lengths.  The  Ottoman 
govemmenl  and  the  railway  company  concluded 
separate  agreements  for  each  section,  the  dif- 
ferent financial  and  technical  problems  being 
regulated  by  such  agreements.  The  first  section 
of  200  kilometres  from  Konieh  to  Eregli,  regu- 
lated by  one  of  the  conventions  signed  5  March 
1903,  was  completed  and  ready  for  service  Oc- 
tober 1904.  "nie  second  section  of  about  840 
kilometres  from  Eregli  to  El  Hejef  through  the 
Taurus  range,  was  financed  by  the  agreement  of 
2  June  1908.  For  some  years  technical  and 
financial  obstacles  prevented  its  completion, 
and  work  owing  to  great  tunneling  difficulties 
was  suspended  May  1914,  the  railhead  endinir 
at  Dorak.  A  convention  signed  at  Constanti- 
nople 20  March  1911  provided  for  the  buiidinn 
of  the  third  section  of  about  600  kilometres 
from  El  Helif  to  Bagdad,  and  a  convention 
respecting  the  last  section  of  the  line  from  Bag- 
dad to  Basra,  about  600  kilometres,  was  being 
discussed  W  Turkish  and  German  statesmen 
when  the  European  War  broke  ont  in  1914. 

BAGEHOT,  faii'dt,  Walter,  English  econ- 
omist jounialbt  and  critic:  b.  Langport,  Somer- 


gle 


40  BAOB 

setshire,  England  3  Feb.  1826;  d.  Langport,  24 
March  1877.  His  father,  Thomas  Watson  Bage- 
hot,  was  vice-chairman  of  the  Somersetshire 
bank,  founded  by  Samuel  Stuckcy  in  the  18th 
century.  His  mother,  a  niece  of  Stuckey,  a 
woman  of  much  character  and  lively  mind,  had, 
through  an  earlier  marriage,  been  brought  ipto 
an  excellent  intellectual  atmosphere  from  which, 
says  Huttoo,  "she  greatly  profited"  Bagehot, 
a  boy  of  naturally  keen  mind  and  with  a  habit 
of  reading,  was  educated  with  much  flood  iudg- 
menL  He  first  attended  school  in  Bristol, 
whence,  in  1842,  he  entered  University  College, 
London,  graduating  B.A.,  in  1346,  and  M.A.. 
with  mjch  honor  in  philosophy  and  political 
economy,  in  1848.  He  was  also  distii^uished 
as  a  mathematician  and  was  widely  read  in 
poetry,  metaphysics  and  history.  Th^  he  took 
to  readily  law,  but,  though  very  fond  of  the 
study  and  though  called  to  the  bar  in  1852,  he 
never  practbed.  Instead  he  entered  the  bank- 
ing business  under  his  father  in  Langport.  He 
had  previously,  in  1851,  spent  some  time  in 
Paris  during  the  exciting  days  of  the  coup 
d'itat    of    Napoleon    III.     His    first    essays   in 

i'oumaUsm  were  accounts  of  the  afEairs  of 
'ranee  contributed  to  a  little  weekly  news- 
paper, the  Inquirer.  Herein  Bagehot  astounded 
bis  friends  by  a  somewhat  youthfully  cynical 
sup^rt  of  the  cause  of  Napoleon,  on  the  para- 
doxical ground  that  the  French  were  too  clever 
to  be  successful  as  a  self-governing  people. 
Stupidity,  according  to  his  views  at  diat  time, 
was,  sa^s  Hutton,  essential  to  political  freedom. 
VMiile  in  business,  Bagehot  contributed  to  re- 
views,—first  to  the  Prospective  Review  and 
after  1855  to  the  National  R^fTu,— various 
tuographical  and  critical  articles.  These,  and 
also  several  sketches  ori^nally  published  as 
'Estimates   of    Some   Englishmen   and   Scotch- 


graphical  Studies'  (1880).  In  time  they  ex- 
tend from  1852  to  Bagehot's  death.  The  essays 
"which  best  represent  his  peculiar  genius* 
(Hutton)  are  "The  First  Edmburgh  Review- 
ers,' 'Hartley  Coleridge,'  and  "Bishop  Butler,* 
but  such  essays  as  those  on  Gibbon,  Shelley, 
Clough,  Dickens  and  Wordsworth,  Tennyson 
and  Browning,  are  among  the  most  vigorous 
pieces  of  Enelish  criticism.  AU  are  distin- 
guished by  a  oash  and  keenness  of  phrase  and 
an  uncommon  faculty  for  sane  and  broad  gen- 
eralization. 

In  1858  Bagehot  married  Miss  Wilson,  eld- 
est daughter  of  the  Right  Hon.  James  Wilson, 
who  had  founded  the  London  Economist  during 
the  anti-corn  law  agitation  to  represent  free- 
trade  sentiment.  In  1860  Bagehot  became  edi- 
tor,  and  there   remained  till  his   death. 


hot's  counsel  was  much  souglit  for  in  financial 
and  economic  questions.  He  tried  on  several 
occasions,  with  nonesty  rather  than  zeal,  to  be 
elected  to  Pariiament,  but  never  succeeded. 

Bagehot,  both  as  a  student  of  institutions 
and  of  men,  is  entitled  to  high  rank.  To  this 
study  he  brought,  in  spite  of  some  natural 
prejudice  in  favor  of  the  institutions  and  men 
of  his  native  land,  a  mind  of  thoroughly  scien- 
tific bent  and  much  detachment  As  a  student 
he  is  interested  in  fundamental  questions  rather 
than  in  minutix.  His  broadest  book,  "Physics 
and  Politics,'  is  an  example  of  this,  and  may 
be  regarded  as  an  exposition  of  bis  main 
methods  and  interests.  It  is  an  attempt  to  show 
faow  the  principle  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest 
applies  to  the  formation  of  states.  The  thesis 
is  that  in  earliest  times  and  even  down  nearly 
to  die  present,  the  people  who  had  the  faculty  of 
organization  and  obedience,  whether  in  fami^, 
tribe  or  nation,  were  bound  to  prevail  over 
those  less  organised,  and  that  hence  obedience 
to  laws  or  rulers  of  whatever  sort  was  neces- 
sary to  political  success,  until  the  habit  of 
le^lity  became  ingrained.  Hence  the  nation 
with  the  best  military  power  could  seiie  the 
best  parts  of  the  earth.  If,  however,  the  proc- 
ess stopped  with  organization,  the  nation 
would  in  time  present  a  case  of  arrested  de- 
velopment, and  would  no  longer  progress ;  for 
the  principle  of  variation,  or  originality,  is  also 
necessary  to  complete  progress.  The  best  in- 
strument for  the  cultivation  of  variation  is  free 


to  win  success  in  this  field,  and  also  to  write  the 
books  on  which  his  fame  as  an  economist 
chiefly  rests.  These  arc  "The  English  Consti- 
tution' (1867).  which  is  extensive^  used  as  a 
textbook  and  oas  been  translated  into  French, 
German  and  Italian;  "Physics  and  Polities' 
(1872),  which  has  been  even  more  widely  trans- 
lated; and  'Lombard  Street'  (1873),  a  study  of 
the  money  market.  Besides  the  books  already 
named  there  appeared  after  Bagehot's  death 
'Economic  Stutnes,'  a  collection  of  earlier 
work,  and  'liie  Depreciation  of  Silver.'     Bage- 


far  in  advance  of  the  rest  of  the  world,  in  that 
they  have  tempered  the  rule  of  custom  with 
discussion,  which  has  historically  been  prac- 
tically limited  to  peoples  of  Greek  and  Ger- 
manic origin.  And  in  general,  on  the  other 
hand,  discussion  is  useful  in  checking  the  im- 
pulse to  hasty  action,  a  relic  of  primitive 
civilizations.  Bagehot's  other  longer  works 
are  really  exemplifications  of  this  principle: 
<The  English  Constitution'  is  substantially  an 
examination  of  the  means  of  discussion  in  Eng- 
land and  a  comparison  of  it  with  that  in  other 
states;  'Lombard  Street'  is  an  analysis  of  one 
of  the  phenomena  of  variation  with  a  view  to 
expounding  and  criticising  it  as  an  efficient 
means  of  progress. 

Bagehofs  criticism  of  literature  is  likewise 
distinguished  by  breadth  and  a  fondness  for  the 
analysis  of  causes.  It  is  the  criticism,  not  of 
taste  or  of  morals,  of  the  beautiful  or  the  good 
and  bad,  but  of  types.  The  manner  in  which 
the  mind  of  his  author  worked,  the  type  of  per- 
son he  was,  are  the  fundamental  questions  of 
interest  with  Bagehot.  The  title,  for  example, 
of  his  excellent  essay  on  certain  famous  poets 
illustrates  this :  'Wordsworth,  Tennyson  and 
Browning;  or.  Pure,  Ornate  and  Grotesque  Art 
in  Englisn  Poetry.*  These  poets  are  treated  as 
examples  of  the  three  different  types  of  mind 
and  expression  named  in  the  title.  Dickens  is 
an  example  of  the  "irregular*  genius.  Hartley 
Coleridge  of  the  whimsical  and  wayward  mind 
with  a  gift  for  self -revelation,  Shakespeare, 
among  other  attributes,  of  the  experiencing 
mind.  Bagehot's  criticism  is,  in  all  these  essays, 
never  formal  or  academic,  but  is  based  on  a 
wide  practical  knowledge  of  men.  His  point 
of  view  he  maintains  with  f^reat  consistency, 
but  always  enlivens  his  criticism  with  such  an 


BAGOAOE — B  AGLKY 


41 


abundance  of  keen  and  witty  observations  that 
his  criticism  is  unsurpassed  in  vi^r  and  is 
never  dull.  He,  however,  founded  no  school  as 
certain  other  critics  have  done ;  for  iiis  criticism 
ii  essentially  that  of  a  lively  personality  and  the 
impressionism  of  a  scientific  and  detached  mind. 

BiblioKraphy.^  The  chief  authority  for 
Bagehot,  besides  his  own  work,  is  R.  H.  Hut- 
ton,  'Memoir'  prefixed  to  'Liberty  Studies,' 
and   'Dictionary  of  National  Biography.' 

WiujAM  T.  Brewster, 

Professor  of  English,  Columbia  University, 

BAGGAGE,  probably  Iron  the  old  French 
word  ftojptf,  meaninK  bundle.  As  ordinarily 
uied  it  includes  trunks,  valises,  portmanteaus, 
etc.,  which  a  "traveler  carries  with  him  on  & 
journey.  In  a  military^  sense  the  word  includes 
tents,  furniture,  utensils,  etc. 

BAGGARA,  bag'gi-ra,  an  Arabic-speaking 
Hamitic  tribe  of  the  upper  Nile  Valley.  They 
occupy  this  valley  as  far  east  as  the  territoiy 
of  their  neii^borii^  negro  tribesmen,  the  ShiU 
Ink.  They  are  nomads,  Egyptian  soldiers, 
hunters,  etc. 

BAGGBSEN,  bag'ge-sen,  Jens,  Danish 
poet,  who  also  wrote  much  in  German :  b.  Kor- 
sor,  IS  Feb.  1764;  d.  Hamburg,  3  Oct.  1826.  His 
•Comic  Tales,'  which  appeared  in  1785  had  an 
instantaneous  success ;  but  an  opera  he  produced 
four  years  later  was  a  fiasco,  and  in  disgust 
he  left  Denmark.  He  returned  in  1791,  but 
diortty  withdrew,  and  spent  a  wandering  life 
on  the  Continent  for  the  next  20  years. 
His  work  was  conservative  in  its  form,  and  he 
was  intensely  jealous  of  the  reception  accorded 
to  the  romantic  poems  of  OehCnsla^er.  He 
possessed  great  sensibility  and  imagination,  and 
his  works  are  said  to  present  a  singular  mixture 
of  contradictory  qualities.  His  best  productions 
are  his  smaller  poems  and  songs,  several  of 
which  are  very  popular  with  his  countrymen. 
The  'Labyrinth*  (2  vols.,  1792-93),  a  poem 
descriptive  of  his  travels,  is  perhaps  his  most 
famous  work.  His  Damsh  works  were  pub- 
fished  in  1827-32. 

BAGHBLKHAND,  faa-gil-kQnd',  In£a,  a 
tract  of  country  comprising  the  native  states  of 
Rewah,  Nagode,  Maihar,  Sowahal  and  eight  of 
lesser  importance,  under  the  governor-general's 
i^ent  for  central  India ;  area,  14,706  square 
miles;  pop.  (1911)  1,772,574. 

BAGHERIA.  ba'ga-r;'^,  or  BAGARIA, 
Sicily,  town  in  the  province  of  Palermo,  eight 
miles  east  by  south  of  the  citv  of  Palermo  by 
rail.  It  is  beautifully  situated  at  the  base  of 
the  isthmus  which  separates  the  Bay  of  Palermo 
from  that  of  Termini  and  is  surrounded  by 
groups  of  palatial  villas  of  the  Sicilian  nobility. 
Among  them  are  the  Villa  Falagonia,  celebrated 
by  Goethe,  and  the  Villa  Valguarnera,  which 
has  one  of  the  most  beautiful  prospects  in 
Sidly.    Pop.  (1911)  21,212. 

BAGIMONT'S.  bij'i-mants,  ROLL,  a 
rent-roll  of  Scotland  made  up  in  1275  by  Baia- 
mund  or  Boiamond  de  Vicci,  vul^rly  called 
Bagimont,  who  was  sent  from  Rome  by  the 
Pope,  in  the  reign  of  Alexander  III,  to  collect 
the  tidie  of  all  the  Church  livings  in  Scotland 
for  an  expedition  to  the  Holy  Land.  The  Scot- 
tish clergy  opposed  its  imposition ;  but  their 
objections  were  repelled;  and  it  remained  the 
ttattitory    valuation,    according  to    which    the 


benefices  were  taxed,  tilt  the  Reformation.  A 
copy  of  it  as  it  existed  in  the  reign  of  James  V 
(1513-42^  is  in  the  Advocates'  Library,  Edin- 
burafa.  Consult  publications  of  the  Switees 
Society,  Vol.  XII,  and  Statuta  Ecdesiee  Scoti- 
came  (Bannatyne  Club,  1866). 

BAGINSKY,  ba-gen'skt,  Adolf,  German 
physician :  b.  Ratibor  1843.  He  was  educated  at 
Berlin  and  at  Vienna.  From  1881  to  1892  he 
was  privatdocent  on  children's  diseases  at  the 
University  of  Berlin,  and  in  1892  became  ex- 
traordinary professor  at  that  institution.  In 
1680  he  founded  and  became  coeditor  of  the 
Archiv  fiir  Kinderheilkunde.  In  1890  he  be- 
came director  of  the  Kaiser-  und  Kaiserin- 
Friedrich  Krankenhaus  at  Berlin,  an  institu- 
tion devoted  principally  to  the  treatment  of 
the  infectious  diseases  of  children.  He  has 
published  *Handbuch  der  Schulhygiene'  (3d 
ed.,  189ft.l900);  'Lehrbuch  der  Kinderkiank- 
heiten'  (8th  ed.  1905) ;  'Pflege  des  gcsunden 
und  kranken  Kindes'  (3d  ed.,  1885) ;  'Das 
Loben  des  Weibea'  (3d  ed..  1885);  'EHc  An- 
tipjrrese  un  Kindesaltcr*  (1901);  'Sauglings- 
krankenpflege  und  Siuglingskrsnkheiten' 
(J906);  'Die  Kinderaussage  vor  Gericht* 
(1910). 

BAGIRMI,  ba-ger'me,  Africa,  a  Moham- 
medan negro  state,  situated  partly  between 
Bomu  and  Wadai,  to  the  southwest  of  Lake 
Tchad,  and  watered  by  the  Sfaari,  which  falls 
into  Lake  Tchad,  and  by  its  tributaries.  It  has 
an  area  of  about  65,000  square  miles,  and  about 
1,000.000  inhabitants;  but  both  its  area  and 
population  fluctuate  according  as  it  encroaches 
on  or  is  encroached  on  by  its  neighbors.  The 
whole  country  is  a  plain  900  feet  above  the 
levd  of  the  sea,  well  suited  for  the  cultivation 
of  sorghum,  which  is  accordingly  the  principal 
breadstuff.  Sesame,  beans,  cotton  and  indigo 
are  also  cultivated.  The  government  is  an  ab- 
solute monarchy,  but  the  ruler  pays  tribute  to 
WadaL  An  armed  force,  estimated  at  over 
10,000.  is  maintained.  The  prevailing  religion 
is  Islam,  which  was  introduced  in  the  16th 
century.  Bagirmi  was  formerly  included  in 
one  slate  with  Bomu  and  Wadai.  An  in- 
exhaustible supply  of  slaves  is  found  in  the 
heathen  negro  states  to  the  south,  at  die 
exiHense  of  whom  also  Bagirmi,  when  pressed 
by  its  Mohammedan  nei^bors^  extends  its  ter- 
ritory. By  Great  Britain  and  Uermanjr  Bagirmi 
has  latterly  been  recognized  as  within  the 
French  sphere  of  influence,  and  in  1897  a  treaty 
was  concluded  between  the  French  government 
and  the  Sultan.  There  is  a  French  resident  in 
Chekna.  the  capital.  The  former  capital.  Mas- 
senya,  was  destroyed  in  1898.  At  the  end  of 
1899  Rabah.  a  usurper  of  Bomu,  invaded  the 
state,  but  was  speedily  defeated  by  the  French 
troops.  His  sons  continued  the  contest,  but  by 
May  1901,  the  country  was  completely  paciliea. 

BAGLEY,  Worth,  American  naval  officer: 
b.  Raleigh,  N.  C,  6  April  1874;  d.  11  May  1898. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy  in  1895;  promoted  to  ensign  1  July 
1897,  and  was  detailed  as  inspector  to  the 
new  torpedo-boat  IVinsIoK,  in  November 
following.  This  boat  went  into  commission  the 
next  month,  and  he  was  appointed  her  exec- 
utive officer.  In  April  1898  the  JVinslow  was 
assigned  to  the  American  fleet  off  the  coast  of 
Cuba,  and  on  9  May,  irtiile  on  bbckadinR  ibitr 


gle 


BAGLIOHI— BAGNltRBS-DS-LUCHON 


at  the  harbor  of  Cardenas,  with  the  WUmingtpn 
and  Hudson,  drew  the  fire  of  several  Spanish 
coast-guard  vessels.  All  the  American  vessels 
escaped  untouched.  Two  days  afterward  the 
diree  vessels  undertook  to  force  an  entrance 
into  the  harbor,  when  they  were  fired  on  \fv 
Spanish  gunboats.  The  Wtnslovt  was  disabled, 
and  with  difi&cutty  waa  drawn  out  of  the  range 
of  the  enemy's  guns.  The  Wilmington  then 
silenced  the  Spanish  fire,  and  as  the  action 
closed.  Ensign  Bagley  and  four  sailors  on  the 
Winslow  were  instantly  killed  b^  a  shell,  he 
being  the  first  American  naval  omcer  to  fall  in 
the  war  with  Spain, 

BAGLIONI,  ba'Iy5'nf,  a  historical  family 
of  Perugia  in  Italy.  Peru£ift  contained  two 
parties  — an  aristocratic  and  a  democratic  one. 
The  Baglioni  belonged  to  the  former.  In  the 
12th  century  LuDOVico  Baguoni  was  appmnled 
imperial  vicar  of  Perugia  by  Frederic  Bar- 
barossa,  who  styles  Baglioni  his  relative,  as 
coming,  like  himself,  from  the  ducal  house  of 
Swabia.  In  1393,  70  Penigian  gentlemen,  and 
among  them  two  Baglionis,  were  killed  in  a 
street  fight  by  die  populace,  and  the  whole 
aristocratic  party  was  expelled  from  the  city. 
Braccio  Baglioni,  in  the  service  of  the  Pope, 
defeated  Frandsco  Sforzj^  near  Lod^  in  1453, 
and  was  made  lord  of  spello  by  Sixtus  IV. 
GiAN  Paolo  Baguoni  began  life  as  a  condot- 
tiere^  then  availing  himself  of  the  dissensions 
of  his  native  state  he  obtained  supreme  power 
over  it  and  made  alliance  with  Pandotfo  Pe- 
trucci,  ruler  of  Sienna.  He  was  driven  out  of 
Perugia  by  Cssar  Borgia  in  1502.  Returning 
in  1503,  after  the  death  of  Alexander  VI,  he 
was  banished  again,  in  1506,  bv  Julius  II.  He 
then  entered  the  service  of  the  Venetians  in 
^  war  of  the  lea^e  of  Cambray.  He  re- 
sumed his  old  position  as  ruler  of  Perugia  in 
1513.  Here  he  created  so  much  scandal  that 
Leo  X,  who  at  first  passed  over  his  usurpa- 
tion, summoned  him  to  Rome,  threw  him  into 
the  castle  of  Saint  Angelo,  had  him  tried  and 
he  was  beheaded  at  Rome  in  1520.  Malahista 
and  Okazio,  his  sons,  recovered  possession  of 
Perugia  after  the  death  of  Leo.  Orazio  turned 
condottiere  in  the  service  of  France  and  was 
lolled  in  the  Neapolitan  expedition  of  1528. 
Malatesta  remained  in  Perugia  until  1529,  when 
he  was  driven  out  by  the  Papal  and  Imperial 
troops.  He  died  at  Perugia  in  December  1531. 
In  the  16th  century  Astorre  Baojoni  served 
Charles  V  in  Italy  and  on  the  coast  of  Tunis, 
and  rose  high  in  the  favor  of  Pope  Paul  III, 
who  restored  to  him  his  paternal  estates.  He 
then  entered  the  Venetian  service,  and  was 
governor  of  Famagosta  in  Cyprus  when  the 
Turks  besieged  it  in  1570.  After  a  brave  de- 
fense he  was  obliged  to  capitulate  on  condition 
of  being  sent  home  to  Venice  with  his  gar- 
rison. But  Mustapha  Pasha,  disregarding  the 
terras,  caused  Baglioni  and  the  other  Venetian 
officers  to  be  beheaded. 

Another  family  of  the  name  Baglioni,  be- 
longing to  Florence,  produced  several  sculptors 
and  architects  during  the  15ih  and  16th  cen- 
turies. Giovanni  Baglioni,  a  native  of  Rome, 
was  a  celebrated  art  historian  and  painter. 

BAGNACAVALLO.  ba'nyq-k^-varilV.  Bar- 
tolomeo  Rmmenghi,  Italian  painter:  b.  1484; 
d.  1542;  called  Bagnacavallo  from  (lie  village 
where  he  was  bom.    At  Rome  he  was  a  iiuihI 


lery  of  the  Vatican.     His  best  works  a 
pulation  of  Saint  Augustine'  and  'A  Madonna 
and  Child,'  both  in  Bologna. 

BAGN&RBS-DE-BIGORRE,  ba'nyEK  d( 
be-gor',  France  (anciently  Aquensis  VicHS, 
Aqua  Bigerronum),  celebrated  watering-place 
in  the  department  of  Hautes-Pyrinies,  capital 
of  the  arrondissement  of  the  same  name,  at  the 
entrance  of  the  valley  of  Campan,  on  me  left 
bank  of  the  Adour,  13  miles  south- southeast 
from  Tarbes.  Its  site  is  one  of  die  most  ro- 
mantic in  the  Pyrenees.  Well-cultivated  slopes 
surround  it  on  all  sides,  and  are  terminated  in 
the  distance  by  a  mountain  range,  the  most 
consjiicuous  summit  in  whidi  is  the  Pic  dn 
Midi.  The  town  is  well  built  and  contains  sev- 
eral good  squares  and  numerous  spacious,  hand- 
some streets.  There  are  about  30  mineral 
Srin^s  of  varied  temperature  and  of  different 
emical  composition,  each  of  which  is  consid- 
ered a  specific  for  different  diseases.  Bagn^res 
owes  its  diief  celebrity  to  its  baths,  which  are 
sulphurous  and  saline.  There  are  10  bathing 
establishments,  of  which  the  principal,  known 
as  the  Fracasli,  is  very  complete,  and  is  the 
largest  and  most  handsome  building  of  the 
town.  It  stands  at  one  of  its  extremities,  im- 
mediately under  Mount  Olivet,  and  is  ap- 
proached by  a  long  avenue  of  poplars  winding 
through  a  verdant  valley.  About  25,000  or  30,000 
invalids  and  tourists  visit  the  place  annually. 
It  is  a  centre  for  winter  sports,  and  many  fetes 
are  arranged  each  year.  The  inhabitants  de- 
pend chieny  on  the  baths,  almost  every  Douse 
receiving  lodgers;  but  the  manufactures  are  of 
some  importance.  The  chief  of  these  are  a 
kind  of  crape  and  a  fine  woolen  gauze  woven 
into  shawls  and  scarfs.  There  are  marble 
quarries  in  the  neighborhood,  from  which  come 
a  high  ^rade  of  table  tops  and  chimney  pieces. 
The  springs  here  were  known  to  and  used  by 
the  Romans,  and  various  ancient  remains  are 
stUl  in  existence.    Pop.  (1911)  8.455. 

BAGN£RSS-DE-LUCH0N,  b^'nyir*  di 
lii-shoii,  France,  town  in  the  department  of 
Haute-Garonne,  one  of  the  principal  watering' 
places  of  the  Pyrenees,  naviiiz  sulphurous 
thermal  waters  said  to  be  beneficial  in  rheumatic 
and  gouty  complaints,  nervous  ailments,  skui 
diseases,  etc,  and  used  chiefly  as  baths.  It  is 
divided  into  an  old  and  a  new  town,  situated 
in  the  picturesque  valley  of  Lnchon,  surrounded 
by  hills  covered  with  wood.  The  new  town 
has  fine  streets  and  promenades,  and  several 
villas  and  gardens.  The  main  street  forms  a 
splendid  avenue,  at  the  west  end  of  which  the 
large  bathing  establishment  is  placed.  There  is 
also  a  large  and  splendid  casino  building  of 
recent  erection,  comprising  a  theatre;  concert 
and  ball  rooms,  etc.,  and  containing  a  large- 
scale  model  of  tne  Pyrenees,  giving  an  excellent 
idea  of  the  configuration  of  the  range.  The 
neighborhood  exhibits  some  of  the  most  inter- 
estiuB  scenery  of  the  Pyrenees.  Visitors  num- 
ber from  30,000  to  40,000  annualW,  and  are 
most  numerous  in  the  months  of  Julj;  and 
Auftust.  Bagn4res-de-Luchon  has  48  mineral 
springs  of  varied  temperature  and  composition. 
It  is  the  Thermse  Lixonienses  of  the  Romans, 
and  for  man]f  centuries  was  practically  deserted. 
Uigret  d'Etigny  had  the  waters  anal^'xed  in 
1751,  and  at  once  drew  attention  to  their  prop- 


BAQN8S—  BAGRA-nON 


etties.  As  a  retort,  however,  it  dates  from 
the  early  years  of  the  19tli  century.  Resident 
pop.  (1911)   3,415. 

BAGNES,  h^A'.  or  BAZNE,  Val  de,  Swit- 
terland,  picturesque  valley  in  the  canton  of 
Valais.  It  is  watered  by  the  Drame,  a  tribu- 
tary  of  the  Rhont  and  is  surrounded  by 
tDountaios,  of  which  the  highest  peaks  are 
Grand  Combln.  14,16*  feet,  and  Mont  Gelfc 
11.000  teeL  There  are  rfaders  in  the  valley, 
and  waterfalls  abound  aTong  the  river,  whidi 
has  sometimes  overflowed  and  inflicted  con- 
siderable daituge.  Chable,  the  chief  town  of 
the  valley,  is  often  called  Bagnes. 

BAGNES.  the  convict  prisons  of  France. 
Until  1748  serious  crimes  were  punished  by 
terms  of  service  io  the  galleys ;  after  which 
convicts  were  employed  in  hard  labor  in 
arsenals  and  similar  public  works.  The  name 
Bagnes  ('baths")  is  supposed  to  have  come 
from  the  fact  that  the  slave  prisons  at  Con- 
stantinople were  adjacent  to  the  baths  of  the 
Seraglio.  In  1792  the  sufferings  of  the  convicts 
were  mitigated  and  the  name  ''travau^c 
Mibliques'  substituted  for  the  haled  term 
•galires."  Until  1832  criminals  continued  to 
be  branded  with  a  hot  iron.  The  treatment  of 
convicts  at  the  bagnes  was  always  cruel ;  men 
were  chained  in  couples ;  their  food  was  poor, 
and  they  were  herded  together  at  night  like 
catile.  The  latest  establishments  of  the  type 
were  at  Toulon,  Rochefort  and  Brest,  Toulon 
not  being  finally  emptied  until  1870,  although 
these  prisons  had  been  abolished  in  1854.  Con~ 
suit  Zaccont  'Histoire  des  bagnes'  (Paris 
1875),  also  ^clor  Hugo's  "  -  ~i.i-.vi-.- 1 


erahlea.' 


).  23  S<»t  1781 ;  d.  Kingston,  Canada,  19  Hay 
1843.  He  was  Ue  second  son  of  WilUam,  1st 
Baron  Ba^  of  Bagoti  Bromley.     In  1807  he 


was  appomted  Under-Secretary  of  State  for 
Foreign  Affairs  in  the  Canning  administration; 
in  1814,  Uinister  to  France;  m  181 S  Minister  to 
die  United  States,  securing  by  bis  diplomacy 
the  neutralization  of  the  &reu  Lakes;  in  1820, 
Ambassador  at  Saint  Petersburg;  and  in  1824, 
Ambassador  at  The  Hagne.     On  the  death  of 


1^54.  In  1829  he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Ox< 
ford,  and  in  184S  he  was  translated  to  the 
bishopric  of  Bath  and  Wells.  During  the  Trac- 
tarian  controversy  he  was  violently  assailed  for 
his  alleged  Pus^te  sympathies,  and  for  his  in- 
duction of  the  Rev.  U.  Bennett  into  the  living 
of  Frome.  This  had  such  an  effect  on  Bishop 
Bagot  that  his  intellect  became  disturbed. 

BAGPIPE,  a  well  known  wind  instrument 
of  high  antiquity  among  various  nations,  ana 
so  long  a  favorite  with  tine  natives  of  the  Hi^ 
hods  of  Scotland  that  it  may  now  be  considered 
as  their  national  instrument.  The  peculiarity 
of  the  bagpipe  consists  in  the  fact  that  the  air 
producing  the  music  is  collected  into  a  leathern 
bag,  from  which  it  is  forcibly  pressed  into  the 
pipes  by  the  arm  of  the  performer.  The  chanltr, 
a  pipe  into  which  b  inserted  a  reed  for  the 
production  of  the  sounds  by  the  action  of  the 


air  from  d)e  bag,  is  perforated  with  holes  like 
the  German  flute,  ^khich  are  stopped  with  the 
fingers.  The  other  parts  of  the  tnstnunent,  in 
the  common  Highland  form,  are  three  tubes  or 
drones,  which  are  also  furnished  with  reeds. 
Two  of  the  drones  are  in  unison  with  D  on 
the  chanter,  which  corresponds  with  the  lowest 
note  of  the  German  flute.  The  third  drone,  which 
is  die  longest,  is  an  octave  lower.  The  tuning 
of  the  bagpipe  is  accomplished  by  lengthening 
or  shortening  the  tubes  or  drones,  as  may  be 
required.  Its  compass  is  from  the  G  of  the 
treble  stave  to  the  A  above  it,  but  its  scale  is 
imperfect.  The  Highland  b^pipe  is  a  power- 
ful instrument,  and  calls  for  ^reat  exertion  of 
the  lungs,  the  air  being  forced  into  the  bag  by  a 
pipe  held  between  the  lips.  The  Irish  bagpipe 
IS  smaller,  softer  in  its  notes,  and  is  alwavs 
played  with  bellows  that  force  the  air  into  the 
bag.  It  has  a  number  of  keys  on  the  chanter 
and  drones,  and  is  a  much  more  perfect  instru- 
ment musically  than  the  Hi^land.  A  Low- 
land Scotch  form  of  the  bagpipe  is  also  played 
with  bellows.  It  is  not  known  when  the  bagpipe 
first  found  its  way  into  Scotland,  but  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  Norsemen  first  introduced  it  into 
the  Hebrides,  which  islands  they  long  possessed 
la  England  it  was  common  from  Anglo-Saxon 
times,  and  is  famiharly  referred  to  by  Chaucer 
and  Shakespeare.  The  bagpipe  is  indeed  of  very 
ancient  origin,  as  representations  of  it  are  to  be 
found  on  Grecian  and  Roman  sculptures;  and  it 
has  loD^  been  well  known  among  various  east- 
ern nations.  In  Italy  to  this  day,  or  at  least  in 
certain  parts  of  it,  the  bagpipe  (comamusa)  is 
slill  a  popular  instrument  among  the  peasantry, 
but  the  Italian  form  of  it  is  more  simple  th^ 
the  Highland  and  Irish. 

BAGRATID.ffl,  big-ra'tl-de,  or  BAGRA- 
TIANS,  a  line  of  langs  and  princes  of  Armenia 
that  ruled  in  that  country  from  the  year  885 
to  the  nth  century.  After  the  seizure  of  Asia 
Minor  by  the  Seljuks,  some  of  the  princes  re- 
tained power  as  independent  lords,  holding  the 
possession  of  mounlsuB  fastnesses.  The  dynasty 
ended  with  Leo  IV,  who  was  assassinated  in 
J342.  . 

BAGRATION,  bs-gii'tf-Sn',  Peter, 
Prince,  Russian  general,  of  the  Georgian 
Bagradite  family:  b.  1765;  d.  7  Oct.  181^ 
He  entered  tiie  Russian  army  in  1782  as  a 
common  soldier;  and  in  a  long  military  career 
rose  to  the  h^hest  grades,  and  gained  a  place 
among  those  Russiui  generals  the  most  cele- 
brated for  their  stubborn,  unyielding  bravery. 
Having  been  created  a  lieutenant- general,  he 
commanded  the  vanguard  of  the  Austrian  army 
at  Austertitz,  under  Prince  Lichtenstein.  In 
the  Prussian  campaign  of  1807,  his  resis^nce 
made  the  battle  of  Eylau  so  terrible  that  even 
Napoleon  shuddered  at  its  bloody  results.  The 
same  is  said  of  him  at  the  battle  of  Friedland. 
In  1806  he  made  a  daring  march  across  the 
froien  Gulf  of  Finland,  overrunning  western 
Bothnia  and  the  Aland  Isles ;  In  1809  he  fought 
at  Silistria,  and  destroyed  the  Turkish  force 
brought  up  from  Adnanople  to  relieve  that 
fortress.  In  1812  he  founit  an  unsuccessful 
battle  with  Oavoust  at  Mo&leff,  but  succeeded, 
nevertheless,  in  joining  the  Russian  main  army. 
He  was  mortally  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Mo- 
iaisk,  or  Borodino,  7  Sept  1812,  just  a  month 
before  he  died. 


IJigilizcdtyGoOgle 


BAGSHAW  —  B  AHAISM 


BAGSHAW,  Edward,  English  author: 
date  of  birth  unknown;  d.  1662.  He  espoused 
at  first  the  cause  of  the  Puritans,  but  later  be- 
came a  Royalist,  and  sat  in  the  Parliament  that 
Charles  I  convened  at  Oxford;  was  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Parliamentary  army,  and  dur- 
ing his  detention  com^sed  various  books,  the 
most  important  of  which  is  'The  Right  of  the 
Crown  of  England  as  EstaMished  by  Law.* 

BAGSHOT  HEATH,  a  level  tract  in 
England,  now  used  as  a  field  for  military  ma- 
noeuvres. It  is  famous  as  the  site  of  many 
h^hway  robberies  in  the  18th  century. 

BAGSTOCK,  Major  Joe,  an  apoplectic, 
gluttonous  character  in  Dickens'  novel,  'Doin- 

BAQWORM,     or     BASKETWORH,     a 

common  caterpillar  of  a  moth  {Tkyriadopteryx 
epkemtrtEformii') ,  found  in  large  numbers 
throughout  the  northern  part  of  the  United 
States.  The  male  has  a  dark  bod^  and  light 
wings,  but  the  egg-laying  female  is  wingless. 
The  larva  lies  head  downward  in  a  sac  or  case 
covered  with  bits  of  leaves  (so  that  it  looks 
like  a  basket),  where  it  finally  transforms,  the 
wonn-like  female  remaining  m  its  case,  while 
the  male  flies  sluggishly  about,  and  may  be 
known  by  its  hairy  body  and  small  transparent 
wings.  When  the  young  hatch  (in  May),  they 
crawl  on  a  leaf,  gtiawing  little  bits  from  the 
surface  and  fastening  them  together  with  a 
thread.  They  present  a  comical  sight  when  the 
baskets  are  partly  completed,  walking  about, 
tail  in  the  air,  with  the  body  hidden  in  the  case. 
As  they  grow  older  the  body  is  entirely  pro- 
tected by  the  sac,  which  they  drag  about  when 
in  motion.  These  insects  fre(iuent  the  trees  in 
city  parks,  especially  junipers,  in  great  numbers, 
and  are  apt  to  be  detrimental  to  foliage  unless 
destroyed  by  scraping  off  the  cocoons.  Certain 
small  species  occur  on  the  orange  in  Florida, 
and  others  in  the  tropics.    See  Fagotworu. 

BAHADUR,  b4-ha'door  ('Valiant"),  the 
last  Great  Mogul  from  the  house  of  Tamerlane: 
b.  1767;  d.  1862.  When  the  British  captured 
Delhi,  be  was  taken  prisoner,  and  sent  to 
Rangoon.  He  was  also  a  poet  and  wrote  a 
number  of  songs. 

BAHAISM,  a  religious  movement  started 
\sy  Miraa  Ah  Mahomet  (181»-50)  in  Persia 
about  the  middle  of  the  19th  century.  He 
preached  that  the  Mohammedan  reli^on  had  - 
become  corrupt  and  needed  reformation,  that 
the  clergy  were  ignorant  and  vicious,  that  the 
Koran  was  not  the  final  revelation,  but  that  a 
new  prophet  was  to  come  in  the  near  future 
who  should  preach  a  new  gospel  to  a  new  gen- 
eration, which  should  conform  to  the  needs  of 
modern  scientific  knowledge  and  social  ten- 
dencies and  should,  therefore,  be  greater  than  any 
previous  revelation  made  to  any  people  at  any 
time.  He  also  proclaimed  the  spiritual  equality 
of  women  with  men.  As  his  gospel  appealed 
powerfully  to  the  down-trodden  masses,  his 
success  was  immediate  and  so  great  that  the 
Mohammedan  priesthood  became  alarmed;  and 
they  used  their  influence  with  the  government 
to  have  the  daring  preacher  arrested  on  the 
charge  of  hostility  to  state  and  religion.  AH 
,  Mahomet,  who  had  taken  the  religious  name  of 
•Eab»  (the  door  or  gale),  foretold  his  own 
death  at  the  hands  of  the  authorities,  but,  at  the 


same  time,  he  comforted  his  followers  wiA  the 
assurance  that  another  and  greater  than  he 
would  soon  appear  to  carry  on  nis  work.  After 
a  mock  trial,  in  which  the  mullahs  of  die 
Mohammedan  Church  did  the  prosecution,  he 
was  condemned  and  shot  on  the  public  square 
at  Tabriz,  July  1850.  The  immortality  o?  the 
soul  and  the  omnipotent  love  of  (jod  extended 
to  evet^  creature  upon  earth  constitute  the 
foundation  of  Bahai  theology;  but  it  reaches 
out  and  attempts  to  reform  mstitutions  of  all 
kinds,  including  those  of  the  state.  It  teaches 
that  loyalty  is  due  to  institutions,  causes  and 
religious  creeds  only  so  long  as  they  represent 
the  cause  of  humanity  and  the  progress  and 
evolution  of  the  race.  While  Bahaism  pro- 
claims no  loyalty  to  any  selfish  or  outworn 
creeds  and  organizations,  its  prophet  issued  a 
stem  warning  against  mistalang  the  obstructive 
and  destructive  for  the  constructive.  He  held 
out  the  hand  of  friendship  to  all  creeds,  all 
religions,  all  societies  and  all  governments, 
proclaiming,  at  the  same  time,  the  necessity  of 
a  get-together  movement  for  the  regeneration 
of  tbe  race  and  of  its  institutions  and  behefs. 
He  foretold  the  coming  of  a  new  special  order 
in  which  the  development  of  spiritualized  man 
was  to  be  the  primary  purpose  and  all  its  ten- 
dencies essentially  creative.  The  Bahar  Church 
possesses  no  ecclesiastical  organization ;  it 
works  socially  and  practically,  through  a  popu- 
larly elected  "house  of  justice,"  for  the  spirit- 
ual, social  and  moral  bettermtbt  of  humanity, 
irrespective  of  creed,  race  or  social  standii^ 
But  this  'house  of  justice*  has  no  inherent 
authority,  since  it  is  purely  an  advisory  body 
in  matters  of  doubt  or  urgency.  Bahaism  is, 
in  no  sense,  destructive.  It  countenances  all 
existing  creeds,  churches,  societies,  institutions 
and  governments;  but  urges  their  reformatioiL 
ll  would  work  throu^  them,  patiently  en- 
deavoring to  apply  the  eolden  rule  for  their 
betterment  and  final  perfection.  To  this  end 
each  Bahai  temple  should  have  attached  to  it  a 
college,  a  hospital,  hospice  and  other  social 
features  which  diould  be  run  as  model  institu- 
tions. It  insists  upon  the  sanctity  of  the  indt- 
vidnal  and  the  spiritual  and  social  equality  of 
all.  In  this  sense,  it  proclaims  all  men  (and 
women)  bom  free  and  equal,  with  the  nersonal 
ri^ht  and  duty  to  disallow  any  vicariout 
spiritual  agency.  Each  individual  constitutes  a 
divine  creation  not  impeached,  denied  or  hum- 
bled by  special  privileges  of  any  other  human 
being.  Self-expression  is  the  supreme  privilege 
and  obligation  of  life;  and  this  is  afforded  by 
life  itself  in  the  means  for  beautiful  expression, 
noble  conduct  and  great  and  inspiring  art.  The 
inability  to  recognize  this  is  a  sign  of  spiritual 
insufficency ;  for  Bahaism  proclaims  spiritual 
development  as  the  supreme  purpose  and  obli- 
gation of  life.  The  state,  as  well  as  the  indi- 
vidual, should  experience  spiritual  growth,  for 
without  sinritual  activity  even  social  eftort  is 
sterile  and  self -destructive.  Legislation  not  de- 
rived from  religious  vision,  laws  not  founded 
upon  unselfish  wisdom,  obstruct  our  social  evo- 
lution; this  is  why  social  evolution  moves  so 
slowly.  According  to  Bahaism  there  is  no 
essential  virtue  in  poverty  nor  essential  evil  in 
great  wealth.  Wealth  used  for  the  spiritual 
development  of  the  possessor  and  the  better- 
ment of  humanity  is  an  exceedingly  good  thinft 


BAHAMA  BANK  — BAHAMAS 


as  are  sUso  the  arts,  sdences  ami  forcea  of 
legitimate  healthful  pleasure  which  feed  the 
growtb  of  the  spiritual  soul;  for  the  one  ^eat 
thing  in  life  is  to  submit  all  one's  activities, 
talents  and  possessions  to  the  spiritual  agency, 
thus  transferring  the  centre  of  consciousness 
from  self  to  an  outside  point  and  thus  chang' 
iug  ^otism  into  service  and  creating  the  utmost 
sympathy  for  others,  sundering  every  tie  inher- 
ently  selfish,  destructive  or  useless.  The  be- 
lievers in  Bahaism  are  enjoined  not  to  with- 
draw from  present  religious  organizations  but 
to  stay  in  their  midst,  reinterpreting  their 
functions  in  the  light  of  social  evolution  and 
endeavoring  to  vitalize  their  activity  and  re- 
move their  prejudice  and  ignorance  which  are 
walling  them  off  from  social  unity.  As  citizens 
they  are  bound  to  obey  the  laws  of  the  land 
while  endeavoring  to  improve  them.  They 
should  labor  to  unite  minor  organizations  to 
make  them  efficient  so  that  their  influence  may' 
eventually  become  world-wide.  Therefore  duty 
imposes  tipon  ihe  believer  in  Bahaiam  the 
study  of  social  problems,  advanced  ideas  in 
science,  economics  and  government,  and  the 
creation  in  his  own  mind  of  a  living  social  ideal, 
a  divine  civilization.  Social  ethics  should  pos- 
sess the  same  foundations  as  personal  morality 
and  spirituality,  for  Bahaism  makes  the  same 
appeal  to  the  institution  that  Christ  made  to  the 
individual,  to  put  aside  self  in  the  interest  of 
k>vc  of  one's  neither.  Therefore  churches 
should  lay  aside  sectarianism  and  denomina- 
tionalism. 

Bahaism    appealing    throu^    its    gospel   of 
■■■'■'■  '  "       ■  )  the    ■ 


equality,  fraternity  and  s 


'  ""^der- 
and 


southern  Russia.  Most  of  its  converts  have 
been  made  among  Mohammedans.  In  Persia 
alone  there  are  said  to  be  nearly  2,000,000  of 
the  Bahai  faith,  which  numbers  several  mil- 
lions more  in  the  other  countries  mentioned 
together  with  the  Mohammedan  slates  of 
northern  Africa.  Today  Bahaism  has  its 
converts,  its  societies  and  its  missionaries  in 
almost  every  cfviliied  country  on  the  globe, 
including'  the  United  States,  which  has  some 
two  score  centres  of  propaganda,  proclaiming 
the  doctrine  that  men  should  draw  together  for 
social  atid  spiritual  good  and  that  there  is  little 
hope  for  the  race  so  long  as  its  members  con- 
tinue to  live  apart  from  one  another,  separated 
through  fear,  jealousy,  shame  or  social  inequal- 
ity; for  every  personality  overlaps  every  other 
personalis',  thus  teaching  that  the  one  ^reat, 
all-compelling  aim  and  object  of  life  is  unity. 

Bibliography.— Brown,  E.  G.,  'A  Trav- 
riler's  Narrative*  (Cambridge  1891).  'The  Per- 
sian Revolution  of  1905-W>  (Cambndge  1910) ; 
Dreyfus,  Hipolyte,  <The  Universal  Religion' 
(London  1909)  ;  Barney,  L.  C, '  Some  Answered 
Questions'  (London  1908)  ;  Mirza  Abdul  Fait, 
■The  Bahw  Proofs*  (New  York  190Z) ;  Remey, 
C.  M.,  'The  Bahai  Movemeni'  and  'Observa- 
tions of  a  Bahai  Traveller'  (Washington,  D. 
C,  1914):  'Bahaism  the  Modem  Social  Re- 
ligion' (New  York  1913).  See  Mibza  Hussim 
Ali;  also  Abdul  Baha. 

BAHAMA  BANK,  Oreat  and  Little, 
shoals  BfflonB  the  West  India  Islands;  the 
former  between  22*  and  36°  N.,  7S"  and  79°  W, 
having  sotith  and  west  the  Bahama  old  and  new 


channels.  On  it  are  the  islands  ol  Providence; 
Andros  and  Exuma.  The  Little  Banl^  north- 
west of  the  foregoing,  between  26°  and  27°  N, 
77°  and  79°  W.,  has  on  it  the  Great  Bahama 
and  Abaco  islands. 

BAHAMA  CHANNEL,  Old  and  New, 
two  channels  of  the  West  Indies;  the  former 
separates  the  Great  Bahama  Bank  and  Cuba; 
the  latter,  also  called  the  Gulf  of  Florida,  is  be- 
tween the  Great  and  Little  Bahama  Banks  and 
Florida,  and  forms  a  part  of  the  channel  of  the 
great  Gulf  Stream,  which  flows  here  at  the  rate 
of  from  two  to  five  miles  an  hour. 

BAHAMAS,  The,  or  THB  BAHAMA 
ISLANDS,  were  formerly  known  as  the 
Lucayos,  from  the  name  of  a  tribe  of  aborigi- 
nes inhatflting  them  at  the  time  of  their  dis- 
covery by  Clolumbus  in  1492.  The  scene  of 
the  first  landing  was  an  island  on  the  outer  or 
Atlantic  side  of  this  group  to  which  Columbus 

Sve  the  name  San  Salvador.  By  the  natives 
>t  bland  was  called  Guanahani,  and  it  Is  now 
known  as  Watling  Island.  The  total  habiuble 
area  of  the  islands  is  small,  but  the  extent  of 
the  group,  including  cays  and  rocks  rising  from 
banks  near  the  surface  of  the  water,  is  very 
great— near^    six    degrees    of    latitude,        '' 


biands  and  banks  form  a  barrier  between  the 
Atlantic  and  (he  eastern  entrance  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  To  reach  the  Fk>rida  Strait,  a 
large  vessel  must  follow  one  of  three  channels: 
the  Old  Bahama,  north  o£  Cuba;  the  Florida 
or  the  Providence.  The  last  passes  through 
the  group  above  Nassau,  the  capital  and  only 
important  city,  an  attractive  place  with  about 
12354  inhabitants. 

The  researches  of  Professor  Agassiz  have 
ihown  that  the  Bahamas  are  essentially  different 
in  geological  formation  from  the  Greater  and 
Lesser  Antilles,  being  wind-blown  piles  of  shell 
and  coral  sand, —  once  much  more  extensive 
than  now,-^  whose  areas  have  been  restricted 
by  a  general  regional  subsidence  of  some  300 
feet,  so  that  much  of  their  former  surface  now 
occurs  as  shallow  banks  beneath  the  water. 
Mr.  Robert  T.  Hill  saya:  'The  islands  are 
nere^  the  exposed  tiin  of  the  great  submerged 
ridge,  havit^  an  outline  and  configuration 
which  would  be  cmdely  comparable  to  the 
island  of  Cuba  if  the  latter  were  so  submerged 
that  its  highest  points  merely  reached  the  sur- 
face.*    Their  total  area  is  4.403;^  square  milei. 

The  Indian  population  having  been  carried 
away  to  the  P^arf  fisheries  of  Panama,  or  to 
labor  in  the  fields  and  mines  of  other  Spanish 
agonies,  the  Bahamas  remained  deserted  un- 
til, in  1629,  an  Enelish  settlement  was  begun 
in  the  island  of  New  Providence.  Twelve 
years  later,  Spain  asserted  her  claim,  based 
upon  discovery  without  occupation.  The  Eng- 
lish were  expelled,  but  again  attempted  col- 
onization; and  Charles  if,  in  1680.  actually 
granted  the  islands  to  six  English  noblemoi  and 
gentiemen.  Early  in  the  18th  ccntniy  New 
Providence  was  twice  r^ded  by  Frendi  and 
Spanish  forces;  and  again  it  became  a  desert. 
Buccaneers  of  all  nations  made  themselves  at 
home,  and  held  tmdisputed  possession,  until 
another  Enf^ish  settlement  was  planted  in  1718, 
and  British  troops  were  as^ned  to  its  defense  ' 
Tory  cmtgfants  from  the  EagOA  colonies  on 


.Google 


BAH  AR  —  BAH  A.WALPUR 


the  mainland  at  the  time  of  the  Revolutjon 
introduced  slave  labor  and  the  cultivation  of 
cotton  —  which  did  not  thrive.  New  Prov- 
idence was  captured  and  held  for  a  short  time 
by  the  Americans  under  Commodore  Hopkins 
in  1776;  six  years  later  it  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  governor  of  Cuba,  but  was  retaken  by 
the  loyalist  Colonel  Deveaux  before  12  months 
bad  passed.  The  rights  of  the  old  lord  pro- 
prietors were  purchased  in  1787,  the  Bahamas 
Secoming  a  possession  of  the  British  Crovni, 
administered  bv  a  colonial  government. 

During  the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States 
an  enormous  blockade- running  trade  swelled 
the  imports  of  the  islands  from  a  little  more 
than  $1,000,000  to  upward  of  $26.000,000 1  the 
exports  from  about  $800,000  to  more  than 
$23000,000~a  period  of  prosperity  both  brief 
ana  unique.  Violent  storms  and  droughts  have 
more  than  once  brought  ruin  to  the  natural 
industries;  the  cultivation  of  small  fruits,  veg^ 
tables,  oranges,  pineapples,  cocoanuts,  etc.,  has 
been  carried  on  at  a  disadvantage,  owing  to  the 
tariff  laws  of  the  United  States  and  the  re- 
moteness of  other  markets.  Other  forms  of 
agriculture  have  been  attempted,  with  moderate 
success.  Sponge-hshing  is  carried  on  exten- 
sively. At  the  eastern  end  of  the  group  are 
the  Turks  and  Ciicos  islands,  which  were  sep- 
arated politically  from  the  Bahamas  and  made 
3.  dependency  of  Jamaica  in  1848,  Grand  Turk 
is  the  capital  and  there  the  chief  executive  of- 
ficer, or  commissioner,  resides.  From  these 
islands  1,500,000  bushels  of  salt  are  exported 
annually  and  a  large  number  of  sponges  are 
also  gathered  and  exported.  The  total  value 
of  imports  to  ail  the  islands  is  about  $S25,00IX 
ttle  United  States  supplying  nearly  three- 
fourths  of  that  amount.  Besides  Turks  and 
Caicos,  the  principal  inhabited  islands  are  New 
Providence,  with  about  15,000  inhabitants, 
Abaco,  Harbor  Island  Eleuthera,  Inagua,  May- 
E^;uana,  Ragged  Island,  Rum  Cay,  Exuma,  Long 
Island,  Long-  Cay,  the  Biminis.  Grand  Baha- 
ma, Crooked,  Ackhn,  Cat,  Watling,  Beriy  and 
Andros  Islands.  The  inhabitants  of  Great 
Abaco  are  chiefly  descendants  of  the  American 
Tories,  referred  to  above.  Harbor  Island  has 
about  2,000  inhabitants,  who  are  descendants 
of  the  buccaneers.  Largest  and  most  densely 
wooded  are  the  Andros   Islands. 

From  November  to  May  the  temperature 
ranges  between  60°  and  75°  F.;  in  the  summer 
months  it  varies  from  75°  to  85°.  The  climate, 
though  subject  to  greater  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold  than  that  of  other  groups  in  the  West 
Indies,  is  agreeable  and  health-giving;  and 
Nassau  is  a  favorite  resort  for  tourists  in 
wmter.  The  population  (about  58,175)  in- 
cludes a  large  proportion  of  negroes,  the  nat- 
ural increase  among  the  descendants  of  former 
■kves  being  greater  than  among  the  descend- 
ants of  the  white  settlers.  There  is  little  im- 
migration. Good  schools  are  maintained  by  the 
government  and  by  the  Church  of  Enpland 
The  administration  of  the  islands  is  conducted 
by  a  Kovemor,  an  executive  council,  the  repre- 
sentative assembly  and  a  legislative  council. 

"Though  the  first  discovered  of  the  West 
Indies,'  wrote  Obcr,  "the  Bahamas  were  among 
lie  last  with  a  few  exceptions,  to  become  per- 
manently settled,  and  even  to-day  little  is  known 
of  the  more  remote  islands,  since  very  few  of 
them  are  reached  by  steamers,  connection  be- 


tween the  northern  and  southern  being  kept  up 
by  sailing  vessels  only.  As  they  are  almost 
uniformly  level,  the  hi^est  elevation  not  ex- 
ceeding 300  feet,  they  do  not  display  that  va- 
ried vegetation  to  be  seen  in  the  Greater  and 
Lesser  Antilles,  where  the  mountain- sides  are 
clothed  with  extensive  tropical  forests.  Still, 
the  Bahama  flora  embraces  more  than  100  na- 
tive flowers  and  a  variety  of  woods  useful  in 
the  arts  and  materia  tneaica,  besides  many  de- 
licious fruits  known  to  dwellers  in  the  tropical 

Steamers  of  the  Ward  Line  (New  Yoric  and 
Cuba  Mail  Steamship  Company)  leave  New 
York  every  other  FriQaj"  for  Nassau,  returning 
week  later;  and  dunng  three  months  (about 


weekly    between     Miami,     Fla.    and    Nassatt, 
Bahamas. 

BiblioEraphy.—  Aspinall,  A.  E.,  'Pocket 
Guide  to  the  West  Indies'  (Chicago  and  New 
York  1914)  and  'The  British  West  Indies' 
(London  1912);  Hiil,  R.  T.,  <Cuba  and  Porto 
Rico,  with  the  other  islands  of  the  West  In- 
dies' (New  York  1898);  Oher,  F.  A.,  'Guide 
to  the  West  Indies'    (New  York  1908). 

Marbion  Wilcox. 

BAHAR,  b^-har*.  province  and  town  in  In- 
dia.   See  Bemar. 

BAHAR,  or  BAKRE,  the  name  of  certain 
weights  used  in  several  places  in  the  East 
Indies.  They  have  been  distinguished  as  the 
great  bahar,  with  which  are  weighed  pepper, 
cloves,  nutmegs,  ginger,  etc  j  and  the  httle 
bakar,  used  to  weigh  quicksilver,  verinilion, 
ivory,  sill^  etc.  But  this  weight  varies  much 
in  different  parts  of  the  East,  being  in  some 
places  not  much  above  4(K)  pounds,  in  others 
considerably  over  500. 

BAHAWALPUR,  b^-ha'wgl-poor*.  India, 
town  and  capital  of  a  state  of  the  same  name 
in  the  Punjab,  two  miles  from  the  Sutlej.  It  is 
surrounded  by  a  mud  wall  and  contains  the 
extensive  palsice  of  the  Nawab,  a  vast  square 
pile  with  towers  at  the  comers.  It  has  under- 
ground rooms,  which  aSord  a  more  comfortable 
temperature  in  the  warm  season  than  the  upper 
rooms.  Silk  goods  are  manufactured,  also  tur- 
bans, chintzes  and  other  cottons,  and  the  imme- 
diate neighborhood  is  remarkably  fertile,  pro- 
ducing grain,  sugar,  indigo,  tobacco,  with  an 
abundance  of  mangoes,  orangey  apples  and 
other  fruits.  Pop.  (19U)  l^lfe  The  state 
has  an  area  of  17,285  square  miles,  of  which 
10,000  is  desert,  the  only  cultivated  lands  lying 
along  the  Indus  and  Sutlej.  Cultivation  largely 
depends  upon  irrigation,  which  has  been  con- 
siderably extended  in  recent  times,  with  a  great 
increase  to  the  state  revenue.  The  chief  crops 
are  cereals,  cotton  and  indigo.  Beasts  of  chaM^ 
such  as  tigers  and  boars,  abound;  domestic  ani- 
mals, camels,  kine,  buffaloes,  goats  and  sheep 
are  raised.  The  exports  are  cotton,  sugar,  in- 
digo, hides,  drugs,  dyestuffs  and  wool.  Baha- 
walpur  is  traversed  by  the  Punjab  Railway.  For 
external  commerce  it  is  favorably  placed  It 
stands  at  the  junction  of  three  routes  from 
the  east,  southeast  and  south;  while,  toward  the 
north,  the  Hindu  merchants  have  dealings  with 
Bokhara  and  even  with  Astrakhan.  The  polit- 
ical relations  between  the  British  g 
and  the  state  are  regulated  b; 


vGooglc 


BAHtA  — BAMS 


47 


eluded  in  183&  No  tribute  ii  exacted  from  the 
Nftwab.    Poit.  (1911)  780>41. 

BAHlA,  Brazil,  a  slate  o!  that  republic^ 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  slates  of  Sert^pe, 
Alacoas,  Peraambuco  and  Piauhy,  on  the  east 
by  Ue  Auntie  Ocean  and  Sereipe,  on  the  south 
by  EsinritQ  Santo  and  Minas  Geraes,  and  on  the 
west  by  Pemambuco,  Piauhy,  Goyaz  and 
Minas  Geraes.  The  larger  part  of  the  state 
is  moantainous.  The  rivers  form  two  sy»- 
tems  — the  first  composed  of  tributaries  to 
the  Sao  Francisco  and  the  second  of  those 
streams  maldng  their  way  directly  to  the  At- 
lantic Ocean,  The  most  noteworthy  single 
feature  in  the  coast-line  is  the  great  bay  'of  all 
the  saints*  on  the  northeastern  side  of  which 
was  established,  by  Tomis  de  Souza  in  1S49  the 
capital  of  the  state.  See  BahIa  (the  dty),  and 
Brazil, 

BAHIA,  iA-V%  or  SAO  SALVADOR 
DA  BAHIA,  so  named  because  it  is  situated 
on  a  large  harbor  or  bay,  ranks  as  the  third  in 
population  and  importance  among  the  cities  of 
Brazil  (See  Kio  de  Jakeiso).  It  lies  about 
740  miles  north  of  Rio,  in  lat  13°  1'  S.,  and 
long  38°  32"  W.  Amerigo  Vespucci  visited 
tht»  port  on  his  voyage  of  exploration  in 
1503.  Before  1763  BaUa  was  the  capiul  of 
Bratil,  and  in  the  16th  century  it  was  die  scene 
of  frequent  conflicts  between  the  Portuguese 
and  the  forces  of  other  European  nations.  (Sec 
Brazil).  At  present  it  is  the  capital  of  the 
state  of  Bahia  (area  164,643  square  miles  and 
pop.  about  3,000,000),  which  has  great  natural 
resources  in  its  mines  and  forests,  as  well  as  in 
fertile  lands  devoted  largely  to  the  cultivation 
of  sugar-cane.  The  location  of  the  dty  is 
picturesque,  its  upper  portion  being  built  on  high 

Kiund  several  hundred  feet  above  the  sea- 
el.  On  the  upper  terraces  stand  churches, 
the  cathedral,  convents,  a  great  theatre,  flie 
mint  and  the  governor's  palace.  Below,  border- 
ing the  port,  which  has  a  fine  lighthouse  and 
b  defended  by  several  forts,  arc  docks  and 
wardiouses  where  the  products  of  the  country,— 
coffee,  sugar,  cotton,  (he-woods,  tobacco  (ex- 
cellent cigars),  rum,  hiaes,  horns  and  tallow, — 
are  collected,  to  be  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the 
world.  Bahfi  has  a  public  library,  which  was 
founded  in  1811 ;  its  manufactures  have  received 
attention  in  recent  years,  and  formerly  it  was 
the  headquarters  of  the  diamond  trade,  before 
the  mines  of  South  Africa  and  southern  Brazil 
were  developed.     The  author  of    'Brazil  and 


the  Brazilians'  (New  York  1914).  G.  J,  Bi 
says  in  regard  to  the  bay  —  \^ich,  trom 
bar  at  the  entrance  to  its  head,  is  43  miles  long 


and  about  40  broad  at  its  widest  part  — that 
h  is  one  of  the  safest  harbors  in  the  world, 
though  the  entrance  looks  dangerous  and  ex- 
tremely forbidding.  Berthing  accommodation 
at  the  wharves  is  only  provided  for  the  smaller 
vessels.  Steamers  of  large  tonnage  anchor  out 
in  the  bay.  A  French  company  has  works  for 
flie  imj)rovement  of  the  port  well  advanced, 
Bahia  is  the  starting  point  (or  several  coasting 
lines,  as  well  as  for  tradingservices  to  the  Sto 
Frandsco  River  regions,  *The  great  feature  of 
the  city,'  he  observes,  'is  me  number  of 
churches,  365,  one  for  every  day  in  the  year.* 
The  dty's  population  is  somewhat  more  than 
280,000,  with  aa  annual  increase  of  nearly  d^OOtk 


BAHf  A  BLAHCA,  Argentina,  an  import- 
ant seaport,  as  well  as  a  commercial  and 
administrative  centre,  in  the  province  of 
Buenos  Aires.  The  dty  is  well  built  and 
is  provided  with  a  good  water  supply,  and 
with  electric  light  and  tramway  service.  It  it 
the  headquarters  of  judicature  for  the  southern 
part  of  the  republic.  (See  AbQentina).  The 
real  harbor  of  Bahia  Blanca  is  Puerto  Belgrano, 
which  has  several  miles  of  anchor^e.  Ad- 
joining this  are  the  national  dockyards^  known 
as  Puerto  Militar.  Close  by  is  the  villa^  of 
Punta  Alta  and  the  naval  hospital.  Adjacent 
tovnis  are  Puerto  Ingeniero  White  (the  ter- 
minus of  die  Great  Southern  Railway)  and 
Puerto  Galvan,  terminus  of  the  Buenos  Aires 
and  Pacihc  Railway,  Combinedpopulationa  of 
the  whole  group  of  towns,  76,0OC). 

BAHiA  HONDA,  ba-e'^  on'da,  Cuba,  sea- 
port on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
lying  on  a  small  bay,  bearing  the  same  name^ 
which  affords  one  of  the  best  harbors  on  the 
island.  The  town  and  bay  are  about  50  miles 
west  of  Havana,  being  commanded  by  a  small 
fort.  There  are  mines  of  coal  and  copper  m 
the  vicinity.  A  short  distance  to  the  south  ara 
the  sulphur  springs  of  Aguacate.  Sugar  and 
tobacco  are  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  the  vicini^.  Pop.  Bahia  Honda  and  Agua- 
cate, about  1,300. 

BAHRASA  or  BBHNESA.      See   Oxr- 

KBYNCHU9. 

BAHR,  Hermann,  Austrian  author  and 
loumalist :  b.  Linz  1863.  He  studied  in  Vienna. 
Gratz,  (tzemowitz  and  Berlin,  devoting  special 
attention  to  philosophy,  political  economy  and 
law.  In  1890  he  became  assodate  editor  of 
Berlmer  Frtie  BSIme,  and  later  became  asso- 
date editor  and  critic  of  the  Deutsche  Zeilung. 
In  1894  he  began  publication  of  Die  Zeil,  and 
was  also  editor  of  the  Neue  Wiener  Tagblait 
and  the  Oesterreichische  Volksjceitung.  He  waa 
appointed  manager  of  the  Berlin  Deutschea 
Theater  in  1906.  His  critical  works  include 
<Zur  Kritik  der  Modeme»  (1890)  ;  'Die  Ueber- 
wbdung  des  Naturalismus*  (1891) ;  'Neue 
Studien"  (1891);  'Bildung'  (1900);  'Seces- 
sion* (1900):  'Premiiren'  (19Q2)  ;  and  <Dialog 
vom  Tragischen>  (1903).  His  plays  are  'Die 
neuen  Menschen'  (1887)  ;  'EHe  Mutter>  (1891)  ; 
'Die  hausliche  Fran*  (1893);  'Der  ApoateP 
(1901)  ;  'Der  Krampus'  (1902) ;  'Der  Meister> 
(1904)  ■  <Sanna>  (1905)  ;  'Die  Andere*  (190S)  ; 
'Das  KonM!rt>  (1909);  'Die  Kinder'  (1911); 
'Das  Priniip'  (1912).  He  has  written  the  fol- 
lowing novels:  'Die  gute  Schule'  (1890); 
'Dora'  (1893)  ;  'Nebcn  der  Liebe'  (1893)  ;  and 
'Stimmen  des  Bluts'  (1909).  Another  work, 
'Die  Einsichtslosigkcit  des  Herm  Schaffle* 
(1886)  is  of  a  political  nature:  he  published 
also  a  volume  of  'Essays'  (1912). 

BAHR.  bar,  Johann  Chiiitian  Felix,  Get- 
maa  philologist:  b.  Darmstadt,  13  June  1798; 
d.  29  Nov.  1^2.  Educated  at  Heidefbenj  Gym- 
nasium and  University,  of  which  last  he  became 
ordinary  professor  of  classical  philology  in 
1823.  His  chief  work  is  his  'History  of  Ro- 
man Literature'  (1828;  4th  ed,,  1868-70),  which 
is  noted  for  its  deamess  and  comprehensive- 
ness. Three  supplements  to  this  work  deal  with 
the  'Christian  Poets  and  Historians  of  Rome' 
(1836);      the      'Christian-Roman     Theok)g]r* 


.Google 


BAHR— BAHURIM 


(1837) ;  and  the  'History  of  Roman  Literature 
ia  Ehe  Carlovingian  Period'  (1840).  Hb  edi- 
tion of  <Herodotus>  (2d  ed.,  185S^1>  is  alio 
noteworthy. 

BAHR,  an  Arabic  word  signifyiiiK  sea  or 
large  river;  as  in  Bahr-eUHuleb,  the  Lake 
Merom  in  Palestine;  Bahr-el-Abiad,  the  White 
Nile,  Bahr-el-Azrek,  the  Blue  Nile,  which  to- 
gether unite  at  Khartum, 

BAHR-BL-GHAZAL,  bar'il-g^-ial'  (Ga- 
zelle River),  name  of  two  rivers  in  central 
Africa:  one  flows  from  Lake  Tchad  throng  a 
desert  region;  the  other  is  formed  by  the  union 
of  several  streams  near  the  Kongo  Free  State, 
and  flows  eastward  through  a  very  swampy 
region,  and  shortly  after  leaving  Lake  No  unites 
with  the  Bahr-el-Jebel  to  form  the  White  Nile. 
Its  banks  are  apt  to  be  very  indefinite  owing 
to  inundations.  In  1869  Schweinfurth  explored 
the  greater  part  of  ila  basin.  The  head  oi 
Steam  navigation  on  the  river  is  Meshra-er-Rek. 
The  basin  of  these  two  rivers  is  a  province  of 
the  same  name.  A  settled  government  was 
established  there  on  behalf  of  Egypt  in  187a 
but  the  Mahdist  rebellion  temporarily  severed 
its  connection  with  that  country.  Since  the  re- 
conquest  of  the  Egyptian  Sudan  by  the  British 
and  Egyptian  forces  under  Kitchener,  however, 
the  Babr-el-Ghazal  has  been  again  brought 
under  a  settled  administration.  It  is  said  to  be 
rich  in  ivory,  rubber  and  timber,  and  suited  for 
cotton  growing.  The  Ubangi  district  of  the 
French  Kongo  lies  to  the  west  of  the  fiahr-el- 
Ghazal. 

BAHR  YUSUF,  bar  yoo'sfif,  or  BAHR 
EL  YUSUF,  an  artihcial  irrigation  channel 
from  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile  below  Sint,  to 
die  Fayum  270  miles  long.  According  to 
G)ptic  traditions  it  was  constructed  during 
Joseph's  administration. 

BAHRAICH,  b9-rich',  India,  capital  of 
Bahraich  district,  Faizabad  division,  in  the 
united  provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh,  and  65 
miles  northeast  of  Lucknow.  The  town  is  in 
a  nourishing  state;  it  is  drained' and  lighted, 
and  carries  on  a  good  local  trade.  It  is  situated 
on  the  junction  line  from  Gonda  to  Basti,  and 
began  to  flourish  when  the  railway  was  built. 
It  manufactures  fireworks  and  native  cloth. 
The  chief  edifice  of  interest  is  the  shrine  of 
Musand,  a  warrior  and  saint  of  the  11th  cen- 
tury, which  attracts  both  Hindu  and  Moham- 
medan pilgrims  to  the  number  of  150.000  an- 
nually. The  American  Idethodist  mission  has 
a  station  aud  a  school  here.    Pop.  (1911)  26,907. 

BAHRAL,  ba'rtll,  or  BUHREL,  a  wild 
sheep  (Ck'is  nahura)  of  the  high  plains  of 
Tibet,  which  resembles  a  goal  in  appearance, 
although  it  has  no  beard.  The  rams  carry  large 
flattened  and  nearly  smooth  horns,  which  curve 
outward  and  backward,  but  do  not  curl.  The 
general  color  b  brown,  becoming  gray  in  win- 
ter, while  the  abdomen  and  insides  of  the  legs 
and  tail  are  white;  a  stripe  along  the  sides  and 
on  each  side  of  the  face,  throat  and  the  front 
of  the  legs  are  black,  interrupted  by  white 
patches  at  the  knees  and  above  the  hoofs.  The 
females  are  plainer  and  have  small  horns.  This 
animal,  which  is  a  favorite  object  of  sport  in 
Tibet,  passes  its  whole  time  above  the  limit  of 
forest  growth,  and  clambers  about  the  rocks  in 
'  a  goat  rather  than  of  a  sheep. 


It  is  believed  that  these  animals,  which  are 
often  kept  captive  by  the  mountaineers,  have  in- 
fluenced the  Asiatic  races  of  domestic  sheep. 
Consult  Lydekker,  'Royal  Natural  History' 
(Vol.  II,  London  1895). 

BAHRDT,  bart,  Karl  Friedricfa,  Clerman 
theologian :  b.  Bischof  swerda.  Saxony.  25  Aug. 
1741 ;  d.  Halk;,  23  April  1792 ;  studied  m  Schul^ 
forte  and  Leipzig,  where  he  first  showed  hu 
great  talents.  In  1766  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Leipzig.  His  works 
and  his  talents  as  a  preacher  met  with  accept- 
ance, but  in  consequence  of  immoral  conduct 
he  was  obliged  to  quit  that  city  in  1768.  From 
this  time  he  led  an  unsettled  life.  He  was  suc- 
cessively professor  of  theology  and  preacher  in 
Erfurt,  (where  he  was  made  doctor  of  theol- 
osy)i  in  Giessen,  Switzerland,  and  in  Diirk- 
beim,  but  was  obliged  to  leave  each  of  these 
places  on  account  of  his  severe  attacks  on  the 
clergy  and  the  heterodox  views  manifested  in 
his  writings  and  sermons,  as  well  as  on  account 
of  bis  irregular  life.  The  Aulic  Council  de- 
clared him  disqualified  to  preach  or  to  ))ubh^ 
unless  be  would  revoke  the  reU^us  principles 
advanced  in  his  works.  In  1779  he  went  to 
Hallc^  where  he  nublixhed  bis  creed.  It  it 
thorou^y  deisticai,  denying  the  miracles,  and 


sighboring 

vineyard,  a  tavern,  where  he  had  many  cus- 
tomers, whose  vitiated  tastes  and  depraved 
habits  he  made  no  scruple  of  gratifying.  Ulti- 
mately, in  consequence  of  two  works  which  he 
wrote,  the  patience  of  government  was  ex- 
hausted. He  was  brought  to  trial,  condemned 
and  confined  in  the  fortress  of  Mwdebttrit 
Here  he  wrote  his  life.  At  the  end  of  a  year, 
having  regained  his  liberty,  be  again  openea 
his  tavern  at  Halle,  where  he  died. 

BAHREIN,  ba-rin',  or  AVAL  ISLANDS. 
a  KTOUp  of  eight  islands  lying  on  the  sonth  side 
of  the  Persian  Gulf,  since  1867  under  protec- 
tion of  British  Indian  government.  The  prin- 
cipal island,  usually  called  Bahrein,  is  about  27 
miles  in  length  and  10  in  breadth.  It  is  in 
ffMieral  very  flat  and  low,  a  mere  shoal  hardly 
20  feet  above  sea-level ;  though  in  the  centre 
there  are  hills  400  feet  high.  The  soil  is  not 
fertile  except  in  some  places,  and  is  often  cul- 
tivated by  means  of  irrigation.  Excellent  dates 
are  produced.  A  fine  breed  of  donkeys  is  raised. 
Pearl-fishing  is  the  most  important  industry, 
over  1,000  boats,  each  manned  by  from  eii^t 
to  60  men,  engaging  in  operations  off  the  shore. 
There  are  thousands  of  conical  mound-tombs 
in  the  interior.  The  inhabitants  are  a  mixed 
race.  The  capital  and  commercial  centre  is 
Manameh  or  Manama;  pop.  35,000.  The  island 
of  Mobarrek,  separated  from  Bahrein  by  a 
Strait  two  miles  broad  and  only  about  three  feet 
deep  at  ebb,  is  much  smaller,  but  contains  a 
town  called  also  Moharrek,  and  has  a  popula- 
tion of  25.000.  The  islands  are  governed  by  a 
sheikh.  The  total  population  is  estimated  at 
110.000, 

BAHURIM,  the  place  where  Michal  was 
parted  from  her  husband,  Phatticl,  as  she  was 
being  taken  back  to  David  at  Hebron,  It  is 
also  the  village  in  which  Shimei  lived  and  from 
which  he  came  out  to  curse  David  when  fleeing 


iizodsi  Google 


BAZA— BAU, 


from  Jenis  toward  Jordan.  In  this  vilt^[e 
Jonadian  and  Ahimraz  took  refuge  when  carry- 
ing news  to  David  from  Jems.  There  they 
hid  themselves  in  a  well,  thus  eluding  the 
servants  of  Absalom  who  had  been  sent  to  cap- 
ture them.  '  Tradition  identifies  Bahurim  with 
Almon,  the  modern  Almet,  about  four  miles 
northeast  of  Jems  and  one  mile  from  Amata 
near  the  southern  boundary  of  Benjamin. 

BAIiB,  bi'e,  Italy,  a  place  where  wealthy 
Romans  had  their  summer  homes,  the  favoritC' 
abode  of  the  dancing'^irls  and  the  buffoons.  It 
is  now  deserted,  and  mteresting  to  the  strainer 
only  for  the  ruins  of  old  baths,  which  are  shown 
as  temples,  and  for  the  remains  of  former 
palaces,  visible  beneath  the  waves  of  the  sea. 
Baix   owes  its   fame  to   its  hot   baths 


tied  on  the  banks  of  the  Srienga  and  Angara, 
the  shores  of  Lake  Baikai  are  also  inhabited  by 
tribes  of  the  BuKats  and  Tunguses. 

BAIKIE,  balci,  WUUam  Balfour,  English 
naturalist  and  traveler:  b.  Kirkwall,  Orkney, 
1825;  d-  Sierra  Leone,  12  Dec.  1864.  He  studied 
medicine  at  Edinburgh,  and  after  receiving  his 


inds.  The  life  of  the-Romans  there  was  par- 
ticularly luxurious  and  dissolute.  It  has  now, 
entirely  lost  its  ancient  position  of  importance. 
Recently  it  has  attained  some  importaoae'  as  a 
naval  stztion.  It  was  situated  to  the  watt  of 
Putcoli,  die  modern  Ponuoli,  and  abotit  12 
miles  from  Naples.    It  is  now  known  bi  Baja. 

BAIDYABATI,  bid'y^-ba'lc,  a  town  of 
Bengal,  situated  on  the  river  Hngli,  about  15 
miles  from  Calcutta,  with  an  important  market 
for  jute  and  other  produce.. 

BAIF,  ba-S,  Jean  Antoine  de,  French  poet: 
b.  1532;  d.  1589;  one  of  the  literary  league 
known  as  the  "PlUadc,"  and  the  chief  advocate 
of  its  plan  of  reducing  French  poetry  to  the 
metres  of  the  classic  tongues;  also  a  spelling 
reformer,  in  favor  of  the  phonetic  system.  His 
most  meritorious  works  were  translations  of 
Greek  and  Roman  dramas. 

BAIKAL,  bl-kal',  Russiain-Asia.  a  lake  of 
Siberia,  360  miles  long  from  southwest  to 
northeast,  and  from  20  to  53  in  breadth,  in- 
terspersed with  islands.  It  has  a  shore  line  of 
1,220  miles;  long.  104'  to  110°  E.;  lat.  51°  20" 
to  55°  20"  N.  It  contains  seals  and  many  fish, 
particularly  sturgeons  and  pikes.  In  the  en- 
virons are  several  sulphurous  springs,  and  in 
one  part,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Barguiin, 
it  discharges  a  kind  of  pitch  which  the  inhabit- 
ants purify.  The  water  is  sweet,  transparent 
and  appears  at  a  distance  green,  like  the  sea. 
It  receives  the  waters  cf  the  upper  Angara, 
Selinga,  Barguzin  and  other  rivers;  but  the 
lower  Angara  is  the  only  one  by  which  it  seems 
to  discharge  its  waters.  It  is  enclosed  by  rug- 
ged mountains,  and  the  scenery  is  unusually^ 
magnificent.  In  summer  the  lake  is  navigated' 
by  steamboats,  but  it  is  frozen  from  November 
to  April,  and  trade  is  carried  on  over  the  ice. 
It  has  several  islands,  the  largest  of  which  is 
OUdion.  Baikal  forms  an  inqrartant  link  in  the 
'  ch^  of  communications  between  Russia  and 
China  and  has  several  commercial  ports,  the 
most  important  being  Lisvinichnoe,  whence  the 
Angara  carries  its  waters  to  the  Yenisei.  The 
T  ran  S' Siberian  Railway  passes  around  its 
southern  end  Its  sturgeon,  salmon  and  fresh- 
water seal  fisheries  are  valuable,  and  large 
quantities  of  other  fish  are  also  taken,  A 
peculiar  fish,  called  the  golomynka,  which  is 
almost  one  mass  of  fat,  yielding  train  oil,  was 
at  one  time  caught  in  immense  numbers,  but 
M  BOW  rather  scarce.    Besides  the  Rnssians  set- 


surgeon  at  Haslar  Hospital  in  1851- 


slart  for  the  exploration  of  this  river.  The 
death  of  the  captain  of  the  exploring  vessel,  the 
Pleiad,  left  him  in  chief  command,  and  he  suc- 
ceeded in  reaching  a  point  250  miles  higher  up 
the  river  than  had  previously  been  attained. 
On  a  second  expedition  he  was  able  to  establish 
a  settlement  at  the  confluence  of  the  Niger  and 
Benye,  and  in  a  few  years  did  much  to  spread 
civilization  among  the  natives  of  the  neighbor- 
ing regions.  Baikie  translated  the  *Book  of 
Common  Prayer'  and  the  'Psalms'  into 
Haussa.  He  was  author  of  'Observations  on 
the  Haussa  and  Fufulde  Languages,'  and  joint 
author  with  R,  Heddle  of  'Mammalia  and  Birds 
Observed  on  the  Orkney  Islands.' 

BAIKTASHI,  bik-ta'shf.    See  Dervish. 

BAIL,  in  law,  ii  the  ddivefy  of  a.  person 
to  another  for  keeiung,  and  is  generally  used  in 
refefence  to  one  arrested,  or  committed  to 
prison,  uton  a  criminal  process,  such  person 
being  said  to  be  bailed  when  he  is  delivered  to 
another  (or  is  supposed  to  be  so,  but  is  simply 
set  free  from  custody),  who  becomes  his  surety 
(to  a  greater  or  less  amount  according  to  the 
crime  with  which  he  is  chaiged)  for  hia  ap-r 
pearance  at  court  to  take  his  tri^.  The  per- 
son who  thus  becomes  surety  is  said  to  become 
bail,  and  the  amount  itself  is  also  called  bail. 
Bail  may  generally  be  granted  except  in  the 
case  of  treason.  The  word  is  not  used  as  a 
plural.  When  the  punishment  by  the  Uw  of. 
the  United  States  is  death,  bail  can  be  taken 
only  by  the  Supreme  Court,  or  by  a  judge  of  a 
District  Court  of  the  United  States.  The  pro- 
ceedings attendant  on  ^ving  bail  are  substan- 
tially the  same  in  England  and  in  all  States  of 
the  United  States.  An  application  is  made  to 
the  proper  ofiicer,  and  the  iKind  or  the  names  of 
the  bail  proposed  filed  in  the  proper  ofRce  and 
notice  is  given  to  the  opposite  party,  who  must 
except  within  a  limited  time,  or  the  bail  justify 
and  are  approved.  If  exception  is  taken,  notice 
is  given,  a  hearing  takes  place,  the  bail  must 
justify,  and  will  tnen  be  approved  unless  the 
other  party  oppose  successfully ;  in  which  case 
other  bail  must  be  added  or  substituted.  A 
formal  application  is  in  many  cases  dispensed 
with,  but  a  notification  is  given  at  the  time  of 
fiUng  to  the  opposite  party,  and  unless  excep- 
tions are  made  and  notice  given  within  a  limited 
time,  the  bail  justify  and  are  approved.  A  bail 
piece  at  present  generally  signifies  a  warrant 
issued  to  the  surety  upon  which  he  may  arrest 
the  person  for  whom  bail  has  been  taken. 
Straw  bail  signifies  bail  offered  by  persons  not 
possessii^  the  necessary  qualifications,  but  arc 
willing  to  swear  that  they  do  possess  them.  The 
statutes  of  the  States  usually  require  persons, 
giving  bail  to  be  possessed  of  real  estate  or 
property  not  easily   removable  from  the  juris- 


(Google 


BAILBN  — BAXLBY 


diction  of  the  court.  Consult  Beach,  'Treatise 
on  the  Modem  Practice  in  Equity'  (Cincinnati 
1894)  ;  Daniell.  E,  R.,  <P!eaifing  and  Practice 
of  the  High  Court  of  Chancery'  C6th  Amer. 
ed.,  3  vols.,  Boston  1894)  ;  Stringer,  F,  A.,  <A 
B  C  Guide  to  the  Practice  of  the  Supreme 
Court'  (London  1903);  Tidd.  "Practice  of  the 
Court  of  King's  Bench'  (4th  Amer.  ed.,  Phila- 
delphia 1856). 

BAILBN,  l»-l&n'  Spain,  town  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Jaen,  20  miles  north  of  Jaen.  Galena 
and  zinc  blende  are  mined  in  the  neighborhood. 
Here  in  July  1808  the  French  general,  Dupont, 
surrendered  18,{KX)  men  to  the  Spaniards  under 
Castanos.  Pop.  (1910)  8,334.  Consult  Galdo's 
*Bail^°  in  'Episodios  nacionales'  (Vol.  H, 
Madrid  1882). 

BAILEY,  Florence  Augusta  McrriBiii. 
American  author:  b.  Locust  Grove,  N.  Y.,  8 
Aug.  1863.  She  was  graduated  at  Smith  Col- 
lege in  1886,  and  began  writing  of  bird  life  in 
the  manner  of  John  Burroughs.  Her  published 
works  include  "Birds  Through  an  Opera  Glass' 

iI889) ;  'My  Summer  in  a  Mormon  Village' 
1895);  'A-Birding  on  a  Bronco'  (1896); 
•Birds  of  Village  and  Field'  (1898) ;  'Hand- 
book of  Birds  of  Western  United  States' 
(1902). 

BAILEY,  Gwnaliel,  American  journalist; 
b.  Mount  Holly,  N.  J.,  3  Dec  ISff;  d.  S  June 
1859.  He  was  graduated  at  (he  Jefferson  Medi- 
cal College,  Philadelphia,  in  1827,  and  for  sev- 
eral months,  after  1829,  was  editor  of  the 
Methodist  Protestant  at  Baltimore;  with  J,  G. 
Bimey  he  founded  the  anti-slavery  journal,  the 
Cincinnati  Philanthro^t  (1836),  the  office  of 
which  was  destroyed  by  a  mob,  thou^  it  con- 
inued  to  be  published  till  1847 ;  after  1843  was 
also  editor  of  a  daily  paper.  The  Herald. 
He  established  the  well-known  anti- slavery 
newspaper,  the  Washington  National  Era 
(1847),  which  reached  a  wide  circulation,  ex- 
erted a  powerful  influence  and  was  one  of  the 
most  important  organs  of  the  Abolition  move- 
ment. It  numbered  among  its  regular  contrib- 
utors Mrs.  Stowe,  Whittier,  Amos  A.  Phelps 
and  Mrs.  Southworth,  and  in  it  in  1852  the 
famous  novel,  'Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,'  first  ap- 
peared.   Consult  the  article  "A  Pioneer  Editor* 


BAILEY,  Jacob  Whitnutn,  American  sci- 
entist: b.  Auburn,  Mass.,  29  April  1811;  d.  26 
Feb  1857;  was  graduated  at  the  United  Stotes 
Military  Academy  in  1832;  and  from  1834  till 
his  death  was  professor  of  chemistry,  miner- 
alogy and  geology  at  the  Military  Academy. 
He  was  the  mventor  of  the  Bailey  indicator  and 
of  many  improvements  in  the  microscope,  in 
the  use  of  which  he  achieved  high  distinction; 
and  he  is  r^^arded  as  the  pioneer  in  microsco|nc 
investigation.  He  was  president  of  the  Ameri- 
can Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  in  1857 ;  and  was  author  of  numer- 
ous papers  on  the  results  of  his  researches,  the 
most  important  of  which  was  a  volume  of 
'Microscopical  Sketches,'  containing  over  3,000 
original  figures.  He  made  a  large  collection  of 
algx  and  of  microscopic  objects,  which  he  be- 

Jueathed   to   the    Boston    Society    of    Natural 
iistory.    A  bic^raphical  sketch  appeared  in  the 


BAILEY,  Junes  Montgomery,  American 
humorist :  b.  Albany,  N.  Y.,  25  Sept,  1841 ;  d.  4 
March  1894.  He  received  a  common-school 
education,  and  learned  the  trade  of  carpenter, 
which  he  practised  at  Danbury,  Conn.,  in  1860- 
61,  writing  occasional  pieces  for  the  news- 
papers. He  served  in  the  17th  Connecticut 
regiment  during  the  Civil  War;  returned  to 
Danbury,  founded  the  Danbury  News  in  18M), 
for  which  be  wrote  numerous  humorous 
sketches  of  commonplace  happenings.  He 
gained  a  national  reputation  as  the  'Danbury 
News  Man*  and  made  his  paper  known 
throughout  the  country.  He  wrote  'Life  in 
Danbury'  (Boston  1873);  'Danbury  News 
Man's  Almanac'  (1873) ;  'They  All  Do  It> 
(1877);  'The  Danbury  Boom'  (1880);  'Eng- 
land from  a  Back  Window'  (1878);  'Mr. 
Phillips's  Goneness'  (1879),  etc. 


1867;  entered  the  Union  army  as  a  private  in 
1861,  and  signally  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Red  River  campaigu  under  (>cu.  N.  P.  Banks, 
in  1864  by  building  a  dam  and  deepening  the 
water  in  the  channel,  which  enabled  Admiral 
Porter's  Mississippi  flotilla  to  pass  the  Red 
River  rapids  in  safety  and  to  escape  the  perilous 
situation.  For  this  engineering  feat,  Bailey, 
who  before  entering  the  army  was  a  plain 
farmer,  was  brevettcd  brigadier- general,  pro- 
moted colonel,  voted  the  thanks  of  Congress, 
and  presented  by  the  officers  of  the  fleet  with 
a  sword  and  a  purse  of  $3,000.  Subsequently, 
he  was  promoted  to  full  brigadier-general,  and 
was  engaged  on  engineering  duty  till  his  resig- 
nation 7  July  1865.  He  was  killed,  while  actii^ 
as  sheriff,  l^  two  desperadoes  in  Missouri. 

BAILEY,  Joseph  Weldon,  American  sen- 
ator for  Texas :  b,  Copiath  County,  Miss.,  6 
Oct  1863.  He  studied  for  the  legal  profession, 
was  graduated  as  a  lawyer  in  1883,  atid,  entering 
politics,  in  1884  served  as  a  district  elector  on 
the  Cleveland  and  Hendricks  ticket.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  removed  to  (^inesville,  Tex^ 
and  in  1888  served  as  elector  for  the  State  at 
large  on  the  Democratic  ticket.  He  was  elected 
to  the  S2d,  53d,  54th,  SSth  and  56th  Congresses. 
and  was  the  Democratic  nominee  for  speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  on  the  organ- 
iiatjon  of  the  S6th  Congress,  IS  March  1897. 
He  was  chosen  to  succeed  the  Hon.  Horace 
Chilton,  United  States  senator  for  Texas,  23 
Jan.  1901,  and  was  re-elected  22  Jan.  1907.  He 
resigned  his  seat  in  the  Senate  3  Jan.  1913 
and  resumed  the  practice  of  law. 

BAILEY,  Liberty  Hjrde,  American  horti- 
culturist: b.  South  Haven,  Uich.,  15  March  - 
1858;  was  graduated  at  the  Michigan  Agricul- 
tural College  in  1882;  M.S.,  1886;  was  assistant 
to  Dr.  Asa  Gray  at  Harvard  University  in 
1882-83;  professor  of  horticulture  in  Cornell 
University,  1888-1903;  in  1903  was  appointed 
director  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  ai  Cor- 
nell, and  retired  1913.  with  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
from  the  University  of  Wisconsin  and  Alfred 
University.  He  was  an  associate  editor  of  the 
revised  edition  of  Johnson's  'Universal  Cyclo- 
pedia' (1892^96)  ;  editor  of  'American  C     ' 


^lOOQlC 


gle 


ing^ ;  editor  of  'Cycknedia  of  Amencan  Horti- 
cnlnire*  (190(>-02):  'Cyclopedia  of  American 
Agricnlture>  <  1907-09);  'Standard  Cyclo- 
pedia of  Horticulture'  ^1914-16)  ;  also  editor  of 
the  'Rural  Sci«tice  Senes,*  the  'RdtaI  Uanoal 
Series,*  the  'Rural  Text  Book  Series';  and 
othen.  He  has  pnbUsfaed  a  number  of  technical 
and  also  popular  works,  including  'Annata  of 
Horticulture' ;  'Evolution  of  Our  Native 
Fruits';  'Survival  of  the  Unlike';  'Principles 
of  Fruit  Growing';  <Nursery-Book' ;  <Prun- 
ing-Book'i  Forcing^ Book ' ;  'Principles  o£ 
Agricolture';  'Principles  of  Vogetable-Farm- 
ing' ;  'Plant-Breeding';  several  botanies, 
'Uannal  of  Gardening' ;  'Farm  Bnd  Garden 
Rnle-Book' ;  <Thc  Training  of  Farmers' ;  'The 
State  and  the  Fataier':  'The  Country  Life 
UoveoKnt';  'Outlook  to  Nature';  'Nature 
Study  Idea' :  'The  Holy  Earth' ;  'York  State 
ProWems'  (Vols.  I  and  11)  and  others.  He 
was  Vietchian  Medalist  of  the  Royal  Society 
(London)  ;  fellow  American  Academy  of  Arts 
and  Sciences;  member  American  Phik>sOfAiica] 
Society;  chairman  of  Roosevelt's  Comnussion 
on  Countiy  Life,  1908. 

BAILET,  Loring  Woart,  American  chem- 
ist and  geologist :  b.  West  Point,  N.  Y.,  28  Sept 
1839.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1899,  and 
in  1861  was  appointed  professor  of  chemisti7  ' 
and  natural  science  in  the  University  of  New 
Brunswick,  Frcdericton,  N.  B.,  retiring  under 
Carnegie  Foundation  in  1906.  He  has  also  been 
connected  with  the  geological  survey  of  Can- 
ada. Besides  his  omcial  reports  he  has  pub- 
lisbcd  'New  Species  of  Microscopical  Organism 
from  the  Pari  River,  South  America'  (1861) : 
'Mines  and  Minerals  of  New  Brunswick' 
(1864);  'Geology  of  Southern  New  Bruns- 
wick' (1865);  'Elementary  Natural  History' 
(1887). 


1721  under  the  title  of  'An  UniversaJ  Etymo- 
logical English  Dictionary,'  by  N.  Bailqr;  and 
it  was  soon  republished  in  an  enlarged  form. 
Altogether  some  30  editions  of  it  appeared  up 
to  I8Q2.  Dr.  Johnson  made  use  of  an  inter- 
leaved copy  of  it  when  drawing  up  his  own 
dictionary.  Bailey  also  published  a  spelling- 
book;  'All  the  Familiar  Colloquies  of  Erasmus, 
Translated' ;  'The  Antiquities  of  London  and 
Westminster' ;      'Dictionarium     Domesticum,' 


educated  first  in  his  native  city  and  after- 
ward at  Glasgow  University;  was  called  to  'die 
bar,  but  never  practised.  His  best  known  poenL 
'Featus,'  was  first  published  in  1839  and  passed 
through  a  very  Urge  number  of  editions,  both 
in  Great  Britam  and  lie  United  States.  He  is 
author  of  a  few  other  poems  and  of  one  prose 
work;  among  the  former  are  'The  Age'  (1858), 
a  satire,  anf'The  Angel  World'  (iSO)  ;  'The 
Mystic'  (I8SS)  and  'The  Universal  Hymn,' 
now  incorporated  with  'Festus.' 

BAILEY,  Samuel,  English  banker  and 
writer  on  political  and  mental  jdiilosopl^:  b. 
Sheffield  1791 ;  d.  18  Jan.  1870.  His  first  work 
was  s  volume  of    'Essays  on  the  Fonnatiaa 


and  Publication  of  Opinions'  (1821),  in  whidi 
he  ably  defended  the  proportion  that  a  man's 
oiunions  are  independent  oE  his  wilL  His 
'Essays  on  the  Pursuit  of  Truth  and  on  the 
Progress  of  Knowledge*  (1829)  are  only  less 
valuable.  His  many  controversial  books  on 
questions  of  poUticu  economy  are  already  al- 
most forgotten,  though  thes&  as  well  as  his 
lamphlets  and  treatises  on  political  representa- 
tion, primogeniture  and  the  like,  are  charac- 
terized alike  by  terse  exposition  and  vigorous 
style.  Not  less  interesting  are  his  'Review  of 
Berkeley's  Theory  of  Vision'  (1842) ;  'The- 
ory of  Reasoning'  (1851);  and  'Letters  on 
the  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind*  (185S~ 
63).  The  third  series  of  the  last  contains  aa 
able  defense  of  utiltarianism,  in  which_  the 
author  avows  himself  a  thorough  delerminist 

BAILEY,  Solon  Inring,  American  astron- 
omer: b.  Ushoa.  N.  H,  29  Dec.  18S4.  He  was 
graduated  from  Boston  University,  1881 ;  an4 
Harvard  (AU.).  1887.  In  1889  he  was  sent 
to  Peru  to  determine  the  best  location  for  a 
southern  station  of  the  Harvard  Observatoir* 
Arequipa  was  selected,  an  observatory  builtt 
and  as  associate  professor  of  astronomy  Pro- 
fessor Bailey  has  had  charge  of  the  work 
there  for  10  years.  In  1893  he  established  a 
meteorological  station  on  the  summit  of  E[ 
Misti,  by  far  the  highest  scientific  station  io 
the  world,  at  an  elevation  of  19,0(»  feet.  In 
1913  he  became  Phillips  professor  of  astron- 
omy at  the  Peruvian  station  and  in  1908  he 
visited  south  Africa  where  he  conducted  astro- 
nomical observations  on  an  elevated  plateau 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  C^pe  Colony.  His 
scientific  writings  have  been  issued  in  the  'An- 
nals of  Harvard  College  Observatory.' 

BAILEY,  Theodoras,  American  naval  of- 
ficer: b.  Chateauguay,  N.  Y.,  12  April  1805;  d. 
10  Feb.  1877;  entered  the  navy  in  1818;  served 
on  the  western  coast  of  Mexico  during  the 
Mexican  War;  commanded  the  fr^te  Cott^- 
rado,  of  the  western  Gulf  blocking  squadroiL 
in  1861-62;  and  in  the  last  year  commanded 
the  right  column  of  Admiral  Farragut's  squad- 
ron in  the  passage  of  Forts  Saint  Philip  and 
Jackson  and  led  the  fleet  at  the  capture  of  the 
Chalmette  batteries  and  the  city  of  New  Or- 
leans.     In    1862-65    he   commanded    the    east 


Tune  1863. 

^ersity  education  and  is  chief  field  natural- 
ist of  tie  United  States  Biological  Survey. 
Among  his  publications  are  'Spermophiles  of 
Mississippi  Valley'  (1893);  'Revisions  of 
Voles  of  the  Genus  Evolomyi  and  Genus  Aft- 
crottu' ;  'Cotton  Rats  of  theGenus5'w»fiodo»' : 
'Podcct  (lOl^ers  of  the  Genus  Tkowomys' 
(1915);  'Biological  Survey  of  Texas';  'Life 
and  Crop  Zones  of  New  Mexico' ;  'Mammals 
of  District  of  Columbia,'  etc.,  and  numeroos 
Other  papers  on  natural  history  subjects. 

BAILEY,  WIlUuB  Whitman,  American 
botanist:  b.  West  Point,  N.  Y,,  22  Feb.  1843;  d 
Providence,  R.  I.,  20  Feb-  1914.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Brown  and  Harvard  universties, 
having  been  a  pupil  of  Prof.  Asa  Gray.  In 
1867  he  was  bontanist  of  the  United  States 
(jeological  Survey  of  the  40th  mrallel.  He 
was    instructor    in    botany    at    Brown  -IM- 


r^         r 
Lioogle 


BAILEY — BAXLLm 


YCrsity  1877-Sl ;  profeuor  1881-1906;  and 
from  1906  till  his  death,  emeritus  professor. 
He  published  'Botanical  Collector's  Handbodc* 
<I881) ;  'Among  Rhode  Island  Wild  Flowcni' 
<1885)  :  'New  England  Wild  Flowers'  (1897)  ; 
<Botamzing>  (18w);  'Poems'  (19tO) ;  and 
was   a   member   of   manjr   scientific   soaeties. 

BAILEY,  WiUis  Toshoa,  American  states- 
man :  b.  Carroll  Couftty,  ill.,  12  Oct  18S4,  He 
was  graduated  at  the  Universi^  of  Illincoa, 
1879,  and  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from 
this  University  in  1904.  From  1879  to  1888 
he  was  engaged  in  farming  and  stock-raising 
in  Nemaha  County,  Kan.  He  was  electee 
in  the  latter  year  to  the  Kansas  house  of  rep- 
resentatives :  was  president  of  the  Republican 
Slate  League  1893;  became  a  member  of  the 
Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture  in  1895; 
was  elected  member  of  (he  56tfa  Coneress 
(1899-1901);  governor  of  Kansas  1903-05;  is 
vice-president  and  manager  of  the  Exchange 
National  Bank  of  Atcbtson,  Kan.,  since  1 
Mardi  1907. 

BAILIFF,  a  name  which  was  introduced 
into  England  with  William  I  and  came  to  be 
applied  to  various  officials  representing  or  act- 
ing for  the  King.  He  is  essentially  a  person 
entrusted  by  a  superior  with  power  of  supei^ 
inlendence.  In  the  United  States  the  ¥?oTd 
bailiff  has  no  precise  meaning.  The  term  is 
most  frequently  used  to  denote  a  court  officer 
whose  duty  it  is  to  take  charge  of  juries  and 
wait  upon  the  court.  In  England  an  officer 
appointed  for  the  administration  of  justice  in 
a  certain  bailiwick  or  district  The  sheriff  is 
the  IGng's  bailiff,  whose  business  it  is  to  pre- 
serve the  rights  of  the  King  within  his  ■baili- 
wick* or  county.  (I)  The  governor  of  a  cas- 
tle belonnng  to  the  Kii^.  (2)  In  the  Channel 
Islands  Uie  first  civil  officer  on  each  island. 
(3)  A  sherifTs  o&iccr.  Bailiffs  are  either  bail- 
ifTs  of  hundreds  or  special  baiUffs.  (a)  Bail- 
iffs of  hundreds  are  irfficers  appointed  by  the 
sheriff  over  the  districts  so  called,  to  collect 
fines,  summon  juries,  to  attend  the  judges  and 
justices  at  the  assizes  and  quarter  sesaous  and 
to  execute  writs  and  process,  (b)  Stwdal  bail- 
iffs are  men  appointed  for  their  adroitness _  and 
dexterity  in  hunting  and  soziiw  persons  liable 
to  arrest.  Tbey  assist  the  Bailiffs  of  hundreds 
in  important  work  for  which  the  latter  have 
no  natural  aptitude  or  acquired  skill  Special 
bailiffs  being  compelled  to  enter  into  an  obli- 
gation for  the  proper  discharge  of  their  duty 
are  sometimes  called  bound  bailiffs,  a  term 
which  the  common  people  have  corrupted  into 
a  more  homely  aj^lfation.  Consult  filack- 
■tone's  'Commentarjes,'  Vol.  I,  chap.  9. 

BAILIWICK,  the  jurisdiction  of  a  hwliff, 
from  baUie  and  wick  (victu),  a  town  or  vil- 
lage. In  the  United  States  it  generally  refers 
to  a  connty,  or  in  a  jocular  way  is  applied  to 
any  territory  or  place  in  which  a,  person  has 
attthority. 

BAILLASGBON,  ba'yir'ih6A'.  Chailea 
Francois,  Canadian  prelate:  bt  He  aux 
Grues,  Que..  1798;  d-  187a  He  was  consecrat- 
ed bi^op  of  Tloa  and  coadjutor  to  Archbishop 
Turgcon  of  Quebec,  23  Feb.  1S51 ;  was  admin- 
istrator of  the  diocese  in  1855;  and  archtHshop 
in  1867. 


brtel,  Fretich  physician: 


made  a  specialty  of  mcstal  and  u 

eases  and  in  1843  j<Hned  with  Longet  and  Ce- 
rise to  estabhsh  a  review  especially  devoted  to 
these  subjects,  known  as  the  'Annates  Medico- 
p^cfaologiaae*  du  Systeme  Nervettx.'  In  1849 
he  received  the  medal  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
for  his  valuable  services  durins  the  tJwIcra 
outbreak  of  that  year ;  in  1842  be  received  a 
prize  from  the  Academjr  of  Music  for  his  e»> 
say  on   'Des   Hallucinations.' 

BAILLET,  h^-yl',  Adrien,  French  writer: 
b.  Neoville  1649;  d.  21  Jan.  170&  He  waa  or- 
dained i>iiest  in  1675  arid  bis  love  for  learning 
was  so  intense  that  after  disdiarging  for  five 
years  tiie  duties  of  a  parish  priest,  he  accepted 
the  position  of  librarian  to  Lamoignon.  prca- 
dent  of  Parliament    His  first  ptibficatiiMi  was 


dsms  wUcfa  taught  better  rules  than  it  illiu- 
tiated.  He  also  produced  a  bode  on  'Devo- 
tion to  the  Holy  Virgin* ;  'The  Lives  of  the 
Saints'  (3  voli,  1701) ;  'Life  of  Descartes* 
<2  vols.,  1691) ;  'Dcs  satires  personellcs*  (2 
vob.,  1689). 

BAILUUL,  t«-ytf,  France,  town  in  the 
department  of  the  Nord,  near  the  Belgian 
frontier,  about  19  miles  northwest  of  Lille. 
It  has  manufactures  of  woolen  and  cotton 
stuffs,  lace,  leather,  etc.  Pi^  (1911)  13,251. 
A  village  of  the  same  name  in  the  department 
of  Ome  gave  its  name  to  the  Baliol  family. 

BAILLIS,  Lady  Grisel,  Scottish  poet:  b. 
Redbraes  Castle,  25  Dee  1665-  d.  6  Dec  1746; 
daughter  of  the  1st  earl  of  Maicfamont  (Sir 
Patrick  Hume) ;  married  George  Baillie  in 
16%;  published  a  large  number  of  songs  in 
Ramsay's  'Miscellany'  and  other  collections; 
the  best  known  is  'Were  na  My  Heart  Lkhl; 
I  wad  Dee.' 

BAILLIE,  Harry,  die  pntprletor  of  the 
Tabard  Inn,  who  acts  as  chairman  of  the  meet- 
ing of  the  pilgrims  in  Chaucer's  'Canterbury 
Tales.' 

BAILLIE,  loamu,  Scottish  ai«bor:  h 
Bothwell,  near  Glasgow,  11  Sqit  1%2:  d.  23 
Feh  1851.  She  removed  in  earW  life  to  Lon- 
don, where  in  1798  she  published  the  first  vol- 
nme  of  her  well-known  'Plays  on  the  Pa»- 
sions,'  in  i^cb  she  attenmtnl  to  deliniate 
the  stronger  passions  by  making  each  passion 
the  subject  of  a  tragedy  and  a  comedy.  These 
pisys  were  not  well  adapted  for  the  stage,  but 
ave  Miss  Baillie  a  very  extended  reputation. 
Her  first  volume  was  followed  W  a  second  in 
181^  a  third  (of  miscellaneous  plays)  in  1804, 
and  a  fourth  in  1812.  Other  plays  appeared 
in  1836  and  a  complete  edition  of  her  whole 
dramatic  works  in  1850,  The  only  plays  ^r- 
formed  on  the  stage  were  a  Irageoy  entitled 
the  'Family  L^end*  which  was  brought  out 
at  the  Edinburgh  Theatre  in  ISIO  under  the 
patronage  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  and  had  a  run 
of  14  nights,  and  one  of  the  plays  on  the  pas- 
sions entitled  'De  Montfort,'  which  was 
brought  out  by  John  Kcmble  and  played  tor  11 
nights,  though  an  attempt  to  revive  it  at  a 
later  period  failed.  Miss  Baillie  also  wrote 
songs  and  miscellaneous  poems.  All  her  pro- 
ductions are  full  of  gcnins.  The  language  is 
simple  and  forcible,  the  female  portraits  are 
particulariy  beautiful  and  great  knowledgeof 


the  human  heart  is  displayed  in  t 


Google 


SAILLIB  --  ftULHBNT 


58 


ttons  of  character.  Stae  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  who  greatly  admired  her 
writings,  and  her  home  was  frequented  by 
many  of  the  prominent  authors  of  the  d&y. 

BAILLIB,  tUtthew,  Scottish  physician 
and  anatnniist :  b.  Lanarkshire,  Scotland.  27 
Oct.  1761;  d.  23  Sept.  1823;  brother  of  Joanna 
Baillie ;  educated  at  the  t^iversitiu  of  Glaigovr 
and  Oxford.  While  at  Oxford  he  began  bis 
medical  and  anatomical  studies  under  Us  ma- 
temal  uncles,  the  celebrated  William  and  John 
Hunter,  then  lecturers  in  London.  In  1767 
be  wM  elected  one  of  the  physicians  of  Saifit 
George's  Hospital  and  held  that  office  for  )3 
years.  In  1789  he  took  the  d^ee  of  M.D. 
i  admitted  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Col- 


made  physician  to  the  Kiog  by  George  IIL 
He  published  'The  Morbid  Anatomy  of  Some 
of  Ote  Uost  Important  Parts  of  the  Human 
Body' ;  wrote  eleven  essays  in  the  'Transac- 
tions' of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Uedical  and  Chirurgical  Knowledge,  and  seven 
papers  in  the  'Medical  Transactions,'  published 
or  the  London  College  of  Physiciane. 

BAILLIE,  Robert,  Scottish  Presbyterian 
cletgyman:  b.  Glasgow  1599;  d.  W62;  educated 
at  toe  University  of  Glasgow.  In  1633  he  sat 
in  thai  famous  general  assembly  which  met  in 
Glasgow  to  protest  against  the  thrusting  of 
Episcopacy  on  an  unwilling  people.  In  1649 
Ite  was  oiosen  by  the  Church  to  proceed  to 
Holland  and  to  invite  Charles  II  to  accept  the 
covenant  and  crown  of  Scotland.  He  per- 
formed his  mission  skilfully;  and,  after  the 
Restoration,  through  Lauderdale's  influence, 
he  was  made  principal  of  Glasgow  UniveriUy. 

BAILLIE,  Robert,  of  Jerviawood,  Scot- 
tish patriot  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II:  d.  24 
Dec  1684.  He  first  came  into  notice  in  1676 
through  his  rescue  of  a  broUier-in-law,  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Kirkton,  from  the  clutches  of  Arch- 
bishop Sharp's  principal  informer.  In  1483 
be  took  a  prominent  part  in  a  scheme  of  emi- 
gration to  South  Carolina,  as  he  saw  no  other 
refuge  from  the  degiatUng  tyranny  of  the 
govemmenL     About  ate   same  time  he  corre' 

rded  with  Monmouth's  supporters  in  Lon- 
Rnssell  and  Sidney  and  subietinently  re- 
pwred  there  to  concert  measures  for  securing 
adeouate  rcfoims.  On  the  tfscovciy  of  the 
Ryetumsc  plot,  he  was  arrested  and  sent  to 
Scotland.  Accused  of  conspiring  against  the 
King's  life  and  of  hostility  to  monarchical 
government,  he  was  tried  at  Edinhnr;^  and 
condeitmed  to  death  upon  evidence  at  once 
insignificant  and  illcgaf.  The  sentence  wat 
tamed  into  execution  on  the  very  day  that  it 
was  passed 

BAILLOT,  b^-yy,  Pierre  Merle  Prangola 
de  Sales,  French  violinist;  b.  Passy  1771;  d. 
Paris.  15  Sept.  1842.  He  was  a  professor  in 
the  conservatory  at  Paris ;  traveled  extensively 
b  Russia,  Belgium,  Holland  and  England.  He 
was  the  last  of  the  old  classical  Paris  school 
of  liolin  players  and  unexcelled  aj  an  inter- 
preter of  chamber  music. 

BAILLY,  l»-y?',  Antoine  HicoUa,  t  rench 
architect:  b.  6  June  1810;  d.  1  Jan.  1892;  was 
appointed  to  an  oiTice  under  the  dty  govern- 
ment of  Paris  in  1834;  in  1S44  was  made  archi- 


tect to  the  French  government  and  received 
the  cross  of  the  LetJon  of  Honor  in  18S3.  H< 
was  first  president  of  the  Sociite  des  Artistes 
Frangaises.  The  Lyc*e  Saint  Louis,  Uotidr* 
Fountain  and  the  Tribunal  of  Commerce  in 
Paris  and  the  reconstruction  of  the  CaUiedra! 
of   Digne   are   examples  of   his  work. 

BAILLY,  Jean  Svlvain,  French  astrono- 
mer, statesman  and  nisforian :  b.  Paris,  15 
Sept.  1736;  d.  12  Nov.  1793.  Leaving  the 
art  of  painting,  to  which  he  was  educated,  he 
pursued  poetry  and  belles-lettres  until  his  ac- 
quaintance with  Lacaitle,  when  he  turned  his 
attention  to  astronomy  and  calculated  the  ortnt 
of  the  comet  of  I7S9.  In  1763  te  was  admitted 
to  the  Academy  of  Sciences-  in  1766  he  pub- 
lished his  treatise  on  Jupite/s  satellites,  which 
also  contains  a  history  of  that  section  of  as- 
tronomy. In  1771  he  published  a  valuable  and 
interesting  treatise  on  the  light  of  the  satel- 
lites. Later  he  wrote  also  a  history  of  astron- 
omy. In  1784  he  was  chosen  secretary  of  the 
Academy,  also  admitted  to  the  French  Acad- 
emy and  the  ne^it  year  admitted  to  the  Acad- 
emy of  Inscriptions ;  a  rare  thing  for  one  per- 
son to  belong  to  the  three  academies.  He  es- 
poused the  Democratic  cause  in  the  Revolution, 
was  elected  from  Paris,  in  1789,  tst  depu^ 
of  the  tiers  itat,  and  was  chosen  president  of 
the  assembly.  In  July  1789  he  was  mayor  of 
Paris  and  discharged  his  duties  during  26 
months  of  a  most  trying  »nd  dangerous  period 
with  great  firmness  and  -wisdom.  Losing  his 
popularity  bv  ren  res  sing  rioting  and  other 
cnmes  and  defending  the  Queen,  he  gave  up 
public  life  and  Uvea  in  retirement  till  seized 
by  the  Jacobins  and  brought  to  Paris,  where 
he  was  condemned  as  a  conspirator  and  exe- 
cuted Several  posthumous  works  of  his  have 
appeared;  the  most  noted  are  an  'Essay  on 
the  Origin  of  Fables  and  Ancient  Religions,* 
and    his   JMemoirs    of    an    Eye-witness    from 


BAILMENT,  in  law,  is  the  delivery  of  a 
chattel  or  thing  to  another  to  keep,  either  for 
the  use  of  the  bailor  or  person  delivering  or 
for  that  of  the  bailee  or  person  to  whom  it  is 
delivered.  A  bailment  always  supposes  -the 
subject  to  be  delivered  only  for  a  limited  time, 
at  the  expiration  of  which  it  must  be  redelivered 
to  the  bailor ;  and  the  material  inquiries  in  cases 
of  bailment  relate  to  the  degree  of  responsi- 
bility of  the  bailee  in  regard  to  the  safe-keeping 
and  redelivery  of  the  subject  of  the  bailment 
This  responsibility  will  depend,  in  some  degree, 
upon  the  contract  on  which  the  bailment  is 
made.  If  a  thing  is  delivered  to  the  bailee  to 
keep  without  any  advantage  or  use  to  himself, 
or  any  compensation,  but  merely  for  the  benefit 
of  the  bailor,  he  is  answerable  only  for  gross 
negligence;  but  if  the  bailment  is  for  the  mutual 
benefit  of  both  parties,  the  thing  must  he  kept 
with  the  ordinary  and  usual  care  which  a  pru- 
dent man  takes  of  fais  own' goods;  but'if  it  be 
delivered  for  the  benefit  of  the  bailee  only,  be 
must  exercise  strict  care  in  keeping  it,  and  -vAW 
be  answeraUe  for  slight  ne^igence.  A  special 
agreement  is  made  in  K\M\y  cases  of  borrowlnff 
or  hiring,  specifying  the  risks  assumed  W  the 
borri>wer  or  hirer;  and  in  such  case  his  obltei- 
ti^ns  wtli  be  determined  by  his  stipulations.   So 

Google 


BAILY  —  BAINBRIDOS 


important  is  possession  at  the 
that  the  ownerahip  of  a  bailed  article  is  deemed 
to  be  divided  between  the  bailor  and  the  bailee, 
the  latter  beinij  said  to  have  the  'special  prop- 
erty" in  the  balled  article,  the  former  the  "ifen- 
eral  property.*  At  common  law  it  is  the  bailee 
and  not  die  owner  who  is  entitled  to  maintain 
the  ordinary  action^  such  as  trespass,  trover 
and  replevin,  for  an  Hiterference  with  the  bailed 
article  while  in  his  possession,  but  in  case  of  a 
permanent  injury  to  it,  the  bailor  may  institute 
an  action  to  protect  nis  general  property  in- 
terest therein.  Innkeepers  and  common  carriers 
are  at  common  law  absolutely  liable  (or  the 
safe  retum  of  goods  entrusted  to  _  them,  but 
modifications  b^  statute  now  permit  the  inn- 
keeper, by  providing  a  safe  deposit  and  givinf 
proper  notice,  to  limit  his  liability  to  that  of  an 
ordinary  bailee,  while  common  carriers,  by 
proper  notice  or  by  reasonable  special  contract. 
may  only  be  held  responsible  for  losses  ana 
injuries  resulting  from  their  own  or  their  serv- 
ants' negligence.  In  New  York  losses  result- 
ing from  the  carrier's  own  negligence  are  not 
to  be  redeemed  by  him,  and  he  is  only  liable 
for  wilful  wrongdoing.  The  contract  of  a  car- 
rier of  passengers  is  not  a  contract  of  bailment. 
Consult  Beat,  'Law  of  Bailments'  (London 
19O0) ;  Schouler,  'Treatise  on  the  Law  of  BmI- 
ments'  C3d  cd.,  Boston  1897)  ;  Story,  'Com- 
mentaries on  the  Law  of  Batlments>  (9th  ed, 
Boston  1878). 

BAILY,  Edward  Hodses.  English  sculp- 
tor: b.  Bristol,  10  March  1788;  d.  22  May  1867. 
He  was  brought  up  with  a  view  to  a  mercantile 
career,  but  ere  long  gained  considerable  suc- 
cess as  a  modeler  in  wax.  He  became  a  pupil 
of  Flaxman  in  1807,  gained  the  Academy  gold 
medal  in  1811  for  lus  'Hercules  Restoring  Al- 
cestis  to  Admetus,'  and  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1821.  His  principal 
works  are  'Eve  at  the  Fountain*  -  'Eve  Listen- 
ing to  the  Voice';  'Maternal  Affection*;  'Girl 
Preparing  for  the  Bath'  ;  'The  Graces' ;  etc. 
The  bas-reliefs  on  the  south  side  of  the  Marble 
Arch,  Hyde  Park;  the  statue  of  Nelson  on  the 
Trafalgar  Square  monument,  and  many  statues 
of  distingui^ed  men,  were  executed  by  him. 

BAILY,  Francis,  English  astronomer:  b. 
Newbury,  in  Berkshire,  1774;  d.  1844.  Entered 
a  London  house  of  business,  and  traveled  two 
years  in  Americ^  die  literary  outcome  of  which 
was  his  curious  'Journal  of  a  Town  in  the  Un- 
settled Parts  of  North  America  in  1796  and 
1797,'  published  in  1856;  then  settled  in  London 
as  a  stockbroker  and  published  several  worics 
on  the  doctrine  of  life  annuities  and  insurance. 
On  retiring  from  business  with  an  ample  for- 
tune in  1825  he  turned  his  attention  particularly 
to  astronomy,  and  became  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Astronomical  Society;  improved  the 
nautical  almanac,  and  investi^ted  and  described 
die  phenomenon  called  Baily's  beads  (q.v.). 
Besides  many  astronomical  papers  be  wrote  a 
'Life  of  Flamstced.' 

BAILY'S  BEADS,  a  phenomenon  attend- 
ing eclipses  of  the  sun,  the  unobscured  edge  of 
wliich  appears  discontinuous  and  broken  im- 
mediately before  and  after  the  moment  of  com- 
plete obscuration.  It  is  classed  as  an  effect  of 
irradiation  and  dcfraction. 

BAIN,  Alexander,  Scottish  electrician :  b. 
Watten,  Caithness,  1810;  d.  1877.    After  serv- 


ing an  apprenticeihip  to  a  clockmaker  in  Wide, 
he  went  to  London,  and  began  a  series  of  elec- 
trical experiments  in  1837;  invented  electric 
fire-alarm  and  sound  ing-apparatus,  and  the 
automatic  chemical  telegraph,  by  which  hi^ 
speed  telegraphy  was  for  the  first  time  made 
possible. 

BAINBRIDOS,  John,  English  astronomer 
and  mathematician:  b.  Ashhy-de-la-Zouch,  in 
Leicestershire,  1582;  d.  1643.  He  studied  at 
Cambridge;  set  up  a  grammer  school  in  his 
native  place,  and  at  the  same  time  ^tractised 
physic,  devoting  his  leisure  to  the  science  of 
mathematics.  His  'Description  of  the  Comet 
of  1618'  was  the  means  of  introducing  him  to 
Sir  Hentv  Savile,  who  had  founded  an  as- 
troacMnical  lecture  at  Oxford,  and  who  in  1619 
appointed  Dr.  Bainbridge  to  the  i>rofessorship. 
He  died  while  engaged  in  publishing  corrected 
editioni  of  the  works  of  tnc  ancient  astrono- 
mers, an  undertaking  which  was  one  of  the 
duties  enjoined  on  him  as  Savilian  professor. 
His  other  ijublished  works  are  'ProcK  Sptuera 
et  Plolemsei  de  Hypothesibus  Planetarum,'  to- 
gether with  '  Ptoletneei  Canon  Regnonnn ' 
(1620);  and  'Canicutaria;  A  Treatise  on  the 
DogStar>  (1648). 

BAINBSIDGB.  William,  American  naval 
officer:  b.  Princeton,  N.  J.,  7  May  1774;  d  28 
July  1833.  He  entered  the  merchant  service  at 
the  age  of  15  and  became  captain  within  four 
years.  In  1796,  while  commander  of  the  Hope 
he  defeated  an  ElngUsh  schooner,  whose  captain 
bad  tried  to  impress  some  of  the  Hope's  crew. 
In  1798,  when  the  United  States  navy  was  or- 
ganized, he  was  made  lieutenant  and  given  com- 
mand of  the  schooner  Retaiialtoit.  He  was 
captured  by  the  French  and  kept  a  prisoner  for 
several  months,  and  on  his  return  to  the  United 
States  made  a  report  which  led  to  the  paasace 
of  the  Retaliation  Act  of  1798  against  French 
subjects  captured  on  the  high  seas;  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  Norfolk  and  subsoquently 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  frigate  George 
Washington,  which  was  ordered  to  take  tribute 
to  Algiers.  The  Dey  of  Alters  demanded  Uiat 
Bainbridge  convey  an  Algerian  ambassador  and 
valuable  presents  to  Constantinople,  and  Bain- 
bridge was  forced  to  comply  to  avoid  war  and 
the  destruction  of  the  unprotected  trade  in  the 
Mediterranean.  The  United  States  government 
fully  approved  the  course  he  had  pursued.  He 
was  soon  employed  in  the  Mediterranean  ^ain 
in  command  of  the  frigate  Essex,  and  after- 
ward upon  the  declaration  of  war  against  the 
United  States  by  Tripoli,  was  appointed  to  the 
frigate  Philadelphia,  one  of  the  vessels  of  the 
squadron  sent  against  that  power,  under  the 
command  of  Commodore  Edward  Preble,  On 
26  Aug.  1803,  he  captured  the  Moorish  frigate 
Meshboa,  but  was  himself  taken  prisoner  with 
his  officers  and  men  in  October  of  that  year. 
While  pursuing  one  of  the  enemy's  vessels,  the 
Philadelphia  ran  aground ;  every  possible  effort 
was  made  to  float  her,  but  she  was  soon  sur- 
rounded by  gunboats  from  Tripoli,  about  three 
miles  distant,  and  Captain  Bainbridge  was  com- 
pelled to  surrender,  having  first  taken  such 
measures  as  it  was  thought  would  ensure  the 
final  loss  of  the  ship.  He  remained  with  his 
associate  prisoners  in  Tripoli  until  the  conclu- 
sion of  peace,  which  took  place  3  June  1805. 
On  bis  retum  a  court  of  inquiry  for  the  loss 


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BAINBRIDQK  —  BAIRAH 


oi  the  Philadtlpkia  gave  turn  honorable  acduit- 
tal.  His  next  service  afloat  was  in  die  War  of 
1S12,  when  he  was  appointed,  with  the  rank  of 
commodore,  to  the  coinniand  of  a  squadron, 
consisting  of  the  Conitilulion  (his  flagship), 
Ettfx  and  Hornet,  and  sailed  from  Boston  25 
October  for  a  cruise.  On  Zb  December  ofl  San 
Salvador,  while  separated  from  the  rest  of  fais 


1815  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  .. 
squadron  of  20  sail,  intended  to  act  against  Al- 
giers, then  at  war  with  us,  but  peace  was  con- 
cluded before  it  reached  the  Mediterranean. 
In  1819  be  again  commanded  in  the  Uediter- 
ranean,  and  returned  from  this,  his  last  service 
afloat,  in  1821.  From  this  time  until  his  death 
he  was  almost  constantly  employed  in  import- 
ant shore  service,  commanding  at  different 
times  the  navy  yards  at  Boston  and  Philadel- 
phia, and  holding  the  position  of  president  of 
the  board  of  navy  commissioners  from  1832  to 
1S33.  As  an  omcer  he  had  few  superiors. 
Though  ardent  in  his  tonperameut,  he  was  cool 
in  danger,  and  always  had  the  confidence  of 
those  under  his  command.  His  system  of  dis- 
dpHne,  though  rigid,  was  always  consistent  and 
just,  and  he  was  remarkable  for  pa;^ing  the 
greatest  attention  to  the  formation  ot  his  young 
(dScers.  Consult  Cooper,  'Lives  of  Distin- 
guished American  Naval  Officers'  (2  vols..  Au- 
burn 1846) ;  Harris,  'Life  of  Bainbridse' 
(Phitadelphia  1837). 

BAINBRIDGB,  Ga.,  town  and  county- 
seat  of  Decatur  County,  situated  on  the  Flint 
River,  236  miles  west  of  Savannah  on  the  At- 
lantic Coast  Line  and  the  Georgia,  Florida  and 
Alabama  railroads.  It  is  in  a  cotton  and  to- 
bacco region,  and  has  various  manufactures, 
turpentine  distilleries,  lumber  mills,  etc.  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  Georgia  Southern  Military 
College.     Pop.  4,217. 

BAINBRIDGB.  N.  Y.,  village  of  Che- 
nango County,  35  miles  northeast  of  Bingham- 
ton.  on  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Railroad, 
ana  on  the  Susquehanna.  It  contains  a  town 
hall  and  a  high  school,  and  has  a  silk  mill, 
condensed  milk  factory,  sugar  of  milk  factory 
and  cheese  and  cream  separator  factories.  The 
First  National  Bank  has  a  capital  of  550,000, 
with  surplus  and  profits  amounting  to  $70,000. 
The  village's  taxable  property  is  valued  at 
$465,362.  The  village  oflicers  are  elected  an- 
nually. The  administration  expenses  are  from 
$5,000  to  S^OOO  annually,  and  are  raised  by  a 
direct  tax.    Pop.  1,200. 


printer's  apprentice  at  Preston  and  later  at 
Leeds.  In  180]  he  became  proprietor  of  the 
Leeds  Merevry,  which  he  made  one  of  the  great- 
est of  the  provincial  journals.  He  was  the 
confidant  and  adviser  of  many  parliamentary 
leaders  and  in  1834  succeeded  Macaulay  as  mem- 
ber for  Leeds.  He  remained  in  Parliament  until 
1841.  He  was  an  independent  Liberal,  advocat- 
ing the   separation  of  Church  and   state,   the 


'History  of  the  County  Palatine  and  Duchy  of 
Lancaster'  and  'History  of  the  Reign  of  George 
III'  (4  vols.,  1823).  Consuh  his  'Life'  by  his 
son  (1861). 


BAINES,  Sut  Edward,  English  politician : 
b.  1800;  d.  1890.  He  was  the  son  of  Edward 
Baines  (q.v.)  ;  was  elected  to  Parliament  in 
1859,  and,  like  his  father,  championed  various 
reforms.  He  opposed  Church  tests  in  the  uni-- 
versitics,  advocated  the  disestablishment  of  the 
Irish  Qiurch,  and  in  1861  and  1864  presented 
bills  for  extending  the  electoral  franchise.  He 
published  a  'Life*  of  his  father  (1861)  and  a 
'History  of  the  Cotton  Manufacture  in  Great 
Britain'   (1835),  beside  other  works. 

BAINBS,  Thomas,  English  artist  and  ex- 
plorer: b.  King's  Lynn,  Norfolk,  1822;  d.  Dur- 
ban, Natal,  1875.  In  1842  he  went  to  Cape 
Colony,  whence  he  accompanied  the  British 
army  in  the  Kaflir  War  (1848-51)  as  artist. 
He  afterward  went  with  Gregory's  p>rty  to 
explore  northwest  Australia;  with  Livingston 
to  the  Zambesi;  with  Chapman's  expedition  to 
the  Victoria  Falls ;  and  finally  headed  an  expedi- 
tion to  the  gold  fields  of  Tati.  Everywhere  he 
made  large  numbers  of  sketches,'    A  handsome 


last  journey  among  the  Kaffirs  was  very  care- 
fully mapped  out  and  sketched.  His  writings 
are  'E;q)lorations  in  Southwestern  Africa* 
(1864);  'The  (kild  Regions  of  Southeastern 
Africa'  (1877). 

BAINI,  ba-e'ne,  Gitueppc,  Italian  musi- 
cian: b.  Rome  1775;  d.  18*f.  He  was  director 
of  the  Pope's  choir  from  1814  till  his  death. 
The  severe  gravity  and  profound  science  of 
bis  compositions  contrasted  strongly  with  the 
careless  Style  and  shallow  dilettanteism  of  most 
of  his  compeers ;  but  it  was  by  his  historical 
researches  that  fiatni  secured  for  himself  a 
ptomineni  place  in  musical  literature.  His 
'Miserere'  for  10  voices  was  the  only  work  of 
the  19th  centuty  deemed  worthy  of  performance 
in  the  Sistine  Chapel.  His  principal  works  and 
that  on  which  his  fame  chiefly  rests  is  his  life 
of  Fatestrina,  'Memone  storico-critiche  della 
vita  e  delle  opere  di  Giovanni  Pierluigi  da  Pal- 
estrina'  (2  vols.,  Rome  1828;  German  trans. 
by  Kandler  1834). 

BAIRAKTAR,  bi'r«k-tar'  (more  correctly 
Bauak-dak),  aignifying  *standard-bearer,»  the 
title  of  the  Grand  Vizier  Mustapha;  b.  1755; 
d  15  Nov.  1808.  When  he  was  pasha  of  Rust- 
chuk  in  1806  he  fought  with  some  success 
against  the  Russians,  and  after  the  revolt  of 
the  Janissaries  in  18w,  by  which  Selim  III  was 
deposed  from  the  throne  in  favor  of  Mustai^ 
IV,  he  marched  bis  troops  to  Constantinople, 
deposed  Mustapha  IV  and  proclaimed  the 
brother  of  this  prince,  Mahmoud  II.  Sultan  on 
28  July  1808.  Bairaktar  was  now  appointed 
grand  vizier,  and  endeavored  to  carry  out 
Selim's  reforms,  and  to  strengthen  the  regular 
army.  His  chief  object  was  the  annihilation  of 
the  Janissaries;  but  they  rebelled,  and,  with  the 
support  of  the  fleet,  attacked  the  seraglio  15 
Nov.  1808,  and  demanded,  the  restoration  of 
Mustapha  IV.  Bairaktar  defended  himself 
bravely;  but  when  he  saw  that  flames  threat- 
ened to  destroy  the  palace,  he  strangled  Mus- 
tapba,  threw  his  head  to  the  besiegers,  and 
IdUed  himself. 

BAIRAH,  or  BBIRAM,  bi'ram,  two  Mo- 
hammedan feasts,  one  immediately  following 
the  Ramazan  or  Lent  (a  mondi  of  fasting),  ana 


Google 


B6  ba: 

lastii^  three  days.  This  feast  begini,  like  the 
Ramazan.  as  soon  as  the  new  moon  is  an- 
nounced by  the  persons  appointed  for  that  pur- 
pose, and  during  the  course  of  32  years  makes 
■a  complete  circuit  of  all  the  month's  and  sea- 
sons, since  the  Turics  reckon  by  lunar  years. 
It  is  the  custom  at  this  feast  for  inferiors  to 
tnake  presents  to  their  stiperiors,  a  custom  for- 
merly extended  even  to  the  Europeans.  Seventy 
.days  after  this  first  or  lesser  Bairam  begins  a 
second  — the  greater  (Kurban)  Bairam.  They 
are  the  two  most  important  {easts  whas«  cele- 
bration is  prescribed  by  the  Mohammedan  re- 

BAIRD,  Absalom,  American  soldier :  b. 
Washington,  Pa.,  20  Aug.  1824;  d.  near  Relay, 
Ud„  14  June  1905.  He  was  graduated  from 
the  United  States  Military  Academy  and  as- 
si^ed  to  the  artillery  in  1849.  He  was  com- 
missioned brigadier-general  of  volunteers  1862, 
and  brevetted  major-general  four  months 
later  for  his  conduct  in  the  Atlanta  campaign. 
On  13  March  1865  be  was  brevetted  major- 
general.  United  States  army,  for  meritorious 
services  in  the  field  during  the  war.  He  was 
continuousliy  in  the  field  from  the  Manassas 
campaicHi  m  1861,  till  after  the  surrender  of 
General  Johnston's  army  in  1865.  He  was  staff 
inspector-general  from  1685  to  I88S  when  he 
retired. 

BAIRO.  Andrew  WUaon,  English  mili- 
tary engineer:  b.  Aberdeen,  Scotlantt  26  April 
1842:  d.  2  April  1908.  He  became  a. colonel  in 
the  Royal  Engineers  Corps  in  1893 ;  was  special 
assistant  engineer  of  the  harbor  defenses  of 
Bombay  in  1864;  assistant  field  engineer  of  the 
Abyssinian  expedition  in  1868,  and  for  nearly 


trigonometrical  survey 
were  rewarded  with  numerous  oSicial  com- 
mendations, medals  and  decorations;  and  he 
has  published  a  number  of  important  wor)cs  on 
his  labors  in  India. 

BAIRD,  Charlea  WUhington,  American 
historian  and  religious  writer,  son  of  Robert 
Baird:  b.  Princeton,  N.  J..  28  Aug.  1828;  d.  10 
Feb.  1887,  He  was  a  graduate  of  Union  The- 
ological Seminary,  and  pastor  in  Brooklyn  in 
1859,  and  in  Rye.  N.  Y.,  1861.  Besides  woricl 
an  the  Presbyterian  litiirgies  (which  he  was 
the  first  to  collect  and  iovestlgate)  and  local 
histories,  he  wrote  ^History  of  the  Huguenot 
Emigration  to  America*  (2  vols.,  1885),  a  waric 
^specially  interesting  to  the  genealogist. 

BAIRD,  Sir  David,  British  general:  b. 
Newbyth,  Scotland,  6  Dec.  1757;  d.  29  Aug. 
1829.  H-  entered  the  English  army  in  1772, 
and  going  to  India  distinguished  himself  at  a 
disastrous  engagement  at  Peramboucum,  10 
Sept.  1780,  in  which  the  small  British  force 
engaged  was  nearly  cut  to  pieces  after  sur- 
reridering.  His  life  was  spared,  but  he  was 
fcept  prisoner  for  fotir  years.  He  attained  the 
rank  of  major  in  1787,  and  in  October  1789  ob- 
tained leave  of  absence  and  returned  to  Great 
Britain.  In  1791  he  joined  the  army  under 
Comwallis.  and  as  commander  of  a  br^de  of 
■Sepoys  he  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Seringa- 
patam,  in  1791  and  i792;  and  likewise  at  the 
storming  of  Tippoo  Salb'.';  lines  in  the  idand 
of  Seringapatam.  In  1793  he  commanded  a 
brigade  of  Europeans,  and  was  pi^sent  at  the 


siege  of  PondichetTy.  On  9  May  1799,  he  com- 
manded the  storming  party  at  the  assault  of 
Seringapatam ;  when,  in  requital  of  his  bril- 
liant services  he  was  presented  b^  die  army, 
through  the  commander-in-chief,  with  the  state 
sword  of  Tippoo  Saib.  In  1800  he  had  a  com- 
mand in  Egypt,  and  with  the  increased  rank  of 
heutenant-general  commanded  an  expedition 
which  sailed  in  October  180S,  for  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  where  he  defeated  the  Dutch 
army  and  received  the  surrender  of  the  colony. 
After  a  short  period  of  service  in  Ireland  Sir 
David  sailed  in  command  of  an  armament  of 
10,000  men  (or  Coninna  to  assist  Sir  John 
Moore.  Moor*  was  killed  in  the  battle  of  Co- 
runna  and  Sir  David  succeeded  to  the  chief 
command.  He  was  created  a  baronet  in  1809. 
In  1814  .he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  gen- 
eral, and  in  1819  became  governor  of  Kinsal^ 
next  year  commander  of  the  forces  in  Ireland 
and  in  1827  governor  of  Fort  George  in  Scot- 
land. Consult  Hook,  'Life  of  Sir  David  Baird* 
(1832). 

BAIRD,  George  Wuhington,  American 
naval  officer:  b.  Washington,  D.  C,  22  April 
1843.  He  received  a  public  school  and  aca- 
demic education  and  was  appointed  third  as- 
sistant engineer  in  the  United  States  navy  in 
1862.  He  was  promoted  through  grades  and 
retired  with  rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1905.  He 
is  president  of  the  Washington  Board  of  Edu- 
cation and  is  a  member  of  several  engineering 
societies. 

BAIRD,  Henrv  Carey,  American  publish- 
er: b.  Bridesburg,  Pa.,  10  Sept.  1825;  d  31  Dec. 
1912.  He  was  a  member  of  the  publishing 
firm  of  Carey  &  Baird  from  1845  to  1849,  when 
he  organized  the  firm  of  Henry  Carey  Baird 
and  CTompany.  He  took  an  interest  in  politics 
first  as  a  Whig  and  later  a  Republican.  He 
was  leader  of  tne  Greenback  party  in  1875,  and 
by  it  was  nominated  for  Slate  treasurer  of 
Pennsylvania  and  for  mayor  of  Philadelphia. 
He  declined  the  former  nomination.  He  was 
an  advocate  of  free  silver  and  a  protective 
tariff.  He  published  pamphlets  and  contribu- 
tions to  works  of  reference  and  to  periodicals 
on  banking  and  other  economic  subjects. 

BAIRD,  Henry  Har^,  American  anthor 
and  educator:  b.  Philadelphia,  Pa..  17  Jan.  1832; 
d.  Yonkers,  N.  Y„  U  Nov.  1906.  He  was 
graduated  from  New  York  University  in  1850^ 
end  later  took  a  course  in  theology  at  Union 
and  Princeton.  In  1859  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  the  Greek  languages  and  literature 
in  the  New  York  University.  In  1906  he  be- 
came a  pensioner  under  the  Carnegie  fund.  He 
was  widely  known  for  his  researches  in  the 
history  of  French  Protestantism,  of  which  his 
works,  given  below,  form  the  best  succinct  ac- 
count from  1512  to  1802.  He  wrote  'History 
of  the  Rise  of  the  Huguenots'  (1879-1907); 
'The  Huguenots  and  Henry  of  Navarre' 
(1886)  ;  and  'The  Huguenots  and  the  Revoca- 
tion of  the  Edict  of  Nantes*  (1895);  'Theo- 
dore Beza,  the  Counsellor  of  the  French 
Reformation'   (1899). 


was  graduated  from  the  University  of  Michigan 
in  1882;  was  instructor  in  chemistry  and  in 
charge  of  the  qualitative  analy^s  and  as 


iizodsi  Google 


BAIRD^BAJASA  I^  PARANA 


67 


in  LeUgli  Umversity,  1883-S6;  and  became  pro* 
fcsK>r  of  analytical  and  organic '  chembtiy  in 
the  Uassachusetts  College  of  Phumacy,  Bot- 
ton,  in  1886,  and  its  dean  in  1S87. 

BAIKD,  Robert,  American  clergyman  and 
author:  b.  Fayette  County,  Pa.,  6  Oct  1798;  d. 
Yonkers.  N.  Y.,  15  March  1863.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  Jefferson  College  in  181%  and  at 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  182.  He 
spent  »overal  years  in  Europe,  engaged  in  tem- 
perance work  and  in  the  revival  of  evangelical 
Protestantism.  He  published  'History  of  the 
Waldenses,  Albigenscs  and  Vaudois.'  'History 
of  die  Temperance  Societies'  (1836) ;  'Re- 
ligion in  America'  (18*4);  'ProtesUntism  in 
Italy*  (1345),  etc.  He  was  correspondine  secre- 
tary of  the  American  and  Foreign  Cnristlan 
Union  (1849-55,  1861-63).  ConsuR  his  Tife  by 
Henry  M.  Baird. 

BAIRD,  Spencer  PDllertOD,  American 
naturalist:  b.  Reading,  Pa..  3  Feb.  1823;  d 
Woods  Hole.  Mass.,  19  Aug.  1887.  He  was 
graduated  from  Diddnson  College  in  1840,  and 
in  1842  studied  at  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons  in  New  York  ctty.  Ha  was  tbe 
intiniate  of  Audubon  and  Agasstz  and  aided 
in  their  work.  He  became  professor  of  natural 
sciences  at  Dickinson  Colle^  Carlisle,  Pa, 
1845;  aasiatant  secretaiy  Smithsonian  Institii- 
tion,  1850;  United  States  comnussioner  of  fish 
and  fisheries,  1871;  secretary  of  the  Smitb- 
sonian  Institution,  1878;  and  fonnder  of  the 
National  Museum.  Among  his  more  important 
works  are  a  'Catalogue  of  North  American 
Reptiles'  (1853) ;  'Birds  of  North  America' 
(with  Cassin  and  Lawrence,  1860);  'Mammals 
of  Nonh  America*  (1858)  ;  'History  of  North 
American  Birds*  (with  Brewer  and  Ridgeway, 
1874-84),  etc.  His  work  had  a  beneficent  in- 
fluence on  natural  history  in  the  United  States. 
He  trained  a  great  number  of  men  who  have 
attained  great  fame  in  various  departments  of 
scientific    and    economic    natural    history. 


implied  by 

inblished  as    'Bulletin  No.  20  of  the  United 
itates  National  Museum*    (Washington  1883). 


1849  to  IMS,  director  in  tfac  gymnasittm  there. 
He  published,  alone  and  witn  others,  various 
editions  of  the  classics,  'Panen'rics  of  Socra- 
tes,*  'Ciceronis  Scholiske,*  'Oiatores  Attici' 
(1838-50),  etc  His  title  to  distinction  lay  in 
his  sidll  in  textual  c  '' 


complete  bibliography  of  his  worics  and  papers 
to  1882  was  compiled  by  G.  Brown  (^oode  and 

P< 

SI 


death  five  years  later. 

BAIRD  LBCTURBS.  In  1871  Jamei 
Baird,  the  Scottish  ironmaster,  founded  tba 
Baird  Lectures,  for  the  defense  of  orthodox 
religious  teaching.  Two  years  later  he  made 
a  gift  of  £500,000  to  the  Established  Church  of 
Scotland  for  the  Baird'  Trust  ^to  assist  in 
providing  the  means  of  meeting  and  at  least, 
as  far  as  possible,  promoting  the  mitigation  ol 
Spiritual  destilution  among  the  population  of 
Scotland.'*  The  gift  was  well  intended,  but 
it  was  hampered  by  Conditions  distasteful  to 
the  more  liberal  member?  of  the  establishment; 
and  for  this  reason  it  was  bitterly  attacked 
by  several  of  the  foremost  religious  journals 
of  England  and  Scotland  and  the  secular  Scot- 
tish press  took  a  prominent  and  critical  part 
in  the  discussion. 

BAIREUTH.    See  Bayhtoth, 

BAITER,  brier,  JohaoQ  Georc,  Swiss 
philologist :  b.  Ziirich,  31  May  1801 ;  d.  10  Oct 
1877.  He  was  professor  in  the  University  of 
Zoricb,  and  for  three  periods,  the  last  from 


BAIU8,  or  DE  BAY,  Michael,.  Belgian 
theologian:  b.  1513,  at  Melin,  near  Ath,  in 
Hainaut ;  educated  at  Louvain,  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Scripture  at  this  university  in 
1562,  and  was  sent  liy  the  King  of  Spain 
(Charles  V)  lo  the  Council  of  Trent,  where 
he  arrived  when  It  was  nearly  over.  Baius 
was  one  of  the  greatest  theologians  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  (^urch  in  the  16th  century. 
He  founded  systematic  theology  directly  upon 
the  Bible  and  the  Christian  fathers,  leaving  the 
scholastic  method.  He  studied  specially  the 
writings  of  Saint  Augustine  and  had  his  own 
Interpretations  of  that  father.  The  doctrines 
that  the  human  will,  when  left  to  itself,  could 
only  sin;  that  even  the  mother  of  Jcsus  was 
not  free  from  hereditary  and  actual  sin;  that 
every  action  which  did  not  proceed  from  pure 
love  of  God  was  sinful;  and  that  no  penance 
was  efTeclual  for  the  justification  of  Qie  sinner, 
but  everything  was  to  be  attributed  solely  to 
the  grace  of  God,  through  Christ,  caused  the 
superior  of  (he  Franciscan  Order  in  Belgium 
to  submit  18  of  bis  propositions  to  the  Sor- 
bonne  in  Paris.  The  Sorbonne  faculty  con- 
demned three  of  the  propositions  as  false  and 
13  as  contrary  to  Catholic  teaching.  Baius 
disavowed  the  condemned  sentences,  claiming 
that  some  of  them  had  not  been  taught  by  him 
and  that  others  had  been  presented  incorrectly. 
After  his  return  from  Trent,  he  published 
these*  which  oontained  doctrines  that  were 
rejected  bnr  the  Spanish  and  Italian  univern- 
tks  to  which  they  had  been  submitted.  Finally 
76  sentences  taken  from  his  works  were  con- 
demned by  Pius  V  in  1567  and  some  dispute 
arising  about  the  meaning  of  this  bull,  it  wag 
confirmed  by  Gregory  XIII  and  entrusted  to 
the  Jesuit  Cardinal  Toleius  to  deliver  to  Baius. 
Baius  submitted;  yet  the  opposition  still  con- 
tinned,  as  did  also  bis  defense  of  some  of  his 
interpretations  of  Augustine  in  his  lectures; 
and  as  the  theological  faculty  at  Louvain  was 
entireljf  in  his  favor,  he  not  only  remained  in 
the  quiet  possession  of  his  dignities,  but  was 
also  appointed  dean  of  Saint  Peter's  in  1575, 
and  in  1576  chancellor  of  the  university.  He 
died  in  1589,  and  left  the  reputation  of  great 
learning;  pure  morals  and  a  rare  modest. 
His  interpretations  of  Augustine,  which  were 
called  Baianism,  were  adopted  t^  the  Jansen- 
isls  and  were  defended  by  them  against  their 
Jesuit  opponents.  His  doctrine  of  pure  undi- 
vided love  to  (^d  has  also  Ijeen  adopted  hv 
the  Quietists.  His  writings,  mostly  polemical, 
were  pubHshed  at  Cologne  (4to  1696).  Con- 
snh  Duchesne,  'Histoire  du  Bayanism*;  Lin- 
senmann,  'Bayiia  und  die  Grundlegung  de» 
Jansenismus.* 

BAT^,  b6'y6,  a  Hungarian  market  town 
situated  near  the  Danube,  90  miles  south  oF 
Budapest.  It  has  important  manufactures  of 
alcohol  and  shoes,  is  celebrated  for  its  annual 
swine  fair  and  has  a  considerable  trade  in 
grain  and  vrine.    Pop.  about  21,000. 

BA^ADA  DEL  PARANA,  b^-U'd*  d« 
pa  r*-na ,    S«e  Pabana.  -,  , 

U.-,t,z.,l.,LiOOglC 


BA J AZET — BAKBR 


BAJAZBT,  t»'sh9-dl',  I,  or  BAYAZID  I, 

a  Turidsh  sultan:  b.  1347^  d  1403.  In  1389  he 
succeeded  his  father,  Murad  of  Amurath,  who 
fell  in  the  battle  of  Kosovo  against  the  Ser- 
bian^ and  caused  his  brother  Jacob,  his  rival 
for  the  throne,  to  be  strangled.  He  made  great 
and  rapid  conquests,  in  three  years  coniuerinK 
Bulgaria*  part  of  Serbia,  Uaccdonia,  Thessaly, 
and  subduing  the  stales  of  Asia  Minor.  From 
.  the  rapidiw  of  his  conquests,  he  was  called 
Itderim  ('LiKhtninK*)-  In  order  to  save  Cod- 
Stantlnople,  blockaoed  by  Bajazet,  King  Sigis- 
mund  of  Hungary  (afterward  Emperor  of 
Germany)  assembled  a  great  army,  but  Baja- 
let  met  ihem  at  Nicopohs  on  the  Danube  and 
obtained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  allied  Hun- 
garians, Poles  and  French.  28  Sept  1396.  He 
would  probably^  have  now  overturned  the  whole 
Greek  empire  if  Timur  had  not  overrun  Asia 
Minor  in  1400  and  defeated  him  in  1402  in  a 
battle  near  Angora.  He  himself  fell  into  the 
power  of  the  coiu^ueror  and  died  in  Timur's 
camp,  in  Cararoanta,  He'  was  succeeded  by 
his  sons  Soliman  I,  Musa  and  Mohammed  I, 
the  last  named  becoming  sole  ruler  in  1413. 
Bajazet's  reign  was  marked  by  great  corrup- 
tion in  high  and  low  places.  Consult  Gibbon, 
'Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire' 
(London  1900),  and  Lane-Poole,  'Tuiiey' 
<New  York  1889). 

BAJAZET  or  BAYAZID  II,  Sultan  of  the 
Ottoman  empire;  b.  1447;  d.  1513.  He  was 
die  son  of  Sultan  Mohammed  II,  the  con- 
gueror  of  G>nstant)nople.  He  became  Sultan 
in  1481,  and  was  contmually  engaged  in  warj 
with  Poland,  Venice,  Persia  and  ^^ypt.  He 
suffered  several  serious  reverses,  but  managed 
to  strengthen  the  Ottoman  power  in  Eurupe. 
His  last  years  were  embittered  by  disputes 
among  his  sons  in  regard  to  the  succession. 
In  1512  he  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son  Selim. 
and  died  soon  after  near  Adrianople.  He  was 
a  lover  of  luxury,  but  also  a  patron  of  learn- 
ing  and  the  arts,  and  built  several  splendid 
mosques  in   Constantinople  and  elsewhere. 

BAJAZET,  Moaqne  of,  a  mosque  at  Con- 
stantinople, built  in  1505  by  Bajazet  II.  It  is 
one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Mohammedan 
architecture,  and  displays  excellent  proportions 
and  great  richness  ol  detail  in  decoration. 
There  are  four  Persian  doorways  and  an  octag- 
onal fountain  in  the  centre  of  the  court. 

BAJOCCO,  b^ydklcS,  or  BAIOCCO,  a 
papal  state  copper  coin,  whose  value  is  about 
one  cent  A  Neapolitan  coin,  value  about  83 
cents,  was  also  called  Bajocco  in  Sidly. 

BAJURA.  b«-joo'r»,  the  banner  of  Mo- 
hammed. 

BAJZA,  boi'zo,  Joaeph,  Hui^farian  poet 
and  cnlic:  b.  Sziicsi.  31  Jan.  1804;  d.  Pesch. 
3  March  1858.  He  devoted  himself  to  history, 
and  edited  a  'Historical  Library'  (1843-45) 
and  the  'New  Plutarch'  (1845-47).  He  exerted 
a  strong  and  salutary  inHuence  on  Hungarian 
literature  in  history,  in  the  development  of  a 
national  drama,  and, —  in  the  conduct  of  two 
journals,— in  establishing  sound  canons  of 
literary  tasle.  He  also  ranks  among  the  best 
lyric  poets  of  Hungary.  His  'Poems'  ap- 
peared in  1835,  and  his  'Collected  Works'  in 
18M. 

BAKACS,  bd'koch,  Thomas,  Hungarian 
statesman,    son    of    a    peasant :    b.    about   the 


middle  of  the  15th  centnry;  d.  1521.  He  hdd 
several  bishoprics  in  succesaior^  became  chan- 
cellor of  the  kii^dom,  and  finally  cardinal- 
archbishop  of  Hungary.  He  preached  a  cru- 
sade against  the  Turks;  but  his  artny  of  peas- 
arts  and  vagabonds  turned  their  arms  against 
the  nohihty,  and  a  fierce  dvil  war  ensued, 
which  ended  in  the  final  defeat  of  the  insur- 
gents by  John  Zapolya. 

BAKAIRI,  b»-M-i-r?,  or  BACCAHIRT, 
a  Caribbean  tribe  of  central  Brazil,  remarkable 
for  their  light  complexion.  The  men  have  as- 
sembly  houses,  where  they  spend  most  of  their 
time,  which  women  are  forbidden  to  enter. 

BAKAU,  Rumania,  the  capital  of  the  dis- 
trict of  the  same  name  in  Moldavia,  on  die 
Bistritz,  188  miles  north  of  Bucharest,  widi 
which  it  is  connected  by  rail.  It  contains  a  gym- 
nasium and  has  a  considerable  trade  in  the 
a^cultural  products  of  the  district  Pop.  1^- 
187,  about  one-fourth  of  which  are  Jews. 

BAKE,  balci,  Jan,  Dutch  philologist:  b. 
Leyden,  1  Sept.  1787;  d  26  March  1864.  From 
1817-57  he  was  professor  of  Greek  and  Roman 
literature  at  the  University  of  Leyden.  Here 
he  edited  and  published  valuable  editions  of 
Posidontus,  and  of  the  astronomer  Cleomedes, 
and  assisted  in  the  br^e  and  original  work  en- 
titled 'Bibliotheca  Critica  Nova.'  He  pub- 
lished a  series  of  philological  articles,  eoited 
some  of  the  works  of  Cicero  and  wrote  an  ex- 
cellent essay  upon  the  Greek  tragedians. 

BAKEL,  French  West  Africa,  fortified 
town  and  capital  of  the  arrondissement  of  the 
same  name  in  the  colony  of  Senegal,  on  the 
Senegal  River.  It  came  into  the  possession  of 
France  in  IS20,  and  was  of  great  strategic  im- 
portance in  the  struggles  with  the  natives.  It 
is  now  a  great  trade  centre  and  the  meeting 
place  of  caravans  from  the  upper  Senegal  basin 
and  the  Niger.  Dates,  beeves,  gold  dust  and 
ivory  are  the  principal  articles  of  trade.  In  the 
rainy  season  it  is  connected  directly  by  a 
water  route  with  Saint  Louts  on  the  coast 
Pop.  1,760. 

BAKER,  Alfred,  Canadian  educator:  h. 
Toronto.  He  was  graduated  B.A.  at  Toronto 
University  in  1869,  and  after  holding  hi^ 
school  and  other  appointments  became  mathe- 
matical tutor  in  University  (Allege  in  1875, 
registrar  of  Toronto  University  in  1881.  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  in  1887  and  dean  of  the 
Faculty  of  Arts  in  1912.  He  has  published  two 
works  on  geometry,  edited  treatises  on  trigo- 
nometry and  mechanics  and  was  president  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  Canada  1915-16. 

BAKER,  SiK  Benjamin,  English  engineer: 
b  near  Badi  1840:  d.  Pangboume.  Berkshire,  19 
May  1907.  He  joined  die  staff  of  Sir  John 
Fowler  in  1861,  becoming  his  partner  in  1875. 
In  1877  he  superintended  the  removal  of  Cleo- 
patra's Needle  from  Egiypt  to  London  and 
was  consulting  engineer  in  the  construction  of 
the  Assouan  dam.  He  was  brought  into  con- 
sultation in  connection  with  the  design  of  the 
Saint  Louis  bridge  across  the  Mississippi,  and 
on  the  threatened  inundation  of  the  first  tunnel 
across  the  Hudson  he  designed  a  pneumatic 
shield  2,000  feet  in  length  which  enabled  die 
work  to  be  successfully  accompli^jted    (1889- 


91).     In  conjunctton  with  Sir  JiAn  Fowkr  he 

racd  the  bridge  over  the  Firth  of  Forth. 
wa»  created  K.CU.G.  in  1890.  He  wrote 
^Lotis  Span  Iron  Bridses.'  'Suspension  Versus 
Cantilever  Bridges,'  <The  Strength  of  Beams* 
uid  'Transportattoo  and  Re-erection  of  Cleo- 
patni'i  Needle.' 

BAKER,  Charld  Fuller,  American  zool- 
ogist: b.  Lansing,  Mich.,  22  March  1672.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  Michigan  Agricultural 
Colle^  in  1892,  and  for  several  years  taught 
Uological  subjects  in  various  secondary  schools. 
Jffom  19W  to  1907  he  was  chief  of  the  depart- 
ment of  botany  at  the  Cuban  Agronomical  Sta- 
tion, in  1907-08  curator  of  the  botanical  garden 
and  herbarium  at  the  Museu  Goeldi,  Para, 
Brazil.  From  1909  to  1912  he  was  professor 
of  biology  at  Pomona  College,  Claremont,  Cal., 
in  the  latter  year  he  was'appointed  professor  of 
agronomy  at  the  University  of  the  Philippines. 
He  had  charae  of  the  Colorado  zoological  and 
forestry  exhibit  at  the  Chicago  Exposition  of 
1893,  and  in  1897-98  was  zoolo^st  and  asso- 
ciate botanist  to  the  Alabama  Biological  Sur- 
vey. He  was  botanist  to  the  H.  H.  Smith  ex- 
ploring expedition  in  the  Santa  Marta  Mom- 
tains,  Colombia,  1898-99,  and  has  himself  con- 
ducted field  extdorations  in  several  Western 
•■"■•"•  ■  —  He 


BAKER,  Charles  Whiting,  American  civil 
engineer:  b.  Johnson,  Vt,  17  Jan.  186S.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  engineering  department 
of  the  University  of  Vermont,  became  manag- 
ing editor  of  Engineering  News  in  1887  and  its 
edilor-in  chief  since  189S.  In  the  28  years  of 
his  connection  with  this  journal  its  circulation 
has  increased  tenfold.  He  published  in  1389 
in  Putnam's  'Questions  of  the  Day'  series,  a 
study  of  the  trusts  and  of  competition,  entitled 
'Monopolies  and  the  People,'  of  which  three 
editions  were  printed.  Many  measures  advo- 
cated in  this  book  have  in  recent  years  been 
enacted  into  law.  He  is  a  member  of  the 
American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers  and 
since  1913  has  been  one  of  the  commissioners 
of  the  Palisades  Interstate  Park  of  New  York 
and  New  Jersey. 

BAKBR,  Daniel,  American  clergyman  and 
author :  b.  Midway,  Ga^  17  Aug.  1791 :  d.  Aus- 
tin, Tex..  10  Dec  1857.  He  gained  such  a 
reputation  as  an  effective  preacher  that  his 
services  were  in  demand  as  a  revivalist  After 
1830  he  continued  as  an  evangelist,  traveling  ia 
the  South,  and  at  last  settled  in  Austin,  Texas, 
where  he  founded  a  college  and  became  its 
first  president.  His  published  works  include 
'A  Scriptural  View  of  Baptism,'  'An  Affec- 
tionate Address  to  Mothers,  and  one  to 
Fathers,'  'Baptism  in  a  Nutshell'  'Revival 
Sermons.'  Consult  'Memoirs'  edited  by  his 
son   (Philadelphia  1859). 

BAKBR,  Dsvid  (AuEtlvtliie),  Bene<fictine 
Mcetical  writer:  b.  1575;  d.  1641.  The  most 
original  and  ablest  spiritual  writer  among 
English  Catholics  during  the  first  half  of  the 
I7lft  century.  Having  finished  his  studies  at 
Oxford  he  devoted  himself  to  law  at  Lincoln's 
fnn  and  later  at  Inner  Temple.  In  his  40th 
|Car  be  became  a  convert  to  the  CatfioKc  faith, 


and  a  few  years  later  was  ordained  priest  and 
was  subsequently  received  into  the  Benedictine 
Order  by  the  Italian  fathers  in  England.  Dug- 
dale  and  Dodsworth  are  indebted  to  his  his- 
torical labors  for  much  of  the  data  found  in 
their  monumental  works.  It  was  Father  Baker 
who  discovered  that  the  old  English  Benedic- 
tine monastery  of  Saint  Peter  at  Westminster 
was  legally  continued  in  the  person  of  an  old 

Dst,  Doro  Robert  (Sigebert)  Buckley,  who 
suffered  44  years'  imprisonment  for  refus- 
ing the  oath  of  su[iremacy.  By  this  sole  suf^ 
vivor  David  Baker  was  professed  into  the 
monastery  of  Westminster,  and  thus  her 
came  one  of  the  first  three  priests  to 
form  the  connecting  link  between  the  old 
and  the  new  congregation  in  England.  It  was 
as  spiritual  director  at  Douai  and  Cambrai  that 
he  composed  his  admirable  treatises  on  the 
spiritual  life.  Consult  Wood,  'Athen*  Oxon- 
iensis' L  Taunton,  'English  Black  Monks  of 
Saint  Benedict';  'Dictionary  National  Biog- 
raphy>   (Vol.  HI,  London  188S). 

BAKER,  Edward  DicUnaon,  American 
soldier  and  politician :  b.  London,  England,  24 
Feb.  1811;  A  21  Oct.  1861.  He  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1816.  was  elected  to  the  Il- 
linois legislature  In  1837,  became  a  State  sena- 
tor in  1640,  and  was  sent  to  Congress  in  1844. 
He  served  under  General  Scoit  in  the  war  with 
Mexico  and  commanded  a  brigade  at  the  battle 
of  Cerro  Gordo,  and  was  elected  United  States 
senator  from  Orepon  in  1860.  He  entered  the 
Federal  army  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
and  was  killed  at  die  battle  of  Ball's  Bluff  while 
leading  a  charge.  Consult  Glazier,  William, 
'Heroes  of  Three  Wars'  (1880). 

BAKER,  Frank,  American  zoologist:  b. 
Pulaski,  N.  Y.,  22  Aiw.  1841.  He  is  professor 
of  anatomy  in  the  University  of  Georgetown 
since  1S83,  and  superintendent  of  the  I^tional 
Zoolc^ical  Park  in  Washington,  D.  C;  assistant 
superintendent  of  United  States  life  saving 
service  1899-90.  He  is  a  Fellow  of  the  Amer- 
kan  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science,  and  a  member  of  the  Washington 
Acadei^  of  Sciences  and  the  Anthropological 
and  the  Biological  Societies,  all  in  Washington. 
He  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from  George- 
town in  1914.  He  baa  contributed  articles  to 
the  'Reference  Handbook  of  Medical  Sciences,' 
was  a  coeditor  of  'Billing  Medical  Dic- 
tionary' and  the  'Standard  Dictionary.'  From 
1890  to  1897  he  was  editor  of  the  Americtm 
Anikrofohgist. 

BAKER,  Frank  Collins,  American  zoolo- 
gist :  b.  Warren,  R.  1..  14  Dec.  1867.  He  was 
educated  at  Bfown  University  and  at  the 
Philadelphia  Academy  of  Natural  Sdencet, 
The  latter  institution  sent  him  to  Mexico  witb 
an  exploring  expedition  in  1890.  In  1891-92  he 
was  invertebrate  zoologist  of  Ward's  NatDral 
Science  Establishment  and  secretary  of  the 
Rochester  Academy  of  Sciences.  In  the  latter 
year  he  became  curator  of  zoology  of  the  Field 
Columbian  Museum  of  Chicago,  and  in  1894 
curator  of  the  Chicago  Academy  of  Sciences. 
He  has  published  'A  Naturalist  in  Mexico* 
(189S) ;  'Mollusca  of  the  Chicago  Area'  (1898- 
1902);  'Shells  of  Land  and  Water'  (1903); 
'The  Lyntnoeidse  of  North  and  Middle  Ainer>: 


gle 


ica^    (1911),   and    contributioiis    to    coological 
journals,  principally  on  moUusca. 

BAKER,  George  Pierce,  American  scholar 
and  educator:  b.  Providence,  R.  I.,  4  April  1866. 
He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1887,  and  in 
the  followins:  year  was  appointed  initrucCor  in 
English  at  tDat  institution,  becoming  successively 
instructor  in  forensies  1889,  assistant  professor 
of  English  189S,  and  professor  of  English  1905, 
He  established  and  conducted  a  denarttnent  of 
criticbm  and  dramatic  writing  at  Harvard.  He 
has  published  'The  Principles  of  Argumenta- 
tion' (1895-1905)  ;  <The  Development  of 
Shakespeare  as  a  Dramatist'  (1907),  and  edited 
'Specimens  of  Argumentation'  (1893);  'The 
Forms  of  Public  Address'  (1904) ;  'Some  Un- 
published Correspondence  of  C^vid  C^rrick' 
(1907) ;  'The  Correspondence  of  Charles 
IKckens  and  Maria  BeadnelP  (1913),  also  va- 
rious Elizabethan  pla^s.  In  1907-06  he  was 
Hyde  lecturer  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris. 


ticed  to  a  bcM^ueller,  he  afterward  devoted  his 
attention  to  developing  an  improved  system  of 
education  for  the  education  of  deaf-mutes, 
and  thus  amassed  a  fortune.  He  was  associated 
with  Defoe  in  the  publication  of  the  'Univer- 
sal Spectator'  (1728).  In  1744  he  obtained 
the  Copley  medal  for  his  microscopical  discov- 
eries on  crystallization.  He  wrote  'The  Micro- 
scope Made  Easy,'  'Employment  for  the 
Microscope,*  many  scientific  papers  and  sev- 
eral poetical  works. 

BAKER,  Sib  Henry  WUliama,  English 
hymn  writer :  b.  London,  27  May  1821 ;  d.  Ii^nk- 
land,  12  Feb.  1877.  He  was  educated  at  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1851  was  pre- 
sented to  the  vicarage  of  Monkland  near  Leo- 
minster. He  succeeded  his  father  as  3d 
baronet  in  1859.  In  1852  he  wrote  his  first 
hymn,  'Oh,  what  it  we  are  Christ's.'  Two  others 
appeared  in  1861:  'Praise,  O  Praise  Our  Lord 
and  King>  and  'There  Is  a  Blessed  Home.'  He 
is  chiefly  known  as  the  promoter  and  editor  of 
'Hymns  Ancient  and  Modern,*  first  published 
in  1861.  To  it  he  contributed  many  origin^ 
hymns  as  well  as  several  translations  of  Latin 
l^mns.  Strong  objection  was  made  to  Baker's 
hymn  addressed  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  'Shall 
We  Not  Love  Thee,  Mother  Dear?'  Baker 
held  the  doctrine  of  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy. 
He  published  also  'Daily  Prayers  for  the  Use 
of  ■Those  Who  Have  to  Work  Hard,'  and  a 
'Daily  Text-book'  for  the  same  class,  and 
some  pamphlets  on  religious  subjects.  Consult 
the  Literary  Churchman   (24  Feb.   1877). 

BAKER,  Herbert  Brereton,  English  chem> 
ist:  b.  Blackburn,  about  1857.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Manchester  Grammar  School  and 
at  Balljol  College,  Oxford,  where  he  was  a 
demonstrator  in  chemistry  in  1883-85.  He  was 
head  of  the  science  department  of  Dulwich  Col- 
lege 18SS-1902,  and  headmaster  of  Alleyn's 
School,  Dulwich,  in  1902-03.  He  became  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1902,  and  in 
1912  was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry  in 
the  Imperial  College  of  Science  and  Technol- 
ogy, London.  He  has  published  'Combustion 
in  Dried  Oxygen'  (1885);  'Action  of  Light 
on  Silver  Chloride'  (1892);  'Influence  of 
Moisture  on  Chemical  Action*    (1894);  'E*y- 


(1898);      

Chloride'  (1900)  ;  'Union  of  Hydrogen' 
(1902)  ;  and,  in  conjunction  with  Professor 
Dixon,  'The  Chemical  Inactivity  of  RmitRen 
Rays'  (1896);  'Gaseous  Nitrogen  Trioxide,' 
with  Mrs.  Baker  (1907). 

BAKER,  Ira  Osbom,  American  educator: 
b.  Linton,  Ind  23  Sept  1853.  He  became  pro- 
fessor of  civil  engineering  in  the  Universi^ 
of  Illinois  in  1880;  is  the  author  of  'levelling' 
(1886)  ;  'Engineers'  Surveying  Instiuments' 
(1892)  ;    'Treatise   on    Masonrj;   Construction' 


0903-13).  Member  American  Society  of  Gvil 
Engineers,  Western  Society  of  Engineers,  So- 
ciety for  Promotion  of  Engineering  Education. 

BAKER,  TuBCt  Heaton,  American  soldier: 
b.  Monroe,  Ohio,  6  May  1829;  d.  27  May  1913. 
He  was  educated  at  Ohio  Wesleyan  University. 
He  was  secretary  of  Slate  of  Ohio  in  1854-56, 
and  of  Minnesota  in  1857-61,  when  he  joined 
the  army  as  colonel  of  the  10th  Minnesota 
Volunteer  Infantry.  He  was  mustered  out  of 
the  service  in  1S65  with  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general.  Afterward  he  was  commissioner  of 
pensions  under  President  Grant,  was  surveyor- 
general  of  Minnesota  1875-79,  and  State  rail- 
road commissioner  1881-86.  In  1879  he  became 
proprietor  of  two  Republican  newspapers  which 
ne  combined  under  the  name  of  the  Mankato 
Free  Press.  He  wrote  'Lake  Superior'  (1879) 
and  'The  Sources  of  the  Mississippi'  (1887), 
both  in  the  'Collections  of  the  Minnesota  His- 
torical Society' ;  also  'The  Lives  of  the  Gov- 
ernors of  Minnesota'  (1908). 

BAKER,  James  Hutchlns,  American  uni- 
versity president :  b.  Harmony,  Me,,  13  Oct 
1848.  He  was  principal  of  the  Denver  High 
School  1875-92;  president  of  University  of 
Colorado  1892-1914,  and  since  the  last  named 
date  president  emeritus.  His  publications  in- 
clude 'Elementary  Psychology'  (1890);  'Edu- 
cation and  Life,'  'American  Problems'  (1907); 
'Educational  Aims   and   Civic   Needs'    (1915). 

BAKER,  John  Gilbert,  English  botanist: 
b.  Guisborough,  Yorkshire,  13  Jan.  1834,  and 
was  appointed  assistant  curator  at  the  herba- 
rium at  Kew  in  1866  and  was  keeper  \S9(y99. 
He  was  gold  medalist  of  the  Linnean  Society 
for  1899,  and  obtained  the  Veitch  gold  medal 
for  horticulture  in  1907.  He  is  the  author  of 
works  on  the  flora  of  North  Yorkshire,  the 
English  Lake  District,  and  the  Mauritius,  of 
handbooks  on  ferns,  and  (with  Sir  W.  J. 
Hooker)   of  "Synopsis  Filicum.* 

BAKER,  Moses  Nelson,  American  sani- 
tary engineer  and  editor:  b,  Enosburg,  Vl.,  26 
Jan.  1864.  Associate  editor  and  editor  Ettgt- 
neering  Newi  (1887);  editor 'Manual  American 
Waterworks'  (1888-97)  ;  author  various  books 
on  water  and  sewage  treatment,  and  numerous 
encyclopedia  articles  on  municipal  engineering, 
hesdth  and  sanitation  and  government.  A  mem- 
ber board  of  health,  Monlchir,  N.  J.,  from 
1895  and  its  president  1904-15 ;  vice-president 
New  Jersey  State  Department  of  Health 
1915;  chairman  executive  committee  National 
Municipal  League  1913. 

BAKER,  Newton  Diehl.  American  states- 
man: b.   Martinsburg,   W.  Va.,  3   Dec.    1871. 


Google 


BAKBR  — BAKER  CITY 


ei 


He  was  graduated  at  Johns  Hopldns  University 
in  1892  and  received  the  degree  of  LI_B.  at 
Wa»hingtan  and  Lee  University  in  1894.  In 
1896-97  he  served  in  the  capacity  of  private 
secretary  to  Postmaster-General  Wilson  and 
in  the  latter  year  established  a  law  practice  at 
Marunsburg,  W,  Va.  From  1902  to  1912  he 
was  dty  solidtOT  of  Geveland,  Ohio,  and  was 
elected  mayor  o£  thai  city  in  1912,  and  re- 
elected in  1914.  On  7  March  1915  he  was  ap- 
pointed Secretary  o£  War  by  President  Wilson. 
BAKER,  Oamon  Clemder,  American  cler- 
^tam:  b.  Marlow,  N.  H.,  30  July  1812;  d.  20 
Dec  1871.  He  was  educated  at  Wesle^an  Uni- 
versity; spent  several  years  in  teaching,  and 
;  of  the  founders  of    the    system    of 


cord,  N.  H,  1847-52,  and  in  the  last  named 
year  was  elected  a  bishop.  His  work,  'Guide- 
Book  in  the  Administration  of  Discipline  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church'  (1855),  is  a 
standard  authori^. 

BAKER,  Ray  Stamurd,  American  author 
and  joumaliat :  b.  Lansing,  Mich.,  17  April 
1870.  He  was  graduated  at  the  Michigan  Agri- 
cultural College  in  1889,  and  later  took  a  par- 
tial law  course  and  studies  in  literature  at  the 
University  of  Michi^n.  He  was  rqiorter  and 
sub-editor  of  the  Chicago  Record  18(C~97,  man* 
aging  editor  of  McClure's  Syndicate  1897-98, 
and  associate  editor  of  McClure's  Magaome 
1899-1905.  Prom  1906  to  1915  he  was  one  of 
tbe  editors  of  the  American  Magatine.  He 
has  contributed  ta  several  magazines  man^ 
articles  on  social  and  economic  subjects.  His 
published  volumes  include  'Boys'  Book  of  In- 
ventions' (1899) ;  'Our  New  Prosperity' 
(1900)!  'Seen  in  Germany'  (1901);  <Second 
Boys'  Book  of  Inventions'  (1WJ3) ;  'Following 
the  Color  Line*  (1908);  'New  Ideals  in  Heal- 
ing'  (1909);  'The  Spiritual  Unrest'   (1910). 

BAKER,  Sii  Richard,  English  luateiian: 
b.  Kent  1568;  A.  1645.  He  was  eduated  at 
Oxford,  and  knighted  in  1603  by  James  I;  in 
1620  he  filled  the  office  of  high  sheriff  of  Ox- 
fordshire. Shortly  afterward  he  was  dirown 
into  Fleet  Prison  because  of  fasrving  given  se- 
curity for  3  debt  contracted  by  hts  wife's  fam- 
ily, which  he  was  unable  to  pay.  During  his 
imprisonment  he'  wrote  'Chronicle  of  the 
Kings  of  England,'  first  published  in  1643,  and 
afterward  continued  by  Edward  Phillips,  the 
nephew  of  Milton,  and  others,  a  work  popular 
at  the  time,  but  not  of  permanent  value.  He 
died  in  prison. 

BAKER,  Snt  Samuel  White,  English  ex- 
pk>rer  and  author;  b.  London,  8  June  1821;  d. 
30  Dec.  IS93.  He  was  trained  as  an  engineer, 
and  at  the  age  of  24  went  to  Ceylon,  where 
hff  founded  an  agricultural  settlement  at  Nu- 
wara  Eliya  in  1847.  In  the  early  part  of  1861, 
accompanied  by  his  wife,  he  set  out  for  Africa 
on  a  joumey  of  exploration.  When  he  had 
ascended  the  Nile  as  far  as  (>ondokoro  he  met 
Speke  and  Grant  returning  after  their  discov- 
ery of  tbe  Victoria  Nyanza  Lake,  and  learned 
from  them  that  another  large  lake  in  the  dis- 


turn  home  he  was  received  with  great  honor 
and  was  knighted.  In  1869  he  returned  to 
Africa  as  head  of  an  expedition  sent  by  the 
Khedive  of  Egypt  to  suppress  the  slave  trade, 
and  to  annex  and  open  np  to  trade  a  large 
part  of  the  newly-explored  country,  bdng 
raised  to  the  dignity   of  pasha.     Returning  in 


and  subsetiuently  traveled  in  Asia  and  America. 
His  writings  include  'The  Rifle  and  the 
Hound  in  Ceylon'  (18S4)  :  'Eight  Years'  Wan- 
derings in  (feylon'  fiaSS);  'The  Albert  Ny- 
anza'  (1866)  ;  'The  Nile  Tributaries  of  Abys- 
sinia' (1867)  ;  'Ismailia,  a  Narrative  of  the 
Expedition  to  Central  Africa'  (1874)  ;  'Cy- 
prus as  I  saw  It  in  1879'  ;  'WOd  Beasts  and 
Their  Ways'  (1890);  'True  Tales  for  My 
Grandsons*  (1883) ;  also  'Cast  up  by  the  Sea,' 
a  story  published  in  1869. 

BAKER,   Thonuui,   En^sh  antiquary:    b. 


—    manuscript    42    folio    volum—    _.    

'AthenfB  Cantabngiensis,*  from  which  a  'His- 
tory of  St  John's  College'  was  edited  ^  Pro- 
fessor Mayor.  The  former  was  published  in 
1867.  and  the  latter  in  1869.  Consuh  Horace 
Walpolc,  'Works.'  ii.  339;  'Diet,  of  NaHonal 
Biography'   (London  1S85). 

BAKBR,  Valentine.  English  military  ofR- 
cer,  also  known  as  Baker  Pasha:  b.  1825;  d. 
Tel-el-Kebir  1887.  He  was  a  brother  of  Sir 
Samuel  White  Baker.  For  his  services  in  the 
Crimean  War  he  was  made  colonel  of  the  10th 
Hussars.  His  career  was  clouded  in  1875  by 
an  insult  to  a  young  woman,  for  which  he  was 
imprisoned.  In  the  Russo-TurWah  War  of 
1877  he  was  in  the  Turkish  service,  and  subse- 
quently served  in  Egypt.  He  wrote  'Clouds  in 
the  East'  (1876);  and  'The  War  in  Bulgaria' 
(1879). 

BAKER,  William  Mnmford,  American 
novelist  and  clergyman :  b.  Washington,  D.  C, 
27  June  1825;  d.  South  Boston,  Mass.,  20  Aug. 
1833.  He  was  graduated  at  Princeton  1844 
and  held  Presbyterian  pastorates  in  Texas  for 
15  years,  when  he  returned  to  the  North  and 
accepted  a,  chaise  in  South  Boston.  As  a 
writer,  one  of  bis  most  important  books  was 
'Inside:  A  Chronicle  of  Secession'  ^1866), 
secretly  written  during  the  war,  and  giving  an 
illuminating  picture  of  Southern  sentiment 
Other  works  are  'Life  and  Labors  of  Rev. 
D.  Baker'  (1858);  'The  Ten  Thenopanies' 
(I8S3>.  His  novel^  several  of  nhich  appeared 
serially,  include  'Mose  Evans'  (1874)  ;  'Car- 
ter Qnarterman>  (1876);  'Colonel  Dunwoodie' 
(18^);  'The  Vici^nians  in  Texas'  (lg78); 
'His  Majesty  Myself  (1879);  and  its  sequel, 
'The  Making  of  a  Man'  (1884);  'Blessed 
Saint  Certainty'  (1881). 

BAKER,  Honnt,  an  occasionally  active 
volcano  in  WTiatcom  CTounty,  Wash,,  belonging 
to  tbe  Cascade  Range;  elevation,  10,827  feet 

BAKER  AND  THE  BAKER'S  WIFE, 
The,  names  popularly  given  to  Louis  XVI  of 
France,  and  Marie  Antoinette,  because  they 
gave  bread  to  the  starving  mob  at  Versailles 
on  6  Oct.  1789. 

BAKER  CITY,  Ore.,  city  and  county-seat 
of  Baker  County,  situated  on  tbe  e»t  foHc  o£ 


.Google 


BAKER   UNIVERSITY  — BAKHUYSEN 


the  Powder  River,  360  miles  east  of  Port- 
land, on  the  Oregon  Railroad.  It  is  the  centre 
of  an  extensive  farming,  gold-mining  and 
stock-raising  re^on,  and  has  a  considerable  ex- 
port trade,  it  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  bien- 
nially elected,  and  a  city  council,  and  operates 
the  water  works.  It  was  settled  in  1860,  incor- 
porated in  1872  and  has  lately  adopted  the 
commission  form  of  municipal  government 
Pop.   (1910)  6,742. 

_  BAKER  UNIVERSITY,  situated  at  Bald- 
win, Kan.,  a  coeducational  institution.  It  was 
founded  in  1858  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  The  departments 
include  the  College  of  Liberal  Arts,  academy, 
musical  conservatory,  public  speaking,  fine  arts, 
household  9rts,  preparatory  professional 
courses  and  summer  school.  Iliere  are  32  pro- 
fessors and  instructors  and  515  students.  Its 
library  contains  14,000  volumes,  and  the 
grounds  and  buildings  are  valued  at  !ffi(l,00O; 
graduates,  1,200;  productive  funds,  $50,000;  in- 
come, $40,000. 


ders  and  has  massive  horns. 

BAKER'S  DOZEN,  a  familiar  phrase  sup- 
posed to  have  originated  in  an  old  practice  of 
bakers  who,  when  a  heavy  penally  was  inflicted 
for  short  weight,  used  to  give  a  surplus  num- 
ber of  loaves,  called  the  inbread  or  make- 
weight, to  avoid  all  risk  of  incurring  the  fine. 
Until  at  least  quite  recently  it  still  was  the 
custom  in  Great  Britain.  Thirteen,  therefore, 
became  a  baker's  doten,  and  13  also  is  as- 
sumed to  be  the  number  of  witches  who  sat 
down  together  at  dinner  on  the  Lord's  Day, 
even  as  it  was  the  number  who  were  at  that 
last  Passover  supper  which  immediately  pre- 
ceded the  betrayal  of  Christ.  Thirteen  was 
also  called  the  'devil's  dozen.* 

BAKBRSFIBLD,  Ca!.,  town  and  county- 
seat  of  Kern  County,  on  the  Kern  River  and 
on  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  168  miles 
northwest  of  Los  Angeles.  Settled  in  1872  in 
the  centre  of  an  oil  and  mineral  and  of  a 
stock-raising  and  fruit-growing  region,  it  has 
a  good  trade  and  active  manufacturing  inter- 
ests. The  United  States  census  of  manufac- 
tures for  1914  reported  51  industrial  establish- 
ments of  factory  grade,  employing  1,046  per- 
sons, of  whom  895  were  wage  earners,  receiving 
annually  $879,000  in  wages.  The  capital  in- 
vested aggregated  $2,749,000,  and  the  year's 
output  was  valued  at  S2,9ffi,000 ;  of  this.  $1,305,- 
000  was  the  value  added  by  manufacture.  The 
city  has  adopted  the  commission-manager  plan 
of  the  commission  form  of  government.  Pop. 
16,000. 

BAKEWBLL,  ROBERT,  English  agri- 
culturist: b.  1725;  d.  1795.  He  succeeded  his 
father  in  1760  as  occupier  of  the  Dishley  farm 
in  Leicestershire,  and  then  began  experi- 
ments for  the  improvement  of  cattle  (introduc- 
ing the  celebrated  long-homed  breed),  and 
also  of  horses,  pigs  and  sheep.  He  also  intro- 
duced into  English  agriculture  the  practice  of 
flooding  meadows.     He  never  contributed  any- 


thing to  literature,  but  Arthur  Young, 


1  his 


annals    of    agriculture,    fully    described    and 
praised  his  plans  and  improvementsi 

BAKEWELL,  England,  an  ancient  town 
of  Derbvshire,  on  the  Wye,  25  miles  northwest 
of  Derby.  It  is  situated  in  a  picturesque 
region,  remarkable  for  its  scenic  beauty ;  con- 
tains chalybeate  springs  and  warm  baths,  a 
museum  and  a  fine  old  Gothic  church.  Atk- 
wright  first  established  cotton  mills  here,  and 
in  the  neighborhood  are  black-marble  and  lime- 
stone quarries  and  coal  and  xinc  mines.  The 
town  suffered  severely  from  a  visitation  of  the 
plague  in  the  l7th  century.    Pop,  (1911)  3,076. 

BAKHHUT,  bftldi-moot'.  See  BACHMirr. 
,  BAKHTCHISSARAI,  bak'chf-s^-rf,  Rus- 
sia, the  capital  of  the  government  of  Tau- 
rida;  situated  on  the  Tchoorook,  15  miles  south- 
west of  Simferopol.  It  consists  of  a  single 
street,  built  along  the  banks  of  the  Tchoorook 
and  Imed  in  Oriental  fashion  with  baiaars  and 
workshops.  It  contains  also  several  mosques, 
whose  tall  minarets  rise  high  above  the  neigh- 
boring houses.  Here  also  is  the  andent  palace 
of  the  khans  who  ruled  over  the  Tanrifian 
state  before  the  rise  of  Russian  power.  In 
one  of  the  old  Jewish  synagogues  a  parchment 
roll  of  the  Bible  —  the  most  andent,  accord- 
ing to  some  Hebrew  sdlolars  —  wax  discovered. 
It  is  now  in  the  Imperial  Library.  The  prin- 
cipal articles  of  manufacture  are  the  well- 
known  red  and  yellow  morocco  leather,  fur 
coats,  boots  and  shoes,  and  cutlery.  The  town 
it  a  mart  for  the  products  of  the  ndghborinc 
country,  such  as  tobacco,  flax,  grain,  and  espe- 
dally  fruits.  Its  population,  principally  Mo- 
hammedans, number  about  13,000,  including 
3,000  Christians,  1,000  Jews  and  some  Greeks. 

BAKHTBOAN,  bakk-lS-gin,  a  salt  lake 
in  Persia,  47  miles  east  of  Shiraz;  74  miles 
long   and    from    4    to    13    miles   wide.      Lar^ 

auantities  of  salt  are  gathered  from  its  basia 
uring  the  summer  drought. 
BAKHTIARI,  bakh'te-i'r&  <1)  A  ran^ 
of  mountains  in  the  province  of  Bakhtiari  in 
Persia  extending  parallel  to  the  Arva  and  Lar- 
istan  ranges.  (2)  A  half-dviliied  nomadic 
tribe  Hvii^  in  the  above  mountains,  estimated 
to  number  about  200,000. 

BAKHUIZBN,  bSk'-hoi-zen,  Van  Den 
Brink,  Reinier  Comelis,  Dutch  historian: 
b.  Amsterdam,  28  Feb.  1810;  d  The  Hague,  IS 
July  1865.  In  I8S4  he  was  appointed  keeper 
of  the  state  archives,  and  was  long  connected 
with  Gidt,  an  important  monthly  publication. 
His  principal  works  are  'Vondet  met  Roskam 
en  Rommelpot>  (latest  ed.,  1S9I) ;  <VariK 
Lectiones  ex  Historise  Philoso^ix  Antiqme' 
(1842)  ;  <La  relraite  de  Charles  Quint'  (1842) ; 
<Het  huwelijk  Tan  Prins  Willem  met  Anna 
van  Saksen>  (1853)  ;  Het  Rijksarchief>  (1857)  ; 
'Cartons  voor  de  geschiedenis  van  den  oeder- 
landsche  Vri]heid3oorlog>   (1860-77). 

BAKHUYSEN,  Lndotf,  Dutch  marine 
painter:  b.  Emden  1631;  d  1706.  He  was  for 
a  time  a  clerk  and  teacher  at  Amsterdam.  He 
studied  painting  under  Aldert  van  Everdir^en 
and  Heinrich  Dubbels,  and  soon  came  to  be 
regarded  as  one  of  the  greatest  marine  i)ainters 
of  the  time.  He  depicted  stormy  seas  in  con- 
trast to  his  rival  Wilhelm  van  der  Velde,  who 
depicted  the  sea  in  its  calm  moods.  He  often 
risked  his  life  atid  the  Hves  of  his  c 


.Google 


BAKI  —  BAKU 


in  the  quest  of  subjects  for  hisiMctures.  He 
cUd  not  excel  in  coloring,  but  succeeded  in 
catching  the  spirit  of  the  sea  in  its  wilder  as- 
pects. Numerous  examples  of  his  work  are 
extant  One,  depicting  a  coast  scene,  is  in  the 
Amsterdam  Museum i  his  'Rough  Sea  at  the 
Mouth  of  the  Maas'  hangs  in  the  Louvre,  and 
two  of  his  pictures  are  in  the  Museum  at  The 
Hague.  Seven  of  his  works  are  preserved  in 
the  National  Gallery,  London.  He  made  sev- 
eral drawings  of  vessels  for  Peter  the  Great, 
who  was  bis  pupil  for  a  time.  Late  in  life  he 
began  etching  on  copper.  He  also  painted 
several  portraits.  Consult  Van  der  WilUgen, 
*Les  artistes  de  Haarlem.' 

BAKI,  ba'ke,  the  greatest  lyric  poet  of  Tur- 
key; d.  about  1600.  His  "Divan'  contains 
almost  exclusively  odes  in  praise  of  the  Sultan. 

BAKING  MACHINERY.  See  Brkao 
AKD  Bhead-kakimg. 

BAKING  POWDER,  a  chemical  prnara- 
tion  used  in  the  place  ot  yeast  to  give  U^t- 
ness  to  bread  and  other  similar  articles  of  £et 
Yeast  induces  a  kind  of  fermentation,  accom- 
panied by  the  [feneration  of  bubbles  of  the  gas 
ktwwn  to  chemists  a3  carbon  dioxide ;  and  it 
is  the  development  of  these  bubbles  within  the 
dough  that  causes  it  to  swell  (or  ■rise*}  and 
become  lieht.  When  baldni^  powder  is  used 
in  the  place  of  yeast,  the  action  b  similar,  ex- 
cept that  the  gas  is  generated  by  direct  chem- 
ical  action,  instead  of  by  fermentation.  The 
best  baking  powders  contain  Ucarboitate  of 
soda  or  bicarbonate  of  ammonia  as  their  alka- 
line constituent,  intimately  mixed  with  tartaric 
or  phosphoric  acid,  or  an  acid  tartrate  or  phos- 
phate. So  long  as  the  ^wder  is  kept  dry  its 
acid  and  alkahne  constituents  do  not  comUne 
with  each  a(her;  but  when  moistened,  combina- 
tion takes  place,  and  carbon  dioxide  is  gener- 
ated, just  as  in  the  case  of  yeast.  Owing  to  the 
cost  of  tartrates  and  phosphates,  alum  is  not 
infrequently  used  as  the  acid  constituent  in  the 
cheaper  powders ;  but  health  authorities  almost 
universally  condemn  this  substitution. 

BAKKEBAKKE,  bSk^cS-baklce,  a  tribe  of 
African  pigmies  dwelling  In  the  French  Kongo 
territory. 

BAKONYWALD,  bSTcSn-y'-valt,  a  moun- 
tain range  in  Hungary^  between  the  Raab  and 
Lake  Balaton,  separating  the  great  and  little 
Hungarian  plains.  Average  elevation,  2,000 
feet.  It  is  covered  with  forests  on  the  mast  of 
which  large  herds  of  swine  are  fed.  There 
are  fine  quarries  of  marble  in  the  moimtains, 

BAKSHEESH,  b^-shesh',  -  or  BAK- 
SHISH, an  Eastern  word,  denoting  a  present 
or  gratuity.  In  Egypt  and  other  parts  of  the 
Turtdsh  empire  the  traveler  has  scarcely  set 
foot  on  shore  before  clamors  for  baksheesh, 
on  the  most  frivolous  pretexts,  or  in  simple 
beggary,  without  pretext  at  all,  assail  his  ear^ 
from  every  quarter.  Baksheesh  is  the  first 
Arabic  word  with  which  he  becomes  acquaiiiied, 
and  he  acquires  it  unwillingly. 

BAKST,  LcoD  HlkolBjewttBch,  Russian 
decorative  designer :  b,  Petrograd  1886.  He 
was  of  Jewish  parentage  and  stialied  in  the 
Petrograd  Academy  of  Arts  and  under  the 
intronage  of  a  Russian  Grand  Duchess  con- 
tinued Us  studies  in  Paris.  On  his  return  to 
Russia  he  settled  in  Moscow,  where  he  painted 


genre  scenes  of  Russian  life.  The  authorities 
were  displeased  with  his  intruding  of  political 
conditions  into  his  paintings  and  he  withdrew 
to  Paris  in  I906i  where  he  soon  acquired  a 
great  reputation  as  a  designer  of  stage  settings. 
His  principal  efforts  in  wis  field  are  the  set- 
tings for  'Cleopatra'  and  'Schaherazade'  for 
the  Russian  ballet  (1909).  These  were  fol- 
lowed by  the  designs  for  'Salome';  'Narcis- 
sus, Daphnis  and  Chloe' ;  'A  Faun's  After- 
noon,* in  Greek  settings ;  'The  Blue  God,'  'Ana- 
mese  and  Javanese  settings;  <Thamai;'  Trans- 
caucastan  and  Chinese;  'The  Buiteriiies,'  and 
'The  Carnival' ;  the  settings  for  Wolf-Fer- 
rari's opera,  'The  Secret  of  Suianne' ;  and  for 
D'Annunzio's  *La  Pisanelle'  and  *Saint  Se- 
bastien.'  The  ballet  for  his  latest  production, 
'The  Orientale,'  was  given  in  New  York  in 
1914,  where  an  exhibition  of  his  principal  de> 
Mgns  and  drawings  was  held  in  1913-14,  being 
shown  later  in  other  American  cities. 

BAKU,  Russia,  town  in  Georgia^  on  the 
west  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  roclqr 
peninsula  upon  which  it  is  built  and  the  islands 
in  the  bay  are  composed  of  Tertiary  strata, 
abounding  in  fossil  shells.  Through  these 
strata  numerous  springs  of  naphtha  and  petro- 
leum issue,  together  with  streams  of  inflam- 
mable gas,  and  eruptions  of  mud  from  so-called 
mud  volcanoes.  Inese  phenomena  give  to  the 
region  the  name  of  the  Field  of  Fire,  and 
formerly  made  Baku  the  sacred  city  ot  the 
Gnebres  or  Fire  Worshippers.  Naphtha  is  so 
abundant  as  to  be  an  article  of  commerce.  The 
chief  product  ot  the  region,  however,  is  petro- 
leum. Over  500  oil  wells  are  operated,  produc- 
ing large  quantities  of  petroJeum,  much  of 
which  is  carried  by  pipes  directly  to  the  re- 
fineries. Baku  has  a  large  trade,  exporting 
besides  the  oil,  grain,  salt,  etc  It  has  grown 
very  rapidly  in  recent  years,  its  prosperity 
being  due  to  the  petroleum  industry  which  is 
chiefly  in  the  hands  of  foreign  capitalists.  It 
has  several  shipbuilding  yards.  Along  the  south 
side  of  the  aty  a  new  quay  has  been  con- 
structed; on  this  are  erected  modem  stores 
and  bazaars.  The  older  portion  has  winding 
narrow  streets  and  here  also  are  some  remains 
of  the  palace  of  the  khans,  and  ihe  mosques 
of  the  shah,  erected  in  10^.  The  climate  is 
mild;  the  harbor  having  been  frozen  over  but 
once  in  80  years.  There  are  also  tobacco  fac- 
tories and  chemical  woiks.  The  position  of 
Baku  makes  it  the  marketplace  for  the  Russo- 
Persian  trade;  Cotton,  rice,  silk  wine,  dried 
fruits  and  walnut  wood  pass  through  from 
Persia  to  Russia  and  western  Europe,  in  ex- 
change for  goods  of  Russian  manufacture.  The 
population  is  mostly  Tatar,  and  constitutes  the 
laboring  and  small  trading  elements  \  Russians 
fill  financial,  commercial  and  official  posts; 
Armenians  are  among  the  leading  merdiants. 
Baku  was  in  Persian  hands  from  1509  to  1723; 
in  the  latter  year  it  was  taken  by  the  Russians, 
who  restored  it  to  the  Persians  in  1735.  In  1806 
it  again  came  into  possession  of  Russia  and 
has  since  remained  under  her  rule.  Tn  1901 
it  was  the  scene  of  a  great  conflagration,  and 
in  1905  sanguinary  conflicts  took  place  here 
between  the  Armenian  and  Tatar  elements. 
The  oil  industry  suffered  great  damage,  the 
losses  reaching  into  the  tens  of  millions  of 
rubles.    The  commercial  and  industrial  sections 


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BAKUBA— BAL^KICEPS 


of  the  town  were  almost  obliterated.  Pop. 
(1910)  217900.  Consult  Henry.  'Bakn;  An 
Eventful  History'  (1906)  ;  Louis^  'The  Baku 
Petroleum  Distnct*  in  Ertginfertng  Magaeirte 
(No.  XV,  New  York  1898)  ;  Marvin,  'The 
Region  of  Eternal  Fire'  (new  ed.,  London 
1891). 

BAKUBA,    ba-ko6-ba,    a    Bantu-speaking 

Eople  of  the  Kasai  district  of  the  Belsian 
>nga.  They  are  related  to  the  Baluba,  and 
are  often  referred  to  under  the  name  'Bush- 
ODgo.*  They  are  noted  among  all  the  Kon^o 
peoples  for  their  highly-developed  artistic 
sense,  which  finds  expression  in  admirable 
wood-carvings,  decorated  goblets  toilet  boxes, 
drums,  etc.,  and  in  the  plush-like  pile  cloth 
woven  of  raffia-palm  fibre  by  the  men  and  deco- 
rated with  designs  sewed  on  by  the  women. 
Early  travelers  have  described  this  people 
briefly,  and  they  have  been  lately  studied  by 
Frobenius,  Torday  and  Joyce.  Consult  Torday 
and  Joyce,  'Les  Bushongos'  (Publications  of 
the  Tervueren  Museum,  Belgium,  1911),  and 
Johnston,  Sir  Harry,  'George  Grenfell  and  Ae 
Congo.' 

BAKUNIN,  ba-koon'yen.  Michel,  Russiai^ 
anarchist:  b.  1814;  d.  Berne,  13  Jan.  1876.  He 
served  in  the  Imperial  guard  1332-^.  In 
1841-43  he  was  in  Germany,  engaged  in  philo- 
sophical study.  In  1843,  he  went  to  Paris,  and 
entered  into  relations  with  the  Polish  exiles, 
and  shortly  afterward  to  Switzerland,  where 
he  participated  actively  in  various  socialist 
and  communist  associations.  The  Russian  gov 
emment  in  1847  ordered  him  to  return  home; 
but  be  refused,  and  his  estate  was  confiscated. 
In  the  same  year  during  the  excitement  pro- 
dtKed  in  Paris  hy  the  question  of  parliamentary 
reform,  he  made  a  speech  invoking  the  fusion 
of  Poles  and  Russians,  for  the  better  and  easier 
revolutionising  of  Russia,  on  account  of  which 
the  Russian  govenuncnt  demanded  his  expul- 
sion from  France.  For  the  next  two  years  he 
was  active  in  the  revolutionary  movement  at 
Berlin,  at  Prague  and  at  Dresden.  He  was 
thrice  condemned  to  death  for  his  participa- 
tion in  the  revolutionary  movement  at  Dres- 
den; a  second  time  on  being  turned  over  to 
the  Austrians;  and  a  third  time  on  being 
handed  over  to  the  Russian  authorities.  The 
imtence  was  commuted  to  penal  servitude,  and 
be  was  sent  to  Siberia  in  1855.  In  I860,  he 
escaped  in  an  American  ship  to  JapatL  and 
from  there  went  by  way  of  ue  United  States 
to  London.  Here  he  joined  the  work  of  the 
revolutionary  socialist  movement  under  Marx 
and  Engcis,  and  in  1869  founded  the  Social 
Democratic  Alliance,  which  later  joined  the 
International  Workingmen's  Associatioa  His 
views  were  thoroughly  anarchistic  and  when 
he  tried  to  impose  them  upon  the  assodation 
he  was  expelled  by  The  Hague  Congress  in 
1872.  He  took  part  in  the  rising  at  Lyons  in 
1870-  In  1873  Bakunin  stopped  active  work 
and  lived  for  the  rest  of  his  life  in  Switzer' 
land.  Consult  for  his  writings,  Nettlan's, 
<Biographie  de  I'anarchie'    (Pans  1897). 

BAKWIRI,  bf-kwe'-rc.  a  Bantu-speaking 
tribe  of  Kamenin.  west  Africa.  They  are  of 
medium  height,  well  proportioned  and  with 
rcRular  features.  Drum  signaling  is  much  used, 
and  by  it  new*  is  rapidly  conveyed  to  lot^  dis- 


tances. Witdicraft  and  sacrifices  still  prevail 
and  cannibalism  was  practised  formerly. 

BALA,  ba-U,  a  veiy  ancient  town  of  north 
Wales,  at  the  north  end  of  the  Bala  Lake, 
famous  for  the  manufacture  of  knitted  stock- 
ings, and  gloves  of  strong  and  soft  texture. 
At  the  south  end  of  the  town  is  a  large  arti- 
ficial mound,  supposed  lo  be  of  Roman  origin. 
This  mound  was  occupied  by  the  Welsh  as  a 
fort  in  early  days  to  prevent  the  incursions  of 
the  English. 

BALA  BEDS  (also  known  as  the  Caradoc 
group),  a  local  deposit  in  north  Wales,  near 
Bala,  which  form  the  upper  group  in  the  Lower 
Silurian  of  Uurchison  (now  known  as  Ordovi- 
cian).  The  group  in  the  type  locality  consists 
of  two  lixnestones,  separated  by  about  1,400 
feet  of  sandy  and  slaty  rocks,  with  many  lava 
flows.  The  lower  limestone,  called  the  Bala 
limestone,  is  about  25  feet  thick.  The  grapto- 
lites  are  the  dominant  fossils  of  the  group 

BALAAM,  a  Biblical  personage,  the  son  of 
Beor,  and  a  prophet  of  Pethor  by  the  Eu- 
phrates. The  children  of  Israel  had  reached, 
in  their  journn',  the  plains  of  Moab.  Balak, 
the  King,  terrified  at  seeing  so  great  a  host  in- 
vading bis  territory,  sent,  tnerefore.  to  Balaam, 
a  well-known  prophet  and  soothsayer,  lo  come 
and  curse  these  hosts  for  him.  so  that,  perad- 
venture,  he  might  then  smite  them  and  drive 
them  out  of  the  land.  Balaan),  warned  of 
God  in  the  night,  refused  to  go  with  the  messen- 
gers, and  sent  them  away.  Balak  sent  yet 
others.  He  at  first  also  refused  Ikem,  but  in 
the  morning  he  went  with  the  divine  injunc- 
tion to  speak  what  the  Lord  should  tell  him. 
The  angel  of  the  Lord  met  him  in  the  way, 
gave  the  ass  he  rode  a  vision  in  three  several 
mstances,  and  each  time  Balaam  angrily  smote 
the  beast  for  her  involuntary  manifestations 
of  terror.  After  the  third  beating  an  interlo- 
cution ensued  between  the  ass  and  the  master, 
when  the  Lord  opened  the  eyes  of  Balaam,  ana 
sedng  the  angel,  he  converged  with  him  in- 
stead of  the  ass.  As  the  result  of  the  convei^ 
sation.  Balaam  was  permitted  to  go  on,  and 
the  charge  repeated  to  speak  only  that  which 
the  Lord  should  tell  him.  Coming  unto  Balak, 
he  informed  him  that  he  could  omy  speak  that 
which  God  shall  put  into  his  mouth.  Balaam 
refused  to  curse  Israel,  but  pronounced  a  bless- 
ing upon  them,  in  the  three  several  places  to 
which  Balak  brought  bim  in  the  vain  hope  of 
securing  his  purpose.  This  is  the  Old  Testa- 
ment history  of  the  transaction,  given  in  Num- 
bers xxii-xxiv.  In  Numbers  xxxi,  8-16,  and 
Joshua  xiii,  22,  Balaam  is  mentioned  as  advis- 
ing Balak  to  lead  the  children  of  Israel  into 
idol  at  ly,  which,  according  to  his  directions, 
they  dia,  and  hence  arose  a  war  with  Moab. 

BALACHONG.  an  Oriental  condiment 
composed  of  small  fishes  or  shrimps,  pounded 
up  with  salt  and  spices  and  then  driecL 

BAL.£NA,  the  genus  inclyding  the  Green- 
land or  right  whale,  type  of  the  family  SoJtr- 
ni4a,  or  whale-bone  whales.  Hence  balten- 
whateboa& 

BAL.SNICBPS  (*wfaale-head>>,  a  genus 
of  African  wading  birds'  bdonging  to  the 
re^on  of  the  upper  Nile.  interme<£ate  between 
the  herons  and  storks,  and  characterized  by  an 
enormous  bill,  broad  and  swollai,  giving  die 


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B  AL  AGUUt  —  BALALAIKA 


oolr  known  species  (B.  rex),  also  called  shoe- 
bird  It  feeds  on  fishes,  water-snakes,  carrion 
ctc^  and  makes  its  nest  in  reeds  or  grass  ad- 
joining water.  Tiie  bill  is  yellow,  blotched 
with  dark  brown,  the  general  color  of  the 
plumage  dnilcy  gray,  the  head,  neck  and  breast 
slaty,  the  legs  blackish. 

BALAOUBR,  ba-ia-gSr',  Victor,  Spanish 
writer:  b.  Barcelona,  11  Dec.  1824;  A  Madrid, 
14  Jan.  1901.  He  became  keeper  of  the 
archives  at  Barcelona,  professor  of  history  in 
the  university  there ;  and  was  an  active  Liberal 
politician  and,  in  1^,  chief  of  the  council  on 
the  Philippine  Islands.  He  wrote  'The  Trouba- 
dours of  Monlscrrat*  (18S0):  'Political  and 
Literary  History  of  the  Troubadours'  (1878- 
80);  'Poems'  (1874);  'Don  Juan  de  Serra- 
valle'  C5th  ed.  187S).  etc. 

BALAHISSAK,  bal^-his-sar',  Turkey-in- 
Asia.  A  village  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
the  province  of  Angora,  Asia  Minor.  It  is  on 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Pessinus,  famous  for  its 
worship  of  Cybele.  Among  fragments  of  mar- 
ble columns,  friezes,  etc.,  rise  the  ruins  of  her 
gorgeous  temple,  and  remains  of  a  theatre  in 
partial  preservation,  a  castle  and  a  circus.  The 
people  of  Siorihissar  use  this  region  as  a 
quarry,  and  the  ancient  ruins  are  fast  disap- 
pearing. 

BALAK  ("making  waste  or  empty*).  King 
of  Moab,  who,  according  to  a  story  in  Numbers 
xxii-xxiv,  hired  the  prophet  Balaam  to  come 
and  curse  the  Israelites  before  their  entry  into 
Canaan.  Balaam  tried  to  carry  out  Balak'i 
wishes,  but  by  divine  inspiration,  he  pronounced 
a  blessing  instead  of  a  curse  and  foretold  the 
increase  m  the  multitudes  of  the  IsraeStei  and 
the  power  of  their  King.    See  Bai.aam. 

BALAKIRBV,  MOy  AlezeiTlch,  Russian 
composer:  b.  Nizhni  Novgorod,  13  Dec.  1837 
(13  Jan.  1837):  d  30  May  1910.  He  be^n 
studying  natural  science  at  Kazan,  but,  having 
learned  the  rudiments  of  music  from  his  mother 
and  displaying  considerable  aptitude,  he  was 
taken  in  hand  by  Ubilishev,  author  of  a  'Life 
of  Mozart,'  who  taught  him  the  classical  mas- 
terpieces and  something'  of  instrumentation.  In 
1855  he  appeared  in  Saint  Petersburg  (Petro- 
grad)  as  a  pianist  and  created  a  sensation  with 
nis  first  compositions.  Balakirev  speedily  became 
the   acknowledged   leader   of   the  young   Rus- 

1  composers,  headed  by  <•        .     r 


the 


!  young 

_ , .     _.arVabIe  s 

qua  si-amateur  3  who  styled  themselves 
"Five  Neo- Russian  innovators,*  a  coterie 
united  in  friendly  rivalry  and  patriotic  ambi- 
tion, consisting;  of  Balakirev,  Musoigsky,  Cui, 
Rimiky-Korsakov  and  Prince  Alexander  Boro- 
dine.  Their  musical  philosophy  was  summed 
up  in  their  phrase  "Russian  music  for  the 
Russians.*  They  studied  ecclesiastical  melodies, 
folk-songs  and  dances,  investi^ted  the  various 
Oriental  elements  permeating  Russian  art,  and 
strove  for  novelty  in  harmonization,  melody 
and  piquann  of  orchestral  effect.  The  in- 
fluence of  Glinka  (q.v.)  and  DarKomishky  per- 
vaded their  development  in  one  direction;  that 
of  Berlioz,  Schumann  and  Liszt  in  another. 
From  this  ensemble  they  created  a  new  art-ideal 
which  became  the  model  of  the  whole  so-called 
*neo-Russian  School.*  Balakirev  was  the  soul 
of  the  movement,  the  teacher  of  his  colleagues, 
the  critical  analyst  of  the  masters,  the  Luther 


of  the  mu^cal  reformation  in  Russia.  He  com- 
posed orchestral  jiieces  in  the  manner  of  Beriioi 
and  XJszt,  and  pianoforte  pieces  in  a  manner  of 
his  own  — of  which  the  Oriental  fantasia  "Is- 
lamey*  is  the  most  ingenious.  In  1862  he 
founded  the  Music  Free  School,  and  conducted 
its  concerts  for  a  number  of  years;  from  1867 
to  1870  he  also  conducted  the  symphony  con- 
certs of  the  Imperial  Russian  Musical  Society. 
Among  his  worlcs  the  finest  are  the  orchestral 
fantasia  Tamara  and  die  symphony  in  C 
major.  He  collected  and  recorded  a  great  num- 
ber of  Russbn  folk-songs.  He  first  became 
known  outside  of  his  own  country  in  1867,  when 
he  conducted  Glinka's  "Ruslan  and  Lj-ndmila" 
in  Prague.  All  his  early  companies  made  their 
mark:  Uusorgsky  wrote  some  wild,  eccentric 
soi^s;  the  truculent  Cui  produced  eight  operas, 
160  songs  and  a  number  of  piano  pieces ;  Boro' 
dine  left  symphonies,  orchestral  slretehes,  string 
quartets  and  a  dozen  songs;  and  Rimsky- 
Korsakov  wrote  about  12  operas,  mai^ 
songs,  piano  concertos,  and  pubUsned  a  collec- 
tion of  folk-songs:  Consult  Cui,  'La  Musiqoe 
en  Russie'  (Paris  1880)  ;  Grove's  'Dictionary 
of  Music' ;  'Oxford  History  of^  Music' ■  Pou- 
gin,  'Essai  historique  sur  la  musique  en  Russie' 
(Turin  1897);  Riemann,  H,  'M:usik-Lexikon> 
(Leipzig  1909  and  1915). 

BALAKLAVA,  ba-la-kla'v^  or  BALA^ 
CLAVA,  Russia,  a  small  seaport  in  the  Crimea, 
eight  miles  south-southeast  of  Sebastopol.  It 
consists  for  the  most  part  of  houses  perched 
upon  heights,  and  it  has  an  old  castle,  built  l» 
the  Genoese  who  were  expelled  in  the  ISth 
century  by  the  Turks-  On  the  acquisition  of  the 
Crimea  by  C^atherioe  II  of  Russia  it  was  made  . 
a  military  station.  The  harbor  has  a  very  nar- 
row entrance,  and,  though  deep,  is  not 
capacious.  In  1854  Balaklava  became  the  prin- 
cipal landing-place  of  the  British  after  the  bat- 
tle of  the  Alma.  The  battle  of  Balaklava 
fought  as  Oct.  1854,  when  the  Russians  in  over- 
whelming force  were  repulsed  by  a  small  body 
of  British  troops,  is  one  of  the  most  heroic 
achievements  of  modern  times,  the  'charge  of 
the  tight  brigade*  being  the  most  glorious  in- 
cident in  the  conflict.  To-day,  in  spite  of  its 
harbor,  the  town  has  a  population  of  only  about 
1,500,  mostl]!  Greek  fishermen.  The  surround- 
ing country  is  devoted  to  grape  growing.  Gjn- 
sult  Kinglake,  'Invasion  ot  the  Crimea" ;  Paaet, 
'The  Light  Cavalry  Brigade  m  the  Crhnea.' 

BALALAIKA,  or  Balaboikm,  ba-ta-irka, 
the  national  Russian  musical  instrument.  It 
has  the  form  of  a  three-stringed  guitar,  with  a 
triangular  sounding  board  and  a  finger-board, 
made  generally  of  pine  wood.  Six  almond- 
shaped  holes  on  the  surface  of  the  sounding 
board,  tending  concentrically  to  form  a  star, 
resemble  somewhat  the  5''s  on  the  sound  box. 
of  the  violin.  In  accorduice  with  the  investi- 
gation  of  Professor  Pyetuliov  and  Steinberg 
made  at  the  Imperial  Conservatory  of  Music  in 
Petrograd,  the  funtkmental  tone  of  the  sound- 
ing board  is  C  £at  but  as  the  instrument  is  made 
most  frequently  by  unskilful  hands  it  is  ex- 
tremely hard  to  standardize  the  fimdamental 
tone  as  has  been  the  case  also  with  the  violin. 
The  first  two  strings  are  in  unison  and  the  third 
is  their  quint  W.  W.  Andreyev  in  recent 
years  greatly  improved  the  lone  of  the  instru- 
ment and  organized  an  orchestra  of  30  of  these 


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BALAHBAN  —  BALANCE 


instruments,  which  he  took  on  tours  through 
Europe  and  America,  meeting  everywhere  with 
great  success. 

BALAHBAN,  ba-Iam'baii,  Philippine  Is- 
lands, a  small  town  on  the  west  coast  of  Cebu, 
on  Tanon  Strait  It  was  occupied  by  a  garrison 
of  United  States  infantry  after  a  battle  with 
Filipino  insurgents  early  in  January  1900.  It 
has  a  native  population  of  some  thousands,  and 
a  public  school  in  which  Ejiglish  is  taught.  It 
has  a  well-sheltered  harbor,  an  active  coast 
trade  and  a  population  of  about  13,000. 

BALAN,  b3.-lan.  (1)  A  French  poem,  an 
early  version  of  'Fierabras,'  of  which  there 
was  also  an  English  version,  'The  Sowdan  of 
BabyIon.>  (2)  The  brother  of  Bahn,  in 
Arthurian  legends. 

BALANCE  (Latin,  bis,  *twice,*  and  lanx, 
a  •dish,'  or  "pan"),  an  instrument  for  deier- 
minin^  the  mass  of^  a  body  by  comparison  with 
a  senea  of  other  bodies  (called  'wrights*) 
whose  masses  are  known.  The  term  is  often 
applied,  though  somewhat  incorrectly,  to  the 
familiar  instruments  in  which  the  weight  of  a 
body  is  determined  by  observing  the  extension 
that  it  can  produce  when  acting  upon  a  spring 
whose  extensibility  has  been  previously  deter- 
mined by  direct  experiments  with  known 
weights.  The  ■spring  balance"  is  useful  in  the 
ordinary  affairs  of  life,  where  high  precision 
is  not  essential ;  but  it  is  seldom  employed  in 
accurate  scientific  work,  since  it  is  liahlc  to 
errors  that  cannot  be  eliminated  or  allowed  for 
—  errors  that  are  small  enou^  to  be  neglected 
.  in  commercial  transactions,  but  quite  intolerable 
in  refined  laboratory  work. 

The  'lever  balance"  consists  essentially  of  a 
lever  (q.v.)  having  arms  of  known  lengths. 
The  mass  to  be  determined  is  suspended  at  the 
extremity  of  one  of  the  arms,  and  the  known 
masses  (or  weights)  are  suspended  from  the 
extremity  of  the  other  one,  their  number  and 
size  being  varied  until,  after  repealed  trials, 
a  perfect  equilibrium,  or  "balance,"  is  attained. 
If  the  two  arms  of  the  lever  are  equal,  the 
mass  of  the  body  under  examination  is  then 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  masses  of  the  weights 
that  are  balanced  against  it.  In  many  cases 
(for  example,  in  the  familiar  "platform  scales*) 
Uie  arms  of  the  lever  are  intentionally  made 
very  unequal,  the  object  to  be  weighed  being 
suspended  from  the  short  arm  of  the  lever, 
while  the  weights  are  suspended  from  the 
long  arm.  To  determine  the  mass  of  the  object 
it  is  then  necessary  to  multiply  the  sum  of  the 
masses  of  the  weights  by  the  ratio  of  the  long 
arm  to  the  short  one;  but  in  practical  work 
this  calculation  does  not  need  to  be  performed, 
because  the  instrument  is  graduated  by  the 
maker  so  that  all  necessary  allowance  for  the 
difference  in  the  arms  has  been  made,  and  the 
readings  give  the  corrected  ma!ss  directly.  In 
many  cases  the  balances  (or  'scales")  used  in 
commerce  are  constructed  so  that  equilibrium 
is  attained  by  varying  the  lenf^h  of  the  lever- 
arm  rather  than  by  varying  the  load  at  the 
extremity  of  that  arm;  but  the  fundamental 
principles  involved  are  the  same  tn  all  cases, 
and  are  set  forth  in  detail  in  the  article  Lever 

In  the  'precision  balance*  of  the  chemist 


and  phywdst,  the  lever  (called  the  "beam") 
consists  of  a  light  but  strong  and  rigid  fratne- 
work,  usually  made  of  brass  or  bronze,  and 
having  a  shape  somewhat  like  that  shown  in 
Fig.  1.  It  is  supported  by  toeans  of  a  wedge- 
shaped  piece  of  steel,  technically  known  as  a 
*knife-eoge,"  which  is  hardened  and  ground  to 
a  sharp  and  accurately  straight  edge,  and  which 
rests,  when  the  balance  is  in  use,  upon  a  Slat 
slab  of  agate,  or  other  hard,  smooth  substance, 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  the  beam  free  to 
tip  one  way  or  the  other,  with  practically  no 
frictional  resistance.     (The  ^^te  slab  is  sug- 


gested bv  the  dotted  contour,  k,  in  the  figure; 
the  pillar  that  supports  k  being  omitted  for  the 
sake  of  clearness).  Knife-edges  similar  to  the 
central  one,  but  with  their  edges  directed  up- 
ward instead  of  downward,  are  provided  at  the 
respective  ends  of  the  beam  (as  shown  at  A 
and  B)  for  the  support  of  the  pans  (only  one 
of  which  is  shown)  in  which  the  masses  to  be 
comrared  are  placed.  The  three  knife-edges, 
A,  B  and  C,  must  be  made  with  great  care, 
and  must  be  set  in  position  so  that  they  shall 
be  accurately  parallel  to  one  another.  They 
must,  moreover,  have  their  ec^es  all  in  the 
same  plane,  so  that  a  straight  Ime  joining  any 
two  points  in  the  ed^es  of  A  and  B  will  like- 
wise pass  through  the  edge  of  C.  The  two 
arms  of  the  beam  should  also  be  precisely 
equal,  so  that  C  is  exactly  half  way  between 
A  and  B.  P  is  a  pointer  whose  free  end 
travels  oyer  a  graduated  scale,  so  as  to  indicate 
the  extent  of  the  oscillations  of  the  beam  as 
it  swings  to.  and  fro  on  the  central  knife-edge 
C.  When  the  beam  is  horizontal,  its  centre 
of  gravity  (G  in  Fig.  2)  should  lie  in  the  same 


^ 


y^ 


vertical  line,  ab,  with  the  central  knife-edge. 
Whether  this  condition  is  fulfilled  or  not  is 
easily  shown  I^  removing  the  scalepans  and 
allowing  the  beam  to  come  to  rest.  It  can  only 
be  in  equiKbrium  when  its  centre  of  gravity  is 
directly  below  the  knife-edge  C;  so  that  if  it 
comes  to  rest  in  a  horizontal  position  it  is 
evident  that  the  condition  specified  above  is 
sensibly  realized.  If,  on  die  odier  hand,  the 
beam,  when  freed  from  the  pans,  comes  to  rest 


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with  its  H^ht-hand  end  lower  than  the  left- 
hand  one,  it  is  evident  that  the  centre  of  gravity 
of  the  beam  is  too  far  to  the  right,  as  is  indi' 
cated  by  the  point  0.  The  belter  makes  of 
balance  are  provided  with  an  adjustment  to 
correct  an  error  of  this  sort.  This  adjustment 
may  lake  the  form  of  a  fine  screw-thread  carry- 
ing a  nut,  as  suggested  at  E.  If  the  nut  be 
caused  to  approach  B,  die  centre  of  gravity  of 
the  beam  (considering  the  nut  as  a  part  of  the 
beam)  will  thereby  he  shifted  toward  the  left, 


when  free  from  the  pans, 
perfectly  horizontal  position.  If  it  does  not  re- 
maui  horizontal  when  the  pans  are  suspended  in 
their  proper  places,  then  it  follows  that  one  of 
the  pans  is  heavier  than  the  other;  this  defect 
is  easily  remedied  by  the  use  of  a  light  counter- 
poise in  connection  with  the  lighter  pan,  or  by 
removing  a  small  portion  of  the  materia!  of  the 

The  centre  of  gravity  of  the  beam  being 
proper!;/  adjusted,  and  the  equality  of  the  two 
pans  being  assured,  it  is  evident  that  the  beam 
will  set  itself  in  a  horiionta!  position  when  the 
pans  are  empty.  The  balance  may  still  be  de- 
fective, however,  through  the  arms  not  being  of 
precisely  equal  length.  The  equality  of  the  arms 
may  be  tested  in  the  following  manner:  Let 
a  mass,  P,  be  placed  in  one  of  the  pans,  and 
suppose  that  w  is  the  mass  that  has  to  be  placed 
in  the  other  pan  in  order  to  secure  a  perfect 
balance.  Let  L  be  the  length  of  the  arm  from 
which  P  is  suspended,  and  7  be  the  length  of  the 
arm  from  which  w  is  suspended,  as  indicated  in 


t 


f. 


Fig.  3.  Then,  by  the  principle  of  the  lever,  we 

PXL  =  wXt. 
Next,  let  P  be  placed  in  the  other  pan,  con- 
nected with  the  arm  whose  length  is  i,  and  let 
tC  be  the  mass  that  must  be  suspended  from 
th«  arm  of  length  L,  in  order  to  s^ure  a  per- 
fect balance.    Wc  then  have  the  equation  — 

PXl-'fVXI. 
Now,   it  P  be  eliminated  between   these  two 
equations,  we  have  the  relation  — 

and  since  W  and  w  are  both  known,  it  follows 
that  the  ratio  of  the  two  arms  of  the  balance 
is  also  known.    If  this  ratio  does  not  come  out 


Suality  of  the  arms  after  a  weighing  has  been 
ormed.  The  ef!cct  of  ineqnality  in  the  artns 
may  also  be  eliminated  by  a  double  weighing, 
such  as  has  been  supposed  to  be  performed, 
above.  For  if  we  eliminate  L  (instead  of  P} 
from  the  foregoing  equations,  we  find  — 
P  =  VW>Ci^'; 


good  balance  are  so  near^  eqnal  that  the  simple 
arithmetic  mean  of  IV  and  w  is  a  sufficiently 
close  approximation  to  the  geometric  mean  re- 
quired oy  theory. 

The  sensitiveness  of  a  balance  depends 
largely  upon  the  position  of  the  centre  of  grav- 
ity of  the  beam  relatively  to  the  central  loiife- 
edge.  Thus,  if  the  arms  of  the  balance  are 
precisely  equal,  and  the  beam  hangs  perfectly 
horizontal  with  a  weisht  P  in  each  pan,  the 
angle  x,  through  whida  the  beam  turns  when 
the  weight  in  the  left-hand  pan  is  increased  to 
P  +  p,  may  be  taken  as  a  measure  of  the  sen- 
sitiveness of  the  balance.  Let  ^  be  the  weif[hl 
of  the  beam  itself,  and  let  the  centre  of  gravity 
of  the  beam  be  at  a  distance,  h,  below  the 
central  knife-edge  when  the  beam  is  horizontal. 
Then,  if  x  is  the  dngle  that  the  beam  makei 
with  the  horizontal  when  it  comes  to  rest  with 
P  -I-  ^  in  the  left-hand  pan  and  /"  in  the  right- 
hand  pan,  the  theory  of  the  lever  gives  the  equa- 


from  which  we  easily  obtain  — 
LXp 


Fta.t. 


It  is  evident  that  x  will  be  increased  as  ft  is 
decreased,  so  that  the  sensitiveness  of  the  bal- 
ance becomes  greater  the  nearer  the  centre  of 
gravity  of  the  beam  is  caused  to  approach  to 
the  centre  of  support  The  balance  should  be 
provided  with  a  thread  and  nut,  D  (see  Fig. 
1),  to  facilitate  the  vertical  adjustment  of  the 
centre  of  ^avi^,  in  the  same  way  that  E  is  used 
in  adjusting  the  hodionial  position  of  that 
point.  The  centre  of  gravity  of  the  beam  must 
always  remain  below  me  centre  of  support,  be- 
cause when  it  is  above  that  point  the  beam  is 
tmstable,  and  when  it  coincides  with  the  centre 
of  support  the  instrument  will  remain  in  equi- 
librium in  any  portion.  When  a  balance  is 
made  very  sensitive,  by  bringing  the  centre  of 
gravity  close  to  the  point  of  sumrart  or  by  in- 
creasing the  length  of  the  arms  of  the  beam,  the 
period  of  oscillation  of  the  beam  grows  very 
long,  so  that  the  instrument  is  tedious  to  use. 
The  experienced  chemist  or  physicist  therefore 
selects  a  balance  whose  sensitiveness  and  period 
of  oscillation  can  be  best  adapted  to  the  work 
he  has  in  hand 

The  "precision  balance'  is  a  delicate  instm- 
ment,  and  should  be  kept  in  a  glass  case,  for 
protection,  when  not  in  actual  use.  The  weigh' 
uigs  are  also  performed  with  the  balance  en- 
closed in  like  manner,  in  order  to  avoid  error 
from  the  effect  of  air-currents  upon  the  beam. 
The   knife-edges   should  be  kept   away  from 


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their  baarinss,  and  proviiion  is  always  made 
for  raisii^  t&e  pans  from  the  ends  of  the  beam, 
and  the  beam  itself  from  the  central  support,  by 
means  of  a  system  of  stops  and  levers  (not  here 
shown)  actuated  by  a  conveniently  situated 
lever  or  wheel.  The  beam  and  pans  should  al- 
ways be  raised  in  this  manner  when  changing 
the  wet^ts  in  the  pans,  in  order  to  avoid  dy- 
ing the  least  shock  to  the  Imif  e-ed^es ;  for  when 
these  are  dulled  or  otherwise  injured  the  ac- 
curacy and  sensitiveness  of  the  balance  are 
materially  lessened. 

Weighings  may  be  efiected  by  two  E^eral 
methods.  In  the  iirst  method  the  position  of 
the  pointer,  P  (in  Fig.  1),  is  noted  on  the 
scale  at  its  extremity  when  the  balance  is  at 
rest  with  the  pans  empty.  The  position  so 
recorded  is  called  the  *zero*  of  the  balance. 
The  object  to  be  weirfied  is  then  placed  in  one 
of  the  pans,  and  wei^ts  are  added  to  the  other 
pan  until  the  balance  will  come  to  rest  with 
Its  pointer  at  the  same  spot,  or  zero,  as  before. 
The  weighing  is  then  complete. 

In  the  second  method  of  conducting  the  ex- 
lieriment  (known  as  the  'method  by  oscilla- 
tions') the  balance  is  not  brought  to  rest  at  all, 
the  necessary  readings  being  taken  while  the 
beam  is  oscillating.  The  lero  reading  of  the 
pointer  is  first  obtained  (with  the  pans  empty) 
in  the  following^  manner:  The  empty  balance  is 
allowed  to  oscillate  freely  for  a  short  time, 
and  then  the  position  attained  by  the  pointer  at 
one  of  its  extreme  positions  toward  the  right  is 
noted.  The  reading  of  the  next  following  ex- 
treme position  to  the  left  is  then  takei^  and  so 
on,  observing  the  portions  attained  at  the  alter- 
nate right  and  left  swinfi;s,  just  as  the  pointer 
pauses  and  begins  to  return  toward  the  mean 
position.  The  last  reading  is  taken  on  the  same 
side  as  the  first,  so  that  there  is  an  odd  num- 
ber of  observations  on  one  side  of  the  zero,  and 
an  even  number  on  the  other  side.     The  read- 


c  way;  after  which  the  i „ 

right  is  averaged  with  the  mean  reading  on  the 
left,  and  the  result  is  taken  as  the  position  of 
the  zero  of  the  balance.  The  object  to  be 
weighed  is  then  placed  in  one  pan,  and  the 
weights  in  the  other,  the  process  of  guess  and 
trial  being  followed  here  }ust  as  in  the  preced- 
ing method  until  an  almost  exact  balance  has 
been  attained.  The  method  of  oscillations,  with 
alternate  readings  to  the  rigtit  and  left,  is  next 
repeated  in  pr^isely  the  same  manner  as  when 
the  pans  were  empty,  and  the  reading  obtained 
by  the  final  averaging  of  these  observations  is 
taken  as  the  reading  of  the  balance  for  the 
loads  that  are  in  the  pans  at  the  time.  A  very 
small  wd^t  is  next  added  to  one  of  the  pans, 
and  the  oscillations  are  again  observed,  under 
the  new  conditions,  precisely  as  before.  The 
wdght  of  tiie  object  under  examination  can  then 


pointer,  with  the  pans  empty,  was  11.6.  The 
object  to  be  weighed  being  placed  in  one  pan, 
and  weights  having  a  combined  mass  of  W  in 
the  other,  let  the  reading  of  the  pointer  (as  de- 
duced from  the  oscillations)  be  10.4.  The  small 
w,  being  then  added  to  W,  let  the  &ial 


(which  Ta*y  be  denoted  by  P)  in  one  pan^  and  a 
mass,  W,  in  the  other,  the  pointer  reads  10.4. 
Finally,  with  P  in  one  pan  and  W+w  in  the 
other,  the  pointer  reads  122.  The  mass  w  has 
displaced  the  reading  of  the  pointer  by  1.8  divi- 
sions. If  it  be  assumed  that  a  mass  x,  when 
added  to  W,  would  have  made  the  reading  of 
the  pointer  precisely  11.6,  as  it  was  with  the 
empty  pans,  we  have  the  additional  fact  that  a 
mass  X  would  alter  the  reading  of  the  pointer 
by  \2  divisions.  Hence  the  simple  proportion — 
x:vi::\2:\li; 


whence  *^""— 


,  and  therefore  the  concluded 


mass  of  P  is  W-\- , 

3 
The  method  of  oscillations  is  favored  I^ 
many  physicists,  in  the  belief  that  a  better  value 
of  the  zero  of  the  balance  can  be  obtained  by 
studying  the  free  swings  in  this  way  than  by 
allowing  the  instrument  to  come  to  rest.  In- 
stead of  adding  very  small  weights  to  secure  the 
last  adjustments,  the  "rider*  is  often  used.  This 
consists  of  a  tiny  weight  made  of  wire,  and 
suspended  on  the  beam  of  the  balance,  as  indi- 
cated at  R  in  Fig.  1.  The  beam  is  graduated 
when  a  rider  is  to  be  used,  and  the  final  step 
in  the  wei^ng  consists  in  observing  what  posi- 
tion the  nder  must  have  in  order  to  make  the 
balance  (wrfecL  The  effect  of  moving  the  rider 
one  division  on  the  beam  being  known  by 
previous  experiment,  the  correction  to  be  a^ 
plied  for  any  given  position  of  the  rider  is 
easily  calculated.  Obviously  the  rider  can  be 
used  with  equal  advantage  whether  the  wei(^- 
ing  is  conducted  by  the  method  of  oscillations 

llie  wei^ts  used  in  connection  with  preci- 
sion balances  must  be  accurately  compared 
among  themselves  if  refined  work  is  to  be  done, 
and  a  table  of  corrections  prepared,  by  means 
of  which  the  pro^r  allowances  ma^  be  readily 
found,  for  any  minute  inconsistencies  that  may 
exist  among  them.  Reference  must  be  made 
to  the  standard  works  on  experimental  physics 
for  the  details  of  the  process  by  which  these 
corrections  are  obtained.  Crookes'  classical 
paper  on  the  atomic  wdgfat  of  thallium'  'Philo- 
sophical Transactions*  (1873,  p.  277),  may  also 
be  consulted  with  advantage,  a"  ''  '"     '"" 


in  connection  with  accurate  weighini  , 
ther  information  on  the  theory  and  use  of  the 
precision  balance  consult  Stewart  &  Gee,  'Les- 
sons on  Elementary  Practical  Physics'  (Vol. 
I,  London  1889);  and  Glazebrook  &  Shaw, 
'Wactical  Physic3>  (New  York  1893).  Much 
advanced  information  may  also  be  had  in  the 
'Travaux  et  Mimoires'  of  the  International 
Bureau  of  Wei^ts  and  Measures).  Consult 
also  Braver,  'Die  (Construction  der  Waage'  (3d 
ed.,  Lripzig  1906)  ;  Felgentraeger.  "Theorie, 
Konstruklion  und  Gebraui^  der  feineren  Hebel- 
wage'  (Berlin  1907) :  Gerland  and  Traumiiller, 
^(leschichte  der  physikalischen  Experimen- 
tirkunst';  Kohlrauscb,  'Lehrbuth  der  prati- 
scschen  Physik>  (Leipzig  1905) ;  Sokeland,  •An- 
cient Desemers  or  Stccrvards,"'  in  'Smithsonian 
Annual  Report  for  1900'  (Washington  1901). 
See  also  Ckbonoketer:  Inductiom  Balance; 
ToKSiOH  Balakce. 


t,zcd=y  Google 


BALANCE  OF  POWBK 


BALANCE  OP  POWEft,  is  the  system 
t^  which  greater  states  are  withheld  from  ab- 
sorbing smaller  ores.  Vattel,  in  'Law  of 
Nations,'  thus  defines  it:  *By  this  balance  is  to 
be  ondentood  such  a  disposition  of  things,  as 
Aax  no  one  potentate  or  state  shall  be  able  ab- 
solutely- to  predominate  and  prescribe  to  the 
others.*  The  system  of  the  tnlance  of  power 
is  entirely  the  outgrowth  of  the  modem  [wliti- 
cal  system  of  Europe,  as  it  began  to  shape  itself 
in  the  ISth  century;  not  that  it  was  entirely  un- 
known to  the  anaenta  before  the  irresistible 
progress  of  Roman  arms  i)ut  any  idea  of  balance 
out  of  the  question,  but  tnese  early  efforts  after 
the  balance  of  power  were  not  sustained  for  a 
sufficiently  long  period,  from  generatian  to 
generation,  from  century  to  century.  They  were 
too  transitery  and  casual  to  entitle  them  to  be 
elevated  into  a  system.  They  mnst  be  regarded 
aa  approaches  and  tentative!,  interesting,  but  in 
the  end  fugitive  and  tmsucceasfuL  During  the 
latest  centuries  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  kings 
of  France  and  the  emperors  of  Germany  were 
too  nmch  engaged  in  their  domestic  struggles 
with  their  grtiU  vassals  to  spare  the  concen- 
trated attention  and  energy  upon  international 
affairs  necessary  to  originate  and  sustain  a  sys- 
tem of  balance  iu  Christian  Europe,  In  Italy, 
then  so  far  in  advance  of  the  rest  of  Europe  in 
intellectual,  social,  and  political  development, 
the  princes,  podestas  and  republics  of  that  penin- 
sula, from  an  early  period  of  the  15th  century, 
bad  built  up  the  institution  o£  an  equilibrium 
for  their  mutual  regulation.  But  this  was  too 
local  and  on  too  smalt  a  scale  to  be  deemed  the 
parent  of  our  modem  system.  Not  until  Louis 
XI  of  France  had  repressed  the  dukes  of  Bur- 
gun^  and  Brittany;  not  until  Ferdinand  of 
Casiile  and  Aragonhad  imited  almost  the  whole 
of  modem  Spain  under  bis  sway;  not  until 
Uaximilian  in  Germany  and  Henry  VII  in 
England  and  Ireland  had  con»>li  dated  the 
monarchical  authority,  was  the  time  ripe  for 
the  application  of  this  idea.  The  invasion  of 
Italy  by  Charles  VIII  of  France,  and  his  claim 
to  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  in  1494  gave  rise  to 
the  first  great  European  combination  of  other- 
wise hostile  powers  for  the  repression  of  the 
ambition  of  one.  Almost  all  the  Italian  states. 
Maximilian,  the  German  Emperor,  and  Ferdi- 
nand of  Aragon,  suspended  their  animosities, 
and  drove  the  French  out  of  Italy.  The  Em- 
peror Charles  V  of  Germany,  Spain,  Burgundy, 
the  Netherlands,  and  a  vast  transatlantic  empire 

>  ally 
T^-^.f. Ma       -^ 

cent,  against  Charles.  The  Turks  at 
of  Europe,  the  kings  of  France  and  England  at 
the  other,  and  the  opposition  of  the  Protestant 
princes  in  the  centre,  prevented  Charles  from 
realizing  his  ambitious  schemes.  The  misfor- 
tunes of  Phihp  II,  the  son  of  Charles  V,  in  the 
Dutch  Netherlands  and  in  the  expeditions 
against  England  and  the  English  power  in  Ire- 
land, etTectually  dissipated  the  tears  Europe 
entertained  concerning  the  overgrown  power  of 
the  Spanish  branch  of  the  house  of  Hapsburg. 
The  idea  of  a  European  equilibrium  had  now 
become  sufficiently  definite  for  Henry  IV  of 
France  to  propose  to  Elizabeth  of  England,  at 
the  commencement  of  the  )7th  century,  a 
sdleme  for  a  federative  congress,  whose  pur- 
pose it   should  be  to   mainbiin   die  peace  of 


Europe  in  the  same  manner  as  the  great  powers 
did  until  recently.  The  idea  was  impracticable 
in  those  days,  and  was  entirely  abandoned,  even 
as  a  project,  on  the  assassination  of  that  liberal 
and  nigii'minded  prince.  The  next  potentate 
whose  power  gave  general  alarm  and  caused  a 
coalition  against  him  in  tbe  general  interest 
was  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  11  of  Germany 
(reigned  1619-37),  Gustavus  Adolphus,  of 
Sweden,  appealing  to  die  Protestant  princes  oE 
Germany,  subsidized  by  Richelieu,  the  French 


achieved  the  task  of  humbling  the  power  of  the 
house  of  Austria.  After  the  death  of  Gustavus, 
Oxenstiem  of  Sweden  and  Richelieu  of  France 
together  forced  upon  the  German  Emperor  the 
celebrated  Treaty  of  Westphalia  (1648),  which 
relieved  Europe  from  the  fear  of  the  house  of 
Austria,  and  put  an  end  to  the  Thirty  Years' 
War.  The  next  general  danger  came  from 
France.  The  invasion  by  Louis  of  the  Dutch 
Netherlands  (1^2)  brought  about  a  coalition 
of  Holland,  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburg  and  the  King  of  Spain, 
agunst  the  French  King.  William,  Prince  ol 
Orange,  was  the  hero  of  this  war ;  but  the  Peace 
of  Nimeguen  (1678)  sealed  the  supremacy  of 
Louis  XIV.  The  will  of  the  King  of  Spain 
nominating  the  second  son  of  the  flench  Dau- 
phin as  his  successor  (1700),  thus  putting  the 
powerful  monarchies  of  France  and  Spain  into 
the  same  hands  and  utterly  destroying  the 
European  equilibrium,  created  the  grand 
alliance  and  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession. 
The  Emperor  of  Gerrnany,  the  Duke  of  Savoy, 
the  King  of  England,  and  the  States-General  ot 
the  United  Provinces,  united  in  this  grand  al- 
liance. The  King  of  Portugal  afterward 
joined  the  anti-French  confederacy.  Marlbor- 
ough and  Prince  Eugene  of  Savoy  were  the 
great  military  leaders  in  behalf  of  the  balance 
of  power.  The  Peace  of  Utrecht  (1713).  bv 
which  the  union  of  the  French  and  Spaniso 
crowns  was  prevented,  and  the  territorial  con- 
quests of  France  almost  wholly  surrendered, 
re-established  the  influence  of  the  equilibrium 
doctrine,  and  secured  Europe  from  danger  on 
this  side  until  the  era  of  the  French  republic 
The  Empress  Eliubeth  was  the  first  Russian 
potentate  who  took  part  in  wars  in  which  she 
had  only  a  remote  graeral  interest  Prussia 
and  Russia  cdebrated  their  entry  into  the  rank 
of  firsl-^asa  powers  by  dealing  the  most  ter- 
rible blow  to  tne  balance  of  power  which  it  baa 
evfr  suffered.  The  first  partition  of  Poland 
(1771-72)  is  admitted  by  every  writer  on  this 
subject  to  be  at  vrar  with  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples on  which  the  equilibrium  rests.  The 
achievement  of  American  independence  (1783), 
though  not  generally  reckoned  by  European 
writers  as  belonging  to  the  history  of  the  inter- 
national balance,  may  well  be  included  therdn, 
inasmuch  as  it  put  a  check  to  the  growth  of 
British  colonial  power  and  British  naval  pre- 
ponderance. At  the  Congress  of  Vienna 
(1814-15),  it  was  the  lea<Eng  wish  of  Lord 
Castlercagh.  the  British  plenipotentiary,  to  re- 
Store  the  kingdom  ot  Poland  as  included  in  the 
European  equilibrium,  in  which  he  was  sec- 
onded by  Mettemich  for  Austria  and  Talleyrand 
for  the  French  legitimate  sovereign,  but  opposed 
by  the  representatives  of  the  Russian  and  Prus- 
sian   monarchies.       The   return    of    Napoleon 


70 


BALANCE  OF  TRADE 


from  Elba  put  an  end  to  this  difference,  and  in 
the  renewed  conferences  after  the  battle  of 
Waterloo,  the  western  powers  did  not  insist 
upon  the  point.  From  1815  to  1853,  the  world 
was  subs^ntiatly  preserved  from  any  war  of 
importance  by  ue  five,  ^reat  powers  who  then 
presided  over  the  destinies  of  Europe,  namely, 
France,  Great  Britain,  Russia,  Austria  and 
Prussia.  In  1853,  the  invasion  of  the  trans- 
DanubiaJi  provinces  of  the  Turkish  empire  by  a 
Russian  army  was  declared  by  a  congress  of  the 
great  powers  at  Vienna  to  be  a  breach  of  the 
political  equilibrium.  In  this  declaration  France, 
Great  Britain,  Austria  and  Prussia  agreed.  An 
Anglo-French  alliance  was  made  (1854)  to 
repel  the  aggression,  and  the  confederation  of 
Turkey,  Great  Britain  and  France  was  rein- 
forced by  the  KinK  of  Sardinia  in  the  sprinjf  of 
the  year  1855.  After  a  war  of  three  caropaigni, 
the  Treaty  of  Paris  was  signed  (30  March 
1856),  by  which  Russia  abandoned  her  claims, 
and  die  principle-of  the  balance  of  power  was 
anew  vindicated.  The  Congress  of  Berlin  in 
1S?8,  acting  in  the  interests  of  the  balance  of 
power,  deprived  Russia  of  many  bene&ts  gained 
through  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano.  Within  a 
generation,  the  principle  of  nationaUsm  has 
arisen  in  opposition  to  that  of  the  balance  of 
power.  This  is  exhibited  in  United  Ita^,  United 
Germany  and  the  spread  of  the  Pan-Slavism  in 
Russia,  but  as  a  set-oS  to  this  may  be  men- 
ti(»ied  the  extension  of  European  influence  in 
Asia  and  Africa  as  regards  colonisation  and 
trade.  Thus  the  balance  of  power  has  become 
a  world  question  and  such  nations  as  Germany 
and  Italy  are  desirous  of  acquiring  colonies  to 
balance  the  colonial  possessions  of  Russia  and 
England.  The  sudden  rise  to  power  'of  the 
Slavic  race  as  a  result  of  the  Balkan  War  in 
1912-13  threatened  seriously  to  complicate 
European  policies  regarding  the  maintenance  of 
the  balance  of  power,  but  when  the  disagree- 
ment among  the  Balkan  States  resulted  in  war 
among  themselves  the  fears  of  a  Slavic  pre- 
ponderance were  seen  to  have  been  unwar- 
ranted. Numerous  international  conferences 
and  congresses  have  been  called  for  the  pur- 
pose of  maintaining  the  balance  of  power  and 
these   gatherings   have    set    up    ana    removed 


have  settled  political  relations  and  have  passed 
Upon  questions  of  international  justice,  often 
without  even  requesting  the  attendance  or  con- 
sulting the  wishes  of  those  most  affected  by 
their  action.  Consult  Lawrence,  T.  J.,  'Inter- 
nationr.l  Law>  (1910);  Phillimore,  R.,  'Inter- 
national Law'  (1879-Sa) ;  Westlake,  J.,  'In- 
temartonal  Law'   (Ft.  I,  1908). 

BALANCE  OF  TRADE.  The  so-called 
balance  of  trade  is  a  theory  arising  from  the 
apparent  relation  of  exports  to  imports.  The 
protectionist  school  of  political  economy  holds 
th^t  excess  of  exports  over  imports  constitutes 
what  is  termed  a  •favorable  balance"  which 
must  be  returned  to  us  in  gold  and  silver,  this 
being  the  profit  to  the  nation  on  its  foreign 
trade.  According  to  this  theory  the  one  desir- 
able thing  in  foreign  commerce  is  the  exporta- 
tion of  merchandise.  It  should  be  said  that  all 
protectionists  do  not  share  in  a  belief  in  this 

In  a  great  measure  and  in  its  more  exag- 
gerated form,  this  doctrine  is  a  survival  of  the 


old  mercantile  theory  which  down  to  the  time 
of  Adam  Smith  controlled  most  of  the  iKisla- 
tion  relating  to  commerce,  and  which  held  that 
gold  and  silver  were  the  only  wealth.  It  still 
retains  a  firm  hold  on  the  popular  mind,  but  it 
may  be  said  that  the  full  weight  of  the  (cach- 
ings of  orthodox  political  economy  is  against 
the  notion  that  excess  of  exports  constitutes,  a 
favorable  balance. 

The  argument  of  the  latter  is  that  if  the 
theory  is  true  there  cannot  be  too  great  an  ex- 
cess of  exports,  and  that  our  imports  should 
therefore  consist  only  of  gold  and  silver.  In 
this  'reduction  to  absurdity*  (since  a  country 
has  no  more  need  of  an  excessive  supjdv  of  the 
metals  than  of  any  other  commodity)  the  free- 
trade  school  of  political  economy  rejects  the 
conclusions  based  upon  the  apparent  excess  of 
exports  over  imports. 

Opponents  of  the  theory  hold  that  such  trade 
as  exists  between  two  countries,  exclusive  of 
what  is  paid  as  interest,  rent  or  tribute,  must 
show  a  mutual  profit,  and  represent  to  each  a 
correspondioK  excess  of  the  value  of  importa- 
tion. For  iUustration:  A  commodity  costii^ 
in  one  country  $75  will  be  bought  in  another 
for  ^100,  in  exchaoge  for  a  commodity  costiiw 
$75  in  the  country  of  its  exportation  and  $100 
in  the  imparting  country,  such  difference  rep- 
resenting the  degree  of  desirability  of  these 
particular  commodities  to  each  country.  It  will 
be  observed  that  this  precisdy  reverses  the 
'balance  of  trade*  theory. 

Countries  may  be  able  to  show  a  favorable 
balance  from  two  causes,  neither  of  which  con- 
tributes to  their  prosperity.  It  may  result  from 
an  actual  drain,  as  in  the  case  of  Ireland,  which 
used  to  be  sapped  of  its  wealth  by  absentee 
landlords,  and  in  India,  where  the  same 
phenomenon  is  caused  by  a  similar  drain  in  the 
form  of  tribute,  official  salaries  spent  outside 
the  country,  pensions,  etc.  But  in  these  in- 
stances it  is  clear  that  there  is  a  condition  un- 
profitable to  both  countries.  Or,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  msy  result,  as  in  the  United  States, 
which  has  the  same  favorable  balance,  by  rea- 
son of  the  large  sums  annually  paid  as  interest 
on  loans  that  entered  originally  into  railroad 
building,  industrial  improvements,  etc.  Most 
of  the  royal  families  of  Europe,  not  to  mention 
less  exalted  individuals,  draw  large  dividends 
from  American  investments.  Money  spent  by 
American  tourists  abroad  helps  to  swell  this 
favorable  balance. 

For  proof  that  this  theory  has  no  such  rela- 
tion to  national  prosperity  as  its  friends  con- 
ceive, its  opponents  point  to  England,  whose 
commercial  greatness  is  rivalled  by  this  coun- 
try alone,  and  which  has  a  prevailing  'unfavor- 
able* balance,  because  she  has  been  the  money- 
lender of  the  world,  and  her  excess  of  imports 
represents  the  return  received  by  her  people  for 
moneys  invested  in  foreign  lands. 

It  is  impossible  to  account  tor  the  growing 
increase  of  our  own  export  balance  wholly  on 
the  explanation  that  such  excess  is  rent  or  in- 
terest upon  loans.  Much  of  such  excess  is  in- 
deed fictitious,  and  is  to  be  accounted  for  by 
undervaluation  of  imports  and  overvaluation  of 
exports.  In  the  latter  case  there  is  a  strong  in- 
ducement to  overvalue,  in  order  to  conceal  the 
fact  that  many  of  our  exporters  are  selling 
goods  cheaper  abroad  than  at  home;    The  io- 


BALANCE  SUBBT—JBAULTON 


71 


ducement  to  undervalue  iioports  is  quiie  as 
atrong.  In  short,  customs  statistics,  with  every 
desire  on  the  part  of  the  Treasury  Department 
to  be  accurate;  arc  of  necessity  unreliable.  See 
Political  Econouy;  Fkse  Tkade;  Protection. 
Consult  Bastable,  C  F.,  'Theory  of  Interna- 
tional Trade'  (4th  ed.,  1903)  :  Goschen,  G.  J., 
'Theory  of  the  Foreign  Exchanges'  (3d  ed., 
1896) ;  Paish,  George,  'Trade  Balance  of  the 
United  Stales'  ^in  'Reports'  of  the  National 
Monetary  Commission,  Eien.  Doc,  579,  1910). 

BALANCE  SHBET.  See  Bookkeeping. 

BALANCED  BOWLDERS.  See  Rocking 
Stones. 

BALANCING  OP  ENGINES.  See  Ai^ 
PLIED  Mechanics. 

BALANGA,  b^-lan'g?,  Philipiune  Islands, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Bataan,  on  the  island 
of  Luzon,  and  on  the  west  coast  of  Manila 
Bay,  34  miles  northwest  of  Manila.  The  town 
is  well  buil^  contains  a  government  house,  city 
hall  and  [)nson.  It  is  a  telegraph  station  and 
owing  to  its  shore  location  is  a  place  of  con- 
siderable importance.    Pop.  about  7,S00. 

BALANOCLOS'SUS,  a  worm-Iilce  marine 
animal,  the  chiei  representative  of  the  most 
primitive  class  of  cfaordate  animals,  Entero- 
pntuita  or  AdeiocephaiA  This  remarkable 
creature^  the  type  of  its  class,  combines  char- 
acters peculiar  to  itself,  with  features  remind- 
ing us  of  the  nemerteans,  annelids,  tunlcates 
and  the  vertebrate  omphioxus,  while  its  free- 
swimming  larva  was  originally  supposed  to  be 
a  young  echinoderm.  From  the  fact  that  the 
central  nervous  system  lies  above  a  notochord, 
Bateson  placed  it  next  to  the  vertebrates. 

One  American  species,  Baianoglossus  auran- 
tiacus,  is  a  long,  c>;lindrical,  soft  fleshy  worm, 
footless,  without  bristles,  but  with  a  large,  soft, 
whitish  tongue-shaped  proboscis  in  front  aris- 
int!  dorsally  within  the  edge  of  the  collar  sur- 
rounding the  mouth.  The  surface  of  the  body 
is  ciliated.  At  the  bcginmng  of  the  digestive 
canal  is  a  aeries  of  sac-like  folds  of  whtch  the 
upper  or  dorsal  portion  is  respiratory  and  sep~ 
arated  b^  a  constriction  from  the  lower,  which 
is  digestive,  and  leads  directly  to  the  intestine 
behind.  This  pharyngeal  respiratoiy  portion  of 
the  digestive  canal  has  on  each  side,  in  each 
segment,  a  dorsal  sac,  the  two  oommonicating 
along  the  median  line  of  the  body.  The  dorsal 
respiratory  sacs  each  bear  in  their  walls  a 
delicate  diitinous  gill- support  or  arch.  Be- 
tween the  gill-arches,  forming  numerous 
Umelhe,  are  a  scries  of  slits  leadine  on  each 
side  to  openit^s  (spiracles)  situated  dorsally. 
The  water  passes  through  the  mouth  into  cadi 
gill-sac,  and  out  by  the  spiracles.  The  nervous 
system  ties  above  a  short  sac  regarded  as  a 
notochord  There  is  a  dorsal  Mood  vessel, 
which  sends  branches  to  the  respiratory  sacs, 
and  a  ventral  vessel.  The  worm  lives  in  sand 
at  low-water  mark  from  Cape  Ann  to  Charles- 
ton, S.  C~  also  in  the  Mediterranean. 

The  life-history  of  this  worm  is  most  inter- 
esting. The  young,  originally  described  under 
the  name  of  Tornaria,  was  supposed  to  be  an 
echinoderm  larva,  though  it  resembles  the  lar- 
val Gephyrea  and  Annelida.  It  is  a  transparent, 
surface-swimming,  minute,  ciliated,  slender, 
somewhat  bell-shaped  form,  with  black  eye- 
specks.    When  transforming  to  the  worm  con- 


dition, a  pair  of  gills  anse  on  sac-ltke  out- 
growths oi  the  cesophasus,  and  afterward  three 
additional  pairs,  with  weir  external  sUts,  arise, 
somewhat  as  in  asddians.  The  entire  Tomana 
directly  transforms  into  the  worm,  the  transi- 
tional period  being  very  short  The  body 
lengthen^  the  collar  and  proboscis  develop, 
afterward  the  body  lengthens,  the  end  tapering 
and  becoming  much  coiled.  Consult  Agassiz, 
A.,  'The  History  of  Baianoglossus  and  Tor- 
naria>  ( 'Memoirs  of  the  American  Academy 
of  Arts  and  Sciences,'  Vol.  IX,  Boston  1873): 
'The  Later  Stages  in  the  Development  Of 
Balanoelossus  Kowalevsldi,  etc'  (QuaritTly 
of  the  Microtcopical  Society,  London 


BALANUS    Cacora-shells"),    a   gem 
sessile  cirripeds,  family  Balamda,  of  whid 
found  on  rocks  at  low  \ 


having  a  symmetrical  shell  and  being  destitute 
of  a  flexible  stalk.  The  shell  consists  of  six 
plates  with  an  operculum  of  four  valves.  They 
pass  through  a  larval  state  in  which  they  are 
not  fixed,  moving  by  means  of  swimming-feet 
which  disappear  in  the  final  state.  All  the 
Ba/3nirf(F_are  hermaphrodites.  A  South  Amer- 
ican speaes  (B.  ptillacus)  is  eaten  on  the  coast 
of  Chile,  the  B.  tinlinnabiilum  by  the  Chinese. 
The  old  Roman  epicures  esteemed  the  larger 

BALAO,  ba-ia'o,  a  West  Indian  name, 
among  5 puiish- speaking  fishermen,  for  the 
half-Beaks. 

BALARD,  ba-lar',  Antoine  Jerome, 
French  chemist:  b.  Montpellier  1802;  d.  Paris 
1876.  He  was  professor  of  chemistry  at  the 
CoIl^c  de  France,  Paris,  and  discoverer,  of 
bromine;  also  of  a  process  of  extracting  sul- 
phate of  soda  directly  from  sea-water.  In  1868 
he  was  made  Inspector-General  of  Superior 
Instruction. 

BALAS  RUBY,  a  variety  of  ruby  spinel. 

BALASHOV,  bai-i-sh6f',  Russia,  a  town 


BALASORB,  bal-^-sdr',  India,  a  city  of 
Ben^l,  capital  of  the  district  of  Balaspre.  It 
is  situated  near  the  coast  and  has  dry  docks 
and  a  considerable  coasting  trade  which  con- 
sists prindpaliy  of  exports  of  rice  and  salt,  and 
imports  of  oil,  metal  and  doth.  The  town  has 
been  the  seat,  successively,  of  Portuguese, 
Dutch  and  Danish  factories.  In  1846  ihe  Danes 
sold  their  interest  in  the  place  to  the  English. 
Pop.  (1911)  21,363. 

BALATA,  bai'a-ta,  a  rubber-like  exudate 
derived  from  the  milky  juice  of  Mimusops 
batata  and  M.  scftombtirgkn.  The  gum  is  used 
widely  in  the  arts,  and  is  sometimes  confused 
with  gum  chicle,  from  which  much  of  the 
chewing-gum  of  commerce  is  derived. 

BALATB,  b^-la'la.  the  Philippine  name  for 
a  kind  of  trepang  (Hololhttria  alra). 

BALATON.  b6'l6-t6n.  or  FLATTEN 
SEE,  a  lake  in  the  southwest  of  Hungary,  55 
miles  southwest  of  Budapest,  extending  from 
Ut.  46°  45'  to  47°  5'  N..  and  from  long,  l?"  14* 


Google 


BALAU  AHO — BALBO 


to  18°  10*  E.;  area  about  400  square  miles, 
including  the  marshy  shores.  It  receives  the 
waters  of  more  than  30  small  streams.  It  dis- 
charges through  the  Kapos  River^  the  Kapos 
Canal  and  the  Sio,  which  empties  into  the 
Sarviz,  an  affluent  of  the  Danube.  The  Balaton 
is  constantly  in  a  state  of  motion,  sufficient  to 
cause  waves.  Its  waters  are  perfectly  trans- 
parent and  abound  with  fine  fsh,  notably  one 
called  fogas,  a  variety  of  perch  frequently  20 
pounds  in  weight,  and  with  delicious  flesh  of 


;    such    shoals    that    fishermen 

times  haul  50  cartloads  from  under  the  ice  in  a 
single  day.  The  northern  bank  is  bounded  by 
vine-clad  bills,  and  the  southern  bank  is  low. 
The  average  depth  of  the  lake  is  about  25  feet 
although  a  depth  of  over  100  feet  is  found 
near  Tihany.     It  is  the  largest  lake  in  Hungary. 

BALAUAHG,  ba-lou-iing^,  Philipiniies,  a 
town  in  the  province  of  La  Uni6n,  Luzon,  north 
of  San  Fernando. 

BALAU'STION'S  ADVENTURES,  a 
poem  by  Robert  Browning,  describing  a  Greek 
girl  of  Rhodes.  'Aristo^ianes'  Apology*  is  a 
continuation  of  this  poem. 

BALAWAT,  bii-la-wat',  Turkry-in-Asia.  a 
ruined  city  10  miles  from  Nimmd    It  is  the 


i  of  the  ancient  Imgur  Bel,  a  fortified  place 
-_-lt  by  Asuma/irpal  II  (885-860  b.cJ_  and  his 
son,  Shalmaneser  II    (860-825  B.C.).  The  lattei 


began  the  construction  of  a  line  palace  which 
was  completed  by  his  successor.  Excavations 
there  have  resulted  in  the  finding  of  the  ruins 
of  the  palace  of  Shalmaneser  II.  The  bronze 
gates  that  opened  into  the  vestibule  'of  this 
palace  are  especially  interesting  and  valuable, 
and  have  been  placed  in  the  BnCisb  Museum. 

BALAYAN,  b^-la'yan,  Philippines,  a  town 
of  Balangas  province.  Luzon,  siluatect  on  the 
Gulf  of  Bakvan,  30  miles  northwest  of  the  town 
of  Batangas.  It  has  a  good  harbor,  and  vessels 
have  made  the  town  a  base  of  supplies.  The 
inhabitants  are  engaged  in  fishing,  cattle  raiting, 
agriculture  and  coast  trade.     Fop.  about  25,000. 

BALBEC.     See  Baalbek. 

BALBI,  bal'be,  Adriano,  famous  geogra- 
pher: b.  Venice,  25  April  1782;  d.  Padua,  14 
March  1648.  In  1808  his  first  work  on  geog- 
raphy jirocured  his  appointment  as  professor 
of  that  science  in  the  College  of  San  Micheie 
at  Omr^no,  and  in  1811  he  became  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  in  the  Lyceum  at  Farino. 
He  went  in  1820  to  Portugal,  where  he  had  free 
access  to  the  government  archives,  and  from 
the  documents  he  collected  composed  two  inter- 
esting works  entitled  'Essai  Siatistique  sur  le 
Royaume  de  Portugal  et  d'Algarve,'  and 
<Va  rictus  PoUtiques  et  Statistiques  de  la 
Monarchic  Portugaise,'  which  he  published  at 
Fads  in  1822.  Four  years  later  he  produced 
the  first  part  of  his  'Atlas  EthnOKrapbique  du 
Globe,*  a  work  of  superior  arrangement,  in 
which  he  spread  before  the  French  public  the 
result  of  the  researches  and  disquisitions  of  the 
German  philologists.  He  published  aflerward, 
in  concert  with  several  scientific  men,  statistical 
tables  of  Russia.  France,  (he  Netherlands;  and 
*Abr^6  de  Giographie,'  a  summary  of  geo- 
graphical science  wtiich  appeared  in  1832  and 
was  translated  into  nearly  all  the  European  lan- 


guages. His  works  show  a  great  amotmt  of 
knowledge,  thorough  research  and  skilful  ar- 
rangement of  material ;  but  being  utterly  de- 
ficient in  style,  they  are  heavy  and  of  difficult 
reading;  however,  they  may  always  be  ad- 
vantageously and  safely  consulted. 

BALBI,  Quparo,  Venetian  dealer  in  pre- 
cious stones,  who  lived  in  16th  century.  He 
traveled  first  to  Aleppo  and  thence  down  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigns  to  the  Malabar  coast, 
sailing  finally  for  Pegu,  where  he  remained 
two  years.  His  'Viaggio  all'  Indie  Orientali,' 
published  after  his  return  to  Venice  in  1590, 
contains  the  earliest  account  of  India  beyond 
the  Ganges.  He  is  on  the  whole  very  reliable 
in  his  accounts  of  what  came  under  his  own 
observation ;  but  there  appears  to  have  been  no 
limit  to  bis  credulity  at  second-hand 

BALBI,  OioTumi,  called  De  Janua  or 
Januensis,  from  his  birthplace  Genoa,  a  Do- 
minican fnar,  who  lived  toward  the  end  of  the 
13th  century.  He  composed  a  kind  of  encyclo- 
pedia, which  he  called  the  'Catholicon.'  This 
book  owes  its  celebrity  principally  to  the  fact 
that  it  has  become  one  of  the  earliest  monu- 
rnents  of  the  art  of  printing.  The  original  etU- 
tion  is  to  be  fountf  under  the  title,  'Sumnia 
Grammaticalis  vatde  Notabilis  quce  Catholicon 
Nominatur'  (Moguntiz,  per  Johannem  Faus- 
tum,  1460,  fol.).  It  was  reprinted  at  Augs- 
burg, 1469  and  1472,  by  SchoefEer;  at  Nurem- 
berg, 1483,  by  Koburger;  at  Venice,  1487,  re- 
vised and  improved,  By  Pietro  Gilles. 

BALBIHUS,  Dedmua  Cadius,  Roman 
senator  and  poet.  After  the  death  of  the  two 
Gordiani,  killed  by  the  soldiers  of  Maximinus, 
he  was  elected  emperor  by  the  Senate,  concur- 
rently with  Clodius  Pupienus  Maxim  us,  in 
opposition  to  the  usurper  Maximinus.  The  two 
emperors  reigned  little  more  than  one  year,  and 
were  assassinated  by  their  soldiers  238  a.d. 

BALBO,  ballra,  Cesare,  Count,  Italian 
statesman  and  author;  b.  Turin,  21  Nov.  1789; 
d.  3  June  1853.  Through  the  favor  of  the 
Emperor  he  served  in  various  capacities  under 
the  Napoleonic  empire.  After  the  downfall  of 
Napoleon  became  secretary  of  the  Sardinian 
Ambassador  in  London  until  the  outbreak  of 
the  Sardinian  revolution  in  1821,  when  he 
returned  to  his  native  town  in  order  to  de- 
vote himself  to  literary  pursuits.  His  reputa- 
tion was  not  firmly  established,  however,  until 
the  year  1821,  when  his  'Speranie  d'ltalia* 
made  its  appearance.  His  appeal  in  favor  of 
national  independence  found  a  powerful  echo 
in  the  popular  heart,  and  paved  the  way  for 
the  revolution  in  which  he  was  destined  to  play 
a  prominent  part  as  a  champion  of  the  Mod- 
erate party.  His  next  work,  'History  of  Italy, 
from  the  Beginning  to  1814'  (Bastia  1849), 
was  not  only  inspired  by  the  same  patriotic 
spirit,  but  also  distinguished  by  historical  merit 
But  although  in  1848  and  1849  he  had  strenu- 
ously opposed  the  Democratic  party  and  im- 
waveringly  adhered  to  a  more  conservative 
polity,  he  threw  the  entire  weight  of  his  politi- 
cal influence  into  the  scale  of  patriotism  as 
soon  as  the  war  against  Austria  befjan.  He 
supported  the  different  cabinets  which  gov- 
erned Sardinia  after  the  promulgation  of  the 
Constitution  of  4  March  1848,  and,  though  for 
a  very  short  time,  was  prendent  of  the  first. 


Google 


BALBOA— BALCH 


He  was  ardently  attached  to  the  house  of 
Savoy;  but  the  resurrected  Italy  for  which  he 
yearned  was  a  kind  of  theocrafy  under  the 
mpal  supremacy.  His  select  works,  edited  by 
P.  Nicolini,  began  issuing  at  Baii  in  1913. 
Consult  the  'Lives'  by  Ricoiti  (1856)  and 
Vismani  (1882). 

BALBOA,  b&l-b&'4.  VaKo  NnB«,  the 
discoverer  of  the  Pacific  Ocean :  b.  Jerez  de  los 
Caballeros,  Spain,  1475;  d.  1SI7.  At  the  age 
of  25  be  went  to  America  to  seek  his  fortune, 
joining  the  expedition  of  Rodriso  de  Bastidas 
(see  Crmtkal  Ahebica),  ana  returned  to 
E^panola  (Haiti),  after  exploring  with  Bas- 
tidas  a  part  of  die  southwestern  coast  of  the 
Caribbean  Sea.  Al  the  town  of  Salvatierra  in 
Espafiola  he  became  a  planter,  but  with  such 
indifferent  success  that,  when  be  resolved  to 
attach  himself  to  Alonzo  de  Ojeda's  new  colony 
on  the  mainland  of  South  America,  be  found 
difficultv  in  escaping  from  bis  creditors.  To 
elude  tneir  vigilance,  he  hid  in  a  large  cask^ 
and  thus  was  carried  from  bis  plantation  to  the 
landii^,  and  thence  on  board  one  of  Ojeda'i 
vesads,  as  a  part  of  the  cargo.  It  is  probable 
that  when  he  emerged  from  his  place  of  con- 
cealment he  would  have  been  huided  over  to 
the  authorities  on  shore  if  the  expedition  bad 
not  stood  ia  need  of  every  available  fisbting- 
man.  Admitted  to  membership  reluctajitly,  and 
as  a  common  soldier,  Balboa  showed  his  talent 
for  leadership  when  the  imdertaldng  seemed 
on  the  point  of  failure.  He  suggested  trans- 
ferring the  colony  to  Darien,  describing  the 
more  favorable  conditions  tbere^  as  be  had 
seen  them  on  his  previous  voyage.  His  advice 
was  taken,  and  the  name  Antigua  (Santa  Maria 
de  la  Ani^a  del  Darien)  was  given  to  the 
new  settlement  Here  the  Spaniards  were 
somewhat  more  successful  and  Balboa  assumed 
command. 

In  the  year  1513  he  received  a  letter  from 
a  commissioner  whom  he  had  sent  to  Spain,  in- 
fonning  him  that  be  nuKht  expect  to  be  sum- 
moned to  court  to  answer  grave  charges.  Re- 
solving to  win  back  the  royal  favor  bv  some 
striking  service,  he  selected  190  men^die  best 
of  his  soldiers,  and  with  these  and  1,000  native 
warriors  and  carriers,  and  a  sack  of  blood- 
hotmds,  sailed  from  Antigua,  1  Sept.  1513,  fol- 
lowing the  Darien  coast  westward  until  he 
reached  a  pcunt  opposite  the  Gulf  of  San 
Uiguel.  This  gulf  extends  far  into  the  south 
coast  from  the  Pacific,  narrowing  the  isthmus 
to  a  width  of  50  miles.  Accurate  mtormation 
in  regard  to  the  southern  coast,  the  ocean  that 
lay  beyond,  and  the  superior  civiliiaiion  of  the 
Incas  of  Peru,  whose  country  was  to  be  reached 
by  way  of  this  ocean,  had  be<ai  obtained  from 
tbe  Indians,  especially  through  Balboa's  fa- 
vorite Indian  mistress,  Fulvia. 

The  march  began  6  September.  On  the  24th 
reaching  an  elevated  plateau,  the  Spaniards  re* 
pulsed  an  attack  by  1,000  Indians  and  found 
supplies  in  the  village  of  Quarequl  The  fol- 
lowmg  day,  25  Sept.  1513,  Balboa  gained 
the  summit  of  a  mountain  from  which  the  wa- 
ters of  Mar  del  Sur  (southern  sea)  were  visi- 
ble: The  name.  Pacific,  was  not  applied  to  this 
ocean  nntil  seven  years  later,  when  it  was  be- 
stowed by  Magellan.  On  29  September  Balboa 
took  formal  possession  of  the  *  Southern  Sea* 
by  marchjns:  into  the  water,  and,  in  the  names 


of  the  King  and  Queen  of  Castile,  claiming 
■these  seas  and  lands.' 

The   '  -  - 

already 

(Pedrarias).  The  reward  of  the  former  was 
an  empty  title  of  Adelantado  del  Mar  del  Sur, 
and  the  appointment  as  Governor  of  Panama, 
Coyba  and  the  lands  of  the  Southern  Sea  (the 
Pacific)  which  be  had  discovered;  wiiile  on 
shore  be  was  made  the  subordinate  of  his  rival 
and  bitter  enemy.  Governor  Pedrarias.  He 
led  many  successful  expeditions,  but  these 
onlv  aroused  the  Jealousy  and  hatred  of 
Pedrarias  D&vila.  The  Spanish  government 
tried  in  vain  to  mediate  between  them  and 
Balboa's  marriage  with  the  daughter  of  Pedra- 
rias was  arranged;  but  on  an  occasion  of  dis- 
fiute  which  arose,  Balboa  was  induced  to  de- 
iver  himself  up,  was  accused  of  rebellion  and 
on  the  trumped-up  evidence  of  Garahito,  a 
false  friend,  was  convicted  and  beheaded, 

Mabrion  Wilcox. 

BALBRIGGAN,  Ireland,  a  watering  ^ace 
in  Cotuty  Dublin,  21  miles  north  of  DubliiL 
It  is  a  seat  of  lineo.  cotton,  calico  and  stock- 
ing manufactures.  The  cotton  stockings  made 
here  are  remarkable  for  fineness  of  texture  and 
beauty  of  open  work.  Many  women  are  em- 
ployed in  embroidering  muslin, 

BALBUS,  Ladufl  Comeliiu,  Roman  pffi- 
.  cer,  sometimes  sumamed  Major,  to  distinguish 
him  from  his  nephew  (see  below);  b.  Gades, 
Iberia,  in  the  1st  century  B.C,  He  served  his 
first  camp^n  under  Q,  Metellus  Pius  and 
Pompey.  For  his  conduct  in  this  war  the 
privileges  of  a  Roman  citizen  were  conferred 
on  him,  his  brother  and  his  nnihewa.  In  72  B.C 
Balbus  removed  to  Rome,  and  soon  became  an 
intimate  friend  of  Oesar.  He  was  consul  in 
40  ac,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first 
adopted  citizen  to  fill  that  office.  He  wrote  a 
diary  in  which  he  described  the  chief  events 
in  his  own  and  Csesar's  life. 

BALBUS,  Locfau  Comeliua  (  Mtnob)  , 
nephew  of  the  above,  a  Roman  officer,  who  in 
acknowledgement  of  a  victory  gained  in  Africa 
was  awarded  the  honor  of  a  triumph,  the  first 
ever  paid  to  one  not  bom  in  Rome. 

BALCH,  Emily  Oreene,  American  econ- 
omist and  autbor:  b.  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.,  8 
Ian.  1867.  She  was  graduated  at  Bryn  Mawr 
m  1889,  and  in  1890-91  studied  political  econ- 
omy in  Paris,  later  she  took  special  work  at 
the  University  of  Chicago,  and  at  Berlin  in 
1895-96,  She  was  connecled  with  Denison 
House,  a  coUece  settlement  in  Boston,  and  was 
active  also  in  child  welfare  woric.  She  became 
connected  with  the  economics  department  of 
Wellesley  College  in  1896,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  pobtical  economy  and  political  and 
social  science  in  1913.  She  was  a  member  of 
the  Massachusetts  State  Commission  on  ln< 
dustrial  Education  1908-09,  member  of  the 
State  Commission  on  Immigration  1913-14,  and 
member  of  the  city  planning  board  of  Boston 
since  1914.  In  1915  she  was  a  delegate  to  the 
International  Congress  of  Women  at  The 
Hague,  and  del^fate  from  this  Congress  to  the 
Scandinavian  and  Russian  governments.  She 
has  published  'Public  Assistance  of  the  Poor  in 
France*  (1893);  'Our  Slavic  Fellow-Gtiiens' 
(1910);   'Women  at  The  Hague*   (1915),  , 

CiOOglC 


T4 


BALCH  — BALDER 


BALCH,  GeorEC  Be«U,  American  rear- 
admiral  :  b.  Tennessee,  3  Jan.  1821 ;  d.  16  April 
1908,  Appointed  to  the  navy  1837,  he  was 
promoted  passed  midshipman  1843,  and  served 
through  the  Mexican  War,  He  was  with  Com- 
luodore  Conner's  squadron  in  the  first  attack 
on  Alvarado,  with  the  mosquito  flcei  under 
Commodore  Tatnall,  and  at  the  bombardment 
and  surrender  of  Vera  Cruz.  As  a  lieutenant 
on  the  Plymouth  he  was  with  the  Asiatic  squad- 
ron 1851-55,  and  received  a  wound  in  a  fight 
between  the  rebels  and  imperialists  at  Shang- 
hai. During  the  Civil  War  he  commanded  the 
Pocakontas  and  Pawnee,  taking  part  in  nu' 
merous  engagnnents  with  the  Confederate  bat- 
teries, chiefly  in  South  Carolina.    He  became 


BALCH,  Thomas  Willinf,  American 
lawyer:  h.  Philadelphia  about  1870.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  in  1890,  and  from  the 
law  school  of  Ihe  Universiy  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1895,  and  has  since  pracbsed  his  profession 
in  Philadelphia.  He  has  written  much  on 
international  law,  including  'Some  Facts  about 
Alsace  and  Lorraine*  (IK'S);  <The  Alabama 
ArWtration'  (1900);  'The  Alaska- Canadian 
Frontier'  (1902):  'The  Alaska  Frontier' 
(1903) ;  'L'ivolution  de  I'arbitrage  intcma- 
tionale'  (1908)  ;  'La  nuestion  des  pechcries  de 
I'Atlantique'  (1909)  ;  'The  Arctic  and  Antarctic 
Regions  and  the  Law  of  Nations'  (1910); 
'La  baie  d'Hudson,  est-elle  une  mer  libre  on 
line  mer  fermee?'  (1911,  Eng.  trans.,  1912). 
He  is  a  member  of  the  International  Law  As- 
sociation, the  American  Philosophical  Society, 
■he  American  Antiquarian  Society,  etc. 

BALCONY,  a  gallery  or  framework  of 
wood,  iron  or  stone,  projecting  from  the  front 
of  a  house,  generally  on  a  level  with  the  floors 
of  rooms,  and  sui>ported  on  cantilevers  or 
brackets,  and  sometimes  on  columns  of  wood 
or  stone.  Balconies  are  often  surrounded  by 
iron  railings  or  stone  balustrades.  The  e^mol- 
oey  of  the  word  has  been  frequently  traced  to 
theGreek;i»ii*«,to  throw.  This  rests  upon  the 
presumption  that  balconies  were  built  orig- 
inally for  purposes  of  defense,  the  enemy  being 
attacked  with  missiles  thrown  upon  him  from 
the  balcony.  The  Latin  word  is  balcui  or  pal- 
eus,  the  Italian  balcone,  also  baico  or  paUo,  the 
Turldsh  baia-khanch,  the  German  baUoti.  The 
use  of  balconies  is  comparatively  modern,  al- 
though there  is  no  doubt  about  their  existence 
in  times  of  antiquity.  Winckelmaan,  the  Ger- 
man art  writer,  refers  to  the  fact  that  in  Greece 
every  private  dwelling'house  had  contrivances 
whicK  although  then  designated  under  different 
terms,  would  be  called  balconies  in  our  day. 
In  Spain,  Italy  and  South  America,  they  are 
used  for  sitting,  walking  and  chatting,  in  warm 
summer  evenings ;  but  they  are  less  common 
in  northern  countries,  where  the  nature  of  the 
climate  does  not  call  for  such  romantic  con- 
trivances. They  are,  however,  often  used  as 
miniature  gardens  for  potted  plants.  Upon 
Boccaccio  and  Ban  del  lo,  the  great  Italian 
novelists  of  the  16th  century,  the  poetical  util- 
itv  of  balconies  was  not  lost,  and  entertaining 
balcony  scenes  abound  in  their  stories.  Shakes- 
peare took  his  plot  of  Romeo  and  Tuliet  from 
one  of  BandcUo's  novels,  and  the  balcony  scene 


eithituts,  with  that  power  of  genius  of  which 
the  great  English  dramatist  alone  was  capable, 
the  beauty  of  a  balcony  when  two  young  lovers 
like  Juliet  and  Romeo  make  it  the  scene  of 
their  passion. 

In  modern- theatres  the  term  is  applied  to 
the  first  or  second  galleiy  or  tier  of  seats  above 
the  pit 

BALD  CyPRKSS.    See  Cyihess. 

BALD  EAGLE,  the  American  white- 
headed  eagle.     See  Eagle. 

BALD  MOUNTAIN,  the  name  of  several 
eminences  in  the  United  States  of  whiih  the 
following  are  the  principal:  (1)  In  Colorado, 
height,  11,493  feet;  (2)  in  California,  8^295  feet; 
(3)  in  Utah,  11,975  feet;  (4)  in  Wyoming,  in 
the  Wind  River  Range,  10,760  feet;  and  (S> 
in  North  Carolina,  5,550  feet.  The  last  named 
was  the  cause  of  much  excitement  in  May  1878l 
because  of  inexplicable  rumblings  which  lasted 
for  about  two  weeks.  The  mountain  shook  as 
if  in  the  throes  of  an  earthquake,  immense  trees 
and  rocks  were  hurled  down  its  sides,  and  for 
a  time  fears  were  entertained  lest  a  volcanic 
eru;)tioii  should  follow.  A  subsequent  exam- 
ination showed  that  a  large  section  of  the 
mountain  had  been  split  asunder,  but  no  fur- 
ther disturbance  occurred. 

BALDACHIN,  hjl'd^-chln,  ori^nally  the 
rich  silks  and  brocades  in  the  form  of  a  canopy 
or  umbrella-like  covering,  such  as  were  used  in 
the  East  over  the  heads  of  dignitaries  on  cere- 
monial occasions.  The  word  itself  is  derived 
from  baldacco,  the  Italian  name  of  Bagdad, 
where  the  fabrics  were  manufactured.  The 
baldachin  was  in  general  use  among  the  By- 
zantine and  Mohammedan  rulers  and  their 
higher  functionaries,  and  were  introduced  info 
Europe  through  the  Crusades  and  also  through 
the  commerce  of  Italy  with  Constantinople  and 
the  near  E^st.  The  canopy  was  supported  on 
four  poles  and  was  carried  over  the  heads  of 
civil  and  relimous  dignitaries  in  all  processions. 
It  is  still  used  in  the  processions  of  the  Catholic 
and  Greek  Churches.  Later  the  baldachin  be- 
came _  a  fixed  covering  in  royal  throne  rooms 
and  in  napal  and  episcopal  halls,  and  over 
episcopal  thrones  in  cathedrals,  and  since  die 
Renaissance  the  term  has  been  applied  to  per- 
manent structures  of  marble  or  metal  over 
attars,  tombs,  etc.  A  famous  example  is  the 
bronze  baldachin  by  Bernini  over  the  high  altar 
of  Saint  Peter's  in  Rome.  A  copy  of  this  may 
be  seen  over  the  altar  of  the  Cathedral  of  Saint 


gutshing  the  baldachin  from  the  ciborium,  in 
which  the  treatment  is  purely  architectural.  j 

BALDE,    Jakob,    bal'd3,    ya'cob,    German  ' 

Latin  poet:  b.  Ensisheim,  Alsace,  16(i4;  d.  Neu- 
burg.   on   the    Danube,    1668.      He   entered   the  ] 

Jesuit  order  in  1624,  was  court-chaplain  to  the  ' 

Prince  Elector  of  Bavaria,  Maximilian  I  (1638),  , 

afterward  (1654)  in  a  similar  capacity  at  Neit- 
burg.     He  distinguished  himself  by  the  excel-  ' 

lence  of  his  Latin  poetry.  Herder  called  atten- 
tion to  the  beauty  and  genius  of  his  lyrical 
productions,  many  of  which  he  translated.  Con- 
sult biographies  by  J.  Bach  (Freiburg  1904) 
and  G,  Eitner  (Breslau  1863). 

BALDER,  bil'der,  or  BALDUR,  in  Norse 
mythology  a  divinity,  represented  as  the  son  of 


B^LDERSTONB  —  BALDWIN 


76 


Odin  and  FriRKa,  beautiful,  wise,  amiable  and 
beloved  by  alltlie  gods.  His  mother  took  an 
oath  from  every  creature^  and  even  from  every 
inanimate  object,  thai  they  would  not  harm 
Balder,  but  omitted  the  mistletoe.  Balder  vras 
therefore  deeined  invulnerably  and  the  other 
sods  in  sport  flun^  stones  and  shot  arrows  at 
bim  without  barmmg  him,  But  the  evil  god, 
Loki,  fashioned  an  arrow  from  the  mistletoe 
and  ^t  Haider's  blind  brother  Hoder  to  shoot 
itj  himself  euiding  his  aim.  Balder  fell  dead, 
pierced  to  the  heart,  to  the  deep  grief  of  all 
the  gods.  He  is  believed  to  be  a  personification 
of  the  brightness  and  beneficence  of  the  sun. 

BALDERSTONE,  bal'der-stoo,  Caleb,  ihe 
old  butler  of  the  master  of  Ravenswood,  in 
Scott's  'Bride  of  Lammermoor,' 

BALDI,  \AVdi,  Benardino,  Italian  scholar 
and  poet:  b.  1553;  d.  1617.  He  was  an  accom- 
lushed  linguist  and  a  very  prolific  writer,  and 
was  abbot  of  Guastalla  for  25  yi^xs.  Among 
his  numerous  works  are  'Cronica  dei  Mate- 
Biatici':  <La  Nantica,'  a  poem  on  navigation; 
an  Arabic  grammar;  and  a  translation  of  the 
'Targum  of  Onkelos.' 

BALDNESS.  Under  the  title  Alopecia 
the  general  types  of  baldness  have  been  con- 
sidered. Premature  alopeda,  or  the  general 
affection  of  the  young  and  middle-aged,  de- 
serves greater  consideration.  Alopecia  pre' 
lenUis,  or  premature  baldness,  is  recognized  as 
''  "'     t  varieties,  the  idiopathic  and  the 


to  be  any  disease  of  the  scalp  or  of  the  general 
nutrition  to  explain  it.  It  is  a  gradual  and  pro- 
gressive loss  of  hair,  thinner  and  thinner  hairs 


symmetrical,  beginning  at  the   _.   

nine  back  from  the  temples.    The  skin  Is  usual- 
ly left  thin  and  hard. 

In  the  symptomatic  form  some  general  dis- 
order or  a  definite  disease  of  the  scalp  is  the 
cause.  This  latter  is  usually  a  scaly  dandruff ; 
the  general  causes  may  be  syphilid  tuberculosis, 
fevers  or  local  destructive  contutions.  Dan- 
druff is  the  most  frequent  accompaniment 
and  cause  of  baldness.  Dandruff  is  really  at 
least  three  different  diseases  of  the  skin,  but 
the  general  character  is  that  of  a  general 
Mborrfaeal  dermatitis;  that  is,  a  mild  infiamiiia- 
ticoi  with  excessive  fatty  secretions.  This  is 
freqoently  due  xo  digestive  disturbances,  and 
is  closely  dependent  upon  the  general  health 
of  the  entire  body.  The  hair  falls  out  as  in  the 
idiopathic  form.  The  dandruff  usually  con- 
tinues until  the  hair  is  gone,  and  then  ceases. 
Treatment  should  be  bt^n  early,  particu- 
larlv  in  those  whose  families  have  tended  to 
baldness.  The  details  of  treatment  require  pro- 
fessional advice.  The  large  number  of  hair- 
Ionics  in  the  market  speaks  well  for  the  general 
ioutiUly  of  all  of  them.  Cleanliness,  frequent 
dty-brudiings,  and  shampoos  once  in  every  two 
or  ibree  weeks,  are  safe  measures,  and  tend  to 
Iceep  up  the  general  hygiene  of  the  scalp. 
Qiloral,  ointment  of  mercury,  cantharides,  suV 
jibur,  tar  and  resorcin  are  successful  in  some 
caM5  in  checking  baldness.  G>nsult  Jackson, 
'Dhestses  of  the  Skin'  (1900);  Jackson  and 
Mciiarty,  *A  Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Hair> 
Ci^iiadelpbia     1912) ;    Joseph,    'Ldirbucb   der 


haarkrankheiten>    (Leipzig   1910).     Sec  Dah- 

WtUFP. 

BALDO,  Monte,  a  mountain  group  45 
miles  in  length,  on  the  borders  of  south  Tyrol 
and  the  province  of  Verona,  and  separating  the 
lake  of  Garda  from  the  valley  of  the  Adige. 
Altissimo  di  Ni^o  (6^970  feet),  commanding 
an  extensive  panorama  comprising  '  a  great 
part  of  north  Italy,  and  Monte  Maggiore  (7,280 
feet)   are  the  principal  peaks, 

BALDOVINETTI,  bal'do-ve-nft'te,  Ales- 
sio,  Florentine  artist:  b.  1427;  d.  1499.  Few  of 
his  works  remain  except  a  'Nativiu-'  in  the 
Church  of  the  Annundata,  and  two  altar-pieces 
in  the  gallery  of  the  Uffizi  and  the  Academy  of 
Arts,  Florence.  One  of  the  masters  of  the  cartv 
Florentine  Renaissance,  he  painted  his  land- 
scapes with  meticulous  care ;  but  his  figure 
painting  is  somewhat  mechanical.  He  did  ex- 
cellent work  in  the  restoration  of  mosaics.  He 
spent  16  years  in  painting  the  frescoes  in  the 
Church  of  Santa  Trinita;  but  these  suffered 
destruction  in  1700.  Consult  biographies  by 
Pierotti  (Lucca  1868)  and  Londi  (Florence 
1907). 

BALDFATB,  or  BALDHBAD,  the  name 


domestic  pigeon,  a  West  Indian  dove,  a  fruit- 
crow,  etc. 

BALDRIC,  bal'dril^  a  belt  or  sash  worn 
over  the  right  or  left  shoulder  di^onally  across 
the  body,  often  highly  decorated  and  enriched 
with  gems,  and  used  not  only  to  sustain  the 
sword,  dagger  or  horn,  but  also  for  purposes  of 
ornament  and  as  a  military  or  heraldic  symbol. 
The  fashion  of  wearing;  a  baldric  appears  to 
have  reached  its  height  in  the  15th  century.  In 
the  United  States  it  now  forms  a  part  of  the 
uniform  of  Knights  Templar  and  other  fra- 
ternal organizations,  though  it  is  still  in  use 
in   European   royal   courts   to   indicate    certain 

BALDUCCI,  baMo'che,  Francesco,  lead- 
ing Italian  Anacreontic  poet;  b.  Palermo;  d. 
Rome  1642,  He  wrote  'Sicilian  Songs'  in  the 
Sicilian  dialect,  etc 

BALDUNG.  bal'dung,  Hans,  or  Hans 
Griin,  (German  painter  and.  wood  engraver :  b. 
Saabia  1470;  d.  Strasburg  1522.  His  work^ 
though  inferior  to  Ditrer's,  possessed  many  ot 
the  same  characteristics,  and  on  this  account  he 
has  been  sometimes  considered  a  pupil  of  the 
Nuremberg  master.  His  principal  paintings  are 
the  series  of  panels  (of  the  date  of  1516)  over 
the  altar  in  Freiburg  Cathedral ;  others  of  his 
worics  are  to  be  found  at  Berlin,  Colmar  and 
Basel  His  numerous  and  often  fantastic  en- 
gia.vio^  have  the  monogram  H.  and  B.,  with  a 
small  G.  in  the  centre  of  the  H. 

BALDWIN,  the  name  of  several  members 
of  the  house  of  Flanders,  who  reigned  as  kings 
of  Jerusalem  during  the  period  of  the  Crusades, 
Bauiwin  I:  b.  1058;  d.  Egypt  1118.  He  became 
King  of  Jerusalem  in  IIM.  He  was  a  brother 
of  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  took  part  in  the  1st 
crusade,  retired  to  Edessa  at  the  request  of  its 
Christian  inhabitants,  and  became  soon  after 
Count  of  Edessa.  He  was  defeated  t^  a  force 
from  Egypt  in  1102,  and  made  some  conquests, 
including;  Acre,  Cassarea  and  Sidoa  Bauwih 
II  ('du  Bouig^)  :  d.  21  Aug.  1131.    He  was  a 


gle 


7« 


cousin  of  Baldwin  I,  whom  he  succeeded  as 
Count  of  Edessa,  and  in  1118  as  King  of  Jeru- 
salem. He  reigned  until  1131.  He  took  Tyre 
in  1124,  with  the  aid  of  thE  Venetians.  He  was 
captured  by  the  Turks,  who  held  him  captive 
for  six  months.  He  resigned  the  crown  before 
his  death  to  his  son-in-law,  Fulk  of  Anjou,  who 
reigned 'Until  1142.  Baldwin  III:  b,  1129;  d. 
Syria.  10  Feb.  1162.  He  was  the  son  of  Fulk  of 
Anjou,  whom  he  succeeded  as  King  of  Jeru- 
salem in  1142.  Tradition  regards  him  as  a 
model  of  crusading  chivalry.  Edessa  was  lost 
during  his  reini.  He  inflicted  several  defeats 
oD  Nureddin,  Sultan  of  Aleppo.  He  was  held 
in  high  esteem  even  by  his  enemies  and  it  is 
said  that  Saracens  served  under  him.  He 
sought  to  improve  the  external  and  internal 
defenses   of   his  kingdom,  which  attained  its 

Shest  power  during  his  reign.  His  Queen  was 
eodora,  daughter  of  the  Greek  Emperor 
Manuel.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother 
Amalric,  who  died  in  1173.  Baldwim  IV  {'the 
Leper"),  the  son  and  successor  of  Amalric, 
reigned  until  1183.  Raymond,  Count  of  Tripoli, 
governed  the  kingdom  for  him,  as  he  was  lep- 
rous. Baldwin  V,  the  son  of  Sibylla,  sister  of 
Baldwin  IV,  was  called  to  the  throne  at  the 
age  of  five.  He  died  in  1186,  and  Jerusatetn  was 
taicen  by  Saladin  the  following  year.  See 
Crusades  and  consult  the  works  there  referred 
to.  Consult  also  Cox,  'History  of  the  Cru- 
sades' (New  York  1889),  and  dbbon,  Edward, 
^Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.' 

BALDWIN  I,  the  first  Latin  Emperor  of 
Constantinople,  son  of  Baldwin  VIII,  Count  of 
Flanders  and  Hairault;  b.  Valenciennes  1170. 
In  1200  he  joined  the  Crusaders  with  his  brother, 
Thierry,  and  in  1202  aided  the  Venetians  in 
their  attack  upon  Constantinople,  of  which  dty 
he  was  crowned  emperor  9  May  1204.  Next 
year  a  revolt  took  place,  the  Greeks  captured 
'  "  ■   lople,  and  Baldwin  was  taken  prisoner  by 


Greeks  for  his  charity,  temperance  and  justice. 

BALDWIN  II,  the  last  Frank  Emperor  of 
Constantinople:  b.  1217;  d.  1273.  He  was  the 
son  of  Pierre  de  Courtenay,  and  succeeded  his 
brother  Robert  in  1228.  He  was  twice  besieged 
in  his  imperial  city,  and,  being  too  weak  to  de- 
fend his  dominions,  repaired  to  Italy  to  seek 
aid  from  the  Pope.  At  the  court  of  France 
Baldwin  was  favorably  received  hy  the  King. 
Saint  Louis,  to  whom  he  presented  a  crown  of 
thorns  which  was  held  by  all  Christendom  to  be 
the  genuine  relic.  Baldwin  in  1239  set  out  for 
Constantinople  with  a  body  of  Crusaders,  who, 
however,  soon  quitted  him  and  took  the  route 
to  Palestine.  He  succeeded,  ultimately,  in  rais- 
ing new  forces  in  the  west,  and  regained  his 
capital ;  but  in  1261  one  of  the  generals  of 
Michael  Palzologus,  ruler  of  Nicxa,  invested  it 
and  entered  Constantinople  on  ihe  29th  of  July. 
Baldwin  fled  to  Sicily,  where  he  died  in  ob- 
scurity. With  him  terminated  the  Latin  empire 
in  the  east 

BALDWIN,  Abraham.  American  states- 
man: b.  Guilford.  Conn.,  6  Nov.  1754;  d.  1807. 
He  was  graduated  at  Yale  1772.  and  was  tutor 
there,  1775-79.  During  the  American  Revolu- 
tion he  was  a  chaplain  in  the  army  and,  at  the 
suggestion  of  General  Greene,  settled  in  Savan- 
nah. Ga.,  1784,  where  he  was  admitted  to  the 


bar.  His  efforts  as  a  member  of  die  legistature 
secured  a  charter  and  endowment  for  me  Uni- 
versity of  Georgia,  whidi  was  established  ac- 
cording to  his  own  plans  and  ideas,  and  of 
which  he  became  president  (1786-1801).  He 
took  part  in  Ae  Constitntional  Convention  of 
1787;  was  a  delegate  to  the  Continental  Con- 
gress 1785-88;  member  of  Hit  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives 1789-99;  United  States  senator  1799, 
until  his  death. 

BALDWIN,  CbarlM  H„  American  naval 
officer:  b.  New  York  city,  3  SepL  1822;  d.  17 
Nov.  1888.  He  entered  the  navy  as  a  midship- 
man in  1839.  Serving  on  the  frigate  Congress 
during  the  war  with  Mexico,  he  figured  in  sev- 
eral sharp  encounters  near  Mazatlan.  He  com- 
manded the  steamer  Clifton  at  the  passage  of 
Forts  Jackson  and  Saint  PhiUp  in  1862,  and  at 
the  first  attack  on  Vicksburg.  He  became  rear- 
admiral  in  1883  in  command  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean squadron,  and  retired  in  1884. 

BALDWIN,  Charles  Sears,  American 
author  and  educator:  b.  New  York,  21  March 
1867.  He  was  graduated  at  Columbia  Univer- 
sity in  1888.  He  was  assistant  tutor  and  in- 
structor in  English  at  Columbia  1891-94,  in- 
structor in  rhetoric  1895.  In  1895-98  he  was 
instructor  in  rhetoric  at  Yale,  assistant  profes- 
sor 1898-1909  and  professor  in  19I0-U.  when 
he  returned  to  Columbia  as  professor  of  rhetoric 
and  English  composition.  He  has  published 
'The  Inflections  and  Syntax  of  the  Morte 
d' Arthur  of  Sir  Thomas  Malory*  (1894); 
'Specimens  of  Prose  Description>  (1895)  ;  *De 

guincey's  Revolt  of  Oie  Tartars'  (1896)  ;  -'The 
Kpository  Paragraph  and  Sentence'  (1897); 
<A  College  Manual  of  Rhetoric'  (1902;  4th  ed. 
rev.,  1905):  'American  Short  Stories'  (1904; 
Ger.  ed.,  1911);  <How  to  Write,  a  Handbook 
Based  on  the  English  Bible'  (1905) ;  <Bun- 
yan's  Pilgrim's  Progress'  (1905)-  <De  Quin- 
cey's  Joan  of  Arc  and  English  Mail  Coach* 
(1906)  :  'Essays  out  of  Hours'  (1907)  ;  'Writ- 
ing and  Speaking*  (1909)  ;  'Composition,  Oral 
and  Written*  (1909);  'Introduction  to  English 
Medieval  Literature*  (1913),  also  essays  and 
reviews. 

BALDWIN,  Evelyn  Brigga,  Arctic  ex- 
plorer: b.  Sprii^eld,  Mo..  22  July  1862.  He 
was  gr^uated  from  Northwestern  College, 
Naperville,  III.,  and  engaged  chiefly  in  teaching 
until  1892,  when  he  entered  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau  service.  He  is  now  an  in- 
spector-at-large  of  the  signal  corps  of  the 
United  Stales  army.  He  accompanied,  as 
meteorologist,  Peary's  North  Greenland  expedi- 


McKinley,  and  discovered  Graham  Bell  Land. 
Securing  the  co-operation  of  Mr.  William  Zieg- 
ler  of  New  York  he  organized  and  commanded 
the  Baldwin-Ziegler  expedition  of  1901  for  the 
discovery  of  the  North  Pole.  The  expedition 
reached  Franz-Joseph  Land  and  after  depositing 
several  caches  of  provisions  returned  in  1902. 
He  has  written  'The  Search  for  the  North 
Pole,'  'Auroral  Observations,  Frant- Joseph 
Land,'  'Meteorolo^cal  Reports  of  the  North 
Greenland  Expedition*  (1893-94),  and  mete- 
orological publications  in  government  reports. 

BALDWIN,    Frank    Dwight,    major-gen- 
eral United  States  army:  b.  Manchester.  Mich., 


26  June  1842.  He  altered  the  United 
States  volunteer  army  as  second  lieuten- 
ant of  Uichigan  horse  guards,  19  Sept.  1861, 
ai^^ng  at  t£is  time  upon  a  long  and  brilliant 
military  career,  in  "the  course  of  which  he 
served  in  many  battles  of  the  Gvil  War  and 
was  prominent  in  the  long-contimied  Indian 
troablcs  which  followed  later.  He  was  brevet- 
ted  captain  for  gallantry  against  Indians  in 
Texas,  30  Aug.  1874;  and  m  1899  was  pro- 
moted lieutenant-colonel,  4th  infantry.  From 
this  period  he  was  cDntinuall}r  engaged  in 
suerilla  warfare  in  the  Philipmnes  until  re- 
lieved from  further  duty  22  Feb.  1903,  and 
transferred  to  command  of  the  departn>ent  of 
the  Colorado.  He  was  retired  from  active 
service  26  June  1906  by  operation  of  law,  at 
which  time  he  was  in  command  of  southwest- 


em    miUtarj'_    division    with    headquarters 
Oklahoma  Ciiv,  Okla.    He  was  nominated  ma- 
jor-general  United    States   army    (retired),   4 


March  1915.     He  received  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
from  Hillsdale  College,  Michigan. 

BALDWIN,'  James,  American  author  and 
educator:  b.  Westfield,  Ind.,  15  Dec  1841. 
Lar^ly  self-taught,  Hon.  Ph.D.,  De  Pauw  Uni- 
versity, 1884.    Began  teaching  in  1865  and  — 


Harper  &  Bros,  New  York  (18^-93),  when 
he  became  editor  of  5choolixK>lu  for  the  Ameri- 
can Book  Company.  He  wrote  'The  Story  of 
Siegfried'  (1882)  i  'The  Book  Lover'  (1884); 
■OW  Greek  Stories*  (1895)  j  'The  Horse  Fair* 
(1896) ;  'Discovery  of  the  Old  Northwest' 
(1901);  'The  Sampo'  (1912);  and  more  than 
SO  other  volumes.  His  books  are  known  and 
read  in  everv  part  of  the  world  and  are  used 
in  the  school  of  China,  Japan  and  the  Philip- 
oines,  many  million  copies,  having  bMn  sold. 
More  than  half  of  the  school  readers  used  in 
the  United  States  were  produced  tmder  his 
editorship,  or  were  written  by  him. 

BALDWIN,  Junes  Huk,  American  psy- 
chok>gist  and  i^ilosopher:  b.  Columbia,  S.  C., 
12  Jan.  1861.  He  studied  at  the  universities  of 
Pnnceton,  Lciuig,  Berlin  and  Tiibii^en ;  was 
instructor  of  German  and  French  (1886-87); 
professor  of  philosophy  in  Lake  Forest  Univer- 
sity (1887^89)  and  in  the  University  of  Toronto 
(1889-93);  professor  of  psychology  (1893- 
1903);  Johns  Hopkins  (1903-09);  National 
Untversih'  of  Mexico  (1915).  He  was  Herbert 
Spencer  lecturer  at  Oxford;  Harvard  lecturer 
(191S-16).  He  holds  the  honorary  degrees  of 
D.Sci.  from  Oxford  and  Geneva,  and  LL.D. 
from  Glasgow  and  South  Carolina  universities. 
He  was  vice-president  of  the  International  Con- 
gress of  Psychology  {London  1892)  ;  president 
of  Criminal  Anthropology  at  Geneva  in  1896; 
president  of  the  American  Psychological  Asso- 
ciation ( 1897-98) ;  judge  of  award  at  the 
World's  Colimibian  Exposition  (1893) ;  was 
awarded  a  gold  mark  by  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Arts  and  iSciences  of  Denmark  for  the  best 
work  on  the  general  topic  of  social  ethics; 
and  was  elected  member  of  the  Institu  Inter- 
national  de    Sociologie 


■    Academy   at   Tokio;    of    Italian   and 

British    sociolo^cal  societies;  of   Belgian  and 
Dntdi  pcdaeoe»eal  societies,  and  of  the  Institute 


of  France,  succeeding  William  James  in  1909. 
With  J.  McK.  Cattell  he  founded  the  Ptycho- 
logicat  Review  in  1894  and  was  editor-in-diief 
of  the  'Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychol- 
ogy.' In  addition  to  many  contributions  to 
various  learned  journals.  Professor  Baldwin  is 
author  of  'German  Psycholo^  of  To-Day' 
(trans.  1886) ;  'A  Handbook  of  Psychology' 
(2  vols,  1889-91);  'Elements  of  Psychology' 
(1893) ;  'Mental  Development  in  ^e  Child  and 
Race'  (189S,  3d  ed.,  1906)  ;  'Social  and  Ethical 
Interpretations  in  Menta!  Development'  (1897; 
4th  ed,  1906)  ;  'The  Story  of  the  Mind' 
(1898) ;  'Fragments  in  Philosophy  and  Science' 
(1902);  'Development  and  Evolution'  (1902): 
'Thought  and  Things,  or  Genetic  Logic'  (3 
vols.,  1906-11;  'Darwin  and  the  Humanities' 
(1909);  'The  Individual  and  Society'  (1910); 
'History  of  Psychology'  (1912).  As  exEtor  he 
has  published  'Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and 
Psychology'  (3  vols.,  1901-05). 

BALDWIN,  Mstuice  Scollard,  Canadian 
clergyman:  b.  Toronto,  21  June  1836;  d.  1904. 
He  was  graduated  at  Trinity  College  in  that 
city  1862 ;  became  rector  of  Saint  Luke's  Oiurch 
m  Montreal;  was  dean  of  Montreal  1882-83; 
and  bishop  of  Huron  1883-1904. 

BALDWIN,  Robert,  Canadian  sutesman: 
b.  Toronto,  12  May  1804;  d.  there.  9  Dec.  185& 
He  began  to  practise  law  in  1825,  and  four  years 
later  became  a  member  of  the  assembly  of 
upper  Canada.  He  was  solidior-generaf  for 
upper  Canada  in  1841  in  the  first  ministry 
under  the  Union,  and  was  joint-premier  in  the 
La  Fontaine-Baldwin  administrations  of  1842- 
43  and  1848-51. 

BALDWIN,  Simeon  Eben,  American 
jurist;  b.  New  Haven,  Conn.,  5  Feb.  1840.  He 
IS  a  great-grandson  of  Roger  Sherman,  a  Mgner 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  great- 

?reat- grand  son  of  President  Clap,  of  Yale,  His 
alher  was  a  United  States  senator  and  gov- 
ernor of  Connecticut.  Judge  Baldwin  was  grad- 
uated from  Yale  1861,  and  Harvard  Law 
Schools.  Settling  in  New  Haven  he  rapidly 
acquired  a  large  general  practice,  in  which  he 
continued  until  1893.  Since  1872  he  has  held  a 
professor^ip  in  the  Yale  Law  School.  From 
1893  to  1907  he  was  an  associate  justice  of  the 
Connecticut  Supreme  Court  of  Errors;  from 
1907-10,  chief  justice;  from  1911  to  1915  gov- 
ernor of  Connecticut  As  a  legal  writer  he  has 
a  wide  reputation  in  the  United  States  and 
abroad  through  his  contributions  to  leading  law 
journals.  He  is  the  author  of  'Digest  of  Con- 
necticut Reports'  (2  vols^  1871-82;  revision,  2 
vols.,  1900):  'Illustrated  Cases  on  Railroad 
Law';  'Modem  Political  Institutions'  (1899); 
'Two  Centuries'  Growth  of  American  Law' 
(co-author,  1901);  'American  Railroad  Law' 
(1904);  'The  American  Judiciary'  (1905); 
'Education  in  Its  Relation  to  Citizenship' 
(1912)  ;  and  a  member  of  several  learned  soci- 
eties 01  much  importance,  both  in  the  United 
States  and  abroad! 

BALDWIN,  Stephen  Livingsteti,  Amer- 
ican missionary:  b.  1835;  d.  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
1902.  Graduated  at  Concord  Biblical  Institute 
13S8.  He  went  to  China  as  a  missionary  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Churck 
and  on  hia  return  to  the  United  States  he  beM 
several    pastorates,   and  was   for  the  last    14 


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78 


BALDWIN  —  BALBR 


years  of  his  life  recording  secretary  of  the  Mis- 
sionary Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Churdi.  While  in  Oiina  he  translated  a  large 
part  of  the  Bible  into  Chinese,  and,  it  is  said, 
printed  the  first  copy  of  the  Bible  in  that  lan- 
guage. He  was  the  author  of  'Foreign  Mis- 
sions of  the  Protestant  Churches'  (New  York 
1900)  and  was  one  of  the  authors  of  'The 
Picket  Line  of  Missions'  (New  York  1897). 

BALDWIN.  WiUiatn  Henry,  American 
capitalist  and  philanthropist:  b.  Boston,  Mass., 
5  Feb.  1863 ;  d.  Locust  Valley,  L.  I.,  2  Jan.  1905, 
He  was  graduated  from  Harvard  College  in 
188S  and  studied  for  a  year  at  the  Harvard 
Law  School.  Entering  the  Omaha  auditor's 
office  of  the  Uniori  Pacific  Railway  as  a  clerk, 
in  less  than  a  year  he  was  promoted  general 
traffic  manager  at  Omaha;  in  1888  became  as- 
sistant general  freight  agent  for  the  Union 
Pacific;  in  1689-90  he  was  president  of  the 
Montana  Union  Railroad^  and  in  1890  was 
elected  assistant  vice-president  of  the  Union 
Pacific.  In  1891  he  entered  the  service  of  the 
Flint  &  Fere  Marquette  Railroad  as  general 
manager;  in  1894  became  third  vice-president 
of  the  Southern  Railway,  and  in  1895  second 
vice-president  and  general  traffic  manager  of 
the  same  road.  In  1896  he  was  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  Long  Island  Railroad;  his  adminis- 
tration was  particularly  efficient  and  marked  by 
a  rapid  growth  of  the  road  and  the  completion 
of  a  number  of  improvements.  He  was  actively 
interested  in  reform  movements  in  New  York 


leader  in  the  Southern  educational  movement, 
being  president  of  the  General  Education  Board, 
a.  member  of  the  Southern  Education  Board, 
and  a  trustee  of  Tuskegee  Institute, 

BALDWIN  CITY,  Kan.  town  of  Douglas 
County,  IS  miles  south  of  Lawrence,  on  the 
Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fc  Railroad.  It  is 
the  seat  of  Baker  University,  founded  in  1858. 
It  is  situated  near  the  battlefield  of  Bbck  jack, 
the  scene  of  the  first  conflict  in  the  slavery 
troubles  before  the  Civil  War.  Baldwin  City 
was  settled  in  1853  and  incorporated  in  1859. 
The  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  chosen 
for  one  year,  and  a  City  council.  The  water 
works  and  electric  Krfit  plant  are  municipally 
owned.    Pop.  (1910)  1J86;  (1913)  1,450. 

BALDWINSVILLE,  N,  Y.,  village  of 
Onondaga  County,  12  miles  northwest  of  Syra- 
cuse, on  the  Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  Western 
Railroad,  and  on  the  Barge  Canal  and  Seneca 
River.  It  has  mami factories  of  machines, 
springs,  knives  and  paper.  It  is  situated  in  a 
fertile  agricultural  region,  producing  com, 
dairy  products,  grain,  hay  and  tobacco.  Natural 
gas  abounds  in  the  neighborhood  and  the  water 
power  available  renders  electric  power  for  man- 
ufacturing and  lighting  at  low  rates.  The  vil- 
lage contains  a  fine  hi^  school  building  and 
owns  the  water  plant.     Pop,  3,099. 

BALE,  John,  an  English  ecclesiastic:  K 
Suffolk  1495;  d,  Canterbun;  1563,  Although 
educaled  a  Roman  Catholic,  he  became  a 
Protestant  and  had  to  take  refuge  in  the 
Nelherlands.  On  the  accession  of  Edward  VI 
he  returned  to  England^  waa  presented  to  the 
living  of  Bishop's  Stoke,  Southampton,  and 
soon  after  was  nominated  bishop  of  Ossoiy  in 


Ireland.  Here,  on  preachine  the  reformed  re- 
ligion, popular  fury  reached  such  a  pitch  that 
in  one  tumult  five  of  his  domestics  were  mur- 
dered in  his  presence.  On  the  accession  of 
Mary  he  lay  some  time  concealed  in  Duhtin. 
After  endurmg  many  hardships  he  was  enabled 
to  reach  Switzerland,  where  he  remained  till 
the  death  of  Mary.  On  his  return  to  England 
he  contented  himself,  till  his  death,  with  the 
calm  enjoyment  of  a  prebendal  stall  at  Can- 
terbury. He  was  go  bitter  a  controversialist 
that  he  earned  the  title  of  ■Bilious  Bale.'  The 
only  work  which  has  tpven  him  distinction 
among  authors  is  his  'Scriptorum  Illustriuin 
Majoris  BritaniK  Catalogus' ;  or  'An  Account 
of  the  Lives  of  Eminent  Writers  of  Britain.' 
This  account,  which,  according  to  the  title, 
commences  with  Japhet,  the  son  of  Noah, 
reaches  to  the  year  155/,  at  which  time  the 
author  was  an  exile  on  the  Continent.  It  is 
compiled  from  various  writers,  but  chiefly  from 
the  antiquary  Leland. 

BALE,  bal,  the  French  ver»on  of  Basel 
(q.v.), 

BALEARIC    (bil-§-ir1k)    CRANE.     See 

BALEARIC  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  four 
large  and  It  small  islands  southeast  of  Stein, 
including  Majorca,  Minorca,  Iviza  and  For- 
mentcra.  They  are  inhabited  by  a  Spanish 
race  similar  to  the  Catalans,  Fruit,  win& 
grain  and  fish  are  the  principal  products  ana 
shoemaking  is  an  important  industry.  The 
popular  derivation  of  the  ancient  name  Baleares 
{Greek  ballein,  to  throw),  has  reference  to  the 
repute  of  the  inhabitants  for  their  skill  in 
slinging,  in  which  they  distin^ished  them- 
selves both  in  the  army  of  Hannibal  and  under 
the  Romans,  by  whom  the  islands  were  an- 
nexed in  123  B.C,  '  After  being  taken  by  the 
Vandals  under  Genseric  in  423  a,d.,  and  m  the 
8th  century  by  the  Moors,  they  were  taken  by 
James  I,  King  of  Aragon,  1220-32,  and  consti- 
tuted a  kingdom  which  in  1349  was  united  to 
Spain  The  islands  now  form  a  Spanish  prov- 
ince; with  an  area  of  1,935  square  miles.  Con- 
sult Vuillier,  'The  Forgotten  Isles'  (New  York 
1896).     Pop.    (1911)   326,023. 

BAL^CHOU,  ba-U-shoo,  Jean  Jacques 
Nicolas,  celebrated  French  engraver:  b.  Aries 
1715;  d.  Avignon,  18  Aug,  1765,  His  full- 
length  portrait  of  Augustus,  King  of  Poland, 
has  been  proclaimed  the  masterpiece  of  its 
kind  in  the  18th  century.  But  Balfchou  dis- 
honestly sold  the  best  proofs  for  his  own 
benefit  and  was  consequently  expelled  from 
the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 

6ALBBN'.     See  Whalebone. 

BALEEN  WHALES,  the  ^up  of  whales 
whose  mouths  are  furnished  with  a  growth  of 
baleen  or  whalebone  {q,v.).  They  form  a 
sub-order  Mysticeti  of  the  Cetacea,  which  in- 
cludes the  families  BaliEnopierida^r  rorouals, 
and  BalmnidiF,  the  right  whales.  These  whales 
are  known  in  all  oceans  and  form  an  import- 
ant object  of  the  chase.  See  Humpback;  Right 
WHA1.E;  Rorqual;   Wkaic;   etc. 

BALBR,  Philippines  a  town  in  the  north- 
east part  of  Luzon.  The  population  is  under 
3,000,  mainly  natives.  The  most  conspicuous 
edifice  is  a  native  Catholic  church.  The  town 
is  noted  for  the  heroic  defense  of  a  Spanish 


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BALESTIBR  --  BALFOUR 


Karrison  in  1899,  during  a  siege  by  the  Fili- 
pinos, lasting  11  months.  The  Spaniards  were 
commanded  by  Lieut.  Satumino  Martin  Cerezo, 
who  refused  to  surrender  the  town,  even  when 
directed  to  do  so  by  his  superiors  in  Manila, 
He  entrenched  himself  in  the  church  and  hero- 
ically resisted  the  besiegers  until  his  supplies 
gave  out,  when  he  surrendered -widi  all  the 
honors  of  war.  2  ^uly  1899.  Baler  was  occu- 
pied by  the  American  troops  and  garrisoned 
with  two  companies  of  the  34th  Volunteer  In- 
fantry, under  Major  Shunk,  in  1900. 

BALESTISR,  bU-is-ter',  Charlea  Wol- 
cott,  American  journalist,  author  and  pub- 
lisher: b.  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  13  Dec.  1861;  d.  6 
Dec.  1891.  He  studied  at  Cornell  University 
and  the  University  of  Virginia.  He  was  edi- 
tor of  Tid-Bils.  a  humorous  weekly.  In  1889 
he  became  junior  partner  of  the  publishing 
firm  of  Hememann  &  Balestier  at  London 
and  Leipzig.  His  writings,  which  deal  larvely 
with  frontier  life  in  Colorado,  include  'The 
Naulahka,'  written  in  collabor^tioii  with  Rud- 
yard  Kipling,  his  brother-in-law;  'Benefits 
Forgot'  (1892)  and  a  'Life  of  lames  G. 
Blaine>  (1884);  <A  Patent  Philtre*  (1884); 
'A  Fair  Device'  (1884);  'A  Victorious  De- 
feat>    (1886);   *A  Common  Story'    (1891). 

BALESTRA,  b4.-Uls'tr9,  Antonio,  an 
Italian  painter:  b.  Verona  1666;  d.  there,  21 
April  1/40.  He  became  a  pupil  of  Balocd  tn 
Venice  and  subsetiuently  studied  in  Rome  un- 
der Carlo  Maiatti.  He  executed  the  'Defeat 
of  the  Giants,'  which  took  the  prize  at  the 
Academy  of  Saint  Luke  in  1694.  In  1695  he 
left  Rome  for  Venice,  where  he  became  the 
head  of  a  sdiool  ana  counted  man^  distin- 
guished names  among  his  pupils.  His  works 
are  found  in  many  of  the  galleries  and 
churches  of  northern  Italy.  Among  his  paint- 
ings are  'Saint  Theresa,'  at  Bergamo,  a  'Vir- 
gin,' at  Mantua,  and  a  portrait  of  himself,  at 
Florence.  He  was  among  the  last  of  the  Vene- 
tian school  of  artists. 

BALFE,  bilf,  Michael  Williani,  British 
composer;  b.  Dublin,  15  May  1808;  d.  Zi  Oct. 
1870.  He  received  hii  first  instructions  in  music 
from  his  father  and  Charles  Horn  In  his  7th 
rear  he  performed  one  of  Viotti's  concertos 
before  the  public;  at  16  he  performed  the  part 
of  Caspar  in  <Der  Freischihz'  at  Dniry  Lan^ 
In  1625  he  went  to  Italy,  wrote  the  music  for  a 
tnllet,  'La  P£rouie,'  for  die  Scala  at  Naples, 
and  in  the  following  year  fulfilled  an  engage^ 
ment  to  sing  at  the  Th&tre  des  lutiens,  Paris, 
with  moderate  success.  He  returned  to  Italy, 
and  at  Palermo  (1830)  his  first  opera,  'I  Rivali,> 
was  prodnced.  For  five  years,  witii  somciriiat 
careless  haste,  he  cxmtinued  singing  and  com- 
posing sundry  operas  for  the  lUlian  stage, 
which  are  now  forgotten.  In  1835  he  came  to 
England  and  had  his  'Steee  of  Rochelle* 
brought  out  at  Drury  Lane.  It  hit  the  popular 
taste  and  was  auickly  followed  by  others  equally 
successful  in  wis  respect.  Part  of  this  success 
was  no  doubt  due  to  the  great  artistes  who  took 
the  leading  characters,  Mahbran,  Grisi,  La- 
blache,  Rubini  and  other  stars  of  diat  time; 
hut  the  works  had  high  merits  of  their  own, 
being  mailced  by  brilliancy,  melody  and  fertility 
of  invention.  In  1846  he  was  appointed  con- 
ductor of  the  Italian  opera  at  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre,   London.     If    Batfe  was  wanting  in 


depth  and  dramatic  force,  he  had  a  very  thot^ 
ougti  knowledge  of  effects  and  command  of 
orchestral  resources;  and  his  compositions  are 
distinguished  by  fluency,  facility  and  melodic 
power.  His  operas  continue  popular  in  England 
and  elsewhere,  among  the  chief  being  'The 
Bohemian  Girl'  fthe  most  popular  of  all) ; 
'The  Rose  of  Castile' ;  'The  Daughter  of  Saint 
Mark';  and  'Satanella.'  His  posthumous 
opera,  'The  Talisman,'  was  brought  out  in 
London  in  June  1874,  with  great  success. 

BALFOUR,  Sin  Andrew,  Scottish  botanist 
and  physician:  b.  Fifeshire  1630;  d.  1694.  After 
completing  his  studies  at  Saint  Andrews  and 
London,  and  traveling  on  the  Continent  he 
settled  in  Edinburgh,  where  he  planned,  with 
Sir  Robert  Sibbald,  the  Royal  College  of  Phy- 
sicians, and  was  elected  its  first  president. 
Shortly  before  his  death  he  laid  the  foundation 
of  a  hospital  in  Edinbur^,  which,  though  at 
first  narrow  and  confined,  expanded  into  the 
Royal  Infirmary.  His  familiar  'Letters'  were 
published  in  1700. 

BALFOUR,  Arthur  Tamea,  English  states- 
man: b.  Scotland  (son  of  James  Maitiand  Bal- 
four of  Whittingtuune,  Haddingtonshire,  and 
a  daughler  of  the  2d  Marquis  of  Salisbury), 
25  Jufy  1848.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  took  his 
M.A.  degree  in  1873.  He  entered  the  House 
of  Commons  in  1874  as  member  for  Hertford, 
which  constituency  he  represented  until  1835. 


He  acted  as  private  secretarv  to  his  uncl^  ^e 
*'         '        '    "  ilisbury,   at    tne    Foreign 
companied  him  to  Berlin 


Marquis    of    Salisbury, 


Foreign   UfRce 


negotiations  leading  up  to  the  Berlin  Treaty, 
He  was  president  of  the  Local  Government 
Board  of  1885-86,  was  secretary  for  Scotland 
1886-87,  and  secretary  for  Ireland  1887-91. 
His  selection  by  his  uncle  for  the  difficult 
and  thankless  position  of  Irish  Secretary 
was  regarded  as  an.  altogether  mistaken 
choice,  and  was  hailed  by  the  Irish  Na- 
tionaUsts  with  derision,  the  current  opinion  then 
bcin^  that  he  was  an  indolent,  cultured  man  of 
fashion  who  was  quite  out  of  his  sphere  in 
public  life.  No  iaea  could  have  been  more 
mistaken.  At  the  Irish  Office  he  showed  thaL 
though  far  from  robust  physically,  he  possessed 
nerves  of  iron;  the  continuous  contest  of  wits 
that  went  on  between  him  and  die  Irish  mem- 
bers on  the  floor  of  the  House  appeared  to  act 
as  a  tonic  to  him ;  and  he  developed  a  debating 
talent  that  presently  brought  him  into  front 
rank  in  public  life.  He  administered  the  re- 
pressive Crimes  Act  with  a  vigor  that  engen- 
dered an  embittered  opposition;  and  he  suc- 
ceeded in  passing  several  ameliorative  measures 
which  later  culminated  in  the  Land  Purchase 
Act  of  1904.  So  strongly  did  he  increase  his 
hold  on  his  party  during  his  tenure  of  the  Irish 
Office  that,  on  the  retirement  of  Mr.  W.  H. 
Smith,  Mr.  Balfour  was  called  on  to  succeed 
him  as  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  and  leader  of 
the  House  of  Commons.  He  led  the  opposition 
during  the  Liberal  administration  of  1892-95. 
On  the  return  of  the  Unionist  party  to  power 
in  1895  he  resumed  his  former  place  in  the 
government.  On  the  resignation  of  Lord  Salis- 
bury in  Julv  1902  he  succeeded  to  the  premier- 
ship. As  Premier  he  carried  through  tne  com- 
prehensive Education  Act  of  1902  and  the  Irish 
Land  Act  of  1904  and  he  created  the  Comrait- 


Cioogle 


so 


tee  of  National  Defense  He  was  sin^larly 
unfortunate  in  the  period  of  his  premiership. 
The  South  African  War  had  just  concluded, 
and  inquiry  showed  contract  irregularities  on  a 
large  scale,  In  1903  he  was  confronted  with  a 
grave  and  unexpected  crisis  in  the  Unionist 
party,  when  Joseph  Chamberlain  resigned  as 
Colonial  Secretary  in  order  to  conduct  a  taritt 
campaign  in  the  country  which  aimed  at  colonial 
preference  and  the  reversal  of  the  British  free 
trade  fiscal  policy.  Mr.  Balfour,  desirous  of  pre- 
serving the  party  unity,  took  a  middle  course, 
declaring  that  he  regarded  free  trade  not  as  & 
principle  but  as  a  matter  of  expediency.  Many 
of  the  free  traders  took  alarm  and  withdrew 
their  support,  and  lively  controversies  were  en- 
gaged in  especially  by  the  opposition,  as  to 
whether  Mr.  Balfour  was  or  was  not  a  free 
trader.  His  position  of  open-mindedoess  Mr. 
Balfour  defended  throughout  the  long  financial 
controversies  with  unshaken  serenity  of  temper 
and  superb  dialectical  skill.  But  his  govemmeat 
was  wrecked  on  the  fiscal  issue;  in  an  appeal  to 
the  country  in  January  1906  the  Unionist  party 
was  *snowed  under,'  and  Mr.  Balfour  lost  the 
seat  he  had  held  in  East  Manchester  since  1885. 
He  was  immediately  thereafter  returned  for 
the  City  of  London.  In  the  succeeding  sessions 
he  led  an  attenuated  body  of  followers  com- 
posed of  not  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  mem- 
bership of  the  whole  House ;  but  by  common 
consent  in  no  Parliament  did  he  give  greater 
proofs  of  the  personal  hold  he  possesses  over 
the  House  of  Commons.  In  1911  he  resigned 
from  the  leadership  of  the  opposition  and  was 
succeeded  by  Mr.  Bonar  Law.  In  June  191S 
he  was  one  of  the  "elder  statesmen*  who  were 
invited  to  join  the  National  Ministry  formed 
by  Mr.  Asquith  at  that  time,  and  succeeded 
Mr.  Winston  Churchill  as  First  Lord  of  the  Ad- 
miralty. On  the  reorganization  of  the  coalition 
cabinet  in  1916,  with  Lloyd  George  as  Premier, 
Mr.  Balfour  assumed  the  portfolio  of  Minister 
of  Foreign  Affairs  and  in  April-May  1917 
visited  America  as  head  of  the  British  Commis- 
sion to  the  United  States  to  secure  unity  of 
effort  in  prosecuting  the  war  against  Germany. 
Possessed  of  a  remarkable  charm  of  manner, 
and  seeking  in  music  and  golf  solace  and 
recreation,  no  man  in  British  politics  approaches 
him  not  only  in  sheer  debating  skill,  hut  in  the 
art  of  clothmg  his  most  impromptu  utterances 
in  almost  perfect  literary  form.  He  has  also 
the  unique  power  of  raising  every  debate  in 
which  be  takes  part  to  a  higher  plane  of  discus- 
sion, and  this  has  made  him  the  exponent  of 
the  general  mind  of  the  House  on  many_  im- 
portant occasions.  Mr.  Balfour  is  distinguished 
as  a  thinker  as  well  as  a  politician,  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Gold  and  Silver  Commission  of 


Philosophic  Doubt'  (1879);  'Essays  and  Ad- 
dresses' (1893;  new  ed.,  enlarged.  190S); 
'The  Foundations  of  Belief'  (189S)  ;  'Insular 
Free  Trade'  (1903):  'Criticism  and  Beauty' 
(Ronanes  Lecture,  1909)  ;  'Theism  and  Human- 
ism' (Giflord  Lectures,  1914;  1915). 

BALFOUR,  Fnncis  Hoitland,  embryol- 
ogist:  brother  of  the  foregoing,  b.  10  Nov, 
1851.  He  studied  at  Harrow  and  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge.  Articles  on  ins  special  study 
gained  him  a  high  reputation  while  still  an  un- 


dergraduate, and  after  further  work  at  Naples 
he  published  in  1874,  in  coDJunction  with  Dr. 
M.  Foster,  'Elements  of  Eai Bryology,'  a  valu- 
able contribution  to  the  literature  of  biology. 
He  was  elected  a  fellow  of  his  college ;  fellow 
and  member  of  the  council  of  the  Royal  So- 
ciety; lecturer  on,  and  finally,  in  1832,  professor 
of  animal  morphology  at  Cambridge,  a  chair 
specially  instituted  for  him.  The  promiie  of 
his  great  woilc,  *  Comparative  EmbrYology' 
<188&-81)  remained  unfulfilled,  as  19  July  1»C 
he  was  killed  by  a  fall  on  Mont  Blanc. 

BALFOUR,  Gcnld  WlQiam,  En^ish 
statesman ;  b.  1853  (brother  to  the  two  preced- 
ing) .  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  entered  Parliament  in  1685, 
and  was  chief  secretary  for  Ireland  in  the 
Unionist  ministry  from  1895-1900:  president  of 
the  Board  of  Trade,  190(M)5 ;  and  president  of 
the  Local  CJovemment  Board.  1905-06;  He 
piloted  the  Irish  Local  Government  Bill  of  1898 
throu^  the  House  of  Commons. 


iajrley,  S 
rch  1853, 


fessor  of  botany  in  the  University  of  Glasgow 
1879-84.  at  Oxford  University  1884^^  and 
since  1888  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  He 
explored  the  island  of  Socotra  in  1880  in  behalf 
of  the  British  Association  and  of  the  Ro)[al 
Society  of  Edinburgh.  He  is  King's  botanist 
in  Scotland  and  keeper  of  the  Royal  Botanic 
Garden  in  Edinbur^. 

BALFOUR,  Str  Jatnei,  Lord  PnrcN- 
dkeich),  Scottish  judge,  and  a  conspicuous  actor 
in  the  civil  wars  which  ended  in  the  dethrone- 
ment of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots :  b.  Fifeshire, 
Scotland,  about  Me  beginning  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury ;  d  1583.  He  espoused  the  Protestant 
cause,  and  in  1547,  for  his  share  in  the  con- 
spiracy against  Cardinal  Beaton,  he  was,  with 
Knox  and  other  reformers,  condemned  to  the 
^lleys.  In  1549  he  was  released,  having  ab- 
jured his  heresies,  and  returned  to  Scotland. 
His  abilities  and  tact  gained  him  appointments 
and  he  was  high  in  office  on  the  arrival  of  Mary 
in  Scotland,  and  was  with  the  Queen  at  Hol^ 
rood  on  the  night  of  Rizzio's  assassination.  He 
is  believed  to  have  drafted  the  bond  in  the 
murder  of  Lord  Daml^,  Mary's  husband,  but 
contrived  to  divert  suspicion  from  himself.  In 
1567  he  was  appointed  captain  of  Edinburri) 
castle.  A  change  in  Balfotir's  convictions  (if 
any  he  had)  was  forced  upon  him,  for  he  saw 
that  a  powerful  party  had  been  formed  aninst 
Mary  and  the  advantages  of  an  alliance 
with  them  overcame  ali  scruples.  He  held 
the  castle  of  Edinburgh  a^nst  the  Queen,  and 
was  the  means  of  delivenn^  up  Mary's  letters 
into  the  hands  of  her  enemies.  He  afterward 
surrendered  the  castle  for  various  considera- 
tions. On  the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  Bal> 
four  sided  with  the  regent,  Murray,  and  wal 
with  the  regent's  army  at  the  battle  of  Lang- 
side,  but  after  Mary's  imprisonment  in  England 
he  took  part  in  conspiracies  for  her  restoration, 
althouf^  professing  adherence  to  the  regents 
Murray  and  Morton.  His  last  public  act  was 
furnishing  the  evidence  of  Morton's  guilt  in  the 
murder  of  Damlcy,  for  which  Morton  was  con- 
demned and  executed.  His  flexibllttv  of  adapta- 
tion was  remarkable,  and  it  was  snown  in  the 
facility  with  which  he  changed  sides.  He  has 
been  described  as  the  *moit  corrupt  man  of  his 


Google 


B  ALPOUR  —  B  ALISARD  A 


81 


age,'  'Practicks  of  Scots  Law,'  the  earliest 
text-book  of  Scots  law,  attributed  to  him,  con- 
tinued to  be  used  and  consulted  in  manuscript 
tor  nearly  a  century  until  it  was  supplanted  by 
the  'Institutes  of  Lord  Stair.' 

:  of 


According  to  one  account  be  <Ued  on  a  home- 
ward voyage  to  Scotland;  by  another  he  never 
left  the  country,  but  settled  in  the  parish  of 
Rosencath  Dumbartonshire,  under  the  name  o£ 
Salter.  He  is  erroneously  described  by  Scott 
in  'Old  Mortality*  as  "Balfour  of  Burley,* 
quite  a  different  personage.  The  I»rd  Balfour 
of  Burleigh,  who  succeeded  to  the  title  in  1663, 
spent  his  youth  in  France  and  died  in  1688. 
The  title  exists  to-day. 

BALFRUSH,  bil-froojh',  or  BARFU- 
RUSH  Cmart  of  burdens"),  a  town  in  the 
Persiao  province  of  Mazanderan^  on  the  river 
fihawal,  12  miles  from  the  Caspian  Sea.  Bal- 
frush  is  a  centre  of  trade  between  Russia  and 
Persia,  exporting  large  quantities  of  silk,  rice 
and  cotton,  whiu  the  Russians  supply  iron  and 
naphtha.  It  has  excellent  bazaars,  numerous 
caravanserai,  and  several  Mohammedan  col- 
leges.   Pop.  about  50,000. 

BALG,  bSlK^  Gerhard  Hubert,  American 
philologist :  b.  Efferen,  near  Cologne,  Rhenish 
Prussia,  U  Nov.  1852.  He  was  graduated  from 
the  University  of  Wisconsin.  He  has  trans- 
lated W.  Braunes'  'Gothic  Grammar,  with 
Selections  and  Glossary'  (1883)  ;  edited  <The 
Fust  Germanic  Bible,  and  Other  Rematni  of 
the  Gothic  Language  with  Introduction  and 
Glossarr*  (1891)  ;  and  com^led  *A  Compara- 
tive GJoGsary  of  the  Gothic  Language,  with 
Especial  Reference  to  English  and  German* 
(1887-89).  He  received  his  doctor's  degree  at 
the  University  of  Middlebury  (1883)  and  was 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  'Standard  DicttonaTy* 
where  he  was  engaged  on  the  etymology  of 
Romanic  words  from  a  to  g. 

BALI,  bale,  or  BALLY,  an  island  of  the 
Indian  Archipel^o,  Dutch  East  Indies,  and  ly- 
ing east  of  Java,  to  which  it  i>hysically  belongs. 
Its  greatest  length  is  85  miles;  breadth,  55 
miles;  area  about  2,095  square  miles.  It  consists 
of  a  series  of  volcanic  mountains,  with  alluvial 


.1,  became  active  in  1843  after  a  long  period 
of  quiescence.  None  of  the  rivers  are  navi- 
^ble.  Principal  products,  rice,  cocoa,  co&ee, 
indigo,  cotton,  etc.  The  inhabitants  pnysically 
and  linguistically  are  aldn  to  the  Javanese,  are 
slnlful  agriculturalists  and  artisans,  and  excel 
in  sculpture  and  In  the  working  of  gold  and 
iroiL  The  prevailing  religion  is  Brahmanism 
of  an  ancient  type.  Suttee,  or  the  burning  of 
widows,  vras  long  practised  Bali  is  divided 
into  eight  provinces  under  native  rajahs,  and 
forms  one  colony  with  Lombok,  the  united  pop- 
ulation being  estimated  (1913)  at  l,207,3ia 
The  c^tal  is  Buleleng.  The  island  was  visited 
by  a  diastrons  earthquake  in  January  1917. 

BALIKBSRL  ba-ie-kEs're.  BALU-KIS- 
SAR,  or  BALIK-SHBHR,  Turkey-in-Asia. 
town  of   Anatolia,  75   miles   southwest    from 


Brusa.  It  was  built  of  unburn!  bricks  and  eon- 
tains  the  tomb  of  a  celebrated  Mohammedan 
saint  and  a  manufactory  of  felt  cloth  for  mili- 
tary clothing.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  annual  fair, 
visited  by  over  30,000  people.  It  has  consider- 
able trade  in  silk  fabrics,  grain,  opium,  and  the 
region  abounds  in  minerals.    Pop.  over  25fiO0. 

BALILINC,  or  BULELENG,  a  district  of 
the  island  of  Bali,  Dutch  East  Indies.  The 
exports  are  rice  and  bullocks,  and  the  chief 
trade  is  with  the  Bugfais  of  Celebes.  In  1847 
the  E>utch  were  signally  defeated  in  an  attack 
upon  the  fort  of  Djaga  Raga  in  this  district 

BALIOL,  bili-61,  Edward,  King  of  Scot- 
land, son  of  John  BaKol  of  Scotland;  d.  Don- 
caster  1367.  In  1332,  at  the  head  of  the  barons 
who  had  been  dispossessed  by  Bruce,  and  in 
opposition  to  Bruce's  son,  David  II,  then  a 
minor,  he  made  a  successful  invasion  of  Scot- 
land  and  on   24   September   of   that  year   was 


crowned  King  of  Scotland  at  Scone.  Having 
privately  rendered  homage  to  Edward  HI  of 
England,  he  was  routed  by  a  party  of  Scottish 
nobles  and  dispossessed  of  his  cfown  after  a 
reign  of  three  months.  He  regained  it  the  next 
year  as  an  instrument  and  vassal  of  Edward. 
In  1356  he  surrendered  the  kingdom  to  Eldward 
in  return  for  a  pension.  He  was  the  last  of  the 
Baliols. 

BALIOL,  or  BALLIOL,  John,  father  o£ 
King  John  Baliol,  an  Enghsb  baron  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  III:  d.  1269.  In  1263  he  laid 
the  foundation  of  Balliol  C^ll^e  (q.v.),  Ox- 
ford, which  was  completed  Iqf  his  widow, 
Devorguila  or  Devorgilla.  She  was  daughter 
and  coheiress  of  Alan  of  Galloway,  a  great 
baron  of  Scotland,  by  Margaret,  el<&t  daugfe- 
ter  of  David,  Earl  of  Huntington,  brother  of 
William  the  Lion.  It  was  on  the  strength  of 
this  genealogy  that  his  son,  John  BalioI,  vras, 
on  the  adjudication  of  Edward  I  of  England, 
declared  rightful  King  of  Scotland. 

BALIOL,  or  BALLIOL,  John,  King  of 
Scotland:  b.  about  1249;  d,  1315.  On  the 
death  of  Princess  Margaret  of  Norway, 
grandchild  of  Alexander  III,  in  1290,  Baliol 
claimed  the  vacant  throne  by  virtue  of  his  de- 
scent from  DavidI  Earl  of  Huntington,  brother 
to  William  the  Lion,  King  of  Scotland.  Robert 
Bruce  (grandfather  of  the  King)  opposed 
Baliol ;  but  Edward  I's  decision  was  in  favor 
of  Baliol,  who  did  homage  to  him  for  the  king- 
dom, 20  Nov.  1292,  and  was  crowned  at  Scone 
on  the  30th  of  the  same  month.  Irritated  by 
Edward's  harsh  exercise  of  authority,  Baliol 
concluded  a  treaty  with  France,  then  at  war 
with  England:  but,  after  Scotland  had  been 
overrun  by  Edward,  he  did  homage  to  Edward 
at  Montrose  10  July  1296.  He  was  sent  with  his 
son  to  the  Tower,  but,  by  the  intercession  of  the 
Pope  in  1299,  obtained  liberty  to  retire  to  his 
Norman  estates,  where  he  died.  He  was  de- 
risively nicknamed  by  the  Scots  Toom  Tabard' 
(Empty  Jacket). 

BALIOL,  Martha  Bethone,  the  imaginair 
narrator  of  several  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  s 
*  Chronicles  of  the  Canongate.' 

BALIOL  COLLEGE.     See  Baluol  Col- 

BALISARDA,  bS-le-sar'd?,  a  magic  sword 


Google 


BALISAUR  — BALKAN  LEAGUE 


BALISAUR,  bil-r-si'oor  (Hindu,  balloo- 
soar),  the  sand-badger  of  India,  called  by  Hiii' 
dus  the  ^ig-like  badger  or  'sand-hog,'  on  ac- 
count of  its  long  snout.    See  Saito-Badgek. 

BALISTA,  or  BALLISTA,  a  machine 
used  in  military  operations  by  the  ancients  for 
hurling  heavy  missiles,  thus  serving  in  some  dfr- 
gree  the  pnrpose  of  the  modem  cannon.  The 
motive  power  appears  to  have  been  obtained  by 
die  torsion  of  ropes,  fibres,  catgut  or  hair. 
They  are  said  to  have  sometitnes  had  an  effec- 
tive range  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  and  to  have 
tbrown  stones  weighing  as  much  as  300  pounds. 
Balista  differed  from  cala^ull<t,  in  that  the  lat- 
ter were  used  for  throwing  darts. 

BALIZE,  b4-1ez'.    See  Beuze. 

BALKAN  LBAQUE,  an  alliance  formed 
in  the  summer  of  1912  between  Bulgaria,  Serbia, 
Greece  and  Montenegro  for  the  purpose  of  tak- 
ing joint  diplomatic  and  military  action  against 
Turkey  and  which  led  to  the  Balkan  wars  (q.v.) 
in  1912  and  1913.  The  root  of  the  trouble  lay 
in  Macedonia  (q.v.),  where  the  long-misruled 
and  tortured  inhabitants  appealed  to  the  peo- 
ples of  the  now  liberated  and  united  neighbor- 
ing states  to  rescue  them  from  the  oppression 
of  the  Tiirk.  At  the  be^nning  of  1912  the  con- 
dition of  Macedonia  pointed  to  an  approaching 
crisis.  For  some  years  the  revolutionaries  had 
their  headquarters  in  Bulgaria,  but  had  sus- 
pended their  operations  in  1909  on  the  deposi- 
tion of  Abdul  Hamid  II  (q.v.),  trusting  to 
Young  Turk  promises  of  reform.  But  in  the 
autumn  of  1911  their  activities  were  resumed, 
the  leaders  declaring  that  "compared  with  the 
last  four  years  of  the  Hamidian  r6gime,  when 
European  control  existed  and  the  country  en- 
joyed a  certain  financial  autonomy,  the  condi- 
tion of  the  people  is  infinitely  worse  and  their 
sufferings  have  increased."  The  revolutionary 
organization  in  Macedonia  had  also  ceased  its 
propaganda  for  a  time  on  the  strength  of  Yotmg 
Turk  promises.  It  had  resumed  operatioas 
already  in  1910  in  consequence  of  the  pan- 
Islamic  tendencies  of  the  Turkish  govemmenti 
and  a  number  of  small  bands  were  formed  by 
the  secret  committees  which  succeeded  the  Bul- 

Srian  ^constitutional  clubs*  under  the  name  of 
i  "Macedonian  Internal  Organization.'  In 
December  1911  an  attempt  to  blow  up  a  crowded 
mosque  at  Ishtib  (Macedonia)  on  a  market  Oay 
when  the  town  was  full  of  peasants,  many  of 
them  Bulgarians,  excited  the  Mohammedan 
population  to  retaliatory  measures.  In  the  riot 
some  200  Bulgarians  were  killed  or  wounded, 
and  from  that  day  forward  a  campaign  of  out- 
rage and  countcr-outrase  was  carried  on  with 
appalling  savagery  by  Mohammedan  and  Bul- 
garian murder  bands.  The  leaders  of  the  In- 
ternal Organization  refused  to  negotiate  with 
the  Turidsh  government,  declaring  Uieir  resolve 
to  continue  the  revolutionary  activity  until  their 
object  was  achieved  —  autonomy  for  Macedonia 
throu^  international  European  intervention. 
The  Organization  sent  delegates  to  the  Euro- 
pean capitals  to  enlist  the  sympathy  and  aid  of 
the  powers.  They  asked  that  the  administra- 
tion of  Macedonia  should  be  placed  under  the 
direct  control  of  the  great  powers,  with  a 
Christian  governor-general. 


On  the  eve  of  the  general  elections  (March 
1912)  the  Turkish  government  sent  a  special 
commission  headed  by  the  Minister  of  thie  In- 
terior, Hajji  Adil  Bey,  to  inquire  into  the  griev- 
ances of  Albania  and  Macedonia  and  to  sug- 
gest measures  for  their  alleviation.  Laden  wiui 
an  elaborate  program  of  reforms,  the  commis- 
sion returned  to  Constantinople  toward  tfie  end 
of  Jtme.  The  report  submitted  by  Hajji  Adil 
Bey  led  Sir  Edward  Grey  (IS  July)  to  state 
that  'the  declarations  made  by  the  Turkic 
Minister  of  the  Interior  ,  ,  .  and  the  request 
of  the  Turkish  government  for  the  loan  of  five 
additional  British  officers  .  .  .  and  for  two 
additional  French  officers  for  service  in  the 
Ottoman  gendarmerie  indicate  that  the  Sublime 
Porte  realized  the  need  of  reforms  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  European  provinces  of  the 
Empire,  and  are  determined  to  take  the  neces- 
sary measures  to  introduce  them."  In  August 
the  25th  anniversary  of  King  Ferdinand's 
arrival  in  Bulgaria  was  celehrated  with  great 
reioidngs  in  the  ancient  capital  of  Timovo, 
when  the  tragedy  of  Ishtib  in  the  previous  De-  , 
cember  was  repeated  on  a  larger  scale  at  Kot- 
chana,  20  miles  northwest  of  Ishtib.  A  bomb 
thrown  in  the  market  place  with  the  object  of 
provoking  reprisals  which  should  attract  the 
attention  of  Europe  was  followed  Iv  a  mas- 
sacre of  Bul^rians.  Almost  simultaneously  a 
massacre  of  Christians  by  Turldsh  troops  tock 
place  at  Berane  on  the  Montenegrin  frontier. 
Turkish  soldiers  also  assisted  in  the  other  two 
butcheries.  These  atrocities  sent  a  thrill  of 
horror  throu^  Europe  and  tended  considerably 
to  swell  the  wave  of  patriotism  in  Bul^ria 
occasioned  by  the  dynastic  festivities.  Public 
indignation  was  aroused  in  Montenegro,  and 
both  peoples  clamored  for  war.  The  Turkish 
government  proclaimed  a  state  of  ^ege  at 
Kolchana  and  ordered  the  immediate  court- 
martial  of  the  officials  implicated  in  the  mas- 
sacre. But  the  mischief  had  been  done;  Bul- 
garia. Serbia,  Greece  and  Montenegro  started 
motnliiing. 
'  The  inner  history  of  the  Balkan  League  pre- 
sents a  curious  tangle.  The  most  remarkable 
circumstance  about  it  is,  for  the  student  of 
Balkan  affairs,  the  fact  that  the  various  states 
were  able  to  come  to  any  agreement  at  all.  The 
idea  of  a  Balkan  League  was  no  novein;  at- 
tempts in  that  direction  had  been  in  the  air 
from  time  to  time  since  long  before  the  Russo- 
Turkisfa  War  of  1877.  It  emanated  from  Ser- 
bia, and  was  favorably  discussed  between 
Rumania  and  Bulgaria  after  the  close  of  the 
war  in  1878^  revived  in  Greece  in  1891,  and 
opposed  by  Bulgaria,  wfaicii  country  reopened 
the  proposal  herself  in  1897.  Jealousy  and  mis- 
trust among  the  Balkan  states  kept  them  apart, 
while  the  long  struggle  of  underground  iti- 
trigues  between  Austria  and  Russia  for  pre- 
dominance in  the  peninsula  only  tended  to 
increase  the  volume  of  mutual  suspicions.  Bul- 
garian sentiment  was  divided  between  Rusda 
and  Austria;  Serbia  leaned  toward  Russia  and 
had  numerous  grievances  against  Austria,  over 
the  annexation  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
((j.v.)  and  the  prohibitive  tariffs  against  Ser- 
bian live  stock;  Rumania  had  a  grudge  against 
Russia  because  that  power  bad  deprived  her  of 
Bessarabia,  and  anomer  versus  Austria  on  ac- 
count of  the  Rumanian  districts  of  Transyl- 


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BALKAN  LEAOUB 


vania;  and  Greece  feared  the  Rnssian  as^ra- 
Uon*  to  Cottstantinople.  Bulgaria  and  Greece 
suspected  each  other  because  of  die  old  eccle- 
daUical  quarrel  over  the  Patriarchate  and  the 
Exarchate,  and  the  pen>etual  rivalries , between 
tfieir  respective  bomttadjis  in  Macedotiia.  Bui' 
saria  had  iwt  trusted  Serlna  since  their  war  in 
1881  and  loolced  askance  on  Rtmunia  became 
of  tbe  Dobrudja  (q.v.)  aod  its  Bulgarian  pop- 
ulation.  Even  the  Serbs  and  Montenegrins, 
thoufib  blood-brothers,  were  not  on  tiie  best 
of  terms  with  each  other.  In  addition  to  this, 
all  of  them  had  reason  to  fear  the  Anstro-Ger- 
man  Drang  nach  Oiten,  which  threatened  to 
put  an  end  to  their  national  existence.  The 
only  possible  bond  that  could  lutite  them  was 
their  common  hatred  of  the  Turk,  who  system- 
atically and  indiscriminate^  ill-treated  Bulgars, 
Serbs  Greeks  and  Kntzo-Vlaclis  (Romanians) 
in  Uacedonia.  That  bate  united  and  led  them 
to  victory.  On  the  morrorw  of  their  triumph, 
jealousy  stepped  in  and  sepanted  them  agam: 
the  Baflcan  Lea^nie  died  a  premature  death  and 
bequeathed  to 'its  partners  a  lega^  of  Utter 
hatred  that  was  soon  to  prove  disastrous  to  alL 
It  appears  tliat  the  prime  movers  in  the 
formation  ai  the  Balkan  League  were  the  King 
of  Bulgaria  and  the  Greek  Premier,  M.  Venlze- 
los,  who  came  to  an  understanding  m  the  spring 
of  1912.  But  in  May  Bulgaria  and  Serbia 
privately  shared  Uacedonia  between  themselves, 
the  former  to  take  central  Macedonia  with 
Monastir  and  Okhrida,  and  the  latter  the  north- 
ern or  Old  Serbian  portion,  leaving  the  re- 
mainder to  be  decided  npon  by  Russia  at  a 
later  date.  The  arrangement  between  Bulgaria 
and  Greece  was  at  first  of  a  purely  defensive 
nature  against  a  Turkish  attack  upon  either, 
which  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  Greece  was 
to  be  left  outside  when,  if  ever,  it  came  to  a 
division  of  any  spoils  of  war.  Curiously  enough, 
the  Turkish  government  was  at  the  same  time 
engineering  an  absolute  alliance  with  Greece,  a 


unacquainted  with  the  Sertio-Bulgarian  compact 
and  its  intentions,  Greece  founiT  herself  called 
upon  at  a  few  days'  notice  to  decide  whether  she 
should  throw  in  her  lot  with  or  against  Turkey. 
Bulgaria  and  Serbia  notified  Greece  of  their 
resolve  to  declare  war  against  Turkey  in  the 
event  of  their  demands  being  rejected.  Their 
determination  was  encouraged  by  the  fact  that 
Turkey  had  the  Italian  war  on  hand  at  the 
moment,  and  was  decidedly  getting  the  worst 
of  it.  The  great  powers  realized  that  trouble 
was  brewing,  and  the  'European  Concert*  was 
hastily  convoked  to  avert  it  They  had  every 
reason  to  fear  tbe  Balkan  nightmare  on  account 
of  the  possibilities  it  opened  for  a  general 
European  conflagration.  On  14  Aug.  1912  Count 
Berchtold  (t^-v.)  announced  that  he  was  about 
to  engage  lu  conversation  with  the  great 
powers  with  a  view  •to  co-ordinate  the  several 
efforts  made  by  the  powers  in  the  interest  of 
Balkan  peace  and  of  the  ttattu  gito.*  He  in- 
sisted upon  *tbe  expedience  of  giving  to  the 
Porte  organized  European  encour3g[ement  and 
to  the  Balkan  peoples  equally  organized  advice 
to  be  patient  and  not  to  thwart  Turkish  pur- 
poses.* This  time;  however,  the  inharmomous 
European  Concert  was  doomed  to  failure;  its 
diploautic  pressuie  and  threat*,  more  or- less 


successful  in  tbe  past,  were  now  unheeded. 
Russia  was  known  to  be  in  sympathy  with  the 
Balkan  states,  and  behind  the  coming  strode 
loomed  the  mighty  spectre  of  the  conflicting 
policies  of  Teuton  and  Slav.  The  integrity  of 
the  Turkish  empire  was  vital  to  Austro-Ger- 
man  ambitions,  hence  the  fervid  insistence  of 
the  'status  quo.*  Promises  of  reforms  were 
forthcoming,  but  the  Balkan  Allies  were  too 
well  acquainted  with  the  temporising  qualii?  of 
Turkish  promises;  they  demanded  that  the 
powers  should  guarantee  autooomv  for  Mace- 
donia, and  that  they  themselves  snould  be  in- 
cluded as  adrmnistrators.  On  28  Sept  1912  they 
announced  that  the  Balkan  League  was  an  ac- 
complished fact;  the  alliance  was  signed  on  the 
30th  and  immediate  mobilization  ordered.  Uoa- 
tenegro  declared  war  on  Turkey  8  October  and 
invaded  Albania;  on  the  13th  Bulgaria,  Serbia 
and  Greece  delivered  their  ultimatum  to  Tur- 
key at  the  same  time  rejecting  all  outside  ad- 
vice and  assistance.  Europe  stood  amazed;  the 
■Concert*  played  its  strongest  notes,  which 
were  not  even  listened  to  in  the  Balkans;  show- 
ers of  threats  and  protests  failed  to  move  the  . 
Allies  who  for  years  had  watched  with  painful 
self-control  the  c^astly  sufferings  of  their  com- 
patriots under  Turkish  misrule.  As  alrea^ 
mentioned,  Turkey  and  Italy  were  at  war  over 
Tripoli  (q.v.,  also  Ttmco-lTAUAN  Wah).  To 
all  appearances,  Italy  would  be  an  ally  of  the 
Balkan  League.  Her  fleet  kept  the  best  Turk- 
ish troops  locked  up  in  Tripoli  and  commanded 
the  western  waters  of  the  peninsula,  including 
the  direct  sea  route  from  Smyrna  to  Salonica. 
Clearly  the  moment  seemed  propitious  for  the 
Allies.  But  another  surprise  burst  upon  Europe 
when  Turkey  suddenly  made  peace  with  Italy 
and  declared  war  on  Bulgaria  and  Serbia  on  17 
October,  hoping  to  frighten  Greece  and  detach 
her  from  the  Allies;  but  the  Greek  government 
declared  war  on  Turkey  the  next  day,  which 
completed  the  necessary  formalities.  The 
course  of  the  campaign  is  related  under  Bal- 
kan Wars  (q.v.). 

It  only  remains  here  to  trace  the  short 
career  and  ultimate  fate  of  the  Balkan  League. 
After  the  remarkable  military  successes  of  the 
Allies  over  the  Turks  duruig  October  and 
November,  an  armistice  was  signed  with  cer- 
tain conditions  on  the  3d  of  December  and 
peace  negotiations  opened  between  the  belliger- 
ents on  the  16th  in  London.  After  an  abortive 
session  lasting  till  29  Jan.  1913,  the  Balkan 
Allies  broke  off  the  negotiations  and  hostilities 
were  resumed  on  3  February,  Contrary  to 
Eunwean  expectatiotis,  the  Turk  was  defeated 
all  along  the  line;  the  Allies  had  forced  hW 
back  almost  to  the  gates  of  his  capital,  and  to 
save  him  from  extinction  in  Europe  the  Triple 
Alliance  (q.v^  insisted  on  peace.  The  Treaty 
of  London  (30  May  1913)  ended  tbe  war  and 
delimitated  the  new  frontiers.  But  a  quarrel 
had  meanwhile  broken  out  between  Bulgaria 
and  Serbia  over  the  spoils.  There  had  been 
small  encounters  between  them  for  months, 
which  drove  Serbia  and  Greece  to  form  an 
alliance  against  Bulgaria.  Early  in  the  morning 
of  June  30  the  Bulgarians  violently  attacked 
tbe  Serbians.  Within  a  week  Bulgaria  found 
herself  attacked  on  four  sides,  by  Serbs,  &eela^ 
Turks  and  a  new  arrival  on  the  scene  — Ru- 
mania. Hopelessly  defeated,  Bulgaria  had  to 
surrender  and  agree  to  the  terms  of  the  Treaty 


BALKAN    MOUNTAINS— BALKAN  PENINSULA 


of  Bucharest  (10  Aug.  1913),  by  which  she 
gained  far  less  than  she  mi^t  have  done  had 
she  been  less  irreconcilable  in  spirit  and  held 
together  with  her  Allies,  Thus  the  Balkan 
League  lived  barely  a  ]/ear;  could  it  have  been 
maintained  or  reconstituted,  Germany  would 
never    have     reached     Constantinople    in    the 

K eater  war  that  was  to  follow  exactly  a  year 
er.  Perhaps,  even,  that  war  would  not  nave 
happened,  for,  with  Bulgaria  on  the  side  of 
Serbia,  Montenegro,  Rumania  and  Greece,  an 
impassable  barrier  would  have  been  laid  in  the 
path  of  the  Austro-German  Allies  to  the  south- 
east, a  barrier  that  would  have  effectually  ob- 
literated any  possibility-  of  Turkey  joining 
hands  with  her  Teutonic  patrons.  For  bibliog- 
raphy see  end  of  Balkan  Peninsula  and  Bal- 
kan Wahs.  Henri  F.  Klein. 

Editorial  Staff  of  The  Americana. 

BALKAN,  bai-kan',  or  balTan,  MOUN- 
TAINS (anciently  called  J/ffwittr).  a  lofty  and 
rug^d  mountain  range,  extending  from  Cape 
Emmeh  Burun  on  the  Black  Sea,  in  eastern 
Roumelia,  in  a  westerly  direction  to  the  borders 
of  Serbia,  and  forming  the  southem  boundaij 
of  the  basin  of  the  Danube.  In  the  west  it  is 
connected  with  the  much  ramified  mountain- 
system  of  the  southeastern  peninsula  of  Europe. 
Its  length  is  over  200  miles ;  the  average  eleva- 
tion is  about  3,000  feet,  but  the  group  of  the 
Khoja  Balkans  in  the  west  have  a  mean  hei^t 
of  6,500  feet.  Crystalline  schists  alternate  with 
limestone  ridges.  The  highest  summit  is  Jum- 
rukchal,  7,786  feet.  The  Balkan  forms  the 
watershed  between  the  streams  flowing  north- 
ward into  the  Danube,  and  those  flowing  south- 
ward to  the  '^ean.  The  chief  of  the  Tatter  is 
the  Maritza.  The  range  which  has  a  gradual 
descent  on  the  north,  woere  it  is  bordered  by  a 
broad  zone  of  partially  folded  chains  of  sede- 
mentary  rock,  presents  on  the  south  a  some- 
what steep .  escarpment,  and  has  always  been 
considered  the  greatest  natural  bulwark  of  the 
Ottoman  empire  against  enemies  on  the  Euro- 
pean frontiers.  Yet  in  the  Russo-Turkish  War 
of  1877-78  the  Rus^an  troops  manased  to  cross 
it  without  any  great  difliculty,  altnough  they 
had  to  encounter  a  stubborn  resistance  at 
Shipka  Pass  (4,370  feet).  Here  a  Turkish 
army  of  32,000  men  surrendered  to  the  Rus- 
sians. The  range  is  crossed  by  some  30  passes. 
The  whole  of  the  southeastern  peninsula  of 
Europe  is  known  as  the  Balkan  Peninsula. 
Copper,  iron  and  lead  are  the  chief  minerals. 
See  Balkan  Peninsula. 

BALKAN  PENINSULA,  a  convenient 
geographical  term  applied  to  the  easternmost  of 
the  three  great  peninsulas  of  southern  Europe, 
of  which  &e  others  are  the  Pyrenean  or  Ibenan 
Peninsula  (Spain  and  Portugal),  and  the  Apen- 
nine  Peninsula  (Italy).  In  all  three  cases  the 
names  are  derived  from  mountain  ranges.  But 
whereas  the  Pyrenees  and  Apennines  separate 
their  respective  peninsulas  from  central 
Europe,  the  Balkan  range  offers  no  such  dis- 
tinctive geographical  division.  The  Balkans  are 
a  continuation  of  the  Carpathians,  pierced  by 
die  Danube  at  the  Iron  gate,  where  the  fron- 
tiers of  Hungary,  Serbia  and  Rumania  meet. 
The  name  Balkan  is  apparently  of  Slavonic 
origin,  but  the  Bulcarians,  to  whose  country 
die  range  is  mainly  limited,  use  the  term  Stara 
Platiina.      Extending   from    tbe    river    Timok 


(Serbia)  in  the  west  throu^  the  heart  of  Bul- 
garia to  the  Black  Sea,  a  distance  of  375  miles, 
the  Balkans  form  a  line  of  demarcation  for  less 
than  half  of  the  northern  limits  of  the  p«itn- 
sula.  Assumingthat  rivers  also  form  a  natural 
boundary,  the  Balkan  Peninsula  ends  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Danube  and  its  tributaries,  the 
Save  and  the  Una;  its  western  limit  is  near 
Flume  on  the  Adriatic,  extending  down  the 
Ionian  Sea  to  Cape  Matapan;  on  the  east  it  is 
bounded  by  the  .^^ean  Sea,  the  Sea  of  Mar- 
mora and  the  Black  Sea,  and  by  the 
Mediterranean  in  the  south.  Thongfa  pop- 
ularly included  within  this  area,  Rumania 
is  not,  strictly  spealdng,  a  Balkan  state. 
Excluding  that  country,  the  area  of  the 
peninsula  in  square  miles  is  187,764^  divided  as 
follows  after  the  redistribution  of  territories 
consequent  upon  tbe  Balkan  Wars  of  1912-13: 
Bulgaria,  43^10  square  mites;  Serbia.  33,891; 
Greece,  41,933 ;  Turkey  (including  the  vilayet 
of  Constantinople),  10,882;  Montenegro,  5,603; 
Albania,  about  11,000;  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina, 
19,768;  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  16,'421;  Dalnutia, 
4,956  square  miles.  If  that  portion  of  Rumania 
within  the  parallel  of  45°  north  is  included,  an 
area  of  about  25,000  square  miles  would  be 
added  No  other  district  in  Eorope  is  so  richly 
provided  as  the  Balkan  Peninsula  with  gulfs 
and  excellent  harbors  of  commercial  and  naval 
strategic  value.  An  archipelago  of  numberless 
islands,  the  Cyclades  and  Sporades  of  ancient 
fame,  forms  a  continuous  bridge  between  the 
Balkan  Peninsula  and  Asia  Minor.  The  Black 
Sea  is  connected  with  the  Sea  of  Marmora 
throu^  the  Bosphorus,  a  channel  about  20 
miles  long,  and  so  narrow  that  Constantinople, 
at  the  southwest  extremity  of  the  Thracian 
Bosphorus,  is  but  one  mile  distant  from  the 
Asiatic  city  of  Scutari,  eastward  across  the 
Bosphorus.  The  Sea  of  Marmora  is  linked 
with  the  .^gean  by  the  Dardanelles  with  an 
average  widm  of  between  three  and  four  miles. 
The  Balkan  Mountains  extend  in  a  varied 
formation  from  tbe  Adriatic  to  tbe  Euxine, 
breaking  up  in  their  advance  eastward  into  sev- 
eral parallel  chains  with  many  more  or  less 
strong  spurs  north  and  south;  several  ranges 
extend  southward  almost  to  the  j^ean;  the 
Penm  Dagh  and  the  ancient  Rhodope  Moun- 
tains of  Despoto  Dagh.  They  are  frequently 
broken  by  defiles  or  passes  of  different  de- 
grees of  serviceableness  as  routes.  The  prind- 
pal  rasses  are  the  Nadir-Derbend,  Kamaba4 
the  Basardshik- Sophia,  the  Trajan,  Rosalitha 
and  Shipka,  the  latter  famed  by  the  heroic 
struggles  between  the  Russians  and  Turks  in 
1877  and  and  1878.  The  principal  range  of  the 
Balkans  is  thus  divided  into  several  sections, 
like  the  Etropol,  Khoja  and  Shipka  Balkans. 
and  formed  the  boundary  between  Bulgaria  and 
Rumelia  before  the  two  were  united.  The  main 
elevation  of  the  chain  is  from  4,000  to  5,000 
feet,  but  it  rises  much  higher  in  various  parts, 
the  loftiest  elevaUon  of  9,700  feet  above  sea- 
level  beinR  reached  by  Mount  Scardus  in  the 
Char  Da^.  The  Balkans  are  rich  in  minerals, 
especially  rock  salt,  lead,  iron-ore,  copper,  sil- 
ver, but  the  treasures  of  the  soil  are  yet  very 
imperfectly  known  in  spite  of  the  geological  re- 
searches, undertaken  ^  Orman,  French  and 
other  travelers  and  scientists.  Tlie  mountains 
are  mostly  of  a  granite  formation,  but  the 
motftitain  system  is  very  complicated,  anti  its' 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


:,  Google 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


BALKAN  PBHIH8ULA 


id  JROS 

to  detemune.  There  are  numerous  thennal  and 
sulphurous  springs,  some  of  which  are  re- 
nowned  and  utilized  as  sanitary  watering  places. 
The  mountains  fonn  the  watershed  separating 
the  tributaries  of  the  lower  Danube  and  those 
of  the  Vardar  and  Maritza  rivers,  or.  in  other 
words,  the  watershed  between  the  Black  Sea 
and  the  .^gean.  On  account  of  the  broken  and 
irregular  character  of  the  peninsula  the  livers 
are  short  and  little  navigable.  Albania,  sepa- 
rated from  Montenegro  and  Novibazar  by  the 
north  Albanian  Alps,  is  a  mass  of  parallel 
mountain  ranges,  irregularly  transversea  by  the 
winding  rivers,  Boyana,  Dria  Loum,  Voiuta 
and  Arta,  which  flow  Into  me  Adriatic  and 
Ionian  seas.  In  ScutarL  Monastir  and  Salonica 
there  are  a  number  of  large  and  deep  lakes 
pre-eminently  those  of  Scutari,  Ochrida,  Janina, 
Fre5i>a  and  Kastoria.  The  climate  of  the  penin- 
sula is  exceedingly  varied;  it  is  rigorous  with 
heavy  snowfalls  in  the  north  and  the  central 
plateau  between  Serajevo  (Bosnia)  and  Sofia 
(Bulgaria),  and  the  tableland  of  Janina,  but 
becomes  mild  and  sunny  toward  the  south  and 
east,  tempered  by  the  breezes  of  the  ^gean. 


_i  the  Balkan  Peninsula.    Surviving  ttiere 

all  the  races  recorded  at  the  beginninK  of  his- 
tory, with  thdr  national  languages  and  distinct 
raaal  consciousness.  They  do  not  form,  how- 
ever, the  whole  people,  or  even  the  great 
majority  of  their  particular  race  in  any  one 
district,  but  are  intermin^ed  and  Kve  side  by 
side,  without  ever  blending  together,  so  that 
the  process  of  disentangling  their  various  and 
conflicting  aspirations,  tendencies  and  racial  as 
well  as  religious  distinctions,  is  well-nigh  im- 
possible. The  majority  are  Slavs,  comprising 
the  Bulgarians  in  the  east  and  centre,  the 
Serbs  and  Croats  in  the  west,  and,  in  the  ex- 
treme northwest,  between  Trieste  and  Laibach, 
the  Slovenes;  these  compose  the  southern 
branch  of  the  Slavonic  race.  The  other  inhabit- 
ants of  the  peninsula  are  the  Albanians  in  the 
west  the  Greeks  in  the  south,  the  Turks  in  the 
southeast  and  the  Rumanians  to  the  north.  In 
southern  Bulgaria  (ancient  Thrace)  and  Mace- 
donia, there  may  be  found  a  Greek,  a  Bulgarian, 
3  Turkish,  an  Albanian  village,  side  by  side. 
The  Greeks  or  ByKintines,  the  Daco-Ruma- 
nians,  who  speak  a  distinctly  Romance  or  neo- 
Latin  language,  and  protnUj'  derive  their  origin 
from  the  legionaries  of  Emperor  Trajanus  sta- 


Illyrian  stock  are  the  most  ancient  historic 
races  of  the  Balkans.  The  Slavs  are  late- 
comers by  migration  and  conquest.  They  be- 
came neither  Greek  nor  Roman  in  speech  or 
customs,  political  character  or  national  pro- 
clivities but  remained  distinctive  in  language 
and  racial  characteristics.  Between  the  Danube 
and  the  jCgean  Sea  the  whole  of  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  was  known  as 
Thrada;  the  western  part  as  lllyricum  and 
the  lower  baun  of  the  Vardar  River  as  Mace- 
donia, some  centuries  before  the  Christian  era. 
At  periods  historically  well  detenninedi,  after 
the  (jotfaic  invaders  in  those  regicms  had  been 
defeated  or  absorbed  or  started  on  their  world- 
stirring  career,  after  the.  Turanian  Avars  had 
tost  thdr  overwhelnung  power,  the  Slavic  tribes 


moved  in  great  numbers  into  central  and 
southeastern  Europe.  About  630  aji.  the  Croats 
began  to  occupy  the  present  Croatia,  Slavonia, 
northern  Bosnia.  In  640  the  Serbians  of  the 
same  race  and  language  conquered  the  Avar> 
and  peopled  Serbia,  South  Bosnia,  Dalmatia; 
Monten^ro,  whose  inhabitants  are  pure -Serbs' 
in  blood  and  language,  only  denving  their 
name  from  their  national  hero,  Ivo  the  Black 
(Tsemoi),  who  gave  the  name  of  Tscrnagora 
(Montenegro)  to  those  desert  rocks,  a  safe 
retreat  to  the  Serbians,  after  their  defeat  at 
Kossovo  in  1389  inflicted  by  the  Turks.  The 
ethnic  situation  of  to-day  dales  from  that 
epoch.  The  origin  of  the  Bulgarians  is  not 
quite  clear.  They  appear  to  be  of  Finnish- 
Ugrian  stock,  and  therefore  related  to  the 
Turks  and  the  Hungarians,  but  were  Slavic- 
ized  early  in  history.  The  great  apostles  of  the 
Slavs,  Methodius  and  Cyriflus,  themselves  Bul- 

Srians,  even  brought  Byzantine  culture  aiid 
;  Greek-orthodox  religion  to  the  other  Slavic 
races  on  the  peninsula.  The  battle  of  Kossovo, 
already  mentioned,  made  an  end  to  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  highly  developed  Slavic  state\ 
and  with  the  fall  of  Constantinople  m  1453, 
the  last  bulwark  of  the  crumbling  Bnantlne 
empire,  the  Turldsh  or  more  correctly,  Osmanti 
sway  over  the  entire  Balkan  Peninsula  became 
a  reality.  Four  centuries  of  racial  strife  be- 
tween the  Turkish  conquerors  and  the  various 
Greel^  Rumanian  and  Slavic  races  under  their 
sway  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  Danube 
states  and  the  Hellenic  kingdom,  more  or  less 
according  to  races  and  nationahties,  so  far  as 
this  was  possible  at  all  in  the  case  of  peoples 
which  are  at  least  as  far  removed  in  sympathy 
and  political  aspirations  from  one  another  as 
they  are  from  the  Turks.  The  radal  antago- 
nisms were  always  grievously  accentuated  in 
the  attempted  solutions  of  racial,  {Ktlitical  and 
religious  problems.  While  the  ancient  history 
of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  is  bound  up  with  that 
of  the  Roman  and  Byiantine  empires,  the 
Middle  Ages  reveal  an  unbroken  series  of  in- 
vasions and  wars  for  a  period  of  almost  a 
thousand  years  up  to  US3.  Within  a  century 
of  their  aOT>earance  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula, 
die  Osmanlis  had  established  the  most  civiliied 
and    best    ordered    state    of    their    time      ~ 


only  their  capacity  for  governing  under  mili- 
tary law.  They  never  learned  to  rule  as  civil- 
ians nor  forgot  how  to  rule  as  soldiers.  Dur- 
ing the  28  years  of  his  life  after  the  cwture 
of  Constantinople;  Mohammed  II  annexed  the 
v^ole  Balkan  Peninsula  except  the  inaccess- 
ible Black  Mountain  (Montenegro),  the  Alba- 
nian highlands,  and  the  then  Hungarian  fort- 
ress of  Belgrade.  That  enlightened  monaitb 
showed  marked  favor  to  Christians  and  be- 
stowed the  higher  offices  of  state  upon  them; 
he  encouraged  literature,  art  and  commerce. 
The  Venetians  held  a  virtual  monopolv  of  the 
Euxine  (Black  SeaJ  and  -Egean  trade,  while 
both  in  Asia  and  Europe  the  social  condition 
of  the  peasantry  was  better  at  the  time  under 
Osmanli  rule  tiian  feudal  (Hiristendam.  The 
(Ottoman  army  had  the  best  rqnitation  in  the 
world;  it  was  the  first  to  introduce  efficient 
commissariat  and  medical  services,  and  adven- 
turers from  all  parts  of  Eunqw  flocked  to 
leam  the  art  of  war  from  Ibe  Turks. ,  But 


Google 


BALKAH  PBNINSULA 


tfa«  three  immediate  successors  of  Uohammed 
II_  sowed  the  seeds  of  decay  and  disniption  by 
misrule  and  oppression^  while  s  revival  of  the 
dormant  crusa^ng  spint  of  Europe  only  served 
to  reawaken  the  sfumberine  fanaticism  that 
characterized  the  early  followers  of  the 
Prophet 

Yet  the  Ottoman  cmi»re  continued  to  grow 
in  territory  and  splendor,  attaining  the  zenith 
of  its  glory  in  the  reign  of  Suliman  the  Mag- 
nificent (1520-66).  At  the  battle  of  Mohacs 
(1526)  he  conquered  Hungary,  and  three  years 
later  stood  at  the  gates  of  Vienna.  It  was  at 
Mohacs  again  that  the  tables  were  reversed  161 
years  later  against  Suliman  II  by  the  Austrian! 
under  Charles  of  Lorraine.    That  decisive  vic- 


of  Turkish  dominion  in  Europe,  During  the 
17th  century  Russia  and  the  kingdom  of  Poland 
also  joined  the  ranks  of  Turkey's  enemies  in 
coalition  with  Austria,  Tuscany,  Venice,  Malta 
and  the  papal  forces.  The  treaties  of  Carlo- 
witz  and  Constantinople  (1699-1700)  brought 
about  a  rearrangement  of  territories  and  fron- 
tiers by  which  Turkish  power  in  Europe  re- 
ceived a  severe  check.  The  wars  conducted  by 
Austria  and  Russia  against  Turkey  during  the 
18th  century,  followed  in  1799  by  the  alliance 
between  Turk^,  Russia  and  Great  Britain 
against  Napoleon,  kept  the  Ottoman  rulers  and 
statesmen  preoccupiedwith  international  affairs 
and  permitted  the  development  of  revolutionaiT 
aspirations  among  the  subject  races  of  the  Bal- 
kan Peninsula.  The  19th  century  witnessed 
remarkable  political  changes  in  that  stormy 
region.  By  a  course  of  wars,  revolutions,  brig- 
andage and  ^palling  atrocities  the  grip  of  the 
Turk  was  gradually  loosened  through  the  inter- 
vention of  the  powers.  Greece  was  the  first  to 
break  away  in  1829;  the  Berlin  Congress  (1878) 
creeled  Rumania,  Bulgaria,  Serbia  and  Monte- 
negro into  semi-independent  states  under  a 
shadowy  suzerainty  of  the  Sultan.  The  history 
of  these  events  is  related  under  the  headings 
of  the  various  countries.  The  Balkan  Wars 
(q.v.)  formed  what  may  be  the  last  act  but  one 
in  the  400  years'  struggle  to  expel  the  Turk 
front  Europe.  The  Balkan  Peninsula  hai 
played  a  tremendous  part  in  the  world's  history, 
and  has  well  earned  the  various  uncompliment- 
ary titles  applied  to  it,  such  aa  the  'slaugjiter- 
house,*  the  "cock-pit,*  the  'bug-bear*  and  the 
*powder  magazine*  of  Europe.  For  many  cen- 
turies not  a  year  has  passea  without  bloodshed 
somewhere  on  its  soil-  The  scene  of  many  bril- 
liant exploits  and  unexcelled  horrors,  it  arrayed 
nation  against  nation,  caused  imiumerable  wars 
and  was  finallv  to  be  the  cradle  of  the  greatest 
conflict  of  all  time.  See  War,  EuatWEAff. 
Also  Albania;  Dakdaktelles ;  Gaeece;  Mokte- 
NEGKD;  Sehia;  Turkev;  Eastgbm  Qu 


'Balkan  Peninsub  and  Greek  Archipelago* 
(Frankfurt  1910)  ;  Baker,  G.,  'The  Passing  of 
the  Turkish  Empire  in  Europe*  (London  1912)  ; 
Bamberg,  P.,  'Gesdiichte  der  oriental! schen 
Angelegenheit>  (Berlin  1892)  ■  Barkley,  H.  C, 
'Between  the  Danube  and  the  Black  Sea'  (Lon- 
don 1876);  Brailsford,  N.  H.,  'Macedonia:  Its 
Races  and  Their  Future*  (London  1906) ; 
Braun,  P.,  <Der  Neue  Balkan*  (Wermar  1913)  : 
Cambon,  V.,  'Autur  des  Balkans'  (Paris  1890)  ; 


Crawfurd,  H.,  'The  Balkan  Cockpit*  (London 
1915);  De  Windt,  H.,  'Through  Sava«e  Eu- 
rope' (London  1907);  Driault,  E,  'La  Ques- 
tion d'(jrient  depuis  son  Oririne'  (Paris  1898) : 
Durham,  Mary  E.,  'The  Burden  of  the  Balkans* 
(London  19(K)  ;  EHot,  Sir  C.  ('Odysseus'), 
'Turkey  in  Europe'  (London  1902  and  IVX)  ; 
Forbes,  Toynbee,  Mitrany  and  Hogarth.  '"Ttie 
Balkans'  (Oxford  1915)  ;  Freeman,  E.  A,,  'The 
Ottoman  Power  in  Europe*  (London  1877); 
Hamard,  P.  J.,  'Par  deli  I'Adrijtique  et  les 
Balkans*  (Paris  1890);  Herbert,  W.  V.,  'By- 
Paths  in  the  Balkans*  (London  1906)  ;  Hichens, 
R.,  <The  Near  East'  (London  1913)  ;  Hogarth, 
D.  G.,  'The  Nearer  East:  A  (kography'  (New 
York  1902) :  Holland.  T.  E.,  'The  European 
Concert  in  the  Eastern  Question*  (Oxford 
18971 :  Huhn,  Major  A.  von,  'The  Struggle  of 
the  Balkans  for  National  Independence'  (Lon- 
don 1886)  ;  Jaekel,  B„  'TTie  Und  of  the  Tamed 
Turk:  Tlie  Balkan  States  of  To-day*  (Boston 
1910) ;  Joanne,  T.,  'Etats  du  Danube  et  des 
Balkans'  (Paris  1895);  Kanitz,  F.,  'Donau- 
Bulgarien  und  der  Balkan'  (Leipzig  1875) ; 
Lamouche,  L.,  'La  Pininsule  balkanique'  (Paris 
1899);  Landemont,  Comte  de,  'L'Europe  ct  la 
Politique  Orientale  1878-1912'  (Paris  1913); 
Laveleye,  E.  de,  'La  Pininsule  dea  Balkans' 
(Brussels  1886),;  U  Jean,  G.,  'Ethnographic  de 
la  Turquie  d'Europe*  (Gotha  1861);  Loiseau, 
Ch.,  'Le  Balkan  Slave*  (Paris  1898) ;  Lukach, 
H,  C,  'The  Fringe  of  the  East'  (London 
1913) ;  Lyde.  L.  W,  and  A.  F.  Mockler-Ferry- 
man,  'A  Military  (jeography  of  the  Balkan 
Peninsula*  (London  19ffl)  ;  MacColl,  iL,  'The 
Sultan  and  the  Powers'  (London  1896) ;  Mac- 
kenzie, Lady,  and  Irby,  A,  P.,  'Travels  in  the 
Slavonic  Provinces  of  'Turicey*  (London  1866) ; 
MUler.  W..  'The  Balkans*  7'Story  of  the  Na- 
tions'); also  'Travels  and  Politics  in  the  Near 
East'  (London  1898) ;  and  'The  Ottoman  Em- 
pire, 1801-1913'  (London  1913);  Millet.  R., 
•Souvenir  des  Balkans'  (Paris  1891);  Minchin, 

LG.  C,  'The  Growth  of  Freedom  in  the  Bal- 
1  Peninsula*  (London  1886) ;  Murray,  W.  S,. 
'Tie  Making  of  the  Balkan  States*  (London 
1912) ;  Muzet,  A.,  'Aux  Pays  Balkaniqncs* 
(Paris  1912);  Newbigin,  M,  I;  'Ge<«r^ical 
Aspects  of  Balkan  Problems*  (London  1915)  ; 
Rankin,  R.,  'The  Inner  History  of  the  Balkan 
War'  (London  1914)  ;  Rosny.  L.  de.  'Les  Popu- 
lations danubiennes'  (Paris  18^);  RiMfcr,  E., 
'Die  Ballcanhalbinset  und  ihre  Volker'  (Baut- 
zen, Saxony,  1869)  ;  Sin^eton,  Esther,  ''Turkey 
and  the  Balkan  States'  (New  York  190B) ; 
Sloane,  W.  M„  'The  Balkans:  A  Laboratory 
of  History*  (New  York  1914)  ;  Smith,  A.  D. 
H.,  'Firfitii^  the  Turk  in  the  Balkans'  (New 
York  1908)  ;  Sonnichs«n,  A.,  'Confessions  of  a 
Macedonian  Bandit*  (New  York  1910)  |  Spen- 
cer, C:apt.  E.,  'Travels  in  European  Turkey  in 
1850'  (London  1851);  Trevor.  R,,  'My  Balkan 
Tour'  (New  York  1911);  Upward.  A,,  "The 
East  End  of  Europe'  (London  190S) ;  Verney, 
N,,  and  Dambmann,  G.,  'Les  Puissances  itran- 
g*res  dans  le  Levant*  (Paris  1900) ;  Villari,  L., 
'The  Balkan  Question'  (London  1905) ;  Wirth, 
A.,  'Der  Balkan'  (Stuttgart  1914);  Woods, 
H.  C,  'Washed  by  Four  Seas'  (London  1908)  ; 
and  "The  Danger  Zone  of  Europe'  (London 
1911);  Wyon,  R.,  'The  Balkans  from  Within' 
(New  York  1904) ;  Ysvanovitch,  V„  'An  Eng- 
lish BibHograplty  on  the  Near  Eastern  Ques- 


BALKAN  WARS 


87 


tioD,  148I-1906>  (Belgrade  1909);  Zinkeisen,  J. 
W.,  'Geschichte  aes  Ostnanischen  Reichs  in  Eu- 
ropa'  (Gotha  1863).  A  most  valuable  work  is 
the  'Rejxirt  of  the  International  Comniittee  to 
Inquire  into  the  Causes  and  Effects  of  (he  BaU 
lean  Wars,'  issued  by  the  Carnegie  Endowment 
for  International  Peace  (Oxford  and  Wash- 
ington 1914).  See  also  bibliographies  under 
Balkan  Wars  and  the  various  countries  of 
the  peninsula. 

Henri  F.  Kleik, 
Librarian  London  Times,  1898-1905 ;  Editorial 
Staff  London  Standard,  190S-1S. 
BALKAN  WARS,  a  series  of  conflicts 
fought  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula  (q.v.)  during 
1912  and  1913.  They  fall  into  three  distinct 
divisions:  (1)  The  war  of  the  Balkan  League 
(q.v.),  composed  of  Bulgaria,  Serbia,  Greece 
and  Montenegro,  gainst  Turkey;,  in  which 
the  Allies  conquered  Macedonia,  Albania 
and  the  greater  i>art  of  Thrace,  terminat- 
ing with  the  armistice  of  December  1912; 
(2)  the  continuance  of  the  war  by  Greece 
and  the  resumption  of  hostilities  by  her 
Allies  in  February  1913,  after  the  failure  of 
the  London  negotiations:  (3)  the  second  war, 
which  followed  the  collapse  of  the  Balkan 
League  in  June  1913,  when  Serhia,  Greece  and 
Uontenegro  were  arrayed  against  their  quondam 
ally,  Bulgaria;  the  re-entrance  of  Turkey  and 
the  intervention  of  Rumania.  The  avowed  ob- 
ject of  the  Balkan  League  was  the  emancipation 
of  Macedonia  from  Ottoman  dominion  and  the 
forcible  expulsion  of  Turkey  from  eastern  Eu- 
rope. Ever  since  the  Treahf  o£  Berlin  in  1878 
the  Christian  population  of  Macedonia  —  mainly 
Bulgars,  Greeks  and  Serbs  —  had  been  promised 
reforms  by  both  the  European  Concert  and  by 
successive  Turkish  governments.  By  the  Treaty 
of  San  Stefano  (3  March  1878)  which  Russia 
forced  u^n  Turkey  at  the  point  of  the  sword, 
Uacedoma  was  handed  over  to  Bulgaria,  but 
the  arrangeroeDt  was  abrogated  four  months 
later  at  Berlin  and  the  territory  restored  to 
Tnrkejr,  the  powers  pledging  themselves  to 
supervise  the  mtroduchon  of  reforms.  For  34 
years  the  powers  had'  tinkered  at  the  problem, 
and  for  31  years  of  that  period  Abdul  Hamid  II 
(q.v.)  had  pursued  an  unwavering  policy  of 
promises  and  evasions.  Hope  dawnea  momen- 
tarily on  the  horizon  when  the  Turkish  revolu- 
tion of  1908-09  ended  with  the  victory  of  the 
Young  Turkey  party,  the  downfall  of  Abdul 
Hamid  and  the  accession  of  Reshad  Effendi  as 
Hohammed  V.  But  although  the  new  ruter 
expressed  his  satisfaction  al  being  the  first  sul- 


COtmtry  depend  on  the  constant  and 
plication  of  the  constitutional  regime,*  which 
was  *in  conformity  with  the  Sacred  Law  as 
with  Ae  principles  of  civilization,*  it  soon  be- 
came apparent  that  the  more  Turkish  govern- 
ment charged  the  more  it  was  the  same  thing. 
Toward  the  end  of  1909  steps  were  taken  to 
■padfy*  Macedonia.  In  the  process  of  pacifi- 
cation Ae  Turkish  commander  entrusted  with 
the  task,  Torgut  Pasha,  accounted  for  12,000 
prisoners.  5,000  killed  and  wounded,  2,000 
refugees  in  Bulgaria  and  over  1,600  homeless 
refugees  scattered  among  the  hills.  The  Young 
Turk  government,  the  'Committee  of  Union 
and  Progress,'  adopted  a  "natlonaliring"  pro- 


gram that  consisted  mainly  of  stamping  out 
all  racial  and  religious  sentiments  dinering 
from  undiluted  Turkish  citizenship.  This  ruth- 
less policy  led  the  Balkan  states  to  sink  their 
Siiarrels  and  to  unite  for  common  action  against 
le  oppressor.  But  the  motives  actuating  the 
Balkan  League  were  not  entirely  altruistic: 
there  were  rich  prizes  to  be  gained  if  the  ven- 
ture should  prove  successful. 

In  the  meantime  the  Turco- Italian  War 
(q.v.)  had  broken  out  in  the  fall  of  1911.  A 
succession  of  defeats  was  suffered  by  the  Turk- 
ish armies,  seriously  weakening  the  resources 
and  or^nization  of  the  Turkish  empire  and 
undermining  what  little  influence  it  still  pos- 
sessed in  its  European  provinces,  llie  moment 
for  action  in  order  to  bring  about  the  liberation 
of  Macedonia,  Albania  and  the  other  parts  of 
European  Turkey  had  apparently  arrived  with 
the  most  favorable  conditions. 

In  March  1912  a  secret  treaty  of  alliance 
was  signed  between  Bulgaria  and  Serbia  against 
Turkey,  stipulating  tnilitary  co-operation  be- 
tween the  two  states  on  a  fairly  extensive  basis 
and  providing  for  the  division  of  whatever  tei^ 
ritory  might  accrue  as  the  result  of  a  possible — 
and  successful  —  war.  A  similar  treaty  against 
Turkey  was  signed  between  Bulgaria  and  Greece 
in  September  1912,  except  that  no  provision  was 
made  for  possible  future  gains.  Montenegro 
and  Serbia,  too,  had  arrived  at  an  understand- 
ing, and  finally  these  diplomatic  arrangements 
were  so  co-ordinated  that  they  permitted  of 
concerted  military  action  on  the  parts  of  Bul- 
garia, Serbia,  Greece  and  Montenegro  as 
against  the  hereditary  enemy,  Turkey. 

As  early  as  5  Aug.  1912,  engagements  be- 
tween isolated  detachments  of  Montenegrins 
and  Turks  had  broken  out,  and  on  8  August  the 
Turkish  minister  to  Montenegro  left  Cettigne, 
the  capital.  The  situation  had  now  become  so 
threatening  that  Count  Berchtold,  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  Foreign  Minister,  extended  an  invi- 
tation on  the  16th  to  the  European  Powers  to 
join  in  'conversations"  regardmg  the  Balkan 
problem.  France,  Gennan_y  and  Great  Britain 
accepted  immediately,  but  it  was  too  late.  The 
Balkan  states  proceeded  with  their  military 
preparations,  and  on  30  September  the  four 
members  of  the  Balkan  League  ordered  a  gen- 
eral mobilization  of  their  forces.  But  the 
Turkish  government  was  not  unprepared.  For 
some  time  previously  large  bodies  of  troops  bad 
been  collecting  in  Thrace,  ostensibly  for  fma- 
neuvres.'  Turkey  followed  with  a  mobilisa- 
tion order  on  1  Oct.  1912  at  the  same  time 
confiscating  about  ISO  Greek  boats  which  were 
then  in  various  Turkish  ports.  An  attempt  to 
avert  war,  made  by  Premier  (afterward  Presi- 
dent) Poincari  of  France  by  suggesting  a 
joint  intervention  by  Russia  and  Austria-Hun- 
gary proved  unsuccessful.  Montenegro,  being 
practically  always  under  arms,  was  the  first  to 
complete  mobilization,  on  7  Oct.  1912,  and  on 
the  next  day  declared  war  on  Turkey.  It  is 
generally  believed  that  this  step  was  taken 
without  consulting  the  trther  allies.  The  Black 
Mountaineers  forcibly  occupied  the  Mojkovati 
district,  which,  though  assigned  to  them  by  an 
agreement  of  the  previous  year,  had  remained 
in  the  occupation  of  the  Turks.  A  general  con- 
flagration was  now  inevitable,  for  ncrt  only 
the  Allies,  but  the  Turkish  government  also, 
had  rejected  the  mediatory  proposals  of  the 


BALKAN  WAS8 


powers.  The  Grand  Vizier  tud  iafonned  the 
latter  that  Turkey  would  not  tolerate  foreign 
intervention  in  her  internal  affairs,  but  offered, 
at  the  eleventh  hour,  to  revive  the  Law  of  the 
Vilayets  framed  1880  by  an  international  com- 
mission, but  never  carried  out.  The  Allies  re- 
jected ihe  offer  as  insincere  and  demanded 
guarantees,  which  were  not  fortbconiing.  On 
13  Oct.  1912  Bulgaria,  Serbia  and  Greece  pre- 
sented a  joint  ultimatum  to  the  Porte,  demand- 
ing refarms  in  Macedonia  within  six  months 
and  immediate  demobilization  of  the  Turkish 
armies  in  tlie  Balkans.  These  demands  were 
refused  on  the  17th;  to  the  great  surprise  of 
Europe.  Turkey  had  made  peace  with  Italy  on 
tie  IStn,  and  now  not  only  declined  to  negoti- 
ate further  with  the  Allies,  but  declared  war  on 
Bulgaria  and  Serbia.  In  the  case  of  Greece, 
Turkey  attempted  to  win  this  country  over, 
but  met  with  a  refusal  followed,  the  same  d^, 
17  October,  by  a  declaration  of  war  on  the 
part  of  Greece  against  Turkey. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war  the  Bulgarian 
forces  consisted  of  eight  regular  divisions,  one 
cavalry  division  and  numerous  reserve  organi- 
zations. Their  total  strength  was  approximately 
340,000  men  and  800  guns,  divided  into  three 
armies  under  Generals  Kutincheff,  Ivanoff  and 
Dmitrieff.  The  supreme  command  was  in  the 
hands  of  General  Savoff.  The  Serbian  forces 
consisted  of  four  armies,  totaling  about  250,- 
000  men  and  4S0  guns.  They  were  commanded 
by  the  Crown  Prince  and  Generals  Putnik, 
btefanovitch,  Yankovitch  and  Zikhovitch. 
Greece  had  put  in  the  field  about  150,000  men, 
commanded  by  the  Crown  Pnnce  and  Generals 
DangUs  and  Sapuntsakis.  Prince  Danilo  was 
in  chief  command  of  the  Montenegrin  forces, 
consisting  of  some  30,000  men  in  three  groups. 
Against  this  total  of  over  750,000  men  Turkey 
mobilized  three  armies  and  a  ntimber  of  smaller 
organizations  amounting  to  about  450,000  men 
and  more  than  600  guns.  They  were  directed 
by  Abdullah  Pasha,  Zekki  Pasha,  Hassan  Tahsin 
Fasha,  Essad  Pasha,  Hassan  Riza  Fasha  and 
Ali  Riza  Fasba,  with  Nazim  Fasha  in  supreme 
command.  Greece  and  Bulgaria  were  the  only 
countries  of  the  Balkan  League  possessing 
naval  forces,  the  former  one  modem  cruiser, 
21  torpedo  boats  and  one  submarine;  the  latter 
six  torpedo  boats. 

The  first  successes  over  the  Turks  were 
gained  by  the  Montenegrins.  They  attacked 
on  9  Oct.  1512  near  Podgorilia  and  captured 
the  Planinitza  and  Dctchitch  mountains.     The 


Bulgarian  advance  be^nn  immediately 

been  declared.  By  19  October  the  Second  army 
had  occupied  Mustapha  Pasha  on  the  Turco- 
Bulearian  frontier,  and  from  there  proceeded 
to  close  in  against  Adrianople  from  the  north 
and  west.  The  First  and  Third  armies  ad- 
vanced against  the  fortress  of  Kirk  Kilisse 
northeast  of  Adrianople.  The  Turks  attempted 
to  ojipose  this  advance  with  a  force  of  70,000 
men  and  a  very  sanguinary  battle  was  fought 
north  and  northwest  of  Kirk  lUlisse  22-24 
October.  On  the  latter  date  Kirk  Kilisse  feU 
to  the  Bulgarians  with  large  booty  and  the 
Turks  were  forced  to  retreat  in  disorder. 
Thev  finally  established  themselves  on  a  forti- 
fied line  of  about  20  miles  between  Bunar- 
Hissar  in  the  north  and  Lule  Burgas  in  the 
south.  This  was  later  shifted  so  that  the  right 
wing  rested  on  Visa  instead  of  Bunar  Hissar. 


^e  Bulprians  followed  and  attacked  on  29 
Oct    1912.     In  position,  guni,  equiptnent   and 

1  jjjg  Bulgarians  l»d  the  advantage  over 

— ')neiits.     The  battle  lasted  for  three 


their  ( 


days.  Tbough  making  a  valiant  stand  the  Tur^ 
were  forced  back  everywhere;  by  4  November 
they  had  fallen  back  to  a  new  line  with  Chorlu 
as  Its  centre.  But  the  Bulgarian  advance  was 
irresistible  and  this  positioo  had  to  be  aban- 
doned by  the  Turks  on  7  November.  RealizioK 
the  danger  of  Constantinople  being  threatened 
the  Turkish  government  had  already  on  3 
November,  appealed  to  the  European  Powers 
for  mediation.  The  Turks  meanwhile  re- 
treated within  the  to-called  Chaialdja  lines, 
a  series  of  strongly  fortified  positions  running 
about  20  miles  west  of  Constantino^e,  from 
the  Sea  of  Marmora  to  the  Black  Sea  along 
a  chain  of  heights.  It  was  not  till  13  November 
that  the  Turkish  retreat  and  establishment  at 
Chataldja  was  completed.  The  Bulgars  had 
apparently  stretched  their  resources  to  the  ut- 
most in  driving  the  Turks  back  thus  far,  as 
they  made  no  further  move  of  importance  for 
several  days.  This  brief  respite  enabled  the 
Turks  to  reorganize  and  strengthen  their  weak- 
ened ranks  by  reinforcements  from  their  Asi- 
atic armies,  but  a  serious  outbreak  of  cholera 
among  the  troops  served  to  hinder  the  measures 
of  reconstruction.  Ou  the  17th  the  Fint  and 
Third  Bulgarian  armies  began  an  attu:k  on 
the  Turidsh  lines.  In  some  instances  the  »b- 
tack  succeeded,  but  the  natural  stro^th  of 
the  position  plus  the  assistance  rendered  by 
the  Turkish  fleet  on  the  southetri  flank  was 
more  than  the  Bul^rians  could  overcame.  The 
latter  therefore  withdrew  their  forces  to  the 
west  of  Chataldja  village  and  contented  them- 
selves with  Ruudng  imposaible  any  Tnrkidi 
advance. 

The  Second  Bulgarian  armv  which  at  the 
beginning  of  the  war  had  advanced  against 
Adrianople  attacked  this  city  on  22  and  23 
Oct  191^  but  had  been  unable  to  cany  any 
of  the  important  defensive  works.  The  right 
wing  of  the  First  Bulgarian  army,  however, 
was  pushed  on  23  October  to  the  Tunia  Valley 
north  of  Adrianople;  by  the  29th  its  left  wing 
had  reached  the  Maritia  Valley  south  of  Adri- 
anople The  fortress  was  now  completely 
surrounded.  Still  another  Bui  gar  force  had 
crossed  the  Rhodope  Range  and  inflicted  a  de- 
feat on  the  Turks  al  lOrjali  on  20  October. 
Part  of  this  force  then  advanced  and  joined 
the  other  Bulgarian  troops  before  Adrianople. 
A  special  division  under  General  Todoroff  in 
the  meantime  had  invaded  Macedonia  along 
the  Struma  and  Mcsta  vallies,  captured  the 
Kresna  de&Ie  and  occupied  Buk  on  the  Salo- 
nica-Dedeagatch  Railroad.  This  move  com- 
pletely severed  the  western  from  the  eastern 
Turkish  army.  General  Todoroff  then  advanced 
on  Demir  Hissar  and  from  there  to  Salonica; 
on  his  arrival,  however,  that  city  had  already 
capitulated  to  the  Greeks.  Other  detachments 
of  his  forces  occupied  Kavalla  15  November 
and  Scrrcs  on  the  20th.  After  the  victory  at 
Kiriali  the  Bulgars  pursued  the  Turks  in  the 
direction  of  Jumuljina.  captured  this  town  on 
22  November  and  finally  forced  the  Turks  who 
had  made  a  stand  north  of  the  village  of  Mer- 
hanli  to  surrender  on  27  November,  taking 
12,000  prisoners. 

The  siege  of  Adrianople  in  the  meantime 


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BALKAN  WARS 


had  been  carried  on  without  any  definite  re~ 
suits.  Almost  50,000  men  of  the  First  aod 
Second  Serbian  armies  had  joined  the  Bulgars 
in  the  beginning  of  November  1912^  but  even 
the  combined  forces  still  possessed  insufficient 
artillery  to  compel  surrender.  Every  attempt 
of  the  Turks  to  break  out,  however,  was  re- 
pelled. Coincideat  with  these  Bulgarian  suc- 
ceises  were  equally  important  successes  on 
the  part  of  the  Serbian  armies.  On  19  Oct. 
1912  they  crossed  the  frontier  and  after  a  two 
days'  battle  inflicted  a  severe  defeat  on  the 
Turks  near  Kumanovo  on  24  Nov.  1912.  Slra- 
zim  was  occupied  on  the  22d  Kratovo  ou  the 
ZbA,  and  on  the  same  day  iTskub  was  aban- 
doned hy  the  Turks,  who  were  so  demoralized 
that  they  left  behind  some  120  guns  and  laree 
quantities  of  stores  and  munitions.  Both  the 
Third  and  Fourth  Serbian  armies  had  been 
equally  successful.  Mitrovitza  and  Prishtina 
were  taken  on  22  Oct.  1912,  Novi  Baxar  on 
27  October,  Plevlje  on  the  28th  and  Nova 
Varosh  on  S  November.  After  the  fall  of 
Uskub  the  Serbians  pushed  the  Turks  further 
back  toward  Monasiir.  Doiran  was  taken  on 
5  November  and  Salonica,  already  in  the  hands 
of  the  Greeks,  was  entered  by  the  Serbs  on 
the  8th.  Perlepe,  on  the  road  to  Monastir^ 
wBlS  occupied  6  November  after  a  two  days 
battle.  Two  diriajons  of  General  Yankovitch's 
army  were  dispatched  in  the  middle  of  Novem- 
ber across  the  snow-covered  rooimtains  to- 
ward the  Adriatic  Sea.  They  captured  Alessio 
18  November  and  reached  Duracio  on  the  28th 
(1912).  Pive  divisions  of  the  First  Serbian 
amy  supported  by  other  detachments  resumed 
th^r  attacks  on  die. Turks  in  the  vicinity  of 
Monastir.  After  a  battle  lasting  four  days 
the  Turks  were  completely  routed  and  Mon- 
astir was  occupied  by  the  Serbs.  Most  of  the 
Tui^sh  troops  were  either  killed  or  c^tnred, 
and  only  small  bodies  succeeded  in  escapitig 
toward  the  south. 

The  Montenegrin  forces  throuriiout  Octo- 
ber and  November  1912  were  chidly  occupied 
in  operations  in  northern  Albania  which  finally 
resulted  in  the  complete  investment  of  Scutari. 
Although  the  Turkish  troops  caught  there 
were  prevented  from  breaking  out,  the  artillery 
at  the  disposal  of  the  besiegers  was  too  feeble 
to  reduce  the  place.  During  seven  weeks  of 
the  war  the  Montenegrins,  though  fitting 
with  great  valor  and  detetminatiou,  and  de- 
feating the  Turks  in  almost  every  encounter, 
only  succeeded  in  capturing  Tuzi  (14  October), 
Bcrane  (16  October)  Ipdi  (31  October),  and 
the  insignificant  harbor  of  San  (Siovanni  di 
Medusa  (16  November).  When  in  the  middle 
of  November  Serbian  detachments  appeared 
in  central  Albania  a  Montenegrin  brigade  was 
sent  south  to  co-operate  with  them,  but  before 
the  end  of  the  month  was  recalled  to  assist 
in  the  siege  of  Scutari.  Hence,  when  the 
armistice  was  signed,  Scutari,  the  objective 
of  the  whole  Montenegrin  campaign,  still  re- 
mained in  the  hands  of  its  Turkish  garrison. 

The  Greeks,  from  the  commencement  of 
the  war,  had  made  the  capture  of  Salonica 
their  chief  aim.  Crossing  the  frontier  on  18 
Oct  1912,  thw  captured  Elassona  on  the  19lh, 
decisively  defeated  the  Turks  on  the  22d  at 
the  Sarantoporos  Defile,  captured  Serfije  on 
the  23d  and  Verria  on  29th.  As  the  (ireeks 
approached  nearer  and  nearer  to  Salonica  the 


Turics  made  one  more  attempt  to  make  a  stand 

along  the  line  between  Ycnidje  Vardar  and 
Flati  bridge.  But  the  effort  proved  frmtless, 
and  on  8  Nov.  1912,  Hassan  Tahsin  Pasha  saw 
himself  compelled  to  surrender  Salonica  with 
its  garrison  of  about  30,000  Turkish  troops  to 
the  Greek  Crown  Prince.  Five  Greek  divisions 
were  now  detached  to  assist  the  Serbian  troops 
fighting  near  Monasiir,  where  they  arrived  tn 
time  to  capture  large  numbers  of  Turks  who 
had  attempted  to  flee  southward  after  their 
defeat  before  Monastir.  During  December  the 
main  army  of  the  Greeks  advanced  toward 
Janina  after  beating  the  Turks  at  the  Sangoni 
Pass.  Previous  to  this  the  western  Greek  am^ 
had  come  up  from  the  south  by  way  of  Arta, 
captured  Prevesa,  a  small  fortress,  on  4  Novem- 
ber, Mount  Metsovo  on  the  14th,  and  reached 
the  vicinity  of  Janina  on  28  Nov.  1912. 
Throughout  December  1912  the  Greeks  unsuc- 
cessfully endeavored  to  capture  this  town, 
though  they  had  no  difficulty  in  repulsing  every 
attempt  of  the  Turks  who  assumed  the  offen- 

Naval  operations  during  October,  November 
and  December  1912  were  restricted  chiefly  to 
the  Greek  fleet.  Wherever  opportunity  olieTed 
Greek  destroyers  assisted  their  military  forces. 
The  main  body  of  the  fleet,  however,  was  oc- 
cupied with  the  blockade  of  the  Dardanelles 
and  with  the  capture  of  the  islands  of  Lemnos, 
Thasos,  Imbros,  Samothrace,  Tenedos,  I^ra. 
Psara,  Chios  and  Mitylene.  The  Turkish  fleet 
was  primarily  engaged  with  transporting  rein- 
forcements from  Asia  to  Europe.  It  also  at- 
tempted, wifii  more  or  less  success,  to  blockade 
the  Bulgarian  coast  on  the  Black  Sea.  la 
November  it  was  of  considerable  value  in  de- 
fending the  Cliataldja  lines.  One  Turkish 
cruiser  was  seriously  damaged  on  21  November 
before  Varna  by  a  Bulgarian  torpedo  and  an- 
other was  sunk  by  a  Greek  torpedo  boat  on  31 
October  in  the  harbor  of  Salonica. 

The  Turkish  appeal  to  the  powers  for  me- 
diation (3  November)  met  with  no  favorable 
response.  On  13  Nov.  1912  Turk^  approached 
Bulgaria  for  the  purpose  of  openmg  peace  ne- 
gotiations. For  approximately  a  week  military 
operations  were  more  or  less  suspended  but 
when  on  21  November  Turkey  declined  to  ac- 
cept the  conditions  demanded  by  Bulgaria  and 
her  allies  hostilities  were  reopened.  Neverthe- 
less, representatives  of  the  belligerents  contin- 
ued  to  meet  a  few  days  later  before  the  Cha- 
taldja  lines,  and  on  3  Dec.  1912  an  armistice 
was  ^  signed  between  Turkey  and  Bulgaria, 
Serbia  and  Uontenegro.  Greece  alone  declined 
to  be  a  party  to  this  arrangement  As  a  result 
representatives  of  the  four  parties  to  the  armis- 
tice met  in  London,  16  Dec.  1912,  to  consider  the 
possibility,  in  the  presence  of  the  ambassadors 
of  the  Great  Powers,  of  a  settlement  of  the 
Balkan  question.  Sir  Edward  (now  Viscount) 
Grey,  the  British  Foreign  Minister,  presided  at 
the  conference.  Bulgaria  demanded  Adrian- 
opie;  Greece  insisted  on  the  cession  of  all  the 
.^sean  Islands;  and  all  the  Allies  demanded  an 
indemnity  from  Turkey.  The  Turkish  emis- 
saries rejected  all  of  these  demands,  and  on 
6  Jan.  1913  the  Allies  withdrew  from  the  nego- 
tiations. In  order  to  avoid  if  possible  the  re- 
sumption of  hostilities  which  threatened  more 
and  more  to  involve  all  Europe,  the  powers 


Google 


go 


BALKAN  WAHS 


combined  in  a  note  to  Turkey  advising  the  ces- 
sion of  Adrianopte  and  suggesting  that  the  set- 
tlement of  all  the  other  questions  be  left  in  the 
bands  of  the  powers.  The  utter  impossibility 
of  returning  to  the  status  quo  ante  was  voiced 
by  Mr,  Asquith :  "The  map  of  eastern  Europe 
has  to  be  recast.  .  .  .  Upon  one  thing  I  be- 
lieve the  general  opinion  of  Europe  will  be 
unanimous — that  the  victors  are  not  to  be 
robbed  o£  the  fruits  which  have  cost  them  so 
dear"  (9  Nov.  1912).  By  22  Jan.  1913  appear- 
ances indicated  that  Turkey  would  yield  to  the 
mevitable,  but  on  the  next  da^  a  revolution 
suddenly  broke  out  in  Constantinople.  Nazim 
Pasha,  Minister  for  War,  was  assassinated,  and 
hostilities  were  resumed  a  week  later. 

The  position  of  Turkey  was  indeed  desper- 
ate. Of  all  its  former  great  possessions  in  Eu- 
rope nothing  was  left  beyond  the  small  stretch 
of  land  between  the  Bosporus  and  the  Cha- 
tatdja  lines,  and  the  three  fortresses  of  Adrian- 
ople,  Janina  and  Scutari.  These  latter  were  so 
closely  invested  by  the  superior  forces  of  the 
Balkui  Allies  that  all  hope  of  escape  for  tbem 
seemed  to  be  cut  off.  Every  attempt  to  push 
back  the  invaders  over  the  Chataldja  lines  was 
repulsed,  a  fact  that  was  not  sufficiently  coun- 
terbalanced by  the  strength  shown  by  the 
Turkish  lines  which  held  &rm  against  every 
Bulgarian  assault  On  6  March  1913  Janina 
■urrcndered  to  the  Greeks  with  its  garrison  of 
30,000  men.  The  Turkish  position  at  Adrian- 
ople  became  more  and  more  untenable;  famine 
uid  lack  of  ammunition  gradually  weakened 
the  resistance  in  the  last  and  most  important 
Turkish  stronghold  west  of  the  Chataldja 
Unes.  Eulgars  and  Serbs  made  a  series  o£  de- 
termined assaults  on  the  fortress;  on  9  March 
two  important  forts  were  stormed  and  finally, 
on  26  March,  Shukri  Pasha,  in  command  at 
Adrian  ople,  had  no  other  alternative  than  to 
capitulate  with  33,000  men. 

In  the  meantime  the  Montenegrins  had 
valiantly  continued  their  attacks  on  Scutari. 
.  They  found,  however,  that  in  their  operations 
in  Albania  they  bad  to  contend  not  only  with 
Turkish  resistance,  but  also  with  the  conflicting 
interests  of  Serbia  supported  by  Russia  and  oi 
Italy  supported  by  Austria-Hungary.  These 
powers  arrived  at  an  understanding  over  the 
future  of  Albania  and,  on  20  Dec  1912,  had 
announced  their  acceptance  of  the  principle  of 
Albanian  autonomy  and  of  Serbian  right  to 
free  commercial  access  to  the  sea.  To  deter- 
mine the  frontiers  of  the  new  state  to  every- 
one's satisfaction  was  more  difficult  But  an 
agreement  was  finally  reached  on  26  March 
1913.  Serbia  received  some  of  the  Albanian 
territory  adjacent  to  Montenegro  and  Scutari 
was  to  become  part  and  parcel  of  the  new  state. 
Both  of  these  arrangements  were  considered  by 
Montenegro  unjust;  the  little  mountain  state 
flatly  refused  to  acquiesce  in  the  arrangement 
in  spite  of  immense  pressure  brought  to  bear 
by  all  the  European  Powers,  in  spite  of  the 
withdrawal  of  such  Serbian  forces  as  assisted 
in  the  siege  of  Scutari,  and  even  in  defiance  of 
an  actual  blockade  of  the  Montenegrin  coast 
instituted  by  all  the  powers  except  Russia,  in 
April  1913.  Montenegro's  persistence  had  its 
reward  in  the  capitulation  of  Essad  Pasha  and 
Scutari  on  22  April  1913.  However,  she  was 
to  enjoy  the  fruit  of  her  victory  but  a  short 


time.  Austria-Hui^ry  and  Italy  made  lucb 
strong  representations  that  the  agreement  of 
26  March  should  be  fulfilled,  that  Russia,  in 
view  of  a  possible  intervention  by  these  two 
powers,  exerted  powerful  pressore  on  Monte- 
negro to  evacuate  Scutari.  This  was  done  on 
14  May  1913,  and  Scutari  was  occupied  by 
sailors  from  the  international  fleet. 

G>ntemporaneously  with  the  events  just  de- 
scribed, the  European  Powers  were  exerting 
themselves  to  bring  about  peace,  not,  it  must 
be  confessedj  in  the  interests  of  either  Turkey 
or  her  enemies.  Elxcepting  Germany,  who  had 
other  objects  in  view,  not  a  single  European 
country  re^rded  the  expulsion  of  die  Turk 
with  anything  but  satisfaction.  The  great  dan- 
ger, however,  lay  in  a  possible  conflict  among 
the  powers  themselves,  according  to  which  side 
th^  favored.  What  centuries  of  great  wars 
ana  diplomacy  had  failed  to  achieve  had  been 
accomplished  by  the  little  Balkan  states  in  a 
few  weeks;  the  Turk  had  been  brought  to  his 
knees.  Hence  the  powers  had  persuaded,  first 
Turkey,  on  I  March  1913,  and  then  the  Allies 
on  the  15th,  to  accept  their  mediation.  An 
armistice  was  signed  between  Turkey  on  the 
one  {tart,  and  Bulgaria,  Serbia  and  Greece  on 
the  other  at  Bulair  on  19  April  1913.  With  the 
fall  of  Scutari  three  days  later,  Montenegro 
also  became  a  party  to  the  armistice.  When 
the  Montenegrins  had  evacuated  Scutari  the 
way  to  a  peace  conference  lay  clear.  Repre- 
sentatives from  all  the  nations  involved  met 
again  in  London  21  May  1913-  Representatives 
of  the  Powers,  Great  Britain.  France,  Russia, 
Austria-Hungary,  Germany  and  Italy  were  also 
present  and  hastened  the  proceedings  to  such 
an  extent  that  as  early  as  30  May  the  TreUy 
of  London  was  signed  by  all  the  belligerents. 
It  provided  that  the  Turkish  possessions  in 
Europe  should  be  bounded  in  Uie  west  by  a 
line  drawn  from  Midia  on  the  Black  Sea  to 
Enos  on  the  .£gean  Sea,  the  details  to  be  ar- 
ranged by  an  intemationat  commission ;  that 
the  powers  were  to  determine  ^e  boundaries 
of  the  newly-created  state  of  Albania  and  the 
future  status  of  the  vEgean  Islands ;  that  Crete 
was  to  be  ceded  by  Turkey  to  Greece ;  and  that 
all  financial  questions  were  to  be  settled  by  an 
international  commission  to  meet  as  soon  as 
possible  at  Paris. 

Unfortunately,  the  Treaty  of  London  did 
not  decide  what  was,  to  the  victorious  allies, 
the  most  vital  point  of  all:  die  division  of  the 
territory  wrested  from  the  Turk.  Even  before 
that  treaty  had  been  signed,  ill-feeling  of  the 
strangest  kind  had  sprung  up  between  Bul- 
garia and  Serbia,  and  Bulgaria  and  Greece. 
Secret  treaties  which  had  been  signed  before 
the  outbreak  of  the  war  were  denounced  as 
void  owing  to  "changed  conditions."  The  mil- 
itary forces  of  each  separate  country,  both 
dunng  the  armistice  and  the  session  of  the 
peace  conference,  were  quietly  engaged  in  oc- 
cupying as  large  sections  o^  territory  from 
which  the  Turks  had  been  driven  as  they  could 
cover.  Recriminations  of  eVery  type,  not  un- 
mixed with  physical  violence,  were  indulged  in 
by  the  former  -allies.  The  natives  were  the 
greatest  sufferers;  Serbians  slaughtered  Bul- 
garian civilians  by  the  thousand  and  Bulgarian 
troops  butchered  Serbian  civilians.  Militaiy 
collisions   occurred    frequently   during  Uarch, 


^lOOQle 


gle 


BALKAN  WARS 


April  and  May.  Further  trouble  was  fast 
brewing.  The  powers  demanded,  6  June  1913, 
that  the  Balkaa  states  demobilize;  they  refused 
On  the  10th  Serbia  demanded  from  Bulgaria  a 
revision  of  the  ante-bellum  treaty  of  alliance. 
Russia  threw  her  moral  influence  on  the  side 
of  Serbia,  while  Austria-HunKsry  was  clearly 
more  friendly  to  Bulgaria.  Ine  latter  country 
refused  to  revise  the  treah',  and  on  2?  June 
the  SerUan  Uinisler  left  Sofia, 

The  alliance  was  thus  dissolved;  Thrace  and 
Macedonia  were  again  to  be  devastated  by  the 
very  warriors  who  claimed  to  have  been  fight- 
ing for  the  regeneration  of  both.  Hostilities 
began  on  30  June  1913;  Serbs  and  Bulprs  met 
at  Slatovo  in  a  three-days'  unofficial  battle; 
eight  days  later  Serbia,  Greece  and  Monte- 
negro declared  war  on  Bulgaria.  Meanwhile 
there  had  arisen  a  new  adversary  whom  Bul- 
garia had  to  face,  Rumania.  This  most  north- 
em  of  the  Balkan  states  which  had  so  far  re- 
mained neutral  announced  to  Bulgaria  that  she 
required  certain  guarantees  of  compensation  if 
she  were  to  maintain  her  neutrally  in  a  new 
Ballan  war.  The  demand  was  not  met  promptly 
enough,  and  early  in  July  1913  Rumania  ordered 
a  general  militaiv  mobilization.  On  the  10th 
she  also  declarea  war  on  Bulgaria,  who  was 
□ow  pressed  from  all  sides.  Rumania  invaded 
Bulgaria  from  the  north,  occupied  Turtukai 
and  Baltchick  and  began  to  advance  against 
Sofia.  In  the  southwest  the  Greeks  seized  the 
railroad  between  Doiran  and  Dcdeagatch  and 
were  marching  up  the  Struma  Valley  en  route 
for  Sofia.  In  the  west  the  Serbs  and  Monte- 
negrins were  advancing  against  Kotchana  and 
Kustendtl,  with  Sofia  also  as  their  ultimate 
objective.  Turkey,  too,  now  became  active 
again.  The  Bulgarians  had  naturally  been  com- 
pelled to  withdraw  their  troops  still  lying  be- 
fore the  Chataldja  lines.  The  astonished  Turks 
immediately  advanced  under  Enver  Bey  against 
Adrianople  and  calmly  reoccupied  the  city  with- 
out opposition,  22  July  1913. 

The  Rumanians  were  now  only  20  miles 
from  Sofia;  the  Greeks  and  Serbs  not  much 
further  away;  fighting  desperately,  the  Bulgars 
found  themselves  in  an  iron  ring  growing  ever 
smaller.  Recognizing  the  hopelessness  of  re- 
sisting the  combination  against  him.  King  Fer- 
dinand yielded.  Sis  request  for  mCTCT  was 
favorably  received  by  his  opponents,  and  dele- 
gates from  all  belligerents  met  at  Bucharest  29 
July  1913.  It  was  fortunate  that  diis  third 
Balkan  war  came  to  a  quick  end,  for  all  of  the 
combatants  had  displayed  the  most  wanton 
ferocity  and  committed  unspeakable  atrocities. 
The  peace  meeting  resulted  in  a  treaty  signed 
10  Aug.  1913,  by  which  Rumania  kept  the  two 
towns  she  had  taken  from  Bulgaria,  and  terri- 
tory amounting  in  all  to  2,969  square  miles,  with 
a  population  of  273,000.     Serbia  deprived  Bul- 

giria  of  Kotchana,  Ishtib  and  Radovishta; 
reece  took  away  Salonica,  Doiran,  Demir  His- 
sar,  Seres,  Drama  and  Kavala;  Monastir  also 
became  Serbian  while  Greece  retained  Vodena 
and  Fiorina,     Serbia  rewarded  Montenegro  by 

6'ving  her  Plevlje,  Byelopolye,  Ipek  and 
iakova. 
In  settling  her  boundary  disputes  with 
Turicey^  Bulgaria  also  lost  as  a  result  of  the 
third  Balkan  war.  Turkey  absolutely  refused 
to  evacuate  the  territory  which  she  had  re- 


occupied  during  July  1913,  or  to  live  up  to  the 
Treaty  of  London.  None  of  the  powers 
seem^  to  insist  that  she  should  do  so,  and 
Bulgaria  was  not  in  a  position  to  fight  it  out 
with  Turkw.  Finally  on  29  Sept.  1913,  the 
Treaty  of  Con  Stan  tino]>Ie  fixed  the  frontiers  so 
that  the  Enos-Midia  line  of  the  other  treaty 
acquired  such  a  spinal  curvature  that  it  re- 
tained for  Turkey  Demotika,  Adrianople  and 
Kirk  Kilisse.  As  the  last  of  this  series  of 
treaties  Greece  and  Turkey  signed  the  Treaty 
of  Athens  on  27  Nov.  1913,  t^  which  the  va- 


of  the  newly-created  state  of  Albania  had  also 
been  settled  by  the  powers;  its  boundaries  had 
been  agreed  upon  and  an  international  com- 
mission, located  at  Valona,  assumed  its  gov> 
emment  on  1  Oct  1913.  Later  in  the  month 
they  selected  a  German  prince,  William  of 
Wied,  and  appointed  him  *Mpret  of  Albania.* 
See  Balkan  Lbagije;  Albania;  Bulgaria; 
Sbsbia,  etc 

Bibliognphr,— Ashmead-Bartlett,  E.,  'With 
the  Turks  in  Thrace>  (London  1913)-,  Baker, 
B,  G.,  'The  Passing  of  the  Turkish  Empire  in 
Europe'  (Philadelpliia  1913) ;  Baldwin,  H,  P., 
'A    War   Photographer  in   Thrace*    (London 

1913)  ;  'Balkan  War  Drama'  (Special  Corre- 
spondent, London  1913) ;  'Balkanicus,'  'The 
Aspirations  of  Bulgaria*  (London  191S) ; 
'Balkanicus,*  'Les  Scrbes  et  les  Bulgares  dans 
la  guerre  balkanique'  (Coulommiers  1914') ; 
Barby,   H.,    'La  guerre   aerbo-bulgare*    (Paris 

1914)  ;  Boucabrille,  B.  P.  L.,  <La  guerre  inter- 
balkanique*  (Paris  1914) ;  also  'La  guerre 
Turco-Balkanique,  1912*  (Paris  1913) ;  Bonn. 
M,  J,,  'Die  Balkanfrage*  (Munich  1914); 
Breituer,  B.,  'Kriegstagebuch :  Balkankricg* 
(Vienna  1913);  Bresnitz  von  Sydacoff,  P,  F., 
'Aus  den  (jeheimnissen  des  Balkan  Krieges* 
(Leipzig  1914);  Brown,  R.  A.,  'The  Operations 
of  the  Balkan  Armies'  (f/,  S.  Cavalry  Assoc. 
Journal,  1913,  Vol.  XXIII) ;  Buxton,  Noel, 
'With  the  Bulgarian  Staff'  (New  York  1913) ; 
Campbell,  C,  'The  Balkan  War  Drama*  (New 
York  1913)  ;  Carnegie  Endowment  for  Inter- 
national Peace,  'Nationalism  and  War  in  the 
Near  East'  (New  York  and  London  1915); 
also  'Report  of  the  International  Commission 
of  Inquiry  on  the  Balkan  Wars,  1912-13* 
(Washington  1914);  Cassavetti,  D.  J„  'HelUs 
and  the  Balkan  Wars*  (New  York  1914) ;  Cas- 
telUni,  G.,  'I  popoli  balcanici  nell'  anno  della 
guerra  osservati  da  un  Italiano*  (Milan  1913)  ; 
ChristofI,  P.,  'Journal  du  siege  d' Adrianople* 
(Paris  1914) ;  Cirilli,  G.,  'Journal  du  siige 
d'Adrianople'    (Paris    1913) ;    Denis,    E.,    'La 


den  Balkan  Kriegen*  (Vienna  1914)  ;  Dugard, 
H.,  'Histoire  de  la  guerre  contre  les  Turcs, 
1912-1913'  (Paris  1913) ;  Duncan- Johnstone, 
A.,  'With  the  British  Red  Cross  in  Turkey' 
(London  1913) ;  Durham,  Miss  E.,  'The  Strug- 
gle for  Scutan*  (London  1914)  ;  Egli.  K.,  'Drei 
Monate  vor  SkuUri*  (Berne  1913);  Fabius,  T., 
'  Met  Bulgarten  en  Montenegijnen '  ( Utrecht 
1913);  Famsworth,  H.  W.,  'The  Log  of  a 
would-be  war  correspondent'  (New  York 
1913);  Freytag,  G.,  'Karte  des  Kriegs-schaup- 
latzes  auf  der  Balkan-HalbinseP  (Vienna 
1912)  ;  abbs.  P.,  and  Grant,  B.,  'Adventures  of 

Google 


BALKH— BALL 


War  with  Cross  and  Crescent*  (London  1912)  ; 
Guyon,  B.,  'Balcanica'  (Milan  1916) ;  Hano- 
teaux,  G.,  'I^  guerre  des  Balkans  et  I'Europe' 
(Paris) ;  Hemberger,  A.,  *lllustrierte  Ge- 
schichte  des  Balkan krieges'  (Vienna  1913); 
Hochwaechter,  G.  von,  'Mit  den  TiJrken  in  der 
Front  im  Stabe  Mahmud  Muchtar  Paichas' 
(Berlin  1913)  ;  Howell.  P.,  <The  Campaign  in 
Thrace'  (London  1913) ;  Hutchison,  T.  S.,  'An 
American  Soldier  under  the  Greek  Flag  at 
Bawnia'  (Nashville  1913) ;  Immanuel,  F.,  ^Der 
Balkanki;ieg>  (Berlin'  1913-14) ;  Uzet-Fuad 
Pasha,  'Paroles  de  vaincu'  (Paris  1913) ; 
James,  L.,  'With  the  Conquered  Turk*  (Bos- 
ton 1913) ;  Kessler.  O..  'Der  Balkanbrand' 
(Leipzig  1913) ;  Kutschbach.  A.,  'Die  Serben 
im  Balkan  Krieg  1912-1913  und  im  Kriegegegen 
die  Bulgaren>  (Stuttf^art  1913)  ;  Laurent,  O., 
'La  guerre  en  Bulgarie  et  en  Turquie'  (Paris 
1914) ;  Leboucq.  C.  F.,  <Un  an  dc  cauchemar 
balkanique'  (Paris  1914)  ;  'Les  cruaut^  bul-  , 
gares  en  Macedoine  onentale  et  en  Thrace' 
(Athens  1914)  ;  Loti,  Pierre,  'Turqiue  agoni- 
sante>  (Paris  1913) ;  Mach,  R.  von,  'BHefe 
aui  dem  Balkan  Kriege^  (Berlin  1913);  Meyer, 
Alfred,^  'Der  Balkan  Krie^>  (Berlin  1913- 
14) ;  Milctitch,  L,,  'Atrocitis  grecques  en 
Macedoine  pendant  la  guerre  greco-bulgare' 
(Sophia  1913) ;  Mirande,  H.  and  Oliver  L., 
'Sur  la  bataUle'  (Paris  1913)  ;  Mnkbtar  Pasha, 
'Meinc  Fiifarung  im  Balkan  Kriege.  1912'  (Ber- 
lui  1913)  I  Nikolaides,  K.,  'Griechenlands  An- 
teil  an  den  Balkankriegen'  (Vienna  1914)  ; 
Pennenrun,  A.  de,  'Feuilles  de  route  bulgares* 
(Paris) :  also  *La  guerre  des  Balkans  en  1914> 
(Paris  1913);  and  'Quarante  jours  de  guerre 
dans  les  Balkans*  (Paris  1914)  ;  Piarron  de 
Mondesir,  J.  F.  L.,  'Siege  el  prise  d'Adrianople' 
(Paris  1914);  Pickthall,  M.,  'With  the  Turk 
in  Wartime*  (London  1914)  :  Price,  W.  H.  C. 
'The  Balkan  Cockpit*  (London  1914)  ;  Puaux, 
R.,  'De  Sofia  k  Tchataldja'  (Paris  1913)  ;  Ran- 
kin, R.,  'The  Inner  History  of  the  Balkan 
War*  (London  1914)  ;  Remond,  G.,  <Avec  les 
vaineiK*  (Paris  1913);  Ripert  d'Alanzier,  P. 
de,  'Sur  lea  pas  des  allies'  (Paris  1914) ; 
Rohde,  Hans,  'Die  Ereignisse  zur  See  und  das 
Zusammenwirken  von  Heer  und  Flotte  im 
Balkankriege*  (Berlin  1914)  ;  also  'Die  Opera- 
tionen  an  den  Dardanellen  im  Balkankricge* 
(Berlin  1914)  ;  Schurman,  J.  G.,  'The  Balkan 
Wars*  (Princeton  1914)  ;  Selim  Bey,  'Camet 
de  campagne  d'un  offieier  turc'  (Paris  1913) ; 
Sloane,  W.  M.,  'The  Balkans'  (New  York 
1914)  ;  Tharaud,  J„  'La  bataiile  i  Scutari  d'AI- 
banie'  (Paris  1913)  ;  Trapmann,  Capt.  A.  H.. 
'The  (ireeks  Triumphant*  (London  1915)  ; 
Velhagen  and  Klasing,  'Kriegskarte  der  Balkan 
HalbinseP  (Leipzig  1913);  Vischcr,  Dr.  A„ 
'An  der  serbischen  Front'  (Basel  1913)  ;  Wag- 
ner. H.,  'With  the  Victorious  Bulgarians' 
(Boston  1913)  T  Wright,  H.  C.  S.,  'Two  Years 
under  the  Crescent'    (London  1913). 

Hentw  F.  Klein, 
Librarian  London  Times,  1898-1905;  Editorial 
Staff  London  Standard.  1905-15. 
BALKH,  balkh,  Afghan  Turkestan,  a  dis- 
trict corresponding  to  ancient  Bactria,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  river  Oxus,  on 
the  east  by  Badakhshan,  on  the  south  by  the 
Hindu  Kush  and  west  by  the  desert  Its 
length  is  250  miles;  its  breadth  120.    Its  «tua- 


Dnce  important  during  the  overland 
between  IncUa  and  eastern  Europe 
before  ihe  sea  route  by  the  C^pe  of  Good  Hope 
was  followed.  The  soil  has  the  general  char- 
acteristics of  a  desert  landj  only  a  few  parts 
are  made  fertile  by  artificial  irrigation ;  and 
such  are  the  vicissitudes  of  climate  that  where 
grapes  and  apricots  ripen  in  summer  and  the 
mulberry-tree  permits  the  cultivation  of  silk, 
in  winter  the  frost  is  intense  and  the  snow  lies 
deep  on  the  ground  The  natives  are  Uzbegs, 
whose  character  differs  in  different  districts. 
from  plunderers  of  caravans  to  tillers  of  the 
soil  and  artisans. 

BALKH,  Afghan  Turkestan,  the  capital  of 
the  district  of  the  same  name,  situated  in  a 
district  intersected  by  canals  and  ditches.  It 
is  surrounded  by  a  mud  wall ;  but  though  bear- 
ing the  imposing  title  of  "Mother  of  Cities,* 
it  has  not  in  recent  times  had  any  of  the 
grandeur  of  ancient  Bactria,  on  the  site  of 
which  it  is  built.  It  was  twice  destroyed  by 
(jcnghis  Khan  and  Timur.  A  terrible  out- 
break of  cholera  in  1877  caused  the  capita!  of 
Afghanistan  Turkestan  to  be  transferred  to 
Mazar,  west  of  Balkh ;  since  which  Baikh  has 
been  an  insignificant  village.  It  contains  a 
mosque,  a  citadel  and  several  half-ruined ' 
schools.  It  is  reputed  to  have  been  at  one 
time  the  centre  of  the  Zoroastrian  religion. 
There  is  a  new  town  of  the  same  name  a  short 
distance  to  the  north  of  Balkh.  Pop.  about 
8,000. 

BALKHASH,  bil-ka^',  a  great  inland 
lake  on  the  eastern  border  of  Russian  Central 
Asia.  Lying  about  7S0  feet  above  sea-level,  it 
extends  323  miles  west-southwest;  its  breadth 
at  the  west  end  is  over  50  miles;  at  the  east 
from  nine  to  four  miles;  the  area  is  8,600 
square  miles.  The  water  is  clear  but  intensely 
salt  Its  principal  feeder  is  the  river  Hi.  The 
northern  edge  is  well  defined ;  but  the  south 
shores  of  the  lake  are  labyrinths  of  islands, 
peninsulas,  low  sandhills  and  strips  of  shallow 
water.  Here  grow  masses  of  enormously  tall 
reeds  in  whidi  wild  swine  shelter.  To  the 
south,  stretching;  toward  the  base  of  the  Ala- 
tau  Mountains,  is  a  vast  steppe  almost  devoid 
of  vegetation.  Balkhash  seems  to  have  at  one 
time  included  in  its  immense  area  the  smaller 
lakes  Sossik-kut  and  Ala-kul,  now  far  to  the 
southeast 

BALKIS,  the  Arabian  name  of  the  Queen    • 
of  Shcba  who  visited  Solomon.     She   is  the 
central  figure  of  innumerable  Eastern  legends 
and  tales. 

BALL,  Blmer  Darwin,  American  entomol- 
ogist:  b  Athens,  Vt.,  21  Sept.  1870.  He  was 
educated  at  Iowa  State  College  and  the  Ohio 
State  University.  In  1895-97  he  was  assistant 
in  zoology  and  entomology  in  Iowa  Stale  Co\- 
lege;  in  1898-1902  associate  professor  of  zool- 
ogy and  entomology  at  the  Colorado  Agricul- 
tural College.  From  1902  to  1907  he  held  the 
same  chairs  at  the  Utah  Agricultural  College 
and  in  the  latter  year  was  appointed  director 
of  the  Utah  Experiment  Station.  In  1909  he 
became  director  of  the  School  of  Agriculture 
of  the  Ulah  Agricultural  College  and  in  1910 
was  president  of  the  Utah  Academy  of  Sci- 
ence.    He  is  a  member  of  the  Entomolopcal 


t,zcd=y  Google 


Society  of  America  and  many  similar  learned 
bodies.  He  has  written  numerous  systematic 
and  life-history  studies  of  Cercopida  Jassidir 
and  Fulgorida,  economic  studies  of  the  codling' 
moth,  g^rasshopperj  and  sugar-beat  leaf  fao[)per, 
causing  'curly  leaf*;  also  studies  on  poultry- 
breeding. 

BALlh  John,  Enflish  priest  of  the  14th 
century.  He  was  a  (Usciple  of  Wydifle,  upon 
whose  religious  doctrines  he  ei)g;rafted  some 
political  theories  resembling  the  "Eberty,  equal- 
ity and  fraternity'  of  later  ages.  He  was  sev- 
eral times  imprisoned  for  his  indiscreet  utter- 
ances and  twice  excommunicated.  He  was  in- 
timately concerned  in  the  Wat  Tyler  insurrec- 
tion of  1381  and  for  his  part  in  the  affair  was 
faaiu;ed,  drawn  and  quartered  at  Saint  Albans, 
15  July  1381,  the  Kmg  witnessing  the  execu- 
tion. Consult  Morris,  'The  Dream  of  John 
Ball'  und  'Dictionuy  of  National  Biography' 
(London  1865). 

BALL,  Sir  Robert  Stawell,  distinguished 
EngUsh  astronomer:  b.  Dublin,  1  July  !8«; 
d.  Cambridge,  25  Nov.  1913.  In  ISiS  he  was 
appointed  Lord  Rosse's  astronomer  at  Parsons- 
town.  While  there  he  discovered  four  spiral 
nebulie.  He  has  held  many  posts  in  connection 
with  astronomy  and  mathematics,  includins 
those  of  professor  of  applied  mathematics  and 
mechanism  at  the  Royal  College  of  Science  for 
Ireland;  Andrews  professor  of  astronomy  in 
the  University  of  Dublin ;  astronomer-roya! 
of  Irehmd  from  1874  to  1898  and  was  engaged 
in  measuring  the  ^stances  of  the  stars  from 
the  earth.  Meanwhile  he  wrote  an  important 
work  on  the  mathematical  theory  of  screws, 
a  subject  which  he  popularized  at  the  British 
Association  meeting  of  1887  in  an  address  en- 
titled 'A  Dynamical  Parable.^  Ball  had  a  hap- 
py gift  of  simplicity  and  could  make  abstruse 
problems  not  only  comprehensible  but  even  in- 
teresting  to  young  people.  He  was  Lowdean 
professor  of  astronomy  and  geometry  in  the 
University  of  Cambridge  and  director  of  the 
Cambridge  Observatory  since  1892.  The  Royal 
Soci.eQr  elected  him  a  fellow  in  1673  and  in 
1886  he  was  knighted.  His  works  include  'The 
Story  of    the   Heavens'    (1885) ;    'Time  and 


Story  of  the  Sun>  (1893);  'Great  Astron- 
omers' (1895);  'The  Earth's  BM[inning> 
(1901);  ipopubr  Guide  to  the  Heavens' 
(1905);  etc. 

BALL,  TbonuB,  American  sculptor:  b. 
Charlestown,  Mass.,  6  March  1819;  a.  Mont- 
clair.  N.  J,  1911.  He  was  the  son  of  a  house- 
painter  and  undertook  the  support  of  the  fam- 
ily on  the  eariy  death  of  his  father.  He  se- 
cured employment  as  a  boy- of -all- work  at  the 
New  England  Museum,  Boston,  where  his  as' 
sociations  turned  him  to  art  and  led  him  to 
study  and  practise  portrait-painting.  He  also 
iriea  his  hand  at  sculpture,  his  first  attempt  in 
this  direction  being  a  bust  of  Jenny  Lina.  A 
life-siie  bust  of  I^nie!  Webster  brought  him 
great  success  and  enabled  hitn  to  leave  in  1854 
Tor  Florence,  where  he  studied  two  years. 
Soon  after  his  return  to  Boston  he  began  work 
on  the  celebrated  equestrian  statue  of  Wash- 
ington, which  was  unveiled  in  1869.  It  was 
the  first  equestrian  statue  in  New  England  and 
perhaps    the    best   so    far  produced.     He    re- 


turned to  Florence  in  186S  and  resided  there 
for  several  years.  His  later  works  include 
Edwin  Forrest  as  'Coriolanus*  (1867),  now  in 
Ae  Actors'  Home,  Philadelphia;  'Eve  Stepping 
into  Life';  'La  Petite  Pensee' ;  'Saint  John 
the  Evangelist'  Of  his  lar^r  works  the  most 
important  are  his  'Emancipation  Group'  in 
Washington  (imveiled  1875),  a  bronze  repre- 
sentation of  Lincoln  freeing  a  kneeling  slave! 
the  Webster  statue  in  Central  Park,  New  York; 
the  statue  of  Josiah  Quincy  before  the  City 
Hall,  Boston;  the  Washington  monument  at 
Methuen,  Mass.  He  published  an  autobiog- 
raphy. 'My  Three-Score  Years  and  Ten' 
(1891).  Consult  also  Taft,  'History  of  Amer- 
ican  Sculpture'    (New  York   1903). 


cation  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  at 
University  College,  London.  He  became  lec- 
turer at  Trinity  (College  Cambridge,  in  1878^ 
was  appointed  director  of  mathematical  studies 
in  1891  and  senior  tutor  and  chairman  of  the 
college  educational  committee.  He  was  the 
representative  of  the  University  of  Cambridge 
on  the  borough  council  in  1905.  He  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  governing  bodies  of  Westminster 
School  and  the  Cambridge  Perse  School.  He 
has  examined  on  various  occasions  in  the  Tri- 
pos and  other  examinations  and  has  served  on 
numerous  boards  and  syndicates.  He  is  owner 
of  the  largest  collection  in  Great  Britain  of 
poriraits  of  mathematicians.  His  publications 
include  'A  History  of  Mathematics' ;  'The 
Genesis  and  History  of  Newton's  Pnndpia' 
(1893);  'The  Student's  Guide  to  the  Bar> 
(7th  ei,  19(M)  ;  'History  of  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge'  (1906);  'History  of  the  First 
Trinity  Boat  Oub'  {1908);  'Short  Account 
of  the  History  of  Mathematics'  (Sth  ed, 
1912);  'Mathematical  Recreations  and  Essays' 
(Sth  ed.,  1912) ;  'Records  of  Admission  to 
'Trinitj'  Collegt  1546-1900';  and  various 
memoirs  in  mathematical  journals. 

BALL,  as  an  article  of  ammunition,  see 
GuNNBKv ;  Obdnance  ■  Projectiles  ;  Shot. 

In  connection  with  sports  and  games  the 
ball  in  various  sizes  has  been  in  universal 
usage  since  ancient  times.  The  Greeks  re- 
garded ball-games  as  of  much  value  in  adding 
grace  to  the  figure  and  giving  elasticity  to  the 
musdes  of  the  body  and  the  Romans  also 
played  a  game  of  ball  in  coimection  with  their 
baths  foe  the  same  purpose.  Several  of  the 
games  then  played  resembled  modem  handball, 
football  and  polo.  .Modern  tennis  and  rackets 
undoubtedly  had  their  beginnings  in  the  jeu- 
de^faume  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  lacrosse  was 
originally  played  by  the  North  American  In- 
dians, though  the  historical  data  concerning 
these  and  other  games  are  meagre  and  new 
customs  and  rules  have  so  changed  ^mes  that 
their  true  history  cannot  be  told  with  exact- 
ness. Of  varieties  of  balls  for  use  in  the  dif- 
ferent sports  there  are  many.  "The  baseball 
is  made  of  a  sphere  of  rubber,  tyi  ounces  in 
weight,  which  is  wound  with  yam  and  cov- 
ered with  leather.  The  basket-hall  is  an  in- 
flated rubber  ball,  enclosed  in  leather  and  from 
30  to  32  inches  in  diameter.  The  tennis  ball 
is  of  rubber  covered  with  white  flannel,  about 
2^  inches  in  diameter  and  2  ounces  in  weight, 
llie  lacrosse  ball  is  made  of  india-rubber  and 


Google 


BALL  BBASIHOS  —  BALLAD 


is  8  or  9  ittcbes  in  diameter.  The  polo  ball  is 
of  wood  and  4  or  5  inches  tn  diameter.  The 
football  is  a  prolate  spheroid  in  shape  and 
consists  of  a  rubber  bladder  encased  in  a 
leather  cover.  Billiard  balls  are  of  ivory  and 
from  2A  to  2^  inches  in  size.  Sec  Basb- 
Kiux;  Football;  Baskciball;  Lawm  TcMiria; 
Rackets;  Cricket;  Handball;  Laciossb; 
Polo;  Boxiaeds;  Etc 


BALL  CLAY.    See  Clay. 

BALL    COCK, 

opened  and  shut  by  ._ _  _    _  _ 

sphere  attached  to  the  end  of  a  lever  _ . 
nected  with  the  cock.  Its  use  is  principally  to 
regulate  the  supply  of  water  to  cisterns.  The 
ball  floats  by  reason  of  its  buoyancy  and  ris- 
ing and  sinking  as  the  water  nses  and  sinks, 
shuts  off  the  water  in  the  one  case  and  lets  it 
on  in  the  other. 

BALL  FLOWER,  an  architectoral  oma-  i 
ment  resembling  a.  ball  placed  in  a  circular 
flower,  the  three  petals  oi  which  form  a  cup 
around  it;  usualh*  inserted  in  a  hollow  mould' 
ing  and  generally  characteristic  of  the  Dec- 
orated Gothic  style  of   the  14th  century. 

BALL  NOZZLE.     See  Hyisodykaiiics. 

BALL  AND  SOCKET,  a  joint  used  in 
machinery  and  piping.  It  consists  of  a  spheri- 
cal end  of  a  rod  or  pipe  fitting  into  a  hollow 
Sl^ere  of  the  same  size  on  a  uke  piece.  The 
object  of  this  joint  is  to  provide  a  close,  mov- 
able connection  and  to  prevent  leakage  in 
pipes.  Suspended  gas  chandeliers  are  usually 
fitted  with  this  movement 

BALLAD,  a  short  narrative  poem  in  stan- 
za^ oripnally  intended  for  singing.  The  name, 
which  IS  derived  from  the  Labn  biUlare,  to 
dance,  is  frequently  used  very  loosely  and  ap- 
plied to  a  vanety  of  songs  and  verse-tales  with 
no  real  bond  of  association.  But  in  the  stricter 
e  it  belongs  to  a  comparatively  small  body 


speaking  countries,  though  literary 
of  the  type  are  still  composed.  Its  most  char- 
acteristic quality  is  impersonality.  Not  only 
is  the  author  unknown,  bnt  in  the  pure  ballad 
there  is  no  trace  of  his  individuality.  The 
material  of  the  poem  is  usually  popular  in  ori- 
^n  and  the  sentiment  and  point  of  view  are 
Qiose,  not  of  a  single  person,  but  of  the  whole 
people.  'People,"  in  the  sense  here  used,  has 
reference  not  to  the  lower  classes  but  to  so- 
dety  in  a  period  when  in  the  matter  of  cul- 
ture the  community  was  homogeneous.  Thus 
the  ori^ns  of  the  kind  of  poetry  of  which  the 
ballad  IS  a  survival  are  to  be  looked  for  In  a' 
comparatively  primitive  stage  of  society,  be- 
fore the  "poetry  of  art'  came  into  existence, 
when  the  tribal  community  could  still  express 
itself  in  simultaneous  utterances  accompanying 
the  rhythmic  movements  of  dance  or  march. 

This  view  of  the  origin  of  ballad  poetry  is 
not  universally  accepted.  Over  against  it  there 
is  placed  the  apparently  simpler  theory  that  the 
ballads  are  the  production  of  minstrels,  from 
the  15th  century  down,  who  derived  from  ro- 


mances and  other  sources  in  artificial  litera- 
ture stories  which  they  threw  into  crude  stan- 
zas, to  chant  sometimes  in  the  houses  of  the 
great,  sometimes  at  fairs  and  other  popular 
gatherings.  But  the  objections  to  this  view 
are  serious.  First,  minstrel  ballads  such  as 
are  here  described  were  manufactured  and 
still  exist  in  abundant  broadsides  and  chap- 
books,  but  they  are  universally  lacking  in  pre- 
cisely those  qualities  of  impersonality  and  un- 
consciousness which  constitute  at  once  the  mark 
and  the  ctiarm  of  the  true  popular  ballad. 
Second,  the  minstrel  theory  ignores  the  exist- 
ence of  a  large  mass  of  ethnological  evidence, 
showing  the  mdubitable  and  wefi-nigh  univer- 
sal   existence    of    the   practice    of    commimal 


definite  proof  that  the  genuine  ballads  which 
have  been  collected  during  the  last  two  cen- 
turies have  come,  with  rare  exceptions,  not 
I  from  the  mouths  or  wallets  of  minstrels,  but 
I  from  humble  unprofessional  people,  *the  spin- 
sters and  the  knitters  in  the  sun,*  who  have 
in  so  many  branches  of  folk-lore  proved  the 
best  conservators  of  the  heritage  of  the  peo- 
pled A  minstrel's  addition  to  his  stock  of  an 
I  occasional  piece  of  more  or  less  degraded  pop- 
ular verse  in  no  wise  overthrows  the  signifi- 
cance of  this  fact  There  is  no  reason  to  be- 
lieve that,  in  the  centuries  before  ballad-col- 
lecting began,  the  medium  of  transmission  was 
substantially   different. 

The  argument  cm  the  other  side  has  al- 
ready been  partly  indicated.  First,  there  ex- 
ists the  evidence  of  the  wide-sfiread  practice 
of  accompanjring  communal  activity  —  in  la- 
bor, ceremonial  or  festal  dance~-with  rWb- 
fflic  utterances:  the  gradual  growth  of  these 
utterances  in  oefiniteness  of  form;  the  prac- 
tice of  making  them  the  medium  of  narrating 
some  episode  known  to  all  —  e.g.,  the  stoiy  of 
some  great  deed  accomplishca  by  the  hero 
whose  death  is  being  lamented,  or  the  manner 
of  the  victory  wbidi  is  being  celebrated,  or 
some  ludicrous  incident  in  the  season's  labor 
happily  finished, —  the  contribution  of  a  new 
line  or  stanza  now  by  this,  now  by  that  mem- 
ber of  the  dancing  throug;  the  recurrent  re- 
frain sung  1^  all;  the  final  creation  of  a  nar- 
rative song  for  which  no  one  individual  is  re- 
sponsible, out  which  is  the  expression  of  the 
thought  and  feeling  of  all.  Second,  the  un- 
in dividual  element  is  intensified  by  the  method 
of  transmission.  Before  any  extant  ballad 
came  into  the  form  in  which  we  find  it,  it  had 
been  handed  down  from  mouth  to  mouth 
through  many  generations,  modified  endlessly 
in  detail,  but  by  tins  very  process  losing  what- 
ever individual  dements  might  at  any  stage 
appear  in  it,  and  keqiing,  with  what- 
ever change  of  matter  or  modernization  of  dia- 
lect, just  those  qualities  of  impersonality  and 
unconsciousness  of  literary^  effect  which  have 
been  noted  as  its  characteristic  traits.  Third, 
the  theory  suggested  by  th?se  facta  recdves 
corroboration  from  the  refrain  and  from  the 
characteristic  narrative  method  of  the  ballad, 
the  so-called  'incremental  repetition.*  The 
phrase  is  used  to  describe  the  method  of  tell- 
ing a  story  by  the  repetition  in  a  set  of  stanzas 
of^thc  same  words  with  just  enotuch  change  to 
advance  the  oamtive  one  at^    "niua  the  mo- 


t,zcd=y  Google 


dve  for_  tfae  murder  of  the  Bonnie  Earl  of 
Murray  ii  gradually  insinuated  by  this  method 
in  these  staiuas : 

Ha  mi  ■  bnw  tslhiit. 

And  he  rid  ftt  the  Iio^t 
And  tba  bonny  Earl  ol  Munaj, 

Oh  ha  mi^t  have  boon  a  kfiisl 

Ha  mi  ■  bnw  nlluiti 

And  ha  playsd  at  the  tw; 
And  the  baasy  Earl  of  HDcrar 

Wh  the  Iknnr  unina  tbtm  ■ . 

Ha  mi  a  bnw  Bllant, 

And  ha  plarod  at  the  glove: 
And  Uw  bonny  Bui  et  llumy, 

Oh  be  mi  Ow  OoMs'i  hnel 

A  momeofi  reflectioa  will  show  how  tuit- 
able  sndi  a  device  is  to  communal  improvisa- 
lion  and  how  natuTally  it  is  derived  from  it 
As  for  the  refrain,  the  part  played  by  the  crowd 
in  the  singing  of  it  does  not  need  to  be  argued. 

It  is  not  implied  that  all  ballads  showing 
incremental  repetition  and  preserving  refrains 
were  thus  composed  by  a  throng.  For  most, 
perhaps  for  all,  of  our  extant  ballads  it  is 
probably  safe  to  assume  a  single  original  au- 
ihor,  whose  name  and  circumstances  are  now 
hopelessly  lost,  but  who  first  nve  each  ballad 
a  definite  form.  But  even  when  making  this 
assumption,  we  must  bear  in  mind  the  fact 
dtat  he  worked  after  models  which  went  back 
nltimatel^  to  commmial  products^  that  he 
worked  in  a  period  when  it  was  still  possible 
I  compose  in  the  communal   spirit,   that  he 


orally  through  generations  who  altered  and 
modified  till  whatever  of  personal  existed  in 
the  first  form  has  been  obliterated.  Thus,  if 
the  famous  i^rase,  *das  Volk  dichtet,*  can- 
not be  used  of  the  ballads  we  read  to-day  in 
the  sense  in  which  it  was  true  of  the  earliest 
ronununal  chants,  it  still  holds  to  this  extent 
that,  in  so  far  as  a  given  specimen  approaches 
the  pure  ballad  type,  it  fails  to  exhibit  the 
marks  of  any  han<Uwork  but  that  of  the 
folk. 

The  ballad  thus  stands  at  the  remote  end 
of  that  line  of  development  at  the  hither  end 
of  which  we  find  the  modem  subjective  lyric 
such  as  the  sonnet  The  curve  which  lies  be- 
tween shows  the  tendency  running  through 
the  history  of  poetry  to  have  been  to  empha- 
size more  and  more  the  individuality  of  the 
author,  to  relegate  the  people  more  and  more 
to  die  place  of  mere  audience.  We  are  pre- 
pared to  6nd.  then,  many  features  in  the  nis- 
toiy  of  ballads  highly  dissimilar  and  even  con- 
Iradictoiy  to  those  ot  modem  Uterature.  Thus 
the  life  of  a  modem  poem  begins  when  it  is 
committed  to  paper:  a  ballad  then  begins  to 
die.  It  lives  only  while  it  is  still  being  trans- 
mitted orally  from  -generation  to  generation, 
receiving  from  each  its  stamp,  A  modem 
poem  has  one  authentic  text:  a  ballad  may 
have  many  texts,  varying  in  number  with  the 
extent  of  territory  over  which  it  was  sung, 
but  no  single  auuioritative  text  A  modem 
avoids    explicit    borrowing:    the    ballad 


the  exclusive  property  of  none.    Such  a 
formulas  for  sendit^  a  messenger, 

O  whaDT  win  I  get  ■  tuniir  boy,  etc: 

for  ordering  a  horse, 

O  nddle  ma  tha  bUck,  the  black, 
Onddle  me  the  brawn: 

for  describing  a  journey, 

Tbry  badna'  gaen  a  mile,  a  mflo, 
A  mile  but  Donly  throei 

for  concluding  a  romantic  tragedy, 

~  -ied  in  Mair'e  kiric 


And> 


tilher  m  "ary'i  w 


:e;; 


rabirk. 


A  modern  poet  seeks  novelty  of  epithet:  the 
ballad  clings  to  the  traditional  descnption ;  the 
gold  is  red,  the  lady  is  fair,  her  dress  is  grass- 
green,  her  hair  is  yellow,  her  tears  are  salt, 
the  moon's  light  b  clear,  the  {Kirter  is  proud, 
brothers  are  bold,  a  bower  i&  *bigly,*  and  so  on. 

Equally  characteristic  is  the  treatment  of 
incident  and  plot  in  the  ballad.  There  is  sel-  , 
dom  any  introduction:  we  plunge  at  once  into 
the  midst  of  the  action.  The  stanzas  leap  from 
peak  to  peak  of  the  narrative,  with  no  attempt 
to  supply  the  less  important  links,  yet  seldom 
with  any  real  sacrifice  of  clearness.  The  events 
in  the  uncontaminated  ballad  are  utunoralized 
and  unsenCimentalized ;  the  bald  fact  is  left 
without  comment  or  criticism  from  the  singer. 
Conscious  fibres  of  speech  are  rare  and  the 
background  is  seldom  ullcd  in.  Thus  the  gat- 
eral  result  is  that  of  rapidity  of  motion,  direct- 
ness and  unconsciousness  of  eifect,  an  absence 
of  artistic  suggestion.  Whenever  we  find  a 
moral  drawn  or  a  dwelling  on  the  pathetic,  in- 
terpolation by  a  modern  would-be  artist  is  to 
be  suspected. 

From  what  has  been  said  of  origins,  it  is 
clear  that  Iktle  can  be  guessed  as  to  the  date 
of  composition  of  ballads.  Som^  notably  those 
simple,  h^hly  typical  stories  like  'The  Twa 
Sisters,'  written  in  a  two-line  stanza  with  % 
refrain,  with  stress  upon  situation  rather  than 
upon  succession  of  events,  may  in  some  form 
be  of  almost  anv  age.  Others  have  an  upper 
limit  of  date  fixed  by  the  historical  event 
which  occasionally  forms  the  basis  of  the  plot. 
The  dates  of  ballad  manuscripts,  which  are, 
of  course  an  entirely  different  thing,  and  a 
date  of  death  rather  than  of  birth,  are  more 
easihr  fixed.  The  earliest  is  <Judas'  (No.  23 
in  Child's  collection)  from  a  13th  century  MS. ; 
the  next  'Riddles  Wisely  Expounded'  (Child,!) 
about  1445;  a  little  later,  *Robin  Hood  and 
the  Monk'  (Child,  119),  <St  Stwhen  and 
Herod'  (Child,  22).  and  'Robyn  and  Gandclyn' 
(Child,  IIS)  ;  two  exist  in  copies  ot  about  iSM; 
two  others  about  1550.  Less  than  a  dozen  are 
preserved  in  MSS.  before  1600.    The  most  im- 

Krtant  single  MS.  is  the  Folio  which  Bishop 
■.Tcy  used  as  a  basis  for  his  famous  *Reliques 
of  Ancient  English  Poetry,*  and  it  is  in  a 
handwriting  of  about  16S0.  A  few  appear  in 
early  printed  forms.  'A  Lytell  Geste  ot  Robyn 
Hoae'  was  printed  about  1500,  and  broadside 
versions,  usually  in  very  degraded  form,  ap- 
peared frequently  in  the  17ui  and  18th  cen- 
turies. The  most  important  sources  after  the 
Percy  Folio  are  the  collections  made  directly 
from  the  mouths  of  the  people,  such  as  those 
of  David  Herd  (1776),  Mrs.  Brown  of  Falk- 
land (1783-1801).  Sir  Walter  Scott  (1783- 
1830),    C.    K    Sharpe    (c,    1823),    Motherwell 


Google 


Ballads  on  historical  occurrences  apart 
of  the  plots  belong  to  the  mass  of  folk- tale 


which  is  the  exclusive  possession  of 
nation  or  language.  Many  ballads  tell  stories, 
versions  of  whiui  are  found  in  almost  eve^ 
known  (on^e.  The  explanation  of  this  world- 
wide diffusion  of  story-material  is  one  of  the 
standing  problems  of  folk-lore ;  but  whatever 
theory  of  its  cause  be  adopted,  the  fact  that  it  is 
largely  from  this  international  treasury  that  the 
ballads  derive  their  plots  is  a  strong  reason  for 
regarding  them  as  essentially  'popular*  in  mat- 
ter as  well  as  in  manner. 

Turning  now  to  the  nature  of  these  storie^ 
we  find  that  by  far  the  largest  class  is  concerned 
with  romantic  love  and  its  consequences.  Many 
are  trapic,  the  interference  of  fathers,  mothers 
or  brothers  being  perhaps  the  commonest  cause 
of  the  fatal  issue.  Both  in  these  and  in  the 
romantic  ballads  with  happy  endings  the  sym- 
pathy of  the  audience  with  the  lovers  is  in 
general  assumed,  and  in  cases  of  illicit  love  no 
moral  judgment  is  passed  or  suggested.  Some 
of  the  best  are  ballads  of  war  by  land  or  sea; 
and  the  irregular  warfare  of  tne  Borderland 
between  England  and  Scotland  has  given  birth 
to  a  number  justly  famous.  The  largest  group 
connected  with  a  single  personality  is  that  of 
the  Robin  Hood  ballads.  Of  these,  some  like 
<A  Lytell  Geste>  and  "Robin  Hood  and  the 
Monk'  represent  not  only  the  finest  of  the  out- 
law group,  but  rank  with  the  best  of  all  ballads. 
The  later  membersof  this  group,  however,  show 
serious  deterioration,  and  they  finally  sink  into 
the  degradation  of  broadsides  manufactured  by 
printers'  hacks.  The  'Geste>  itself  is  of  especial 
interest  as   showing   a   significant  stage  in   the 

Srocess  by  which  ballads  are  combined  in  the 
ormation  of  the  popular  epic.  In  it  four  or 
more  distinguishab  ;  t>allad  plots  are  woven  to- 
gether to  form  a  miniature  wie,  the  interweav- 
ing bring  clearly  the  work  of  a  conscious  artist 
who  at  the  same  time  was  in  full  sympathy  with 
the  papular  spirit.  The  supernatural  also  plajrs 
an  important  part  in  the  ballatls,  and  it  is  possi' 
ble  to  gather  from  them  much  information  as  to 
popular  beHef  on  such  themes  as  fairies, 
witches,  the  retuni  of  the  dead,  trans  formation 
by  enchantment  and  the  like. 

The  number  of  extant  ballads  in  English 
may  be  gathered  from  the  great  final  collection 
of  Professor  Ould,  Here,  ignoring  variants, 
we  have  305,  most  of  which  are  popular 
in  the  sense  which  has  been  defined,  i.e., 
diey  fulfil  these  conditions,  that  even  if 
written  each  by  an  individual  author,  that 
author  belonged  to  the  people,  drew  his  material 
from  the  common  stock  of  folk-tales,  wrote  in 
the  popular  spirit,  and  used  the  traditional 
method,  had  his  product  accepted  by  the  folk 
and  passed  on  and  modified  by  them  through 
centuries  of  oral  transmission.  Some  few  such 
as  'The  Boy  and  the  Mantlt'  'King  Arthur 
and  Kin^  Cornwall,'  and  'The  Marriage  of 
Sir  Gawain,'  are  closely  associated  witii  metri- 
cal romances,  and  are  usually  regarded  as  writ- 
ten by  minstrels  for  more  courtly  audiences, 
bal  are  yet  enough  in  the  popular  style  to 
justify  their  inclusion  as  ballads.  More  are 
traditional  ballads  corrupted  for  the  printing 
press   and   represented  by  broadside   versions 


because  no  purer  form  has  survived.  And  in 
the  case  of  almost  every  ballad  surviving  ia 
several  versions,  some  versions  show  a  higher 
degree  of  purity  from  literary  editing  man 
others. 

The  localities  from  which  the  ballads  have 
been  gathered  are  widely  scattered,  versions  of 
several  having  been  picked  up  ia  America.  But 
Scotland  claims  about  two-thirds  of  the  whole. 

Spain  possesses  the  richest  ballad  literature 
of  all  L.atin  peoples.  The  Serbians  still  main- 
tain in  popular  use  ballads  of  a  primitive  kind, 
which  have  long  since  disappeared  in  other 
Occidental  nations  more  under  the  influence  of 
modem  civiliiation.  In  Germany  the  oldest 
extant  ballad,  the  'Hildbrandslied'  dates  from 
the  8th  century.  Ballad  literature  flourished 
there,  reaching  its  highest  point  about  the  year 
1300  and  lasting  until  the  16th  centuiy,  when 
a  rapid  decline  set  in.  It  was  revived  during 
the    19th  century   and  aroused  great  literary 

Bibliography. — The  completion  of  F.  J- 
Child's  exEiaustive  'English  and  Scottish  Popu- 
lar Ballads'  (5  vols.,  Boston  1882-*).  with  its 
bibliographies  and  full  account  of  the  sources, 
makes  unnecessary  a  Ust  of  previous  less  com- 
prehensive collections.  Eveiy  known  version  of 
every  extant  ballad  in  any  EngHsh  dialect  was 
intended  to  be  included  by  the  editor,  and  little 
or  nothing  has  escaped  him.  The  introductions 
give  an  account  of  parallels  and  analogues 
throughout  the  world.  An  abridged  collection 
has  been  edited  by  H.  C.  Sargent  and  G,  L. 
Kittredge  (1  vol.,  Boston  1904).  On  the  ques- 
tion of  origins,  consult  F,  B.  Gummere,  'Old 
English  Ballada>  (Boston  1894)  ;  'The  PopuUr 
Ballad'  (New  York  1907);  'Democracy  and 
Poetry'  (lb.  1911);  'The  Bwnninm  of 
Poetry*  (ib.  1904);  'The  Popular  Ballad' 
(Boston  1907) ;  T.  F.  Henderson's  edition 
of  Scott's  'Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish 
Border'  (EfUnburgh  1902)  and  his  'Scottish 
Vernacular  Literature'  (Chap,  xi,  London  1898) 
and  Courthope's  'History  of  Eislish  Poetry' 
(Vol.  I).  An  excellent  condensed  statement  of 
the  whole  matter  by  G.  L.  Kittredge  forms 
the  introduction  to  the  one-volume  edition  of 
Child's  collection.  American  ballads  were  col- 
lected by  J.  A.  Lomax  in  the  volume  'Cowboy 
Songs>  (New  York  1911).  Of  Spanish  ballads 
the  best  collections  are  MuritL  '^Cantos  popo- 
lares  espalSoles'  (5  vols.,  Madrid  18S3) ;  <BibIi- 
oteca  de  las  tradidones  popolares'  (11  vols., 
Seville  1883).  Consult  also  Bohl  von  Faber 
'Floresta  de  rimas  antiguas  Castellanas'  (3 
vols.,  Hamburg  1825)  ;  Balaguer,  'Historia  de 
los  Trovadores'  (Madrid  1888) ;  Lockhart, 
'Ancient    Spanish    Ballads'     (London    1823) ; 


suit  Bowrin^  'Serbian  Popular  Poetry'  (Lon- 
don 1827) ;  Kapper,  'Volkslieder  der  Serben' 
(Leipzig  1853) ;  Krauss,  'Sagen  und  Marchen 
der  Sudslaven'  (Leiprig  1884).  For  the  Ger- 
man consult  Uhland  ?Alte  hoch  und  nieder- 
deutsdie  Volkslieder'  (4  vols.,  3d  cd.,  Leipag 
1892)  ;  Robertson,  'History  of  German  Litera- 
ture' (Edinburgh  1902);  Scherer,  'Die  schon- 
sten  deutschen  Volkslieder'  (Leipzig  1868) ; 
Vogt  and  Koch,  'Geschichte  der  deutscher  Lit- 
teratur'   (2  vols.,  ib.  1904). 

WiLtiAM  A.  Neilson, 
Professor   of  English,   Harvard   VnwtrsHy. 


.Google 


BALLAD  —  BALLAHTYNS 


ST 


BALLAD.  In  music,  this  term  has  been 
UKd  at  different  periods  to  designate  varloits 
musical  forms.  At  first  ballads  were  princi- 
pally literary  compositions  recited  by  minstrels 
with  improvised  accompatument  on  some  in- 
sirumeni  usually  the  harp.  This  is  especially 
the  case  with  the  old  ballads  of  Scotland,  Ehk- 
land,  Spain  and  Scandinavia.  In  Italy  precul- 
ing  the  growth  of  instrumental  music  uie  ballad 
appears  to  have  been  a  dance  song,  and  the 
same  is  true  of  the  ballads  of  France  and  Ger- 
many which  reached  a  hi^  degree  of  artistic 
elegance  in  the  13th  century.  Id  the  15th  cen- 
tury the  ballad  divided  honors  with  die  ron- 
deau as  the  popular  form  of  song  with  musical 
accompaniment.  The  decline  of  (he  ballad  set 
in  about  the  close  of  the  16th  century,  its  form 
becominK  more  and  more  simple,  and  returning 
to  the  plain  strophic  folk  song,  and  even  de- 
generatmg  into  the  cheap,  trivial  song  sung  in 
Ihe  streets.  The  modem  ballad  is  not  a  re- 
vival of  the  older  form.  It  is  now  the  title  of 
purely  instrumental  works  for  piano  or  or- 
chestra. The  ballads  of  Burner,  Goethe  and 
Schiller  were  first  set  to  music  by  Zumsteeg, 
but  the  setting  was  inadequate.  Lowe  secured 
a  better  characteristic  expression  for  each 
stanza  and  welded  his  compositions  into  an 
artistic  whole  by  employing  a  few  pregnant 
motifs.  Brahms,  Schubert  and  Schumann  foU 
lowed  in  his  footsteps  and  have  left  unsur- 
passed examples  of  the  modem  vocal  ballad- 
Senta's  ballad  from  'The  Flying  Dutdunan' 
is  a  good  example  of  the  modem  vocal  form, 
while  Chopin's  exquisite  ballads  are  unequalled 
examples  of  the  modem  purely  instrumental 
form,  in  which  the  theme  is  the  same  as  in  the 
vocal  ballad,  but  of  which  the  fundamental 
mood  is  decidedly  sensuous.  Consult  Riemann, 
H.,  'Handbuch  aer  Musikgeschichte'  (Leipzig 
1906). 

BALLAD  OPERA,  a  form  of  operetta 
which  had  a  great  rogue  in  England  in  the  18th 
century,  and  in  which  the  usual  method  of 
writing  music  to  the  words  was  reversed  Well- 
known  popular  airs  were  pieced  together  and 
new  words  were  written  to  the  music.  Spoken 
dialogue  was  interspersed.  .  The  most  popular 
work  of  this  genre  was  <The  Beggar's  Opera' 
of  John  Gay,  produced  in  London  in  1727.  The 
year  1728  saw  the  production  of  six  works  of 
similar  nature  by  different  authors,  'The  Beg- 
gar's Opera'  was  produced  in  New  York  m 
1750,  and  from  then  until  about  1820  works 
of  its  kind  were  the  only  kind  of  opera  offered 
in  America.  Consult  Sarrazin,  G.,  'John  Gay's 
Singspiele'    (Weimar  1898). 

BALLADE,  bt-lad'  the  earlier  and  modem 
Prend)  spelling  of  *ballad,*  but  now  limited  in 
its  use  to  a  distinct  verse-fonn  introduced  into 
&iglish  literature  of  late  years  from  the  French 
and  chiefly  used  by  writers  of  vers  de  socUli. 
It  consists  of  three  stanzas  of  eight  lines  eadi, 
wifli  an  'envoy*  or  closing  stanza  of  four  linos. 
The  rftymei,  which  are  not  more  than  three, 
follow  each  other  in  the  stanzas,  thus:  a,  b,  a, 
b:  t^  c,  b.  c  and  in  the  envoy,  b,  c,  b,  c;  and 
the  same  line  serves  as  a  refrain  to  eadi  of  the 
stanzas  and  to  the  envoy.  There  are  other  va- 
rieties, but  this  may  be  regarded  as  the  strictest, 
accordjng  to  the  precedent  of  Villon  and  Marot. 
BALLAGI,  Maurice,  or  Horitz,  Bloch,  a 
Htuigarian  phik>logist  and  Protestant  theo- 
T0l,3  — T 


logical  author,  most  widely  known  for  lue 
grammars  and  dictionaries  of  the  Hungarian 
nnguage:  b.  Inoci,  of  Jewish  parents,  IB  March 
1815;  a.  1  Sept,  1891.  He  was  educated  at 
Budapest  and  Paris;  was  converted  to  Protes- 
tantism  in  1843;  studied  theok^y  at  Tiibingen; 
and  was  professor  of  theology  at  Szarvas  from 
1844  to  1648  and  from  1851  to  1855,  and  at 
Budapest  from  1855  to  1878.  His  first  larye 
work  was  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  the 
Hungarian  language  for  the  purpose  of  Mag- 
yarizuig  the  Jews,  but  of  this  work  only  the 
Pentateuch  and  the  book  of  Joshua  were  pub- 
lished (Budapest  1840-43),  The  most  import- 
ant of  his  philological  works  are  'Ausfiihr- 
liche  theoretischpraJctische  Grammatik  dcr  un- 
Earischen  Sprache'  (1843;  8lh  ed,  1881); 
'Vollstandiges  Worterbuch  der  ungarischen 
und  deutschen  Sprache'  (2  vols.,  18S4-57;  6th 
ed.,  1890)  ;'Sammlung  dermagj'arischen  Sprich- 
worter'    (2  vols.,  1850;  2d  ed,  1855), 

BALLANCHB,  h^-huish',  Pwr»  Simon, 
French  philosopher:  h.  Lyons,  4  Aug,  1776;  d 
12  Jane  1847.  His  great  work  is  the  <Falin- 
gmbie  Mcnle'  (18&),  in  which  he  seeks  to 
lihutrate  the  workings  of  God  in  history  and 
sketch  how  human  st>ciet^  may  and  will  be  re- 
constructed so  as'  to  attam  its  lughest  develofk- 
ment  His  works  are  a  strange  mixture  of 
mysticism,  socialism  and  the  philosophy  of  his- 
tory. His  <La  vision  d'HebaP(1832)  Ts  a  pro- 
Ehetic  forecast  of  the  world's  hisTory,  Hebal 
sing  a  second- sighted  chief  of  Scottish  dan. 
He  wso  wrote  'Le  vieillard  et  It  jcune  homme' 
(1819);  and  other  works. 

BALLANTINB,  Junes,  Scotti^  artist  and 
poet:  b.  Edinbur^  11  June  1808;  d  18  Dec 
1877.  He  was  broo^t  up  as  a  house  painter, 
but  afterward  learned  drawing  under  Sir  Wil- 
liam Allen  and  vras  one  of  the  first  to  revive 
the  art  of  glass-patnting.  He  was  cobubib- 
skined  to  execute  the  stained-glass  windows  for 
the  House  of  Lords,  and  in  1845  published  a 
treatise  on  glass- staining,  which  was  translated 
into  (jcrman.  Two  prose  volumes,  'The 
(Jaberhuwie's  WaUet*  (184J),  and  'The  Miller 
of  Deanbaugh'  (1845),  contain  some  of  hit 
best-known  songs  and  ballads  in  the  vernacu- 
lar. He  was  author  of  'Poems'  (1856  and 
1865);  'One  Hundred  Songs  vrith  Music' 
(1865):  'Life  of  David  Roberts,  R.A,'  (1866) 
and  'Lilias  Lee'  (1871). 


BALLANTINB,  William  Gay,  American 
r:  b.  WashingtoiL  D.  C,  7  Dec  1848. 
I  Rraduated  from  Marietta  College  1868, 


educator:  b.  Wa^ingtoiL  D.  C,  7  Dec   I 

He  was  Rraduated  from  Marietta  College  1 

and  at  the  Union  Theological  Seminary  1872; 
studied  in  Leipjdg;  was  attached  to  the  Amer- 
ican Palestine  Ejtiiloring  Expedition  of  1873; 
professor  of  chemistry  and  natural  science  in 
Ripon  College  1874-76;  assistant  professor  of 
Greek  in  the  University  of  Indiana  lE^6-78; 

iirofessor,  C^eek  and  Hebrew,  Oberlin  Theo- 
ogical  Seminary  1S78-8I ;  president  of  Ober- 
lin Coll«e  1891-96;  and  since  1897  professor 
of  the  Bible  in  International  Y.  M.  (^  A  Col- 
lege, Sprmgfield,  Mass.  Author  of  'Inductive 
Lo^c' 


CoUiMhoim.  Ort,  9  Ang  1857.  He  was  eAor 
cated  at  Colqubonn  and  Montreal.  He  became 
while  still  a  young  man  mani^ng  director-ot  i 

Cooglc 


BALLANTYNE  —  BALLESTEROS 


die  Shenwin-Williains  Paint  ComiMny,  Mon- 
treal, and  was  one  of  its  purchasers  in  1911.  He 
was  some  time  mayor  of  Westmount  AlthouKb 
never  actively  identified  witli  party  politics,  he 
has  always  ben  regarded  as  a  Liberal,  but  de- 
clared bis  opposition  to  the  Taft-Fielding  reci- 
procity agreement  of  1911.  During  the  Euro- 
pean War  he  raised  a  battalion  tor  overseas 
service.  On  3  Oct.  1917  he  joined  the  Union 
government  of  Sir  Robert  Borden  as  Minister 
of  Public  Works,  but  a  week  later  took  over 
the  portfolio  of  marine  and  fisheries. 

BALLANTYNE,  J«meB,  Scotrish  printer: 
b.  Kelso  1772;  d.  Edinburgh  1833.  Successively 
a  solicitor  and  a  printer  in  his  native  town,  at 
die  suggestion  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  he  removed 
to  Edinburgh,  where  the  high  perfection  to 
which  be  had  brought  the  art  of  printing,  and 
his  connection  with  Scott,  whose  works  he 
printed,  secured  him  a  large  trade.    The  firm  of 

James  Ballantyne  &  Company,  included  Scott, 
ames  Ballantyne  and  his  brother  John  (who 
died  in  ISZI).  For  many  years  be  conducted 
the  Edinburgh  Weekly  Journal.  His  firm  was 
involved  in  the  bankruptcy  of  Constable  & 
Company,  by  wbich  Scott's  fortunes  were 
wrecked,  but  Ballantyne  was  continued  by  the 
creditors'  trustee  in  the  literary  management 
of  the  printing-hous&  He  survived  Scott  only 
about  four  months. 

BALLANTYNE,  James  Robert,  Scottish 
Orientalist:  b.  Kelso,  Scotland,  1813;  d.  1864. 
After  receiving  an  education  at  Haileybury 
College  he  was  sent  to  India,  where  he  was 
placed  in  charge  of  the  Sanskrit  College  at 
Benares.  His  aim,  steadily  pursued  during  his 
residence  in  India,  was  to  aid  in  establishing 
more  intelligent  relations  between  Indian  and 
European  tbought.  On  his  return  to  England 
he  was  made  librarian  of  the  East  India  ofHce. 
Among  his  writings  are  'The  Practical  Oriental 
Interpreter'  (1843)  ;  'Catechism  of  Sanskrit 
Grammar'  ■  "Synopsis  of  Science  in  Sanskrit 
and  En^li^  reconciled  with  the  Truths  to  be 
found  in  the  Nyiya  Philosophy'  (1856)  ; 
'Christianity  Contrasted  with  Hindu  Phi- 
loBophy>    (18S9). 

BAL'LARAT",  or  BALLAARAT,  Aus- 
tralia, town  in  the  colony  of  Victoria,  the  chief 
centre  of  the  gold-mining  industry  of  the 
colony,  and  the  place  next  in  importance  to 
Melbourne,  from  which  it  is  distant  west-north- 
west 74  miles  by  rail.  It  owes  its  present  im- 
portance and  prosperity  to  its  being  the  centre 
of  one  of  the  richest  gold-yielding  districts  of 
tiie  world.  It  consists  of  two  distinct  munici- 
palities, Ballarat  West  and  Ballarat  East,  which 
are  separated  by  Yarrowee  Creek.  The  town  is 
well  lighted  with  ^s,  abundantly  supplied  with 
water  and  contams  many  handsome  public 
edifices,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the 
city  hall,  council  chamber,  two  town  halls,  a 
spacious  hospital,  an  orphan  asylum,  a  benevo- 
lent asylum,  two  cathedrals,  botanical  gardens 
and  an  excellent  school  of  mines.  Its  chief  in- 
dustries are  those  of  the  gold  mines,  iron 
foundries,  woolen  and  flour  mills,  breweries 
and  distilleries.  Its  establishment  and  rise  date 
from  the  discovery  of  gold  in  1851.  The  lanr- 
est  gold  nuggets  ever  unearthed  were  discov- 
ered here.  Ballarat  East  and  Ballarat  West 
have   been    distinct    municipalities    since    1855, 


and  in  1870  the  latter  was  proclaimed  a  city. 
Pop.  (1911)  42,403. 

BALLAST.  (1)  Heavy  matter,  as  stone, 
sand,  iron  or  water  placed  in  the  bottom  of  a 
ship  or  other  vessel,  to  sink  it  in  the  water  to 
such  a  depth  as  to  enable  it  to  carry  sufficient 
sail  without  oversetting.  (2)  The  sand  placed 
in  bags  in  the  car  of  a  balloon  to  steady  it  and 
to  enable  the  aeronaut  to  lighten  the  balloon  by 
throwing  part  of  it  out.  (3)  The  material  used 
to  fill  up  the  space  between  the  rails  on  a  rail- 
way in  order  to  make  it  firm  and  solid. 

BALLENTYNE,  or  BALLENDEN, 
John,  Scottish  poet  and  translator  of  Boece's 
'Latin  History,'  and  of  the  first  five  books  of 
Livy  into  the  vernacular  language  of  his  time: 
b.  Lothian  toward  the  close  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury; said  to  have  died  at  Rome  ISSO.  He  was 
in  the  service  of  James  V  from  the  King's 
earliest  years,  and  at  his  request  he  translated 
Boece's    'History,'    which   had   been   published 


be  almost  an  original  work.  As  a  reward  he 
was  made  archdeacon  of  Moray  and  a  canon 
of    Ross.     He  was  a  bitter  opponent  of   the 


BALLENY,      baUk'n?,       ISLANDS, 


nearly  on  the  Antarctic  Circle.  One  of  the 
islands,  Young  Island,  contains  a  very  lofty 
mountain,  about  12,000  feet  higli.     , 

BALLESTEROS,  bal-y£s-ta'r5s,  Don 
Frandaco,  Spanish  general:  b.  Saragossa 
1770;  d  Paris,  22  June  1832.  He  first  served 
in  Catalonia  against  the  French  during  the 
campaigns  of  1/92  and  1795,  and  was  appointed 
to  a  captaincy.  Discharged  in  1804  on  account 
of  embezzlement,  he  was  nevertheless  entrusted 
by  the  all-powerful  Godoy,  'prince  of  the 
peace,*  with  one  of  the  most  productive  offices 
in  the  custom-house,  the  direction  of  the  r«- 
guardo  at  Oviedo.  When  the  French  army  in- 
vaded Spain  in  1806  Ballesteros  was  promoted 
to  a  colonelcy  by  the  provincial  junta  of  As- 
turias  and  jomea  llie  (;astilian  army  under  Cas- 
tafios  and  Black.  The  regency  of  Cadii  pro- 
moted him  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general 
and  put  him  in  command  of  the  army  of  Anda- 
lusia. He  had  tben  to  fight  against  some  of  the 
most  skilful  chiefs  of  the  French  army,  and 
succeeded  in  avoiding  their  pursuit  by  peculiar 
tactics.  When  Wellmgton  in  1812  took  over 
the  general  command  of  all  the  armies  in  the 
Peninsula,  Ballesteros  showed  such  violent  op- 
position that  he  was  arrested  for  treason  and 
sent  as  a  prisoner  to  Ceuta.  A  few  months 
hter  he  was  restored  to  liberty  but  was  not  al- 
lowed to  re-enter  the  military  service.  On  the 
return  of  Ferdinand  VII  to  Spain  Ballesteros 
evinced  such  devotion  to  monarchical  principles 
that  he  was  appointed  Secretary  of  War,  but 
was  soon  dismissed  and  sent  to  Valladolid, 
where  he  was  placed  under  the  strictest  sur- 
veillance. When  the  struggle  between  the  roy- 
alists and  the  constitutionalists  commenced  he 
managed  so  artfully  that  each  party  thought 
Ballesteros  was  acting  in  concert  with  it. 
Commissioned  by  the  chiefs  of  the  latter_  to 
obtain  the  assent  of  the  King  to  the  Constitu- 
tion, he  succeeded  beyond  their  anticipations 


BALLB8TRBM  —  BALLIN 


and  became  a  member  of  the  council  of  aute, 
while  he  was  at  the  same  time  admitted  in  the 
communeroi  assodation.  This  double-dealing 
seemed  to  be  perfectly  successful,  for  in  1823, 
OD  the  entry  of  the  French  inio  Spain,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  army;  but 
instead  of  showing  fight  he  coududed  a  capitu- 
lation with  the  Duke  of  An^ouleme,  which  be- 
came the  occasion  of  accusations  of  such  a  char- 
acter that  BaHesteroa  Uiougfat  it  imprudent  to 
itay  an^  longer  in  his  own  country  and  took 
refuge  m  France,  where  be  died  a  foi^otten 
exile. 

BALLBSTRBM,  bilies-stram,  Franz 
Xaver,  Count  von,  German  statesman:  b. 
Plawiuowiti,  in  up^r  Silesia,  1834;  d.  1910. 
Entering  the  Prussian  army  he  served  during 
the  Austro-Prussian  War  of  1866  and  the 
Franco-Prussian  War  of  1870-71.  At  the 
dose  of  the  latter  be  was  elected  to  the  Reich- 
stag, where  he  soon  became  prominent  in  the 
Centre  party.  Pius  IX  appointed  him  a  papal 
chamberlain  for  bis  activity  in  the  Kulturkampf 
and  he  was  first  vice-president  of  the  lower 
House.  lK)0-93. 

BALLET,  bSm',  orbSnet  (from  bal;  from 
die  French  bailer,  and  the  Italian  ballare^  to 
dance),  a  kind  of  dance  now  usually  constitut- 
ing an  interlude  in  a  theatrical  performance. 
In  its  widest  sense  a  ballet  is-the  representa- 
tion of  a  series  of  passlcwate  actions  and  feel- 
ings by  means  of  gestures  and  dandng.  In 
a  more  confined  sense  we  call  ballets  musical 
pieces,  the  object  of  which  is  to  represent,  by 
mimic  movements  and  dances,  action^  charac- 
ters, sentiments,  passions  and  feeunga,  in 
wbich  several  dancers  perform  together.  Ac- 
cording to  the  analogy  of  lyrical  poetry  those 
which  rather  represent  feehngs  may  be  called 
lyrical  ballets ;  those  which  imitate  actions, 
dramatic  ballets.  The  lyrical  and  dramatk 
ballets,  together,  constitute  the  higher  art  of 
dandng,  in  opposition  to  the  lower,  the  aim  of 
which  IS  only  sodal  pleasure.  Dramatic  ballets 
are  classed  as  historical,  the  subject  of  which 
is  a  real  event ;  mythological,  in  which  the  sub- 
ject is  some  fabulous  action ;  and  poetical, 
founded  on  poetical  fiction,  to  which  belong 
also  the  allegorical,  necessarily  the  moat  imper- 
fect A  ballet  is  usually  divided  into  several 
acts,  each  of  which  has  several  entries.  An 
entr6e,  in  a  ballet,  consists  of  one  or  several 
quadrilles  of  dancers,  who,  by  their  steps,  ges- 
tures and  attitudes,  represent  a  certain  part 
of  the  action.  In  criticising  a  ballet  we  must 
consider,  firstj  the  choice  of  the  subject,  which 
must  have  imity  of  action  or  of  passion,  and  be 
capable  of  bang  represented  in  an  intelligible 
manner  by  means  of  mimic  movements  and 
dancing;  secondly,  the  plan  and  execution  of 
the  single  parts,  which  must  have  due  propor- 
tion to  eacn  other;  and,  finally,  the  music  and 
decorations,  which  must  supply  whatever  danc- 
ing cannot  bring  before  the  eye.  The  ballet  is 
an  invention  of  modem  times.  Baltazarini, 
director  of  music  to  Catherine  de  Medici, 
probaMy  gave  its  form  to  the  regular  ballet, 
thou^  pantomimic  dances  were  not  urdcnown 
to  the  ancients.  The  ballet  owes  much  to  the 
French,  and  particolarly  to  Noveme.  During 
the  early  19th  century  the  French  and  Italian 
schools  were  in  thdr  heyday  but  since  1850 
have  been  edip«ed  by  the  Russians  who  under 


Petipas.  Fokine,  and  more  recently  Bakst,  have 
evolved  a  school  uniting  the  romanticism  of 
the  old-time  ballet  fairy  lore  with  a  cenuineiy 
modem  realism.  Anna  Favlowa  was  developed 
in  this  school  and  is  re^rded  the  equal  of 
T^iioui,  Cerito  and  Ellsler,  die  greatest 
danseuses  of  the  French  and  lalian  schools  of 
the  first  half  of  the  last  centuiy.  Consult 
Caatil-Blaze,  'La  danse  et  les  balKts>  (Paris 
1832):  Flitdi,  'Modern  Dancers  and  Dancing' 
(London  1912)  ;  Menestrier,  'Des  ballets  andcns 
et  modemes'  (Paris  1682);  Noverre,  "Lettres 
sur  la  danse  et  les  ballets>  (1760;  1807); 
Pougiti,  A.,  'Dictionnaire  historique  du  thiatre' 
(Paris  188S);  Voss,  'Der  Tanz  und  seine 
Geschichlc>   (Berlin  1868).    See  Opera. 

BALLIET,  b»ni-et,  Thomw  M.,  Ameri- 
can educator:  b.  1  March  1852.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Franklin  and  Marshall  College  (Lan- 
caster, Pa.)  and  at  Yale  University;  was  ap- 
pcHoted  superintendent  of  public  schools  in 
Springfield,  Mass^  and  also  became  assodate 
editor  of  the  Pfdoijoaicat  Seminary.  He  was 
elected  dean  of  the  School  of  Pedagogy  of  New 
York  University,  which  post  be  holds  at  present 
His  pubtisbed  writings  include  *Some  New 
Phases  of  Educational  Thought.* 

BALLIN,  Albert,  director-general  of  the 
Hamburg- Amerika  line:  b.  Hamburg  1857,  of 
Jewish  parents.  After  recdving  a  good  com- 
merdal  education  he  went  to  England  and 
resided  there  several  years,  studying  the  British 
mercantile  marine  and  acquiring  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  language.  Since  1886  he  has 
been  the  head  of  the  great  Ham  burg- Amerika 
steamship  line,  and  it  was  mainly  due  to  bis 
perseverance  and  organizing  skill  that  his  com- 
pany succeeded  in  surpassing  all  its  rivals  in 
the  variety  and  extent  of  its  maritime  opera- 
tions. When  he  joined  the  firm,  its  capital  was 
$3,750,000;  at  the  outbreak  of  the  European 
War  It  was  $37,500,000-  Whereas  in  the  early 
years  of  his  administration  its  gross  profits 
were  $625,000,  in  1913  its  gross  profits  ap- 
proached $15,000,000,  while  the  company's 
pennant  floated  from  the  mastheads  of  180  ves- 
sels. From  a  total  tonnage  of  60,000  for  the 
whole  fleet  25  years  before,  one  single  vessd 
in  1913,  the  Imptrator,  had  alone  a  tonnage 
of  50,000.  Though  of  humble  origin  Herr 
Ballio  is  one  of  the  intimates  of  the  Kaiser, 
who  admires  his  extraordinary  talents  and  has 
frequently  sought  his  counsel  when  matters 
relating  to  the  extension  of  German  commerdal 
affairs  were  in  question.  He  has  often  been 
called  one  of  the  real  makers  of  modern  (Ger- 
many, and  so  highly  prized  are  the  services 
he  has  rendered  to  his  country  that  the  Kaiser 
Is  stated  to  have  offered  him  on  more  than  one 
occasion  a  portfolio  in  his  cabinet.  A  modest 
ard  retiring  man  of  small  stature  and  unob- 
trusive bearing.  Herr  Ballin  is  essentially  a 
man  of  peace ;  he  has  never  been  included  in 
the  'jingo'  ranks  of  his  countrymen.  He  is 
credited  with  having  exerted  all  his  influence 
with  the  liaiser  to  yield  to  the  United  States 
demands  on  the  submarine  question  in  order 
to  avoid  a  rupture  with  this  country.  He 
foresaw  and  dreaded  that  which  eventually 
came  to  pass  —  the  seizure  of  all  the  valuable 
German  vessds  interned  in  American  porti. 
In  December  1915  he  published  an  article  in  die 
Voitiscke  ZeituMg  in  which  he  repeAted.-^ 


Coogle 


too 


BALLIN^  BALLISTIC   GALVANOHBTBR 


German  slogan  that  the  war  was  all  for  the 
a.dvaiitaKe  of  the  world  on  the  other  side  oi 
the  ocean  (the  United  States),  and  to  'the 
deh^t  of  the  yellow  race"  <^apan).  His 
assertion  that  Germany  was  fighting  for  a  free 
pathway  over  both  land  and  water  was  less 
conviodns;,  from  the  fact  that  the  actual  free- 
dom of  the  seas  existing  before  the  war  had 
enabled  him  unmolested  to  build  up  a  gigantic 
shipping  concern. 

BALLIN,  Hugo,  American  artist:  b.  New 
York,  7  March  1879.  He  studied  at  the  Art 
Students'  League,  New  York,  and  in  Rome 
and  Florence.  While  in  Italy  he  studied  mural 
decoration  with  Robert  Blum.  He  returned  to 
the  United  Slates  and  established  his  practice 

New   York.     His   woric   shows    a  notuble 


Lute  Player' ;  'Three  Women  Dancing  about 
Cupid,'  which  won  the  Shaw  priie  in  1905. 
He  won  the  Clarke  nriie  in  1906  with  'Mother 
and  Child.'  Anotner  notable  work  is  his 
'Portative  Organ.'  He  was  awarded  the  Hall- 
garten  prize  and  the  Isidor  gold  medal  in  1907. 
His  work  has  been  reproduced  in  tile  Critic, 
the  Century  and  the  Kunst  and  KHtistlerteerke 
of  Vienna.  His  works  arc  to  be  found  in  the 
executive  chamber  of  the  Capitol  at  Madison, 
Wis.,  in  the  home  of  Oliver  Gould  Jennings, 
New  York,  and  E.  D.  Brandyce  of^  Boston. 
He  is  also  represented  in  the  National  Museum, 
Washington,  D.  C,  the  Montelair  Museum, 
N,  J.,  and  the  Ann  Mary  Memorial,  Rhode 
Island,  and  in  many  private  collections.     He  is 


.      ...     _  __      .  __     __.    tC^LUIill     J-.CdKUC, 

the  Society  of  Mural  Decorators,  the  National 
Institute  of  Arts  and  Letters  and  the  AmericaD 
Water  Color  Society. 

BALLINGER,  Richard  Achilles,  Ameri- 
can lawyer  and  public  official :  b.  Eounesboro, 
Iowa,  9  July  185&  He  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Kansas  and  Washburn  College, 
Topeka,  and  was  graduated  at  Williams  College 
in  1884.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1886, 
practised  in,  and  was  city  attorney  of,  Kanka- 
kee, III.  and  New  Decatur,  Ala.;  and  at  Port 
Townsend,  Wash.,  1889-97.  He  was  United 
Slates  court  commissioner  1890-92.  judge  of  the 
Superior  Court,  Jefferson  County,  Wash., 
1894-97.  In  the  latter  year  he  began  the 
practice  of  law  in  Seattle  and  from  1904  to 
1906  was  mayor  of  that  city.  During  the  next 
two  years  he  was  commissioner  of  the  Gener^ 
Land  Office  in  Washington,  and  from  1909  to 
1911  was  Secretary  of  the  Interior  in  President 
Taft's  Cabinet.  His  opposition  to  a  radical  cotv- 
servation  policy  led  to  a  bitter  conflict  with 
Gifford  Pmchot,  the  chief^  forester,  _  and  a 
Congressional  inquiry  was  instituted  into  his 
admmist ration  of  Alaskan  coal  lands,  in  which 
be  was  completely  exonerated.  After  his  resig- 
nation as  Secretaiy  of  the  Interior  he  resumed 
the  practice  of  law  in  Seattle.  He  has  pub- 
lished 'Ballinger  on  Community  Property' 
(I89S)  ;  and  'Ballinger's  Annotated  Codes  and 
Statutes  of  Washington'   (1897). 

BALLINGER,  Tex.,  city  and  county-seat 
of  RnnnelB  County,  225  mttes  west  of  Fort 
Worth,  on  the  Cok>rado  River,  and  on  the  Abi- 
lene and  Soutkeni,  the  Gulf,  Colorado  and  Santa 
Ft  railroads.    It  is  situated  in  a  rich  agricul- 


tural region,  producing  com,  cotton,  tnit, 
peanuts,  wh^t,  etc.,  and  has  flour  and  cotton- 
seed-oil mills.  The  city  contains  a  Carnegie 
Ubrary,  two  theatres,  several  packs  and  a  lake 
The  water  works  are  municipally  owned.  An 
irrigation  system  has  been  constructed  recently 
ofl  the  Colorado  River  at  this  point  Pop. 
3,536, 

BALLIOL  (bU'yol)  COLLKGE.  Oxford, 
an  important  college  founded  between  1263  and 
1268  by  John  Balliol.  The  original  foun- 
dation consisted  oi  16  poor  scholars,  and  the 
revenue  for  their  maintenance  amounted  for 
many  years  to  only  8d.  per  week  for  each. 
From  1340  to  1830  the  college  was  greatly  en- 
riched by  various  benefactions.  The  Socie^ 
consists  of  a  master,  13  fellows  and  24  scholars. 
The  master  and  fellows  enjoy  the  privilege  of 
electing  their  own  visitor.  In  1887  Balliol  Col- 
lege absorbed  New  Inn  HalL  John  WycUf  was 
master  of  this  collie  in  1361;  among  its 
scholars  have  been  John  Evelyn,  Bradley  the 
astronomer,  Matthew  Arnold,  Swinburne,  Arch- 
bishops Tail  and  Teinple,  H.  H.  As^uith  and 
Lord  Edward  Grey.  The  Snell  exhibitions  for 
students  of  Glasgow  University  attract  an- 
nually to  this  college  a  few  distinguished  Scot- 
tish students. 

BALLISTIC  GALVANOHXTKR,  a 
galvanometer  (q.v.)  designed  or  used  for  the 
measurement  of  electric  currents  of  very  short 
duration.  It  does  not  necessarily  differ  in  any 
essential  particular  from  other  galvanometers, 
except  that  the  natural  ^riod  of  oscillation  of 
its  needle  must  be  long  m  comparison  with  the 
duration  of  the  transient  currents  that  are  to 
be  measured.  If  C  is  the  intensity  of  the  cur- 
rent that  is  to  be  measured,  and  t  is  the  time 
during  which  it  passes,  the  general  theory  of 
the  instrument  is  as  follows:  The  magnetic 
moment  tending  to  deflect  the  needle  is  propor- 
tional to  C,  and  the  angular  velocity  that  such 
a  magnetic  moment  can  produce  when  acting 
Upon  a  freely  suspended  body  like  the  needle  is 
proportional  to  t.  Hence  the  angular  velocity 
actually  communicated  to  the  needle  is  propor- 
tional both  lo  C  and  to  t;  or,  in  other  words, 
it  is  proportional  to  the  product  of  Ct.  But  an 
electric  "current*  (such  as  is  here  denoted  by 
C)  is  defined  as  the  quantity  of  electricity  pass- 
ing per  second;  and  nence  Ct  is  thequanttty  of 
electricity  passing  in  the  time  (.  The  angular 
velocity  actually  communicated  to  the  needle 
(which  is  inferred  by  observing  the  extent  of 
die  swing)  is  therefore  proportional  to  the  total 
quantity  of  electricity  passed  through  the  gal- 
vanometer during  the  short  ^e  t,  and  not  to 
the  intensity  of  the  current.  This  constitutes 
the  chief  peculiarity  of  the  instrument.  The 
ballistic  galvanometer  measures  the  total  quan- 
tity of  electricity  passed  through  the  instrument, 
and  its  readings  are  in  coulombs;  while  other 
galvanometers  measure  the  intensity  of  the  cur- 
rent passifig,  and  their  readings  are  in  ampma. 
If  the  needle  of  the  instrument  moves  senstUy 
during  the  pass^e  of  the  current,  the  m^netlc 
movement  exerted  Upon  the  needle  will  also 
vary,  even  though  the  current  itself  remains 
constant  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  period 
of  free  swing  of  the  needle  must  be  long  if  the 
itutrtunent  is  to  be  used  balliatically. 


gk 


BALLISTIC  EBMDULUU— BALLISTICS 


101 


BALLISTIC  PENDULUM.  This  device, 
first  used  in  1740,  loeasurea  the  velocity  of 
projectiles  and  the  resistance  of  the  air.  If 
such  a  pendulum,  being  at  rest,  is  struck  b^  a 
body  of  known  tveiKbt,  and  the  vibration,  whi<A 
it  makes  after  the  mow,  is  known,  the  veloci^ 
of  the  striking  body  may  thence  be  determined. 
The  ((uantity  of  wotion  of  the  body  before  ntt- 
pact  is  equal  to  that  of  the  pendulum  and  body 
after  impact  It  consists  essentially  of  a  strong, 
large  pendulum,  which  has  its  axis  of  suspen- 
sion secured,  and  a  core  or  block  at  its  lower 
part.  The  projectile  is  fixed  into  this  core  and 
remains  there,  causing  the  pendulum  at  the 
same  time  to  swing  through  a  certain  angle  (o) 
with  the  vertical ;  this  is  measured  by  a  slider 
which  is  pushet)  along  a  fixed  arc  It  is  an 
established  fact  that  tlie  centres  of  percussion 
and  oscillation  are  coincident,  and  the  centre 
of  oscillation  is  readily  found  by  causing  the 
pendulum  to  vibrate  throu^  a  small  arc ;  and 
observing  the  period  (F)  taken  to  perform  a 

number  of  vibrations  (n),  then -^    gives  the 


responding  simple  i^ndultm)  (0.  the  distance 
of  the  centre  of  oscillation  or  percussion  from 
the  axis  of  suspension  is  then  known  from  the 
formula,  ^=  f-^  'i  \     If  the  distance  of  the 


centre  of  the  core  from  the  : 

is    exactly    equal    to    /,    the 

adjustment;,  but  if  this  ii  not  the  cas^.  weights 

must  be  pushed  up  or  down  the  pe^ulum  by 

trial  atad  error,  till  tke  dme  of  oscillation  is 

found  to  be  correct 

BALLISTICS.  The  name  niallistics"  ap- 
plies to  that  division  of  mechanics  which  treats 
of  the  motion  of  projectiles. 

This  subject  has  engaged  the  attention  of 
mathematiciaos  and  scitntisis  for  centuries,  and 
approximate  determinations  of  physical  rela- 
tions have  been  assumed  as  fundamental  laws, 
and  elaborate  tables  calculated  on  vaqous 
hypotheses.  A  r&ume  of  these  contributions 
to  the  science  will  be  found  under  the  caption 
GuNNEBY,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred 

As  a  basis  for  the  simple  general  discussion 
of  both  exterior  and  interior  ballistics,  certain 
general  hypotheses,  justified  by  present  knowl- 
edge derived  from  careful  experiments  in  $acb 
case,  will  be  made,    lliese  are  i 

1.  The  motion  of  a  projectile  in  the  bore  of 
a  giin  is  such  that  the  velocity,  v,  when  the 
projectile  has  traveled  a  distance  ti  along  the 
bore  is  given  by  the  relation 

.This,  relation  is  derived  from  the  records  o£ 
measurements  of  time  of  recoil  of  a  free  car- 
riage, measured  by  a  tuning  fork  scoring  on  a 
blackened  ribbon.  In  all  eases  the  velocity  is 
duplicated  by  a  relation  of  this  form  with  a 
fidelity  as  remaricable  as  will  be  found  in  the 
case  of  any  accepted  experimental  law  con- 
nected with  explosives. 

2.  The  motion  of  a  projectile  in  air  is,  at 
any  point  J,y,  of  its  path  or  trajectory  afT^td 
by  two  forces;  namely,  the  force  of  gravity 
acting  verticslly  downward  with  an  accelera- 


tion  f  feet  per  second,  and  the  fcustanee  of 
the  air,  acting  in  direa  opposition  to  the  mo- 
tion of  the  projectile  in  its  path.  Experiment 
shows  that  tne  retardation  due  to  air  resistance 
is  given  hy  an  expression  of  the  form 

'"     C 
in  which 

F  (v)  is  dependent  on  the  velocity,  v,  alone, 
and  increases  with  It ;  and  C  is  given  by  the 
formula 

in  which 

'i  is  the  density  of  an  atmosphere  assumed 
as  standard, 

i  is  the  mean  density  of  the  air  in  the  par- 
ticular case  under  consideration, 

Ttr  the  wei^t  of  the  projectile  in  pounds, 
d  the  calibre   of   the  projectile  in  inches; 
that  is,  the  diameter  of  the  projectile, 

t  the  "coeflident  of  form*  of  the  projectile, 
C  the  "ballistic  coefficient*  of  the  projectile. 
Ti..  _.!.,_  _r  .■  .--  gi^g„  ^  ^j  formula 


The  value  of  t 


n  being  the  radius  of  the  arc  with  which  the 
ogive  or  head. surface  is  generated,  the  radius 
being  measured  in  calibres,  i  is  unity  for 
fl='2,  whkh  is  the  standard  for  ballistic  tables. 
Recent  developments  point  to  a  valtie  n  =  7 
lor  projectiles  of  the  future;  this  gives  t —  0.56^ 
thus  practically  halving  the  retardation,  or  \ 
doubling  the  iMdlisCtc  emciency  of  a  projectile  ' 
otherwise  the   same. 

With  these  hypotheses,  exterior  and  interior 
ballistics  may  be  satisfactorily  discussed  and 
practical  problems  may  be  reaaily  solved. 

Interior  BBllistlcB.— If  w  be  the  velocity, 
in  feet  per  second,  cortv^Kuiding  to  a  travd, 
u  inches,  along  the  bore,  of  a  projectile  ot 
mass  m  and  weight,  w  pounds;  propelled  by  a 
charge,  u  pounds  of  powder,  fired  in  a  powder 
chamber  of  volume,  i*'  cubic  inches ;  the  cross 
section  ot  the  bore  being  "  square  inches: 
the  total  length  of  the  rifled  bore  being  U,  and 
the  total  volume  of  the  bore  and  chambei; 
combined  being  C,  the  following  relations 
obtaia  ' 

cU  =  C~c' 

=  12H       """^ 
F  being  die  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch 


for  which 

<iF-= 

16 
9 

For  infinite  trav«I 

and  hence 

^±» 

iizodsi  Google 


represents  the  tola!  cneigy  ot  the  powder  charge 
pertaining  to  the  translation  of  the  projectile; 
and,  KS  the  powder  charge  is  increased,  the 
waste  energy  (that  is,  that  used  in  doing-  work 
other  than  conferring  velocity  on  the  projectile) 
remaining  approximately  the  same,  wlule  the 
total  energy  increases,  it  is  seen  that  the 
efficiency  per  pound  of  powder  should  increase 
with  the  diargc,  other  conditions  remaining  the 
same.     Accoraingly  il  would  appear  that 


in  which  ■  lies  between  zero  and  unity.  Since 
b  is  inversely  proportional  to  the  maxiinum 
pressure  it  follows  that,  if  we  are  to  consider 
pressures  on  the  base  of  the  bore  (the  ones 
measured),  the  factor 

1  +  *^ 


should  increase  with  the  powder  charge;  or, 
more  strictly,  with  the  powder  charge  per  unit 
of  chamber- volume.  In  metric  units  this  ratio 
of  powder  char^  to  chamber  is  expressed  by 
dividing  the  weigbl  of  the  powder  charge  by 
the  volume  of  the  chamber;  but,  as  our  units 
are  not  so  related,  this  ratio,  called  the  'density 
of  loading'  is  defined  as  the  ratio  of  the  weight 
of  the  powder  charge  to  a  volume  of  water 
which  will  exactly  fill  the  powder  chamber; 
and,  as  one  pound  of  water  occuines  27£& 
cubic  inches,  the  density  of  loading  b 
^  27.686 

Accordingty. 

E--5-- 


-^  — £,a« 


£(,  being  the  value  of  £  for  a  density  of  load- 
ing unity,  serves  as  a  measure  of  the  quality 
of  the  powder  as  to  force  or  potential,  q  being 
a  small   fraction. 

It  is  readily  seen  that  the  space  in  the 
powder  chamber,  e',  unoccupied  by  the  powder 
substance  and  known  as  the  "initial  air  space,*  is 


in  which  ^  is  the  density  of  the  powder  sub- 
stance, or  its  ■spedfic  gravis,*  as  it  is  other- 
wise called.  The  value  of  o  for  all  powders 
Is  about  l.fii  being  given  for  smokeless  (nitro- 
cellulose) powders,  as 

S=l.6*i  —.012* 
hy  Colonel  Kisnemslty,  h  being  the  content  of 
moisture,  expressed   as  a  percentage. 

When  the  projectile  has  advanced  along  the 
bore  a  distance  tu,  the  volume  of  travel,  "ttt, 
corresponding  to  which  is  the  initial  air  space, 
one  "expansion"  is  said  to  have  occurred. 

The  travel  to  maximum  pressure  is  generally 
accepted  as  proportional  to  the  travel,  tit,  corre- 
sponding to  the  initial  air  space  and  called  the 
'reduced  length  of  the  initial  air  space.* 


The  value  of  —  or  of 
a  factor 


<^) 


The  quantity  Q,  constant  for  a  given  gun, 
powder  and  projectile,  is  found  by  experiment 
to  be  of  the  form 


=#)' 


The  exponent  r  is  nearlv  constant  and  has  a 
mean  value  ^  for  widuy  varying  conditions. 
The  coefficient  i^"  has  a  valoe  dependent  on 
the  form  and  size  of  the  grains  and  on  the 
inherent  speed  of  combustion  of  the  substance 
of  the  powder.  The  value  of  b,  then,  takes 
the  form 

The  value  of  the  constants  entering  a  and  b 
arc  found  from  the  values  of  a  and  b  for 
firings  conducted  widi  charges  of  various 
weights.  The  data  from  such  firings  should 
always    include 

1.  The  muzzle  velocity,   V 

2.  The  maximum    pressure,  f 

3.  The  len^h  of  flie  rifled  bore,  U 

4.  The  weight  of  the  projectile,  lo 

5.  The  weight  of  the  powder  charge,  " 

6.  The  volume  of  the  chamber,  c" 
?.  The  total  volume  of  the  bore,  C 

8.  The  description  of  the  powder  including 
the  composition,  content  of  moisture,  grains,  etc 
Then 


V  = 


aI7 
b+U 


•  will  then  contain 


As  the  pressure  on  the  base  of  the  bore  is 
actuallj;  moving  the  mass  of  the  projectile  with 
a  velocity  v  and  the  mass  ot  the  powder  charge 
with  a  velocity  less  than  that  of  the  projectile, 
it  is  doing  work  represented  by 


1  t 


1    u 


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BALLISTICS 


The  ratio  of  P  {C- 


is  that  of  the 


work  done  by  a  constant  pressure  equal  to  1 
maximum  pressure  acting  ovtr  a  path  equal  to 
the  total  travel  of  the  projectile,  to  the  actual 
work  done  in  conferring  energy  of  translation 
on  the  projectile  over  the  same  path.  That  is, 
it  is  the  ratio  of  the  maximum  pressure  to  the 
mean  effective  pressure  represented  by  the 
energy 

which  is  the  muzzle  energy. 

Represeuting  the  mean  effective  pressure  by 
f,  and  the  velocity  corresponding  to  a  constant 
pressure  etjumUing  the  maximum  pressure  by  V, 


this  r 


p      2F(C~C)     my 


(h*' 


^^azlv)  '  u~'^(a  "vj    a 


Thus  b  and  a 
shot  fired.    Thi 
lated  and  recorded  together  with  the  data  for 
the  shot,  the  charge  being  varied. 
To  find  the  constants: 


By  plotting  this  relation  on  cross-section  paper 
log  Et  is  found  to  be  the  value  of  log  £  corre- 
sponding to  A  -=  1  for  which  log  A  =  0.    Then 

log  q  =  (log  £  — -  log  £« )  -Mog  i 
by  which  means  values  of  log  g  arc  found  for 
different  values  of  log  A,  and  a  mean  value  of 
log  q  is  taken. 
As  regards  b 


logE  =  k)gE.+  9logi 


and 


1  +  ' 


The  values  of  the  second  member  are  known 
for  each  value  of  ",  the  value  of  ^  being  about 
1.6,  but  for  nitrocellulose  powders  it  is  more 
exactly  given  by  the  formula  involving  the 
content  of  moisture.  For  powders  used  in  the 
United  Slates  its  mean  value  is  about  1.S84 
ccn-responding  to  about  S  per  cent  moisture  and 
volatiles.  As  the  grain  diminishes  in  size  the 
percentage  of  moisture  is  less.    The  values  of 

( '  +  — )  -T-S  are  plotted  as  a  function  of  6, 
and  if  the  graph  be  produced  to  a  point  corre- 
sponding to  u  ^  0  the  value  of  j*  is  the  ordinate 

at  that  point.  Both  this  graph  and  thejtreceding 
one  should  be  generally  taken  as  strai^t  lines. 
Having  drawn  the  straight  line  and  knowing  the 

value  of  5  at  any  point  the  value  of  "—  and 

hence  of  «  is  easily  found  and  the  inverse 
problem  is  completely  solved. 

The  value  of  i'  is  dependent  on  the  least 
dimension  of  the  grain,  called  the  "web  thick- 
ness,* since  when  this  is  burned  through,  the 
grain  is  cither  completely  consiuned  or  else  dis- 
intc^raied.  As  grains,  in  the  United  States 
service,  are  of  nitrocellulose  powder  and  of  a 
standard  pattern,  it  is  clear  that  the  value  of  5 
depends  on  the  web  thickness  alone  except  that 
the  content  of  moisture  affects  £■  and  also  S, 
and  i:  will  cause  considerable  variations  in  these, 
corresponding  to  variations  in  moisture. 

This  method  permits  the  experimental  de- 
termination of  the  j)owder  characteristics  E, 
and  S  and  the  quantity  ■■ 

This  latter  is  of  considerable  importance,  as 
it  is  a  measure  of  the  work  done  on  the  gases 
themselves  in  giving  to  them  a  motion  of  trans- 
lation and  also  in  disturbing  the  mass  of  gas. 
This  latter  action  may  involve  a  great  deal 
of  energy  and  depends,  to  a  large  extent,  on 
the  shape  of  the  chamber.  Accordingly,  » 
may  have  a  value  much  greater  than  unity  and 
its  value  has  a  decided  bearing  on  the  shape 
of  the  chamber,  and  consequently  is  important 
in  the  design  of  a  ^n.  The  pressures  and 
velocities  at   any  pomt  of  the  bore  may  be 


Google 


iM  ball: 

readily  calculated,  thus  furnishing  valuable  data 
for  ^n  design.  Uuzzle  velocities  and  maximuni 
pressures  may  be  easily  calculated  for  given 
conditions  of  loading.  The  direct  problem  is 
thus  completely  solved. 

This  method  has  been  used  with  great  suc- 
cess in  the  Coast  Artillery  Service  of  the 
United  States  Army,  and  a  similar  method  is 
used  at  the  School  of  Application  at  Fontaine- 

Tbe  method  is  originally  due  to  Captain 
Ledue,  of  the  French  Artillery,  though  the 
details  of  the  method  as  here  given  have  been 
developed  in  this  country. 

Exterior  BollisticB. — A  projectile  in  flight 
describes  a  curve  called  its  trajectory.  This 
trajectory  is  a  curve  o[  which  the  vertical 
height  is  related  to  the  horizontal  distance 
traveled  in  a  manner  dependent  on  the  cir- 
cumstances of  its  motion.  The  origin  is  usually 
taken  as  the  muzzle  of  the  gun ;  the  horizontal 
distance  to  any  point  on  the  trajectory  being 
represented  by  x  and  the  height  above  the 
orJKin  by  y,  both  in  feet.  The  velocity  in  its 
path  of  the  projectile  at  this  point  is  repre- 
sented by  V,  the  inclination  of  the  path  to  the 
horizontal  by  S,  the  time  of  flight  from  the 
origin  to  (.r,y)  by  t.  The  curve  (due  to  the 
action  of  gravity)  is  convex  upwards  and  has 
a  maximtmt  ordinate  or  greatest  height  repre- 
sented by  y%,  corresponding  to  a  horizontal 
distance  or  range  n. 

At  this  point  the  inclination  is  zero.  At  the 
origin  X  and  y  are  zero,  9  is  represented  by  ^, 
w  by  f;  i  is  zero.  The  point  at  which  the 
projectile  again  finds  itself  at  the  level  of  the 
gun  is  called  the  "point  of  fall.' 

The  taw  of  motion  already  presumed  gives 
the  followicig  relations : 


_d(.v<« 


-  F  M  _ 


<Py_d(esinfl)      —F(.v)  . 


From  these 

rf  (>  cos  ff) 

de     '^ 

vd» 


eadily   shown 

from 

the  above  relations 

^-i- 

-tan 

fl 

r-S= 

^^ 

S-. 

-g= 

—2 
i 

-7 

fe 
.m 

/-^ 

t/'cos'  It  '^    C 

It  is  thus  clear  that,  with  a  known  relation 
between  v  and  f(.v)  the  trajectory  may  be, 
theoretically  at  least,  completely  defined  in 
terms  of  ;r,ji,  and  constants.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  the  form  of  the  trajectory  is  completely  de- 
fined, F^  in  its  relation  to  v  will  be  aeter- 
mined.  There  are  thus  two  ways  of  approach- 
ing the  subject,  and  the  problems  involved  in 
the  two  cases  are  known  as 'the  ^direct'  and  the 
'inverse*  problems.  The  direct  ■  problem  is 
based  on  values  of  F(v)  derived  from  firings 
through  screens,  the  time  of  passase  being  elec- 
trically recorded,  and  the  rate  of  loss  of  ve- 
locity thus  found.  Determinations  of  F{v)  in 
various  countries  differ  considerably;  and  ex- 
perimental firings  have  recently  been  conducted 
to  further  define  the  law.  These  finngs  are 
all  made  almost  horizontally  and  the  effect  of 
the  inclination  of  the  projectile  on  its  presenta- 
tion to  the  air  is  thus  not  experimentally  known. 
It  is  certain,  however,  that  in  high  angle  fire 
(as  with  mortars,  regarding  which  many  data 
are  available),  the  air  resistance  is  g^reatly  in- 
creased,^ in  many  cases  almost  doubled,  and 
that  this  effect  increases  with  the  inclination. 
The  inverse  problem,  therefore,  is  one  of  great 
importance  for  several  reasons,  amonf;  which 
is  the  fact  that  a  great  mass  of  data  is  avail- 
able, and  the  additional  facts  that  such  data  pro-  , 
cceded  from  actual  practical  firings  and  that 
conclusions  deduced  by  proper  methods  from 
such  data  must  duplicate  the  results  obtained  in 
practice. 

The  theoretical  treatment  of  the  subject, 
however,  affords  a  safe  guide  in  the  process  of 
solving  the  inverse  problem  and  gives  a  clear 
indication  of  the  form  of  the  equation  ot  the 
trajectory.    Upon  supposing  that  there  is  no  air 

-"■ — -  a  limiting  form  is  secured,  affording 

n  number  of  terms  of  the  expression 
terms  of  x.     This  is  the  condition  in 


The  equation   immediately  takes   the   form 


— v> 

(tt=i>cosff(«=— ©  da 

dy=-VBin«df=ZL^  ^  tanffrf* 


y>=  tan  fl=:  tan  $  - 

'       2Vcos'f 
/"=0 
for  this  condition. 

From  the  equations  of  motion  in  air  it  is 
clear  that  any  one  of  the  variables  s,  y,  I,  B  v, 
mav  be  expressed  in  terms  of  any  other  of  them 
and  hence  every  one  of  these  may  he  expressed 
in  terms  of  x.    As  complete  integration  is  not 


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BALUSTICS  UtB 

always  feaaible,  it  follows  that  in  the  general  may  be  directly  iound.    The  value  of  I  is  given 

case  the  variable  in  queition  will  be  expressed  by  the  relation, 

s  of  ascending  powers  of  x.    The  equa-  /-„ 

.__._  .,._..    ._,__.  ...  ,  F(cost=J    ^(.l+3ax+6bx*+eU)dx 


-\  1+  (W+63c*-Nfci-  Whence 


Where  the  value  of  ^  is  large  the  solution 
of  ^e  inverse  problem  is  practically  essential, 
in  the  ligjit  of  recent  ballistic  firings.  Where 
the  angle  ♦  is  less  than  15°,  however,  a  method 
due  to  the  eminent  Italian  authority,  Siacci, 
greatly  simplifies  the  problem  and  permits  very 
satisfactory  discussion  of  the  trajectories  of 
direct-fire  guns.  An  auxiliary  vana.ble  known 
as  the  "pseudo- velocity,*  is  characteristic  of  his 
method    Its  value  is  Epven  by  the  equation 

«  =  t>cos9secf 
Iti  connection  with  this  he  assumes  the  relation 

By  this  means  a  set  of  actual  firings  may  !"  "hich  ^  is  a  quantity  whidi,  for  direct  fire, 

be  used  to  determine  the  law  of  motion  of  the  f  J*'?  ."«".'?  """y-    V*  ""  f  "*  ""a  ""^  '' 

projectile  since  the  mu«Ie  velocity,  f,  the  angle  ^^jl^'/n'!,  ""*'    ""*    "'""    «f  *    '^d    ^    « 

of  departure.    ^,  and  the  values  of  y  and  x  for  ^ere^er  Siacd's  method  is  used  the  value 

the  pomt  of  impact  are  measured.  of  C  will  be  understood  to  include  the  factor    ^ 

The  value  of  f  (v)   is  readily  placed  in  the  in   its   denominator.     With  these  modifications 

'o^f^  the  following  relations  are  found: 

2  \a+3ax+6bi*+elc\    °*^ 
Now,  cos  0  is  readily  expressed  in  terms  ol 
X,  since  Ian  9  is  so  expressed,  and 


V 1  -|.  tan* e  dy=^—C 

s  directly  expressed  as  a  function  . 


2" 

■     VCsecf 

Hence 

2 
"      3    ■ 

^■r 

fW, 

V 

l+i-tx+efe 

"J.  f(«) 


cos9.««f  AiM)=Jjiu)dSlu) 

FiV)        l+iax+eb^+eic  ^^   solution    of   the.  problem  appears   in   the 

On  taking  successive  derivatives  with  respect  equations 
to  X,  and  nobng  the  relations  of  v  and  9  to  *,  C*    _  j  A  (u)—A  (IQ     .  ,  „  ) 

the  values   of   6  and  subsequent  coefficients  are  y=x  tan  ?  — ,      ,  *     1  5 /„! SIV)       ^  ^''i 

determioed  in  terms  of  F(V),  V.  and  the  sue-  '      '      ^  '         '    '  ' 

"   '    '   s  of  Fiv:    ■  ■  " 

„  ._ that  ♦  w_.    _,    

each  value.     This  method  is  Kencral,  and  finds  ,                           i 

Bsefal    application  both   in  die  cue  of   high  f  »  C  aec  f  j  T  («)—  T  {V)  \ 

nnwer  gtma  with  snail  values  of    *  and  in  me  '                            ' 

;  of  bowitMrs  and  mortars,  since  the  ve-  ~—  ri  vi^\        'nv\l 

.  ]ocity  V.   the   angle  «,  and  all  other  elementa  *  —  t-  p  W  —  O  ( f )  J 


Cfssive  derivatives  of  fIv)  with  respect  to  V.       tan9=tan  *—        ^       [t  ful— /  (1^1 
If  is   quite  clrar  that  ♦  will   invariably  enter  '       2co8»#r  f 

_„  -      --    -ligh 

power  suns  with  snail  values  of    ^  and  in  the 


t,zcd=y  Google 


BALLISTICS 


It  is  clear  from  the  above  that  the  value  of 

1 

Fiu) 

is  more  convenient  than  that  o{  F(,v).     Such 

a  \alue  may  be  found  in  ascending  powers  of  u 


a  involving  -^, 


beginning  wilb  a  te 

F(u) 
may  be  determined  by  a  series  the  first  t«rm 
of  which  is  a  constant ;  and  the  other  terms 
involve  regularly  ascending  powers  of  u.  With 
complete  and  absolutely  satisfactory  data  the 
curve  of  these  values  may  be  found  and  the 
direct  problem  for  direct  fire  is  completely 
solved  when   fi  is  known. 

One  of  the  most  recent  available  experimen- 
tal determinations  of  F(v)  is  that  of  the  Gavre 
Commission,  and  certain  broad  characteristics 
are  noted.    They  are : 

1.  Between  zero  and  800  feet  per  second 
F(v)  is  roughly  proportional  to  t/*. 

2.  Between  800  and  1,600  feet  per  second 
it  is  roughly  proportional  to  w*. 

3.  Between  1,600  and  3,600  feet  per  second 
it  is  roughly  proportional  to  tfii. 

These  three  classes  correspond  respectively  to 
the  fire  of 

1.  Howitzers  and  mortars 

2.  field  guns 

3.  Seacoast  guns 

In  these  three  cases  the  character  of  F(v) 
is  such  that  it  may  be  represented,  for  cerUkin 
purposes,  by 

FM-Bv- 
in  which  B  and  n  are  constants.    In  such  cases 
the  equation  of  Siacci's  trajectory  is 


3C1-Jfl  ' 


X     -       "+VB      " 

At  the  point  of  fall  jp^  and 


T"stni» 


Tff=l+TBK., 


Differential  formulx  for  range  changes  give 
tiie  following  relations  for  all  values  ot  n: 

(■-^¥+ 

tan  »     iJanZ^ 
tan  u®    Bin2* 

Placing  M=4  and  h°~  "t  in  this  equation  to- 
gether with  the  corresponding  values  of  T^JT^ 
the  following  limiting  values  are  found: 
Forn=4 

dX       2U     d}£         I    dmi2»      I-if     dC 
X  ^  2-M  "^  X  '*' 2-it    sin2f'^2-M®C 


-- Tie"" 


'&'-^y 


dX      ^M+2      dV  rfsm2»       /  W. 

X  -      3       ®    V  +  "     sin2  #  +  V       "/  £ 

For  values  of  M  at  intervals  of  -7.  thes 


For  the  values  n=4  and  n^  J^he  equations 


'-""♦-fi^wfi'-r 


a:  tan*- 


'- 


B  r 


--)■■ 


The  first  is  a  cubic  parabola  and  ihe  second 
hyperbola.  As  these  two  values  of  n  mark 
extreme  limits  of  its  average  values  these  two 
trajectories  may  be  regarded  as  limiting  ones 
between  which  all  others  will  lie. 


Vian2# 


=.if 


M        Q         R         S  Q         R  S 

%      .500      .600      .400  1.111      .333  .667 

H      .667      .667      .333  1.333      .500  .500 

%     1.000      .750      .250  1.556      .667  .333 

%     1.429      .857      .143  1.778      .833  .167 

1      2.000    1.000      .000  2.000    1.000  .000 

This  shows  that  there  is  a  wide  dilTerence  in 

coefficients   in   the   interpolation    formula,  and 


that  the  value  of   : 


should  be  found  be- 


fore using  these  formula  except  in  making 
the  corrections  in  (he  original  ranges,  when 
the  value  of  n  may  be  assumed  as  indicated 
for  the  general  class  of  firings  to  which  it  be- 
longs and  the  coefficients  Q,  R  and  S  found 
by   interpolation    for  the  value  of   M   under    , 


Google 


BALLON  D'HSSAI  — BALLOT 


im 


The  correetions  may  be  subse- 
quently recalculated.  In  correcting  the  data  of 
firings,  corrections  for  wind  are  also  ne«ded. 
The  correction  in  feet  for  a  wind  in  the  plane 
of  fire  is 

in  which  «  is  the  exponent  of  v  in  the  expres- 


IV  the  wind  velocity  in  milea  per  hour,  if  it 
is  in  the  plane  of  fire ;  otherwise  If  is  the  com- 
fotienl  of  the  wind  in  the  platte  of  fire,  and  T 
the  time  of  fii^t  in  seconds. 

Deflections  in  degrees  due  to  cross-wind  and 
drift,  also  in  dc^ees,  are  given  by  the  formulae 

Wind  deflection  =  =^1-5^-^^-1  \ 


-i'-m^^h' 


Drift 

in  which  W  is  the  cross-wind  component  ii 
tniles  per  hour,  <  a  coefficient  having  a  value 
0.7S  for  direct  fire  and  0.80  for  high  angle  and 
curved  fire,  and  n'  the  number  of  calibres  that 
the  projectile  passes  over  in  making  one  turn 
around  its  axis  due  to  the  action  of  the  rifling. 

In  the  solution  of  the  inverse  problem  cor- 
rections should  first  be  made  for  all  slight 
variations  in  conditions  from  the  mein  con- 
ditions existing  at  the  time  of  the  experiments ; 
so  that  for  each  group  of  shots  fired  the  ranges 
will  be  reduced  to  a  common  value  of  ♦,  and 
the  whole  series  to  a  common  muzzle  velocity 
and  ballistic  coefficient. 

Alston  Hamilton, 
Fart  Monroe,  Virginia. 

BALLON  D'ESSAI  (Fr.,  a  trial  ballon), 
in  diplomatic  language  denotes  an  eRort  to  see 
*which  way  the  wind  blows.*  Ballons  d'essai 
are  usually  launched  unoflkially  to  test  public 
opinion;  a  ■feeler"  or  "Idte.' 

BALLOON.  A  hghter-than-air  vehicle  for 
rising  into  the  atmosphere  and  traveling  through 
it  It  consists  essentially  of  a  bag-like  re- 
ceptacle of  air-tight  matenal  filled  with  hydror 
gen,  coal-gas  or  other  gaseous  material  lighter 
than  air,  of  such  bulk  when  distended  as  shall 
displace  a  mass  of  air  of  greater  weight.  To 
this  gas-bag  is  attached  a  basket  or  'car*  to 
accommodate  the  passengers,  if  any,  and  the 
recording  instruments.  A  free  balloon  floats  in 
the  air  whither  the  wind  carries  it,  or  it  may 
be    driven    in   a    desired   direction   by    suitable 


toy  balloons,  six  feet  high  by  three  feet  _.. 
are  made  of  paper  and  the  air  within  them 
rarified  by  the  heat  from  a  wad  of  asbestos 
saturated  with  alcohol  or  other  inflammable 
fluid,  fixed  on  cross  wires  at  the  centre  of  a 
wide  mouth.  They  rise  to  the  height  of  nearly 
a  mile  and  in  a  still  atmosphere  travel  several 
miles  before  coming  to  earth.  See  Aeronaut- 
ics. History  or. 

BALLOT  ('little  haU>)  :  essentiaUy,  a  se- 
cret as  distinguished  from  an  o^en  vote,  to  se- 
cure the  voter  from  previous  intimidation  or 
subsequent  revenge.  Recent  methods  of  ballot- 
refonn,  therefore,  are  only  devices  to  obtain 


the  result  inherent  in  its  very  nature,  a  non- 
secret  ballot  being  a  contradiction  in  terms  and 
the  same  as  viva  voce  voting.  The  vaHous 
forms  of  ballot  reduce  to  two  in  essence :  bal- 
lots themselves  indicating  choice, —  as  colored 
balls,  printed  tickets  or  mechanical  devices 
showing  names, —  and  depositories  indicating 
the  choice.  The  former  is  universal  in  modern 
times  and  most  general  in  ancient 

History.—  The  ballot  must  be  nearly  as  old 
as  the  practice  of  voting  by  unprotected  bodies 
of  citizens;  but  our  first  biowledge  of  it  is  in 
classic  Greec^  where  the  dikasts  (popular 
courts  and  Junes)  voted  'yes*  or  'no*  by  balls 
of  stone  or  metal  (white  or  unpierced  meaning 
acquittal,  black  or  pierced  indicating  condem- 
nation), by  marked  shells  (,ostr<^oi,  whence 
'ostracism  or  banishment  of  an  unpopular 
leader),  or  by  olive  leaves  ('petalism*).  In 
the  assemblies  the  common  voting  was  by  show 
of  hands,  to  secure  public  responsibility;  in 
cases  of  privilege  or  ostracism  it  was  by  ballot 
In  Rome  the  first  ballot  law  (though  far  from 
the  first  balloting)  was  the  Gabinian,  139  B.I:., 
and  the  machinery  is  very  modern :  tabella,  or 
tickets,  with  candidates'  names,  or  'yes*  and 
■no"  lallots  for  changes  in  the  laws;  boxes,  in- 
spectors and  check-Usts;  but  in  case  of  a  tie 
the  candidates  drew  lots.  In  the  mediaeval 
republics  the  ballot  was  a  regular  machinery; 
but  it  has  been  bitterly  fought  and  slow  of  in- 
troduction in  all  non- republican  countries,  the 
governments  and  the  privileged  classes  being 
loath  to  weaken  their  power  of  dragooning  their 
ofiicials  or  the  lower  classes  into  obedience.  In 
Scotland  it  was  used  in  1662  under  the  name  of 
■billeting,'  to  banish  political  opponents  (os- 
tracism^ ;  but  the  English  government  disal- 
lowed the  act.  In  EngWd  it  was  first  put  for- 
ward to  protect  members  of  Parliament  against 
government  revenge  for  voting  against  its  bills, 
not  the  electors  against  the  cesses  which  fur- 
nished the  members  of  Parliament ;  in  1710  the 
House  of  Commons  passed  a  ballot  law,  but  the 
Lords  threw  it  out. 

In  the  modern  world  the  American  colonies 
of  England  were  by  far  the  first  to  make  the 
ballot  (voting  *by  papers*)  the  foundation  of 
the  government  system;  they  used  it  from  the 
first,  and  it  was  made  obUgatory  in  several  of 
the  State  (Constitutions  adopted  in  1776.  New 
York,  with  its  great  landed  aristocracy,  was 
slower,  using  it  only  for  the  governor  and 
lieutenant-governor  in  1778,  and  not  extending 
it  to  the  legislature  till  1787.  The  Southern 
States  held  to  the  viva  voce  system  for  many 
years  after,  and  Kentucky  till  1891,  its  Constitu- 
tion providing  for  it,  though  the  United  States 
statutes  compelled  it  to  use  written  or  printed 
ballots  for  Congressional  elections.  All  the 
State  Constitutions  now  provide  for  dections 
by  ballot 

In  Great  Britain  it  was  not  only  fought  by 
the  privileged  classes  as  overthrowing  their 
leadership  of  the  tenants  and  artisans,  but  by  a 
large  part  even  of  the  Liberals  as  underminmg 
the  manliness  of  the  Elnglish  character.  The 
vanguard  of  the  movement  were  the  Bentha- 
mites, and  it  stood  foremost  in  the  program 
of  reform  put  forward  by  the  more  radical 
Whigs  early  in  the  19th  century.  It  was  in 
the  first  draft  of  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832;  in 
1833  Grote  the  historian  introduced  it,  and  re- 


,  Google 


Mated  the  Utempt  every  year  till  1839  with  a 
fresh  speech  of  immense  force  and  learning. 
It  was  supported  by  Macaulay  with  his  usual 
eSecliveness,  but  was  sneered  at  by  so  good  a 
Liberal  as  Sydney  Smith,  and  heartily  sup- 
ported by  none  but  the  Chartists,  whose  support 
alone  would  have  killed  it.  They  made  it  one 
of  the  *six  points"  of  their  "People's  Charter.* 
In  1851  it  was  carried  in  the  Commons  by  51 
majority  against  Lord  John  Russeil  and  his 
Libend  government,  but  went  no  further.  In 
1869  it  was  tried  at  Manchester  as  a  test,  and 
worked  well;  was  adopted  at  school-board  elec- 
tions in  1870;  and  the  same  year  a  select  com- 
mittee of  the  House,  headed  by  Lord  Harting- 
ton,  reported  in  its  favor  as  a  means  ol  lessen- 
ing corruption,  'treating,*  and  intimidation. 
In  1872  Mr.  W.  E.  Forster's  Ballot  Act  made 
printed  ballots  compulsory  at  all  national  and 
municipal  elections  except  those  of  university 
candidates  for  ParUament.  This  put  an  end  to 
the  drunken  riots  attending  the  previous  pubUc 
nominations  at  the  hustings,  so  keenly  satirized 
by  Dickens  and  others. 

In  Prance,  Spain,  Belgium,  Switzerland  and 
Cisleithan  Austria  the  ballot  is  now  used ;  in 
Hungary  it  was  formerly  employed  in  all  elec- 
tions, but  in  1874  was  restricted  to  municipal 
'  councils.  • 

Ballot  SecrecT. —  The  interest  of  govern- 
ments and  privileged  classes  in  aristocratic 
countries  to  defeat  the  secrecy  of  the  ballot  is 
replaced  in  democratic  ones,  of  which  the 
United  States  is  chief,  by  the  interest  of  party 
managers,  who  wish  either  to  prevent  inde- 
pendent voting  through  fear  of  toss  of  em- 
ployment or  favor  or  to  make  sure  of  purchased 
votes  being  given  as  promised;  they  have  there- 
fore devised  various  methods  of  evading  the 
nominal  secrecy  of  the  vote,  such  as  ordering 
the  voter  to  write  his  name  or  some  understood 
sign  on  the  ballot  before  depositing  it,  holding 
it  in  sight  of  the  party  watcher  while  casting 
it,  having  a  *frlend*  accompany  him  to  the 
polls  on  pretense  of  his  illiterai^  and  inability 
to  go  throu^  the  legal  forms  without  help,  etc. 
These  enforce  as  constant  a  struggle  from  the 
guardians  of  pc^tical  honesty  to  circumvent 
them :  the  first  has  been  stopped  by  throwing 
out  aa  illegal  all  ballots  wim  distinguishing 
marks  on  them;  the  second  by  compelling  them 
to  be.  cast  in  sealed  official  envelopes,  and  by 
forbidding  any  but  the  official  registrars  to 
come  within  a  certain  distance  of  the  polls  for 
«ny  purpose  hut  to  vote,  and  later  by  providing 
booths  in  which  each  voter  prepares  his  ballot 
is  privacy;  the  third  is  practically  confined  to 
certain  States  and  cities  with  a  large  percentage 
of  real  illiteracy  under  which  tfic  feigned  article 
can  cover  itself  and  cannot  well  be  directly 
reached  by  law,  but  only  by  the  vigilance  of 
each  party  in  exposing  the  fraudulent  practices 
of  tliB  other.  The  ballot  itself  also  has  brought 
in  many  frauds  for  which  die  viva  voce  system 
gave  no  opportunity,  which  are  reducible  to 
three  kinds:  (1)  Counterfeiting,  either  by  print- 
ing the  name  of  one  partjr  over  the  candidates 
of  another,  or  by  substituting  one  or  more 
names  on  the  opposite  party's  ticket;  (2)  'stufF- 
Ing»  the  ballot-box  by  folding  two  or  more 
ballots,  all  but  one  being  sometimes  of  tissue 
paper,  to  look  like  one;  (3)  "repeating,*  one 
man  voting  at  different  polling-places  snore  than 


once  or  at  dw  sune  one  under  different  nHmes. 
The  first  must  be  defeated  by  party  vigilance; 
the  second  is  used  only  where  one  party  has  tbt 
control   of   ballot  inspection,   though  the   law 

usually  provides  that  both  the  chief  parties  shall 
have  a  share. in  this;  the  third  and  second  are 
punishable  by  law. 

Another  evil,  as  diminishing  individual  re- 
sponsibility for  votes  and  building  up  unprin- 
cipled and  corrupt  party  dominance  though  not 
direct  fraud  like  the  others,  is  the  'party  bal- 
lot." This  is  due  to  the  great  multiplication  of 
candidates  to  be  voted  for  at  one  time,  and  the 
consequent  cost  of  printing  and  distributing 
the  ballots  to  voters,  which  has  led  to  the  id>an- 
donnunt  of  the  candidates  themselves  tloing 
this  work,  and  the  forming  of  party  organiza- 
tions for  it,  which,  in  return  for  their  efforts. 
Insist  on  subservience  and  are  apt  to  have  slight 
scruples  about  gaining  their  ends.  All  these 
evils  together—- the  misuse  of  ballot  methods  to 
pervert  their  intent,  the  only  partial  secrecy 
and  the  supremacy  of  party  in  the  voting  — 
have  latterly  built  up  a  great  body  of  opinion 
that  some  better  methods  should  be  devised,  the 
general  movement  being  known  as  "ballot  re- 
Australian  Ballot.^ —  The  Australian  or 
official  ballot  was  first  used  and  developed  in 
South  Australia,  and  after  its  introduction  in 
the  United  States  in  1888  soon  replaced  the 
party  ballot  in  man^  States.  Its  essential 
feature  is  that  all  candidates  in  the  field  for  any 
office  shall  be  placed  on  one  ballot  and  the 
voter  compelled  to  indicate  bis  preference  by  a 
mark  opposite  the  name  of  one.  The  ballot  is 
official,  compiled,  printed  and  placed  in  the  poll- 
ing places  under  the  direction  of  public  officials 
and  at  pubUc  expense.  Under  the  'Australian 
plan*  the  voter  is  compelled  to  think  personally 
of  each  candidate,  which  invites  independence 
of  judgment,  breaks  down  the  ^ratmy  of  the 
party  vote  and  instils  some  intelhgence  into  the 
"brute  vote,*   even   though  the  name  of    the 

Sarty  of  each  candidate  be  added.  The  first 
.ustralian  Ballot  Law  in  the  United  States  was 
enacted  by  Kentucky  in  1888,  but  the  law  ap- 
plied only  to  the  election  of  certain  officials  of 
Louisville.  In  the  same  year  Massachusetts 
passed  a  law  which  became  effective  the  next 
year  providing  (at  the  use  of  this  ballot  in 
State  elections.  Since  that  time  every  State  in 
the  Union,  save  Georgia  and  Louisiana,  has 
adopted  some  form  of  the  Australian  ballot. 

Some  of  the  motSfications  have  been  im- 
portant, due  chiefly  to  struggles  of  the  local 
organi rations  eiflier  to  defeat  the  secrecy  of  the 
ballot  and  keep  account  of  the  purchased  votes, 
or  to  prevent  'scratching*  and  ensure  the  vot- 
ing of  "straight  tickets.*  In  short  this  would 
emasculate  the  system  of  its  vital  principle. 
Fully  90  per  cent  of  the  States  have  provided 
for  an  official  "blanket  ballot,"  wherein,  in  one 
arrangement  or  another,  are  given  the  names  of 
all  candidates  who  have  been  duly  nominated 
by  the  various  parties  or  organiiations  of 
voters  for  the  offices  to  be  filled  at  the  ap- 
proaching elections.  There  are  a  few  excep- 
tions, however.  While  Missouri  and  New 
Mexico  provide  the  official  ballots  at  public  ex- 
pense, a  separate  ballot  is  required  for  each 
party.  In  Georgia  and  South  Carolina  the 
preparation  and  distribudcm  of  the  ballots  are 


=,  Google 


Mt  entirdy  to  the  voters,  and  in  the  former  It 
ii  not  even  required  that  the  ballots  be  uni- 
fortn  in  size,  shape  or  color. 

Forma.—  Uore  than  40  States  have  adopted 
the  official  ■blanket  ballot*  but  their  methods  of 
arranging  the  naincs  of  Ac  candidates  on  the 
ballot  vary  considerably.  In  31  States  the  bal- 
lot has  a  party  column,  the  candidates  of  each 
party  being  arran^d  vertically  under  the  name 
of  the  party,  and  in  all  but  12  States  the  column 
is  headed  by  the  party  emblem.  This  was  done 
on  the  nominal  ground  that  the  illiteraite  voters 
and  a  lar^e  part  of  those  not  technically  such 
do  not  wish  to  vote  anything  but  the  "straight 
party  ticket*  and  should  not  be  hindered  in 
their  choice,  much  less  deprived  of  it  Hence 
in  all  but  two  of  the  party  column  States  (Iowa 
and  Montana)  provision  is  made  so  that  the 
voter  may  easily  vote  'straight* — usualljr  by 
markine  a  cross  (X)  in  the  square  or  circle 
under  the  party  name  or  emblem  at  the  head  of 
the  column  which  the  illiterate  voter  can  be 
taught  to  recognize.  If  a  voter  desire  to 
'scratch"  the  ticket  (for  instance,  if  he  wish  to 
vote  for  the  Republican  candidate  for  governor, 
the  Democratic  candidate  for  lieutenant-gover- 
nor and  the  Progressive  candidate  for  comp- 
troller) he  either  marks  a  cross  (X)  in  the 
circle  at  the  head  of  one  party  column  and  then 
an  X  after  each  candidate  not  on  bis  party 
ticket;  or  he  omits  the  cross  in  the  top  circle 
altogether  and  marks  a  cross  after  the  name  of 
every  candidate  for  whom  he  wishes  to  vote. 
The  'Massachtisetts'  or  "office-group"  form  of 
ballot  is  used  in  14  States.  On  this  ballot  the 
names  of  all  candidates  for  each  oQicc  (usually 
in  alphabetical  order)  are  grouped  together, 
each  name  being  accompanied  b^  the  name  of 
the  party  nominating  him.  While  the  obvious 
intent  of  this  is  to  compel  the  voter  to  think, 
Colorado,  Nebraska  and  Pennsylvania,  though 
using  the  form,  have  adopted  devices  making 
especially  easy  the  voting  of  a  straight  party 
ticket  States  which  use .  the  Massachusetts 
form  of  ballot  provide  that  the  name  of  no 
candidate  for  a  single  office  shall  be  used  more 
than  once  npon  the  ballot  and  in  these  Slates 
this  provision  works  no  hardship;  but  this  limt-' 
tation  is  found  in  14  States  which  have  the 
'party  column*  ballot  and  the  effect  is  to  dis- 
courage fusion  in  nominations. 

Dangers  and  Problems. —  As  stated  above, 
die  ballot  itself  has  not  rid  the  political  system 
of  its  many  attendant  evils.  The  rapidity  with 
which  the  Australian  ballot  was  aoopted  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  politicians  believed 
they  could  appropriate  it  to  serve  their  own  pur- 
poses; and  that  they  have  done  so  shows  that 
good  government  depends  primarily  on  the  in- 
telligence,  honor  and  inf^nty  of  the  voter  and 
not  on  the  devices  that  are  placed  at  hand  for 
his  use.  Undoubtedly  there  are  less  open  in- 
timidation and  coercion  and  the  voting  places 
are  not  so  often  the  scenes  of  riot  and  dis- 
order,  but  the  complexity  of  Irallot  legislation 
has  been  used  by  party  organisations  to  their 
own  good  advantage.  The  politician  prefers 
the  *par^  column*  ballot  suice  he  can  cosily 
teach  the  illiterate  element  among  the  voters  to 
look  for  the  party  emblem  and  make  his  cross 
in  the  circle  provided,  whidi  of  course  entails 
the  minimum  of  diought  and  efFort.  With  most 
of  the  newer  voting  devices,  an  effort  to  scratch 


OT  H» 

the  ticket  is  very  liable  to  render  the  ballot 
vwd  and  for  this  reason,  if  for  no  other,  inde- 
pendent voting  is  usually  light.  Party  oi^:ani- 
zation  also  receives  a  legal  sanction  from  the 
Australian  ballot  and  in  some  States  the  party 
leaders  thereby  are  pven  great  i  ' 


nomber  of  votes  cast  by  political  groups  at 
some  elections  is  insufficient  to  meet  the  pro- 
hibitive legal  requirements,  and  thus,  thou^ 
the^  have  (he  promise  of  effective  leadership, 
their  names  would  not  appear  on  succeeding 
ballots. 

In  numerous  filaces  die  ballots  have  assumed 
immense  proportions,  that  used  in  New  York 
city  election  of  1909  being.  15  inches  wide  and 
46  inches  long  and  containing  18  party  columns 
(although  13  of  these  were  entitled  "Independ- 
ent Nominations*)  besides  one  blank  column 
for  the  voter  to  insert  the  names  of  those  for 
whom  he  desired  to  vote.  Several  of  th* 
columns  contained  the  names  of  candidates  for 
all  21  offices  to  be  filled,  while  some  contained 
the  name  of  the  mayoralty  candidate  only  and 
one  party  had  made  no  nominations  but  held  its 
place  cm  the  ballot  because  at  the  preceding 
election  it  had  polled  sufficient  votes  to  meet  the 
legal  requirements. 

Several  States  have  been  eitperi  men  ting  for 
some  time  with  various  forms  of  ballots,  Wis- 
consin using  a  coupon  ballot,  while  in  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  and  Grand  Junction,  CoL,  a 
preferential  ballot  has  been  used  so  that  a  voter 
could  express  a  'first  choice,*  'second  choice  • 
and  'other  choices.*  In  the  Or^on  primaiy 
elections  a  candidate  may  place  after  tus  name 
a  concise  statement  of  his  principles.  Hie 
initiative  and  referendum  in  many  States  are 
making  the  ballots  still  more  complex  and 
confusmg.  In  1912  the  Oregon  ballot  con- 
tained the  names  of  177  nominees  for  44 
National,  State^  and  local  oiTLces,  besides  37 
legislative  pro)ects,  14  ol  which  involved 
amendments  to  the  State  Constitution.  In 
ma^  States  voting  machines  (q.v.)  are  used. 

Short  BftlloL— It  is  apparent  that  some 
method  must  be  adopted  to  make  the  ballot 
short  and  simple  and  also  to  keep  the  processes 
detennining  its  content  and  arrangement  under 
the  control  of  the  voters  and  not  of  irrespon- 
sible party  managers.  It  is  inevitable  that 
bUnd  voting  will  occur  when  the  ballot  cotrtaios, 
as  in  some  instances,  500  names. 

As  regards  the  use  of  the  short  ballot  in 
cities,^  the  question  of  government  by  commis- 
sion is  involved.  Under  this  form  of  govern- 
ment the  mayor  and  a  large  council  of  numerous 
divided  powers  are  replaced  by  a  small  com- 
mission. In  New  Jersey  it  would  apply  to 
county  and  State.  There  a  small  commission 
having  the  power  of  connty  management  is 
proving  its  dltciency.  The  voters  of  the  State 
elect  a  governor  and  s  bicameral  legislature 
btit  do  not  vote  for  any  other  State  officer,  not 
even  the  lieutenant -governor.  Thus  the  re- 
sponsibiHty  for  good  administration  is  centraV 
i«cd  in  one  man  instead  of  being  scattered 
among  a  number  of  elected  department  heads 
with  divided  and  coriflicting  powers.  Hence 
the  advocates  of  the  short  ballot  urge  that  it 
be  adopted  so  as  to  remove  all  minor  ofi^ces 
and  some  important  ones  from  the  ballot,  with 


Google 


BALLOU  — BALM  OF  OILBAD 


See  Elbctionsi  El^toral  Votes; 
TOKAL  Q UAUFic AXIOMS ;  Electors;  PcajncAL 
Science;  Suffrage;  Naturalization;  Woman 
Suftrage;  Pkiuabv,  Direct;  Coiiuission  Gov- 
ernment ;  United  States  —  Becimnings  or 
Party  Organization  ;  iNrriATivE  and  Retix- 
endum;  Corrupt  Practices  Acts;  Vot«,  Vot- 
IBS,  Voting. 

BiUiopmphy^  Consult  Allen,  P.  L.,  'Bal- 
lot Laws*  (in  Political  Science  Quarterly,  Vol, 
XXI,  pp.  38-58,  1906)  ;  Beard,  C.  A..  'The  Bal- 
lot's Burden*  (in  Political  Science  Quarterly, 
Vol.  XXIV,  p.  S98,  1909);  Bryce,  James, 
'American  Coinnionwealtli>  (VoL  II,  4th  ed, 
1910) ;  Childs,  R.  S..  'Short  Ballot  PrindpleR> 
mil)  ;  Jones,  C.  L.,  'Readings  on  Parties  and 
Elections*  (1912);  Ludinstoh,  A.  C,  'Ameri- 
can Ballot  Laws,  I888-1910>  (in  New  York 
Stale  Library  Bulletin,  1911)  ;  McCrary,  G.  W., 
'American  Law  of  Elections*  (4th  ed.,  1897) : 
Uechem,  T.   R.,    'Law  of   Public  Offices  and 


(1902)  ;  Reinsch,  P.  S.,  'Readings  on  American 
State  Government*  (1911)  :  Throop,  M.  H,, 
'Law  Relating  to  Public  Offices'  (1892);  and 
articles  in  American  Political  Science  Review 
and  'Proceedings  of  the  American  Political 
Science  Association'  (passim). 

BALLOU,  Hosea,  American  clereyman 
and  author:  b.  Richmond.  N.  H,,  30  April  1771; 
d.  Boston,  Mass.,  7  June  18S2.  His  boyhood  was 
spent  in  the  greatest  poverty,  but  at  21  he 
fa^an  to  preaui,  having  adopted  the  Univer- 
saUst  doctrines.  He  was  successively  pastor  of 
congregations  in  Dana,  Mass. ;  Barnard,  Vt. ; 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  a.nd  Boston,  Mass.,  in  which 
latter  place  he  held  his  pastorate  for  more  than 
35  years.  He  founded  the  Umveriaiist  Maga- 
gine,  subsequeDtl}/  called  The  Unrversaliit  Ex- 
poiitor,  and  again  the  Universaiiil  Quarterly 
Review.  He  was  active  in  the  organization  of 
the  Universalist  denomination,  and  helped 
greatly  to  extend  its  work  and  influence.  A 
voluminous  writer,  his  chief  worlcs  are  'Notes 
on  the  Parables'  (1804);  'Lecture  Sermons' 
(1831);  'Examination  of  the  Doctrine  of 
Future  Retribution'  (1834),  his  most  important 
contribution  to  theological  literature.  His  pub- 
lished works  would  make  more  than  a  hundred 
12ma  volumes.  For  an  account  of  his  life  con- 
sult the  biographies  by  O.  F.  Safford  (Boston 
1889)  and  T.  Whittemore  (4  vols.,  ib.  1855). 
Consult  also  Adams,  J.  C,  'Hosea  Ballou  and 
Uie  Gospel  Renaissance  of  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury'   (Chicago   1903). 

BALLOU,  Haturin  Humv,  American 
journalist,  son  of  Hosea  Ballou :  b.  Boston,  14 
April  1820;  d.  27  March  1895.  Besides  editing 
Ballou't  Pictorial.  Tht  flag  of  Our  Union, 
Ballou's  Monthly,  etc,  and  making  a  valuable 
compilation  of  quotations,  he  wrote  'Hisloiy 
of  Cuba'  (1854)  ;  'Biography  of  Hosea  Bal- 
lon,' 'lAie  Work  of  Hosea  Ballou.'  Becoming 
in  later  life  an  extensive  traveler,  he  wrote  a 
number  of  books  of  travel,  including  'Due 
West.'  'Due  South'  (1885) ;  'Due  North,' 
'Under  the  Southern  Cross,'  'Footprints  of 
Travel,'  etc.    In   1872  be  became  one  of  the 


founders  and  Ac  editor-in-chief  of  die  Boston 
Globe. 

BALL'S  BLUFF,  Va.,  a  point  on  the  Po- 
tomac River,  about  33  miles  alxive  Washington, 
where  the  lank  rises  about  ISO  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  river.  It  is  noted  as  the  scene  of 
a  battle  between  a  Union  force  under  Col.  Ed- 
ward D.  Baker,  and  a  Confederate  force  under 
the  command  of  C^neral  Evans,  21  Oct  1861. 
The  battle  resulted  in  the  serious  defeat  of  the 
Union  force  and  the  death  of  Col  oner  Baker. 

BALLSTON  SPA.  N.  Y.,  county-seat  of 
Saratoga  County,  on  tne  Delaware  &  Hudson 
Railroad,  seven  miles  southwest  of  Saratoga 
Springs.  It  has  some  reputation  as  a  summer 
and  health  resort  and  is  noted  for  its  mineral 


.       „  try.     The  water 

flows  from  a  depth  of  650  feet  IlirouKh  a  tube 
bored  into  the  solid  rock,  and  is  highly  effer- 
vescent. The  village  has  a  county  courthouse, 
fair  grounds  and  trat^  the  Saratoga  County 
almshouse  and  hospital,  and  the  Spa  sanitorium. 
The  industries  include  a  lar^  tannery,  foun- 
dries and  machine  shops,  a  shirt  waist  and  tex- 
tile factory,  extensive  pulp  and  paper  mills, 
and  agricultural  implement  factones.  It  has 
two  National  banks,  several  churches,  public 
high  school  and  daily  and  weekly  newspapers. 
Settled  in  1787,  it  was  incorporated  in  1807. 
Town  meetings  are  held  every  two  years  and 
charter  elections  annually.  The  board  of  edu- 
cation, the  village  president  and  the  board  of 
trustees  are  chosen  by  popular  vote.  The  water- 
works are  owned  and  operated  by  the  village. 

BALLYMENA.  Ireland,  a  maricet  town  in 
County  Antrim,  on  the  river  Braid,  33  miles 
northwest  of  Belfast.  It  has  a  cotton -spinning 
mill,  a  distillery,  numerous  bleachiDE-grounds, 
a  church,  chapel,  large  public  schools,  several 
branch  banks  and  a  United  States  consular 
agency.  It  is  an  important  railway  centre. 
Pop.  (1911)  11,381. 

BALH  (Melissa  offleinalis'),  a  perennial 
herb  of  the  family  Menthaeeee,  native  of  south- 
em  Europe,  cultivated  for  culinary  use  and 
found  wild  as  an  escape  in  many  countries.  It 
attains  a  height  of  about  18  inches,  is  much 
branched,  has  ovate  leaves  and  whorls  of  white 
oi  yellowish  axillary  flowers  rich  in  nectar,  for 
which  the  plant  is  sometimes  cultivated  as  bee- 
forage.  Its  foliage  which  has  a  lemon-like 
odor  and  slightly  aromatic  taste,  is  used  to 
flavor  wine  and  to  a  small  extent  in  domestic 
medicine.  Some  other  members  of  the  Men- 
ikaeea  are  called  balm  —  for  instance :  Bastard 
balm  {MeliHis  meliisofhyllum),  a  handsome 
plant,  often  dried  for  its  long-enduring  frag- 
rance; Moldavian  balm  IDraeocepkalum  mol- 
daaica) ,  a  Siberian  annual  of  less  pleasant 
qualities  than  true  balm,  largely  used  in  Ger- 
many for  flavoring.  Horse  balm  (CoUtnsonia 
eanadensii)  and  tea  balm  (MoMorda  didyma) 
are  American  species  of  little  importance.  For 
cultivation  see  Heiibs  (Citlinary). 

BALH  OF  GILEAD,  a  liquid  resinous 
balsam  highly  reputed  in  the  East  since  Bible 
times  for  its  fragrance  and  supposed  medicinal 
properties,  believed  to  be  deriwd  from  Commi- 
phora opobaltamum,  a  small  Abyssinian  and 
Arabian  tree.  Balm  of  Mecca,  or  opobalsam, 
is  a  specially  high  grade  of  balm  of  (litead  ob- 


.Google 


BALHACSDA  _  BALNAVBS 


111 


tained  from  incisiotis  in  the  bark  The  wood 
and  fruit  are  boiled  to  obtain  the  inferior 
grades.      The   balm   of    Gilead   of    the   United 


BALMACEDA,  baUm^-sa'dq,  Joa«  Muinel, 
Chilean  statesman:  h.  Santiago  18^;  d.  18  Sept. 
1891  by  suicide.  He  was  educated  at  the  Semi- 
nario  Condliar  in  Santiago ;  early  became  noted 
as  an  orator,  urging  radical  reforms  in  the  Con- 
stitution of  1833;  and  was  a  founder  of  the  Re- 
form Qub  in  1868.  As  deputy  for  five  terms. 
1870-85,  he  urged  the  separation  of  church  and 
state  and  became  the  leader  of  the  Progressives. 
He  was  Chileon  Minister  at  Buenos  Ayres  in 
the  early  part  of  the  Chile- Peruvian  War,  1879- 
83,  and  secured  the  neutrality  of  Argentina,  In 
1882  he  was  made  Minister  of  the  Interior,  and 
introduced  liberalizing  bills,  as  for  civil  mar- 
riage etc.  In  1885  he  was  elected  senator  and 
appointed  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs.  Elected 
President  in  1886,  he  carried  out  large  schemes 
of  reform  and /democratization;  popular  educa- 
tion was  extended,  civil  marriage  carried  in 
1888,  railroads  and  other  internal  improvements 
forwarded.  But  bodi  his  measures  and  men  in- 
volved war  against  the  clerical  oligarchy  which 
not  only  ruled  the  state  but  monopolized  the 
offices,  and  possessed  the  bulk  of  the  property 
and  influence ;  and  when  he  tried  to  prevent  the 
rtiin  of  his  work  by  ■influencing"  the  election  of 
a  like  successor,  tus  opponents  blocked  the  ad- 
ministration. He  appointed  a  ministry  of  his 
own  stripe  and  dissolved  Congress,  virtually 
making  himself  dictator;  but  the  Congressionaf- 
ists,  having  the  naval  officers  on  thdr  side,  be- 
pan  war  7  Jan.  1891,  secored  the  nitrate  prov- 
inces, and,  using  their  revemies  to  buy  the 
best  arms  and  munitions,  utterly  routed  Balma- 
ccda's  forces  in  a  decisive  battle  near  Valpa- 
raiso, 7  August.  He  took  refuge  in  the 
Argentine  legation  at  Santiago,  and  died  there 
a  few  weeks  later. 

„  __._ /  between  Savoy  and  the 

Valaia.  7,218  feet  above  sea-level.    It  is  much 
visite<i  and  has  a  travelers'  refuge. 

BALBCERINO,  bil  mer-e'nd,  Arthur  Bl- 
phinatonc,  Lout,  Scottish  Jacobite:  b.  ICfiS; 
d.  1746.  He  took  part  in  the  rebellion  of  1715, 
and  foi^l  at_  Sheriffmuir.  Having  joined  the 
Young  Preten'der  in  1745,  he  was  taken  prisoner 
at  CuTloden,  tried  at  Westminster,  found  giulty 
and  beheaded.  His  title  was  from  Balmerino, 
in  Fife. 


'Protestantism  Compared  with  Catholicism  ... 
Its  Relation  to  European  Civilization*  (3  vols., 
1848);  'Filosofia  Fundamental,'  'Letters  to  a 
Sceptic  on  Religious  matters,* 

BALHOHT.  K6nBtaDtin  Dtnitrijrfvitcb, 
Ru&sian  poet:  S.  on  his  father's  estate,  near 
the  village  of  Guronishtcbi,  in  the  government 
of  Vladimir,  IS  June  1867.  His  education  was 
much  interrupted :  he  was  expelled  from  the 
seventh  class  of  the  Gymnasium,  being  suspected 
of  secret  political  activity.  He  later  attended 
the  University  of  Moscow,  intending  to  pre- 

Kre  himself   for  the  profession  of  the  law ; 
t  again   he  was  implicated  as  one  of  the 


leaders  in  student  uprising.  He  was  arrested 
and  expelled  from  the  dty.  He  traveled  ex- 
tensively in  southern  Russia,  Turkey  an^ 
western  Europe,  where  he  attained  consider- 
able familiarity  with  English  and  German.  On 
his  return  to  Russia  he  devoted  himself  to 
literary  pursuits,  and  he  has  translated  many 
of  the  poems  of  Shelley,  Poe,  Ibsen  and  other 
European  writers.  In  1894  appeared  his  first 
volume  of  poems,  'Under  Northern  Sides.' 
This  was  followed  at  intervals  of  two  years  I7 
a  second  and  third  volume;  then  in  1904  by  a 
fourth  collection,  entitled  'Let  us  be  like  the 
Sun.'  Many  of  his  lyrics  were  set  to  music 
by  the  later  Russian  composers.  The  Yiddish 
monthly  Die  Zakunft  charged  him  with  having 
several  times  changed  his  political  views:  but 
he  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
modem  Russian  thought.  He  wrote  many  patri- 
otic songs  and  other  lyrics.  His  rather  un- 
satisfactory ■Hjmin  of  Free  Russia"  (Himn 
SyobAdnoi  Rosstya),  occasioned  by  the  Revolu- 
tion of  190S  and  set  to  music  by  Rathmaninot 
has  carried  his  name  all  over  the  world.  This 
hymn  was  accepted  by  the  men  of  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1917.  The  metre  corresponds  to  U>e 
familiar  English  hymn,  *From  Greenland's 
Icy  Mountains,^  and  the  three  stanzas  literally 
translated  are  as  follows: 

1.  Hail  Russia  —  Free  land!— Free  Element 

—  Destined  to  be  great  1 

2.  Mighty  realm  —  Boundless  ocean  I—  Glory 
to  those  that  fou^t  for  freedom  —  That  dis- 
pelled the  mist  I 

3.  Forests,  fields  and  meadows  —  And 
stwpes  and  seas!  —  We  are  free  and  happy, 

—  llie  dawn  glows  for  us  all  I 

4.  Same  as  stanza  1. 

Balmont  also  translated  Shelley,  Edgar 
Allen  Poe,  Ibsen,  Hoffmann  and  Hauptmann, 
but  as  an  ori^nal  poet  he  is  reckoned  as  one 
of  the  most  notable  in  recent  times. 

Nathan  Haskeu.  Dole. 

BALMORAL  (bS]-m6r'4l)  CASTLE,  the 
favorite  Highland  residence  of  the  iate  Queen 
Victoria,  beautifully  situated  on  the  south  bank 
of  the  Dee,  48  miles  west  of  Aberdeen,  and  in 
the  county  of  the  same  name.  The  site  on  which 
it  stands  is  almost  completely  hemmed  in  by 
majestic  mountains,  ana  the  views  from  the 
castle  are  magnificent.  Balmoral  was  originally 
a  shooting-lodge  of  the  Earl  of  Fife,  but  was 
leased  to,  and  greatly  enlarged  by,  a  brother  of 
the  Earl  of  Aberdeen,  and  in  1848  the  reversion 
of  the  lease  was  purchased  by  Prince  Albert. 
The  accommodation  furnished  by  the  old  build- 
ing was  very  inadequate,  and  accordingly,  the 
property  having  been  purchased  in  1852,  the 
present  mansion  was  erected  shortly  afterward 
It  underwent  some  enlargement  in  I8S8.  It  is 
built  of  gray  granite,  in  the  Scottish  baronial 
style,  ana  has  a  massive  and  imposing  appear- 
ance in  the  distance.  It  consists  of  two  blocks 
connected  by  wings,  and  has  a  massive  tower  90 
feet  high,  with  a  turret  of  20  feet  high.  The 
estate,  which  was  the  Queen's  private  property, 
comprises  some  40,000  acres,  three-fourths  be- 
ing deer-forest. 

BALNAVES,  bil-nav'Ss,  Henry,  Scotti^ 
reformer:  b.  Kirkcaldy  1520;  d.  1579.  He  was 
educated  at  Saint  Andrews,  and  though  at  first 
a  Roman  Catholic  he  became  a  Protestant  and 
made  open  profession  of  his  faith  id  1542; J( ' 


Coogle 


lie 


BALNBOLOOY — BALTIC 


itig  the  EioKlish  agaiiut  Goremor  Arrati.  He 
was  accused  of  connection  with  the  conspiracy 
.to  murder  Cardinal  Beaton,  and  was  declared 
a  traitor  and  excommunicated.  In  1547  he  was 
one  of  the  prisoners  taken  in  the  Castle  of 
Saint  Andrews  and  exiled  to  France,  where  he 
wrote  his  'Confession  of  Faith.'  Recalled  in 
1559,  he  busily  eu^aged  in  die  establishment  of 
the  reformed  faith,  assisted  in  revising  the 
'Book  of  Discipline,'  and  accompanied  MurnLv 
to  England  in  connection  with  Damley  s 
murder. 

BALNEOLOGY.      See    Baths;    HTmtop- 

ATHY;    HYDBOTHEmAPT. 

BALSA,  bal's^,  a  land  of  raft  or  float,  of 
the  nature  of  a  catamaran  (av,),  used  on  the 
coasts  and  rivers  of  Peru  and  in  other  parts  of 
South  America  for  fishing,  for  landing  goods 
and  passengers  through  a  heavy  surf  ana  for 
other  purposes  where  buoyancy  is  rhidly 
needed.  It  is  sometimes  farmea  of  two  in- 
ftaied  hides  connected  by  a  sort  of  platform  on 
which  the  fisherman,  passengers  or  goods  are 
placed ;  and  sometimes  of  a  very  light  wood. 

BALSAM  (Impatienj  baltamina),  an  East 
Indian  herb  of  the  natural  order  Geraniaeria, 
cultivated  in  gardens  for  more  than  300  years. 
The  plant  is  an  erect  free- branching  annual 
lometunes  30  inches  tall ;  bears  axillary  di- 
versely linled  yellow,  white  or  red  single  or 
often  double  m>wers,  the  latter  of  which  are 
called  camellia-floweTed  varieties.  The  plant  is 
a  general  favorite  of  easiest  culture. 
~  BALSAMO,  Jcweph.  See  CAGUOStno.  ~~" 
'  BALSAMO  DEND  RON,  bal-sq-mo-den'- 
dr£n,  a  genus  of  trees  or  bushes  o£  the  order 
Amyridaceee,  species  of  which  yield  such 
balsamic  or  resinous  substances  as  balm  of 
Gilead,  bdellium,  myrrh,  etc.     See  Bax.sams. 

BALSAMS,  mixtures  of  resins  in  volatile 
oils,  the  term,  however,  being  popularly  ap- 
plied to  any  aromatic  compound  with  volatile 
oils.  Balsams  are  very  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  plant  kingdom.  They  are  par- 
ticularly abundant  in  the  members  of  the  pine 
family.  The  araucarias  yield  a  copal  that  is 
almost  a  pure  resm;  inany  species  of  pine 
yield  turpentine  and  resin ;  Canada  balsam  is 
derived  from  Abies  balsamea;  the  balsam-likc 
sandarach  is  from  a  cypress.  The  Hamamelis 
familv  ^ves  balsam  of  styrax  and  balsam  of 
copaiba  IS  derived  from  a  large  number  of  the 
legumes  and  from  the  Dipterocarpta.  Styrax 
benzoin  is  from  the  Storax  family.  The  resins 
and  balsams  of  commerce  are  very  closely 
allied  They  may  be  divided  into  three  groups: 
gum  resins,  such  as  asafcetida  and  ammonia- 
cum ;  balsams,  and  resins,  such  as  turpentine, 
resin,  copaiba,  mastic,  elemi,  copal,  oammar 
and  sandarach;  and  the  balsams  and  resins  that 
contain  cinnamic  or  benzoic  acids,  from  which 
ttiey  derive  their  aromatic  odor.    It  is  to  this 


storax     benzoin,      dragon's-blood 
xantfaorrhea  resin. 

These  various  bodies  are  for  the  most  part 
secreted  in  special  passages  in  the  plants. 
Sometimes  they  are  formed  in  the  leaves,  bnt 
for  the  most  part  the  resinous  solution  collects 
in  specially  designed  portions  of  the  stem, 
usually  in  the  woody  portion.    It  is  obtained  in 


a  variety  of  ways  from  simple  indnon  to  boil- 
ing chips  of  the  wood  with  water. 

In  medicine  most  of  these  bodies  are  active. 
They  are  energetic  oxidicersj — hence  the  tradi- 
tions about  ozone  and  pure  air  in  pine-clad  hills, 
—  and  several  of  the  hydrocarbons  in  .the  vola- 
tile oils  are  stimulating  to  the  skin  and  mucous 
membranes,  turpentine  being  an  excellent  exam- 
ple. It  is  an  excellent  external  antiseptic,  and 
manifests  similar  properties  on  the  respiratory, 
intestinal  and  geiiito-urinary  tracts.  _  Those 
resinous  or  balsamic  mixtures  containing  cin- 
namic and  benzoic  acids  —  notably  balsam  of 
tolu  (from  Toluifera  pereirn)  and  tolsam  of 
Peru  (from  Toluifera  halsamum)  possess 
similar  antiseptic  and  stimulating  properties. 
They  are  more  powerful  in  proportion  to  the 
aromatic  acids  contained.  Balsam  of  storax  is 
derived  from  a  tree,  Liquidambar  slyracifiva. 
It  has  similar  properties  to  the  balsam  of  Peru. 

"ITie  chrism  (see  Sacraments)  used  for 
consecration  and  sacramental  services  should  be 
made  of  balsam  from  Syria  or  Mecca;  when 
this  is  difficult  to  obtain,  balsams  from  Brazil 
or  Peru  are  used. 

BALTA,  bal'ta,  Ios£,  Peruvian  statesman: 
b.  Lima  1816:  d.  26  July  1872.  He  retired  from 
the  army  with  the  rank  of  colonel  in  1855;  was 
Minister  of  War  in  1865 ;  one  of  the  leaders  in 
the  insurrection  which  overthrew  the  imconsti- 
tutiot^al  President,  Prado.  in  1868;  and  was 
President  of  Peru,  186W2.  He  was  murdered 
in  a  military  mutiny  in  Lima. 

BALTARD,  bll-tar,  Louis  Pien«,  French 


the  Pantheon  and  of  the  Paris  prisons,  and  de> 
signed  the  chapels  of  the  houses  of  detention  of 
Saint  Lazare  and  Saint  Pelasie.  The  great 
hall  of  justice  in  Lyons,  founded  in  1834,  was 
devised  and  almost  completed  by  him.  He  also 
acquired  fame  as  an  engraver  and  as  the  author 
of  many  superb  works  descriptive  .of  monu- 
ments and  illustrated  by  his  own  plates.  Afnonjg 
his  most  notable  worira  in  this  hne  are  'Pari* 
and  Its  Monuments' ;  'La  Colonne  de  la  Grande 
Armie' ;  and  illustrations  in  Denon's  'Egypt' 

BALTARD,  Victor,  French  architect:  b. 
Paris,  19  June  1805 ;  d.  14  Jan.  1874.  He  was 
son  of  Louis  Pierre  Baltard,  and  became  gov- 
ernment architect  of  France  and  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  He  built  the  church 
of  Saint  Augustine  and  other  beautiful  edifices, 
and  was  author  of  'Monograpbie  de  la  Villa 
Melius'  (1847);  and  other  works. 

BALTHAZAR,  bai-tha'zar,  (1)  one  of  the 
wise  men  of  the  East  who  came  to  worship 
Jesus  at  Bethlehem.  (2)  A  character  in  Eich- 
berg's  opera,  "The  Doctor  of  Alcantara.'  (3) 
Chaucer  s  name  for  Belshazrar  in  'The  Monk's 
Tale.'  (4)  The  name  assumed  by  Portia  in 
Shakespeare's  'Merchant  of  Venice';  also  the 
name  of  minor  characters  in  several  of  Shakes- 
peare's plays. 

BALTIC  (bil'tlc)  AND  NORTH  SKA 
CANAL,  or  KAIS^  WILHELM  CANAL. 
See  Canals. 

BALTIC,  Battle  of  the,  a  poem  l^  Thomas 
Campbell,  celebrating  the  victory  of  Lord  Nel- 
son over  the  Danish  fleet  2  Apnl  1801.  In  his- 
tory this  action  is  geaerally  known  as  ifae  battle 
of  Oqtenhagen. 


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BALTIC   PROVINCES  — BALTIMORE 


BALTIC  PROVINCES  (in  Russia),  a 
term  generally  given  to  the  &ve  Russian  govern- 
ments bordering  on  the  Baltic,  namely,  Cour- 
land,  Livonia,  Esthonia,  Petrograd  and  Fin- 
land; in  a  restricted  sense  it  often  designates 
the  first  three.  The  Baltic  provinces  once  be- 
longeil  to  Sweden,  except  Courland,  which  was 
a  dependency  of  Poland.  They  came  into  the 
possession  of  Russia  partly  in  the  beginning  of 
the  !8th  century,  throng  the  conquests  of 
Peter  the  Great,  partly  under  Alexander  in 
1809.  Peter  the  Great  conceded  to  the  provinces 
their  own  administration  and  guaranteed  the 
inhabitants  freedom  'of  conscience.  These 
rights  were  confinned  anew  in  1856,  but  in  spite 
of  this  a  systematic  attempt  was  made  by  the 
Russian  government,  especially  since  1880,  to 
assimilate  the  provinces  with  the  rest  of  the 
empire.  The  Greek  Church  endeavored  to 
proselytize  the  people,  the  Russian  language  was 
substituted  for  the  German  in  the  schools  and 
courts  and  the  press  was  subjected  to  censor- 
ship. These  measures  aroused  great  discontent 
and  the  autumn  of  190S  witnessed  the  outbreak 
of  a  formidable  revolutionary  movement  among 
the  Lettish  and  Esthorian  peasantry,  directed 
against  both  the  German  landowners  and  the 
Russian  government.  A  borderland  between 
the  Germanic  and  Slavonic  areas,  they  have 
been  a  freouent  cause  of  difficulty  between  Ger- 
many ana  Russia,  and  dunng  the  great 
European  War  were  the  scene  of  many  land 
and  naval  conflicts  (see  War,  European).  The 
bulk  of  the  population  is  composed  of  Esths 
and  Letts  —  the  former  a  Finnish  race,  the 
latter  akin  to  the  Lithuanians.  The  higher 
classes,  nobility  and  burghers,  are  Germans, 
who  constitute  about  7j^  per  cent  of  the  total 

P)pulation.  The  inhabitants  are  nearly  all 
rotestants.  Although  the  soil  is.  tiot  very 
fertile,  agriculture  is  in  a  flourishing  condition, 
owing  to  the  improved  methods  of  cultivation 
and  a  generally  fligher  intelligence  of  the  peo- 
ple. Commerce  and  manufactures  are  also 
highly  developed,  favored  by  the  proximitv  of 
the  Baltic.  The  five  provinces  combined  have 
an  area  of  191,526  square  miles,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  about  9,427,000. 

BALTIC  SEA,  an  enclosure  of  the  North 
Sea  with  which  it  is  connected  by  the  Skager- 
rack and  Kattegat  It  washes  the  coasts  of 
Denmark,  Germany,  Courland,  Livonia  and 
other  parts  of  Russia  and  of  Sweden,  and  ex- 
tends to  lat.  65'  30-  N.  It  is  nearly  930  miles 
long,  from  50  to  425  broad,  and  its  superficial 
esxtent,  together  with  the  contents  of  the  gulfs 
of  Bothnia  and  Finland,  amounts  to  160,000 
square  miles.  Its  generally  small  breadth ;  its 
depth,  amounting^  on  an  averagi^  to  from  40  to 
50  fathoms,  but  in  many  places  hardly  half  so 
much ;  its  shallowness  toward  the  Prussian 
shores,  and  the  ru^ed  nature  of  the  Swedish 
coasts,  where  deepest  water  is  sounded  (1,5^ 
feet  south  of  Stockholm)  ;  but  above  all,  the 
sudden  and  frequent  changes  of  the  wind,  ac- 
companied by  violent  storms  (especially  from 
the  east),  render  this  sea  dangerous  for  navi- 
gators,  although  its  waves  are  less  powerful 
thsn  those  of  the  North  Sea.  A  chain  of 
islands  separates  the  southern  part  from  the 
northern,  or  the  (yulf  of  Bothnia.  In  the  north- 
east the  Gulf  of  Finland  stretches  eastward 
and  separates   the  province  of    Finland  from 

YOL.S— ». 


Esthonia,  A  third  gulf  is  that  of  Riga  or 
Livonia.  The  Kurisches  Haff  and  the  Frisches 
Haff  are  inlets  or  lagoons  on  the  Prussian 
coast.  The  water  of  the  Baltic  is  colder  and 
clearer  than  that  of  the  ocean ;  it  contains  a 
smaller  proportion  of  salt,  and  ice  obstructs  the 
navigation  three  or  four  months  in  the  year. 
The  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tide  are  inconsiderable, 
as  is  the  case  in  other  inland  seaa,  the  difference 
between  high-water  and  low-water  mark  being 
only  about  a  foot ;  yet  the  water  rises  and  falls 
from  time  to  time,  probably  owing  to  the  vary- 
ing rainfall  and  evaporation.  In  stormy 
weather  amber  is  often  found  on  the  coasts  of 
Prussia  and  Courland,  which  the  waves  wash 
upon  the  shore.  It  forms  the  drainage  basis 
for  a  great  part  of  northern  Europe.  Among 
rivers  that  empty  into  it  are  the  Neva,  Dwina, 
Oder.  Vistula,  Niemen  and  a  number  of 
Sweaish  rivers.  Between  the  Kattegat  and 
Baltic  are  the  large  Danish  islands  Zeabnd  and 
Funen;  others  in  the  sea  itself  are  Samsoe, 
Moen,  Bornhotm,  Langeland,  Laaland,  which 
belong  to  Denmark ;  the  Swedish  islands  — 
Gotlland  and  Oeland  (besides  Hvcen  in  the 
sound,  with  the  ruins  of  Oranienburg,  the  ob- 
servatory built  by  Tycho  Brahe)  ;  Ritgen,  be- 
longing to  Prussia;  the  Aland  Islands  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  Dagoe,  to- 
gether with  Oesel,  on  the  coast  of  Livonia,  all 
of  which  belong  to  Russia.  The  Sound,  the 
Great  and  the  Little  Belt  lead  from  the  fCatte- 
gat  into  the  Baltic.  The  Baltic  and  North  Sea 
are  now  connected  by  the  great  ship  canal  con- 
structed between  Bmnsbiitte!,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Ellbe,  to  Holtenan,  near  Kiel,  a  distance 
of  61  miles,  and  opened  in  1895.  The  canal  is  a 
work  of  the  German  government,  and  is  in- 
tended for  the  use  of  war- vessels  as  well  as 
trading-ships,  many  of  which,  bound  to  or  from 
Baltic  ports,  are  able  to  effect  a  saving  on  the 
voyage  of  over  500  miles  by  means  of  this 
waterway.  The  chief  seamirts  of  the  Baltic  are 
Petrograd,  Kronstadt,  Riga,  Revel,  Narva, 
Libau.  Helsingfors,  in  Russia;  Stockholm, 
Gefle,  Karlskrona,  Malmo,  in  Sweden ;  Memel, 
Konigsberg,  Danzig,  Stettin,  Lobeck  and  Kiel, 
in  Germany;  Copenhagen,  in  Denmark.  Dur- 
ing the  great  international  European  War,  the 
Baltic  Sea  was  an  active  field  of  naval  and  mili- 
tary operations.    See  Wab,  European. 

BALTIMORE,  Md.,  the  chief  city  of  the 
State,  the  7th  in  population  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  commercial  head  of  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  south  of  New  York ;  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania (P.,  B.&W.),  Baltimore  and  Ohio.  West- 
em  Maryland,  Noraiern  Central  and  other  rail- 
roads ;  38  miles  northeast  of  Washington,  97 
southwest  of  Philadelphia 

itv    is    arlmirahl,     „. 
of  the 


of  3  miles  wide,  foridng  at  the  peninsula  c 
which  Fort  Mclienry  stands,  and  creating  the 
land-locked  harbor  known  as  the  Northwest 
Branch.  This  celebrated  harbor  is  neted  for  the 
ease  with  which  ships  of  great  burden  may  be 
docked  or  moored  at  any  stage  of  the  tide,  the 
tidal  movement  being  onlv  from  one  foot  to  one 
foot  six  inches.  The  snip  channel  from  this 
inner  harbor  to  the  sea  has  been  for  many  years 
of   sufficient  depth  to  permit  the  passage  of 


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fibips  drawing  35  feet  of  water  and  over  to  the 
dooci  and  elevators  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Railroad  on  the  southern  side  as  you  enter, 
and  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  system  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  harbor.  South  of  tbe  above 
mentioned  peninsula  is  another  wide  fork  of 
the  greater  harbor,  known  as  the  Middle 
Brandt,  on  which  are  located  the  ^reat  termi- 
nah  of  the  Western  Maryland  Railroad;  tliis 
again  forks,  receiving  the  waters  of  the  small 
Patapsco  River  and  Gwynn's  Falls,  an  either 
liand.  Throueh  the  centre  of  the  city  flows 
a  stream  whicn,  risii^  some  distance  north  of 
the  inner  harbor,  has  its  fountain-head  at 
springs  which  flow  500,000  gallons  per  day.  It 
is  known  as  "Jones  Falls,"  after  David  Jones, 
who  built  himself  a  house  on  its  banks  about 
1660.  On  its  banks  are  located  the  union  sta- 
tion of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company, 
whose  grounds  bordering  on  the  stream  are 
embellisBed  with  tasteful  gardens,  and  the  city 
has  beautified  the  other  viore  by  constructing 
'simken'  gardens.  The  land  area  of  the  city 
in  1888  was  13,202  acres,  of  property  annexed  ' 
in  1888  was  16,939  acres,  of  the  harbor  IJ07 
acres,  making  the  total  area  of  the  present  city 
31,648  acres. 

Traniportation. —  Baltimore  has  a  very 
modem  and  excellent  street  car  service ;  it  can 
boast  of  the  fact  that  it  bad  the  first  electric 
street  railway  and  the  first  electric  elevated 
railway  in  the  world.  The  street  railways  have 
4M.5  miles  of  rails  now  being  operated  on  the 
streets  and  suburban  points  within  the  radius 
of  its  operations.     The  Delaware  and  Chesa- 

Sike  Ship  Canal,  across  the  narrow  strip  of 
laware,  gives  it  a  direct  water  outlet  to 
Philadelphia  The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad 
system  (q.v.)  follows  almost  without  change  the 
route  of  the  old  national  pike,  which  extended 
from  Baltimore  to  Saint  Louis ;  it  was  the  first 
road  to  the  Atlantic  seacoast  and  the  comer- 
■tone  was  laid  4  July  1828.  The  facilities  pro- 
vided by  this  road  are  the  great  terminals  lo- 
cated at  Locust  Point,  consisting  of  freight 
sheds,  elevators,  and  the  proper  loading  docks 
with  a  water  depth  of  35  feet,  connecting  with 
the  ship  channel  to  the  sea  of  the  same  depth. 
Within  recent  years  an  immigration  pier  and 
necessary  buildings  have  been  erected. 

The  terminals  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
are  on  the  eastern  or  opposite  side  of  the  harbor 
from  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  terminals.  They 
have  the  same  depth  of  water  in  the  freight 
slips  and  have  direct  communication  with  the 
35-foot  channel.  The  princii)al  road  of  this 
system  passing  through  this  city  is  the  Phila- 
ilelphia,  Baltimore  and  Washington  Railroad, 
ana  its  branches.  Running  a  Uttle  west  of  south 
from  this  cit]r  is  still  another  important  feeder, 
the  old  Bahimore  and  Potomac  Railroad,  so 
called  prior  to  recent  consolidation,  which 
passes  througjt  Washington,  terminates  at 
QuanticD,  Va.,  branching  at  Bowie,  Ud.  The 
Merchants  and  Manufacturers'  Association  had 
much  to  do  with  the  introduction  of  another 
great  railway  system  into  this  city,  in  the  mat- 
ter of  the  sale  of  the  city's  interest  in  the 
Western  Maryland  Railroad  to  what  was 
known  as  the  'Fuller  Syndicate"  together  with 
the  purchase  of  the  Pittsburgh  and  West  Vir- 
ginia Central  and  the  acquisition  of  the 
Wabash  system.    The  Baltimore  and  Potomac 


3,500  feet  long  through  the  northeast;  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  one  1^  miles  long  through 
the  city  north  to  south.  The  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  road  draws  its  trains  through  by  electric 
motors.  Seventeen  foreign  steamship  lines  use 
the  docks  and  piers  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Railroad  or  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Com- 
pany. These  lines  run  to  Europe  and  South 
America  and  other  ports.  Besides  these  there 
are  steamship  lines  to  Boston,  Providence,  New 
York,  Wilmington,  N.  C.,  Charleston,  Savannah, 
New  Orleuis,  etc ;  and  steamboat  lines  to 
Philadelphia,  Washington,  Norfolli,  Richmond, 
Georgetown,  Chester,  Galveston,  Jacksonville, 
Havana,  Cuba,  and  to  points  on  tne  Chesapeake 
Bay  and  its  tributaries. 

Shipping,  Cotxmiercc,  Muiufactarea, 
Trade.—  At  the  port  of  Baltimore  31  Dec. 
1914,  in  the  coastwise  trade  for  the  dis- 
trict of  Maryland,  1,939  vessels  were  docu- 
mented in  a  recent  year.  This  includes  Cris- 
field,  Annapolis,  Washington,  D.  C,  and  Alex- 
andria, Va, —  more  than  the  number  of  vessels 
documented  at  any  other  Atlantic  seaport,  ex- 
cept New  York.  In  addition  to  these  vessels, 
nearly  all  the  vessels  documented  at  Virginia 
and  North  Carolina  ports  trade  on  the  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  making  a  total  (estimated  by  the 
collector  of  die  port  of  Baltimore)  of  about 
4,000  documented  vessds  trading  on  the  Chesa- 
peake Bay.  Most  of  these  vessels,  of  course, 
trade  at  Baltimore.  Baltimore  has  18  miles  of 
water  front  suitable  for  docking  purposes  (in- 
cluding 6^  miles  in  the  main  inner  harbor,  3^ 
miles  on  the  Middle  Branch  witlun  technical 
city  limits,  and  at  least  8  miles  more  adjacent 
to  the  city  limits).  It  has  160  wharves  m  (be 
main  harbor,  with  145,700  feet  — say  27fi  miles 
—  of  frontal  of  wharf  room.  Adding  this 
amount  of  wharf  frontage  to  the  other  water 
front  of  the  Patapsco  River  and  its  tributaries, 
the  total  is  120  mile*  of  water  front, 
developed  and  undeveloped.  Of  diis  v/h»il- 
age  the  city  owns  13  piers,  with  a  wharf 
frontage  of  26,385  feet  —  five  miles.  Baltimore 
has  spent  $6,161,000  on  municipal  docks,  and 
has  available  ^5,000,000  more  for  extending  the 
system.  Baltimore's  business  operations  ag- 
gre^te  more  than  $1,000,000,000,  manufactures 
leading.  Total  annuaJ  value  of  manufactures, 
shown  by  figures  assembled  recently,  exceeds 
$400,00a000.  The  largest  single  interest  is 
clothitig  at  $44,500,000.  Copper,  tin  and 
sheet  iron  products  come  next  at  $32,000,000. 
Fertilizer,  which  is  fourth,  shows  the  largest 
rate  of  increase.  The  total  is  now  $16,- 
000,000.  Baltimore  stands  first  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  cotton  duck,  straw  hats,  men's  clothing, 
fertiliiers,  copper,  tin  and  sheet  iron  products, 
canning  and  preserving  oysters,  and  as  a  banana 

There  are  over  a  thousand  wholesale  and 
jobbing  houses  in  Baltimore.  Two  hundred  of 
these  Arms  carry  over  300,000  accounts  in  the 
South  alone.  A  fair  minimum  estimate  of  the 
amount  of  Baltimore  capital  invested  in  South- 
em  States  below  the  Potomac  is  $200,000,000. 
Baltimore's  jobbing  trade,  not  including  the 
commission  business,  reaches  ^50,000,000,  The 
leading  items  are  dry  goods  and  notions,  mil- 
linery, clothing,  boots  and  shoes,  hats  and  caps. 


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and  food  products  ^^  of 
i  increases  over  1910.  In  addi- 
doa  to  the  annual  jobbine  trade  o(  $250,000,000 
are  the  grain  trade  and  sfupping  fignres  of  over 
$100,000,000  and  the  commi^on  business  of 
over  $100^000,000.  The  average  freight  received 
and  aistnbutedat  Baltimore  by  railroad  and  boKt 
Unes  annually  is  over  48,00a000  tons.  Baltimore') 
receipts  in  a  recent  year  were  90,171,602  btuhela 
of  grain  and  1,808^2  barrela  of  flour,  which, 
together  with  hay,  straw  and  mill  feed  handled, 
aggregated  72,423  tons.  Baltim<»'e't  importa 
for  a  calendar  year  were  $38,941^666;  (Alports, 


companies.  Baltimore's  annual  bank  clearings 
sre  $2,206^338.953.  Its  national  bank  deposits 
in  10  years  increased  47.9  per  cent.    The  bank 


Hodnn  In^rovemeata.— In  1904  Balti- 
more had  a  fire  which  np  to  that  time,  with 
the  exception  of  the  big  Chic^p  fire,  was  the 
nost  destrtictive  conflagration  ihat  ever  visited 
an  American  dty.  It  destniyed  most  of  the 
business  district,  burned  over  140  acres  of  busi- 
ness block  and  entailed  a  loas  of  $125,000,000 
or  practically  one-fifth  of  the  wealth  of  the 
community.  At  first  the  blow  was  staggering, 
but  the  people  responded  to  the  situation  wiQi 

Ereat  courage  and  went  so  tar  as  to  decline  the 
undreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  offered,  much 
of  it  in  actual  cash,  diat  poured  in  from  other 
cities.  Baltimore's  eidiens  decided  over  night 
nol  only  to  rebuild  but  to  take  their  losses  and 
do  their  construction  on  their  own  resources. 

Until  that  time  the  growdi  of  the  city  had 
been  along  conservative  Knes.  A  sentimental 
as  well  as  an  actual  connection  with  the  great 
Southern  tra^c  gave  it  a  constant  and  substan- 
tial increase  and  made  its  development  steady 
and  assured.  But  the  fire  stirred  it  as  it  had 
never  been  affected  before  and  all  at  once  the 
fine  enterprise  and  broad  ideas  of  its  people 
found  an  awakening.  A  Burnt  District  Com- 
mission was  created,  and  to  this  Commission 
were  entrusted  extensive  and  almost  autocratic 
powers.  The  results  were  wider  streets  with 
reduced  grades,  the  wonderful  dock  system  and 
improvements  of  similar  kinds  that  under  nor- 
mal conditions  could  not  have,  been  secured  in 
half  a  century.  After  12  years,  practically 
every  trace  of  the  fire  had  been  obliterated. 
The  business  district  has  risen  from  its  ashes 
into  what  the  building  inspectors  pronounce  the 
best  built  and  most  substantial  business  section 
that  can  be  found  in  any  city_  in  America.  Bal- 
timore to-day  presents  a  unique  superiority  in 
its  equipment  for  the  handhng  of  the  great 
business  which  has  been  coining  to  it  in  con- 
stantly increasing  volume,  while  as  a  city  of 
homes  Baltimore  has  always  enjoyed  the  most 
enviable  reputation.  Confined  by  no  limits,  her 
expansion  nas  widened  the  area  of  her  onvate 
residences  without  increasing  the  difficulties  of 
business,  but  facilitating  them  by  modem  and 
up-to-date  street  car  and  motor  bus  ^sterns. 
Public  Boil  din  gs^  First  in  municipal  hn- 

E nance,  though  possibly  not  in  tke  cost  or 
auty  of  design,  is  the  city  hall,  built  of  IJUry 
land  white  marble,  the  atyle  of  architecture 
being  the  Renaisunce.    Cost  of  coitatfuction. 


&,27l,135.64:  cost  of  fumishii«.  $104,264.79. 
The  new  courthouse  is  200  feet  front  by  32S 
feet  depdL  The  material  is  white  Maryland 
marble,  and  the  architectural  style  is  a  free 
Renaissance  treatment  of  the  Ionic  order.  The 
cost  of  this  building  completed  was  $2,753,-' 
003.ia  The  post-office,  located  opposite  the 
courthouse  is  also  a  recent  erection,  Italian  in 

Pneral  treatment.  The  building  contains  the 
nited  Stales  and  District  Courts.  The  cost 
was  $2,011335.  The  custom-house  cost  over 
$1,50(^000,  the  style  of  architecture  is  Classic 
and  was  bnilt  of  Maryland  granite 

Ednctitional  Institntions,  Art  Oallerie^ 
Ltbnrles,  etc. — The  Maryland  Institute  of 
Art  and  Desivn,  which  was  for  many  years  in 
the  heart  of  tne  commercial  centre  of  the  city, 
was  incorporated  in  1626.  The  library  contains 
20,000  volumes  relating  to  the  arts  and  sciences. 
The  new  home  of  dis  school  is  located  on 
Mount  Royal  avenue.  It  has  been  most  liber- 
aHy  endowed  by  the  Jenkins  family  of  Balti- 
more and  Andrew  Carnegie.  The  Academy  of 
Sciences,  located  in  the  fine  old  mansion  of  ex- 
Govemor  and  ex-Senator  Thomas  Swann,  on 
West  Franklin  street  contains  a  large  collec- 
tion of  the  bird  life  of  this  country,  and  a  large 
collection  of  Indian  remains.  The  Peabody 
Institute,  a  white  marble  building  standing 
within  the  shadow  of  the  Washington  mon- 
ument, is  a  donation  from  the  philanthropist, 
George  Pcabody  (q.v.).  It  contains  a  large 
reference  library,  an  academy  of  music  and  a 
galletr  of  art.  The  entire  building  is  170  by 
150  feet.  The  library  room  accommodates 
about  300,000  volumes.  The  Walters  Art  Gal- 
lery, located  within  100  yards  of  the  last  named 
tnstttution,  contains  the  finest  private  collec- 
tion of  paintings  and  ceramics  in  the  United 
States,  and  also  a  special  collection  of  ancient 


original  gallery  and  on  the  comer  of  Centre 
Street  and  Washington  Place,  there  has  been 
erected  an  art  gallery  for  the  Walters  Collec- 


Pratt  Free  Libraries,  of  which  the  city  has  I7, 
were  the  free  gift  of  Enoch  Pratt  (q.v.).  The 
central  library  is  located  on  West  Mulberry 
street  near  me  centre  of  the  dty.  It  has 
16  branch  libraries.  Other  libraries  are 
the  Maryland  Historical,  the  Peabody  refer- 
ence library,  those  of  the  Maryland  Institute, 
the  Maryland  Episcopal  Diocese,  the  Bar  Asso- 
ciation, the  Archbishop's,  Odd  Fellows,  New 
Mercantile,  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Employees' 
Free  Circulating  and  others. 

The  history  of  Baltimore's  development  in 
other  than  material  and  industrial  affairs  has 
been  most  remarkable  in  the  educational  field. 


Idns  University  ((].v.)  has  attained  the  front 
ratdc  among  the  higher  institutions  of  learning, 
Goucher  CoUe^  has  made  Baltimore  the  centre 
for  collegiate  instruction  of  womoL 

The  old  Johns  Hotddns  University  made 
no  pretensions  in  the  way  of  architecture.  The 
new  home  of  this  great  school  leaves  nothing 
to  be  desired.  Placed  at  an  ekvation  of  some 
300  feet  and  occupying  the  estate  of  one  of  the 
Curoll  family,  known  as  ■Homewood  Park,* 


lid  BALU 

it  overlix^s  the  city  and  harbor.  On  North 
Broadway,  facing  the  west,  stands  the  group  of 
buildings  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital.  The 
architectural  appearance  of  the  centra!  group 
of  buildings  IB  majeatic,  standing  114  feet  above 
tide.  The  cost  of  the  original  buildings  was 
$^50,000,  which  has  been  very  largely  added 
to  since  the  founding.  Other  medical  schools 
are  those  of  the  University  of  Maryland  (1807), 
and  the  Baltimore  Medical  College.  The  oldest 
dental  college  in  the  world  is  the  Baltimore 
College  of  Dentistry  and  Surgery,  chartered 
1839.     The   chief    law    school   is   that  of  the 


«roud  The  buildings  are  throuebout  in  the 
■omanesque  style,  of  the  Ijimbard  variety, 
with  adaptations  from  that  order  to  which 
Vitruviua  gave  the  name  Tuscan.  They  are 
built  of  dark  undressed  granite  and  are  sur- 
mounted by  roofs  of  Roman-red  tiles.  The 
church  is  the  most  southern  member  of  the 
group  of  buildings,  its  massive  tower  the  most 
conspicuous  object  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
city.  This  tower  is  almost  an  exact  counter- 
part of  a  campanile  to  be  seen  just  outside  of 
the  city  of  Ravenna,  Italy.  There  are  also 
many  oth 
of  good  r 


Baltimore  Polytechnic  Institute,  and  four  Roman 
Catholic  institutions  —  Saint  Mary's  (Seminary 
of  Saint  Sulpice.  1791);  Loyola  (1852),  under 
Jesuit  management;  Notre  Dame  of  Maryland 
<I873);  Saint  Joseph's  (1888).  The  public 
school  system  has  108  schools,  2,064  teachers, 
and  84,000  pupils,  and  about  $2,000,000  is 
annually  expended  in  its  support.  The  first 
manual-training  schools  for  white  or  colored 
pupils  were  established  here.  There  is  also  a 
iState  Normal  School  and  an  institution  for 
training  colored  teachers. 

ClnDi.—  Baltimore  cannot  be  called  a  club 
dty;  however,  the  time-honored  Maryland  Club 
is  a  great  social  organization  occupying  a 
superb  new  building  on  Charles  and  Eager 
streets.  There  are  also  the  younger  Baltimore 
Clnb,  on  Charles  street,  opposite,  composed 
largely  of  the  sons  of  members  of  the  Mary- 
land Club;  the  University  Oub;  the  Catholic 
Chib;  the  Charcoal  Oub;  Baltimore  Athletic 
Club;  Automobile  Qub;  Germania  Oub,  for 
German  merchants;  the  Merchants'  Oub;  and 
the  Phoenix  Chib  and  Clover  Oub,  both  Jewish 
organizations. 

Chvitable  Inatitntioni.— The  cit^  has  a 
body  of  gentlemen,  known  as  supervisors  of 
city  charities,  who  serve  without  pay,  and  who 
look  into  every  form  of  charity  and  direct  to 
a  large  extent  its  distribution.  There  is  also 
a  State  board  of  charities,  non-paid.  Among  the 
institutions  to  aid  suffering  humanity  are  Johns 
Hopkins  Hospital  (already  mentioned)  ;  Mary- 
land Hospital  for  the  Insane ;  Female  House  of 
Refuge;  Springfield  State  Hospital;  House  of 
Refuge  (male)  ;  Aged  Men's  Home;  All  Saints 
Home  for  Children;  Auguaburg  Home;  Balti- 
more Association  for  the  Improvement  of  the 
Condition  of  the  Children  of  the  Poor;  Balti- 
man  Orphan  Asylum   (more  than   100  years 


old) ;  Boys'  M<M!ile  Society;  Briska  Help  Asso- 
ciation; Charity  Organiiafion  Society;  Chris- 
tian Tribune  Home  for  Young  Ladies;  Dolan 
Children's  Aid  Society;  Elgenton  Female  Orphan 
Asylum  and  School;  Female  Christian  Home; 
and  Free  Summer  Excursion  Society.  The 
various  charitable  institutions  are  too  numer- 
ous to  mention  all  1^  name,  but  among  them 
are  Che  blind  asylum,  a  fine  white  marble  build- 
ing; and  the  city  almshouse,  accommodating 
1^300  inmates. 

Chnrchei.— There  are  some  48?  djnrch 
buildings  in  the  city,  mat^  of  great  beauty  both 
externally  and  internally;  notably  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  on  Madison  street  with 
its  wonderful  Ciothic  spire  300  feet  high;  tbt 
Mount  Vernon  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
within  the  shadow  of  the  Washington  monu- 
ment, and  the  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral  com- 
menced in  1800.  The  style  and  decorations  of 
the  last  named  are  of  the  Grecian-Ionic  order. 
The  great  dome  is  207  feet  in  circumference 
internally,  and  231  feet  externally.  The  side 
aisles  in  the  church  are  terminated  by  two 
That  on  the  right  is  the  ■Descent 


1  the  left,  'Saint  Louis  Burying 
nd  Soldiers  Slain  Before  Acre.* 


Byzantine  temple  o 
Episcopalians  have  r 
them  Sail  ■  "     " 


■and  that  < 
His  Officers  and  Soldiers  Slain  Before  Acre,* 
the  work  of  Steuben  and  presented  by  King 
Charles  X  of  France.  There  are  also  the  state- 
ly Methodist  church  described  with  the  Goucber 
College ;  the  beautiful  white  marble  synagogue, 
Oheb  Shalom,  on  Eutaw  Place,  oriental  in 
stvle.  and  a  short  distance  away  the  great 
in  Bolton  street,  and  the 
n    Madison   avenue.     The 

Sfine  churches,  among 
arles  street  and  Grace 
Church  on  Monument  street.  The  initial  work 
on  the  Episconal  Cathedral,  Saint  Paul  and 
UniversiW  Parkway,  has  been  completed  and 
the  Pro-Cathedral  is  in  use.  The  following  is 
a  list  of  the  churches  of  the  various  denomina- 
tions: Baptist,  59;  Christian  Science,  2;  Con- 
gre^tional,  4;  Disdples  of  Christ,  7;  Evan- 
gelical Association,  4;  Evangelical  Lutheran, 
S7;  Friends,  2;  Orthodox.  2;  Independent 
Roman  Catholics,  1;  Ind^ndent  German,  1; 
Jewish  synagogues,  22:  Methodists  of  various 
kinds  and  color,  119;  New  Jerusalem,  1;  Ark 
of  the  Covenant,   1 ;   Presbyterian,  33 ;   Protes- 


Seventh  Day  Adventists,  2;  Swedenborgiati,  3: 
Union  Evangelical,  3;  Unitarian,  1 ;  United 
Brethren  in  Christ,  7;  Universalist.  1, 

Honnments  and  Statoes, —  The  first  monu- 
ment erected  in  Baltimore  was  in  memory  of 
Christopher  Columbus  and  was  dedicated  12 
Oct.  1792,  the  300ih  anniversary  of  his  landing. 
It  stands  in  the  grounds  of  the  Ready  Asylum 
on  North  avenue.  One  of  the  grandest  monu- 
ments in  the  world  stands  at  the  intersection 
of  Mount  Vernon  and  Monument  squares  — 
the  Washington  monument,  the  erection  of 
which  was  conceived  in  the  year  1809.  the  de- 
sign furnished  by  Robert  Mills,  and  the  comer- 
stone  laid  on  4  July  1815.  It  rises  above  these 
squares  about  200  feet  and  is  of  the  Greek 
Doric  inspiration.  The  erection  of  this  monu- 
ment, the  first  to  be  erected  by  any  city  in 
memorr  of  Washington,  is  what  gave  Balti- 
viore    her    designation   aa   Tbc    Monumental 


BALTIUORE 


City,*  The  figure  of  Washington  is  by 
Causid.  The  next  in  importance  is  the  ''Balti- 
toore  Moaument,*  known  as  the  *Battle 
Monument'  It  was  erected  to  the  memory  of 
those  who  fell  at  the  battle  of  North  Point  in 
1814  and  is  the  work  of  Maximilian  Godefroy. 
It  is  52yi  feet  hif^  The  principal  colunm 
represents  a  fasces  upon  the  bands  of  which 
are  placed  in  bronze  letters  the  names  of  those 
who  fell,  the  whole  being  crowned  by  a  female 
representing  the  city,  holding  in  her  hand  a 
wreath  of  laurels,  capellano.  The  Thomas 
Wildcy  monument  on  North  Broadway  is  ded- 
icated to  him  as  the  founder  of  the  Order  of 
Odd  Fellows  and  may  be  described  as  a  Gre- 
dan  Doric  column  52  feet  hi^  on  which  stands 
a  figure  of  Charity.  Other  monuments  are  the 
Wells  and  UcComas  monument  at  Ashland 
square;   that  on  Federal  Hill   erected  to  the 

Sllant  soldier  Armistead,  who  defended  Fort 
cHenry  at  the  same  time,  1814;  the  new 
Armistead  monument  at  Fort  McHenry;  and 
the  Francis  Scott  Key  monument  at  Eutaw 
Place  and  Louvale  street;  the  monument 
to  the  Marylwoders  who  felt  in  Mexico, 
located  in  Uount  Royal  avenue ;  the  monument 
at  the  intersection  of  Monnt  Royal  avenue 
and  Cathedral  street,  recording'  the  deeds  of 
the  Maryland  Line,  the  only  troops  who  fought 
from  Bunker  Hill  to  Savannah  during  the 
Revolution ;  and  the  monimient,  by  Kuck- 
stuhl,  erected  by  the  Daughters  of  the  Con- 
federacy, to  the  Confederate  soldiers  of  the 
State.  Mr.  William  T.  Walters  has  ^ven  the 
city  the  famous  bronies  of  Barye,  mcluding 
the  ^reat  lion  and  the  masterful  bronze  by 
Dubois,  'Military  Courage';  the  sitting  statue 
of  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States,  Roger 
Brodce  Taney  (q.v.)  in  his  oiGdat  robes;  and 
the  equestrian  statue  of  John  Eager  Howard 
(q.v.). 

Parka  and  fltrMta.— The  beautiful  Druid 
Hill  Park  consists  of  674.16  acres.  Other 
parks  are  Clifton  Park,  267.26  acres;  Clifton 
Lake,  44  acres;  Patterson  Park.  128.44  acres; 
Carroll  Park,  176.44  acres;  Riverside  Park, 
17.02  acres;  Federal  Hill  Paric,  8.02  acres; 
Wyman  Park  198.39  acres;  Swann  Park,  11,31 
acres ;  Latrobe  Park,  13.80  acres ;  Gwynn's 
Falls,  374.19  acres;  Venable  Park,  60.81  acres; 
New  Reservoir  Park,  92.65  acres ;  Herring 
Run  Park.  164,61  acres,  besides  32  small  squares 
dispersed  all  over  the  city,  making  a  grand  to- 
tal of  about  2,277.34  acres.  In  natural  beauty 
Druid  Hill  Park  is  unsurpassed  bv  any  in  the 
world.  It  is  filled  with  springs  of  pure  water, 
some  of  which  are  medidnal.  A  great  arti- 
fidal  lake,  a  part  o(  the  dty's  waterworks, 
with  a  depth  of  more  than  ^  feet,  occupies 
■many  acres  and  around  it  has  been  constructed 
3  fine  drive.  Near  the  head  Of  this  take  on  the 
driveway  stands  the  colossal  statue  of  the 
Scottish  hero,  Sir  William  Wallace.  In  the 
rea^  of  this  is  the  full-Ien^h  marble  statue  of 
Washin^on,  executed  by  Bartholomew,  A 
short  distance  from  the  latter  is  a  costly  and 
graceful  pedestal  surmounted  by  a  life-siie 
n^re  of  Christo[dier  Columbus  by  Achille 
Caneisa.     Patterson  Park, 


thrcFwn  op  by  the  American  amq'  in  the  de- 
fense of  the  dty  1812-14,  some  of  the  guns 
bang  still  in  position.     Necessarily  a  dly  it 


more  stands  out  conspicuously.  Within  the 
past  few  years  engineers  and  municipal  experts 
from  every  point  of  the  world  have  been  viat- 
ing  the  dty  to  inspect  its  new  sewerage.  This 
system  is  the  finest  ever  attempted  and  cost  in 
the  neighborhood  of  $25,000,000.  Many  Bat- 
timoreans  think  their  largest  gain  from  the 
fire  was  the  new  dock  system.  Previous  to  the 
fire  the  city  owned  very  little  wharf  prop- 
erty. Since  the  fire  the  munidpality  has  ac- 
quired all  of  the  harbor  front  burned  in  the 
fire  and  it  has  been  erecting  the  best  system 
of  docks  that  can  be  found  along  the  Atlantic 
coast.  The  development  of  its  suburbs  in- 
cludes Roland  Park  and  Builford,  pronounced 
by  experts  to  t>e  the  finest  examples  of  sutiurb- 
an  development  in  the  world.  Baltimore's  »- 
sessable  basis  for  taxation  grew  from  $402,- 
816,097  in  1901  to  $915,433,444  in  1914,  an  in- 
crease of  $512,617,247.  The  total  mileage  of 
streets  and  alleys  in  the  city  is  581.93,  of  which 
324  miles  are  paved  with  the  most  modem  im- 

Koved  paving,  and  all  cobblestone  paving  is 
ing  replaced  by  the  same. 
Water  and  Fire  Departments,— The  dtt 
owns  its  waterworks  system,  which  is  self- 
sustaining'^  777  mites  of  water  mains  in  the 
dty.  The  water  supply  has  its  source  in 
the  Gunpowder  River,  average  daily  flow  413,- 
338,092  gallons.  The  service  has  two  impound- 
ing reservoirs  —  Lock  Raven  on  the  Gunpow- 
der   River,   capadty   2,270,000,000    gillons, 


id  pipes  with  a  maximum  capacity  of 
530,000  gallons.  It  has  a  magnificent  filtration 
system.  The  expenses  of  the  fire  department 
are  ahoui  $1,145,114  per  annum.  Equipment  — 
40  engine  companies,  19  truck  companies,  2 
hose  companies,  2  wafer  tower  companies,  and 
2  fircboats.  In  the  business  district,  Baltimore 
has  one  of  the  best  high-pressure  water  systems 
to  be  found  in  America. 

Government.— The  charier  provides  that 
'the  executive  power  of  the  mayor  and  city 
council  of  Baltimore  shall  be  vested  in  the 
mayor,  the  departments,  sut>- departments  and 
municipal  officers  not  embraced  in  a  depart- 
ment herein  provided  for,  and  such  special 
commissioners  or  boards  as  may  hereafter  b« 
provided  for  by  laws,  or  ordinances  not  incon- 
sistent with  this  article.*  The  mayor  holds 
office  for  four  years ;  he  has  a  veto  which  can 
be  overridden  by  a  three-fourths  vote  of  the 
coundl,  which  is  composed  of  two  branches; 
the  lower  of  24  members,  one  from  each  ward; 
the  upper  of  nine  members,  each  from  two  con- 
tiguous wards.  The  bulk  of  the  city  officers 
are  appointed  by  the  mayor  with  the  consent 
of  the  higher  branch.  The  coundl  has  the 
ri^ht  to  appoint  the  city  register  and  public 
printer;  anci  the  comptroller  and  surveyor  are 
elected  by  popular  vote.  The  principal  dty 
officials  are  the  comptroller  (head  of  depart- 
ment of  finance)  ;  ci^  register;  board  of  esti- 
mates; commissioners  of  finance;  city  collec- 
tor; collector  of  water  rents  and  licenses. 
The  chief  departments  are  public  safety  (fire, 
health,  buildings  and  street  cleaning),  public 
improvements,  parks  and  squares,  education, 
charities   and   corrections   and   review  and  as- 


(Google 


BAI/nHOSB 


Populatioiiu— The  dty  stands  aeventh  in 
population  among  the  cities  of  the  United  States 
the  growth  being  as  foUowsr  (17/S)  S,934; 
<  1790,  first  United  States  census)  15,530 ; 
(1800)  a.514;  (1810)  46.454;  (1820)  62,738; 
(1830)  80,620;  (1840)  102,513;  (1850)  169,- 
054;  (I860}  2U418;  (1S70)  262354:  (1880) 
332,313;  (1890)  434,439;  (1900)  508,957;  (1910) 
558,485;  (191?)  600,000.  The  figures  would 
be  further  increased  if  the  two  cities  on  the 
eastern  boundary,  now  separated  only  by  a 
curb  line,  could  be  added.  They  have  fully 
l(X),000  itihabitants,  but  while  practically  ^rt 
of  Baltimore,  they  do  not  add  to  its  population. 

Hlitorr.— The  first  settlement  of  land  in- 
cluded in  the  present  site  of  Baltimore  was 
made  in  1662.  Charles  II  was  King  of  Eng- 
land and  Charles  Calvert  governor  of  the 
province.  The  English  people  had  been  mak- 
ing history  very  fast  and  among  their  most 
brilliant  acbin^ments  was  the  planting  of  suc- 
cessful colonies  in  various  parti  of  the  world, 
notably^  the  Vin^inia  colony,  the  Massachusetts 

JIantations  aniT  the  province  of  Maryland, 
ounded  in  1534.  So  that  the  first  actual  set- 
tlement on  land  within  the  present  dty  Utniti 
was  made  only  28  years  after  the  landing  of 
the  first  colonists  at  Saint  Mary's.  During 
the  17lh  century  we  find  statute  books  bur- 
dened with  many  laws  creating  town  after 
I  paper,  as  many  as  33  having  been 


By  the  act  o£  the  general  assembly  of  1706 
a  town  was  to  be  established  on  Whetstone 
Neck  or  the  Patapsco  River.  No  name  was 
given  to  the  town  in  the  ad  Another  town, 
called  Baltimore,  was  located  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Bush  River  on  its  eastern  side.  Thit 
town  is  shown  in  the  map  made  by  Augustus 
Herrman,  the  Bohemian,  in  1670,  and  some  14 
years  after  the  actual  founding  of  the  present 
dty  the  general  assembly  ordered  another 
Baltimore   to   be  laid  out   on   Indian   River  in 


refusing  to  proceed  with  the  work. 

Then  came  the  true  founding  of  the  city  of 
Baltimore  by  the  passage  of  an  act  entitled 
*An  act  for  erecting  a  town  on  the  nordi  side 
of  Patapsco,  in  Baltimore  county,  and  for 
laying  out  in  lots  of  60  acres  of  land  in  and 
about  the  place  where  one  Jctui  Flemming 
now  Uves.»  (1729,  chap.  12).  About  two 
years  after  the  founding  of  Baltimore  town 
an  act  was  passed  entitled  'An  act  for  erect- 
ing a  town  on  a  creek,  divided  on  the  east 
from  the  town  lately  laid  out  in  Baltimore 
county,  called  ^Baltimore  Town,'  on  the  land 
whereon  Edward  Fell  keeps  a  store.>  (1732, 
chap.  14).  The  next  step  for  the  enlargement 
of  the  original  town  was  the  passage  dv  the 
general  assembly  of  the  Act  of  1745  (chap. 
9),  15  years  after  the  founding.  This  act  was 
passed  on  the  joint  petition  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Baltimore  and  Jones'  Town,  that  the  two 
towns  be  incorporated  into  one  entire  town 
and  for  the  future  be  calkd  and  known  by 
the  name  Baltimore  Town  and  by  no  other 
name.  The  town  was  again  enlarfnd  two  years 
later  by  the  Act  of  1747  (chap.  21),  on  peti- 
tion of  the  inhabitants  by  the  addition  of  18 
acres,  which  were  not  included  in  Jones' 
Town  nor  in  Baltimore  Town.   In  1765  :       ' 


addition  to  the  town  was  made  on  petition  of 
Cornelius  Howard  and  other  persons,  consist- 
ing of  35  acres  on  the  west  and  sowh  sides 
of  the  town.  The  town  was  again  enlaned 
by  the  Act  of  June  1773  by  the  addition  otSO 
acres  on  the  cast  and  southeast 

_  The  Revolution  brougjht  it  prosperity  by 
crippling  its  rivals  and  it  wag  a  great  seat  of 
privateering.  For  about  two  months  in 
1776-77  Congress  held  session  in  one  of  its 
taverns,  having  fled  from  Philadelphia  in  fear 
of  the  English.  Aboat  this  period  the  energy 
and  resources  of  a  cotiple  of  unmwrant  Scotdt 
Irishmen,  the  brothers  lohn  and  Henry  Steven- 
son, began  to  push  tne  place  forward;  new 
stage  and  packet  lines  were  established,  the 
roads  improved  and  turnpikes  laid  out  and 
Janes'  Falls  diked  and  part  of  its  course 
filled  in.  The  European  wnrs  of  the  Frendi 
Revoltition  and  later  threw  a  large  part  of 
the  world's  carrynig-trade,  till  Napoleon's 
downfall,  into  American  hands;  the  'Baltimore 
dippers*  were  famous  everywhere.  In  1792 
a  larg«  body  of  French  refugees  from  H^ti 
came  in.  On  31  Dec  1796,  tbe  old  settlement 
of  Fell's  Point  was  united  with  it  and  it  re- 
ceived a  dty  charter,  it  having  previously  been 
^vemed  from  Annapolis.  In  the  War  of  1812 
It  s^n  became  a  seat  of  privateers,  in  revenge 
for  which  the  British  attempted  its  capture 
in  1814,  but  the  attack  was  repulsed  12  Sep- 
tember. To  it  we  owe  the  'Star-Spangled 
Banner*  (see  Key,  Fiaitcis  Scott)  and  the 
Battle  Monument.  The  end  of  the  Napoleonic 
wars  in  1815,  restoring  to  England  tier  old 
carrying-trade,  was  a  heavy  blow  to  Balti- 
more. In  1828  the  public-school  system  was 
established.  In  1860  all  three  anti-KepubUcan 
parties  held  thdr  national  conventions  there; 
and  on  die  outbreak  of  the  Gvil  War  the 
Union  troops  tossing  throu^  there  were 
motdied  by  the  dtitens  and  the  first  blood  of 
the  war  was  shed  in  its  streets,  19  April  1861. 
On  23  May  Federal  HiU  was  occupied  by  a 
Union  force  and  the  dty  remained  under  mar- 
tial law  till  the  end  of  the  war.  Tbe  conven- 
tion of  1864,  which  renominated  Lincoln,  was 
held  here.  In  1836  "The  Annex*  was  annexed 
to  the  dty,  extending  its  limits  two  miles 
north  and  west  and  nearly  doubling  its  siie. 
Since  1890  Walbrook  has  also  been  annexed. 
The  National  Democratic  Convention  of 
19R  which  nominated  Wilson  and  Marshall 
for  President  and  Vice-President,  was  held  in 
Baltimore.  The  first  mercantile  submarine  to 
cross  the  Atlantic  Ocean  —  a  (German  boat  car- 
rying a  cargo  of  merchandise  —  evaded  the 
British  and  French  blockade  durii^  the  great 
European  War,  and  entered  the  port  of  Balti- 
more 9  July  1916,  See  Dkittschland.  Consult. 
Love,  'Baltimore:  The  Old  Town  and  the 
Modem  City>  (Baltimore  1895);  Thomas, 
'The  City  (K)vemment  of  Baltimore'  (in 
'Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies,'    1996). 

RoBiKT  J.  Beachmak,' 
Secrftary  Merekantt  and  Mattufacturtrs  Atto- 

BALTIMORE,  BaroiM  of,  or  LORDS 
BALTIMORE.  See  Baltikobe  Family  ; 
Colonial  (Government,  PRonuErARY. 

BALTIMORE,  Hd.,  Attack  on  (War  of 
1812).  When  the  British  had  burned  Wash- 
ington they  reembarked  on  their  ships  and 
tailed  for  the  mouth  of  the  Patapsco  to  at- 


BALTIUORB  — BALTIMORE  FAMILY 


tadt  Baltimore.  The  approach  to  the  city  by 
water  was  defended  by  Fort  McHenry  with  a 
rarrison  of  1,000  troops  under  Lieut.-Col. 
Gtorgv  Armigtead,  and  to  the  right  of  the 
fort  two  batteries  (Fort  Covington  and  City 
BattCTy)  were  erected  to  prevent  an  attacfc 
from  the  rear.  The  total  number  of  troops 
in  Baltimore  was  13,888  officers  and  men  un- 
der the  ■npmtie  command  of  Senator  Samuel 
Smhh  <q.v.),  whereas  the  British  immbered 
not  more  than  5,000.  On  12  Sept  1814  General 
Ross  began  the  march  toward  the  dty  wfatl« 
the  fleet  sailed  to  attack  the  forts,  but  oo  strik- 
ing the  American  advance  of  3,^00  troops  un- 
der Brig.-Gen.  John  Strieker,  Ross  was  kilted. 
Col.  Arthur  Broke  succeeding  to  the  command. 
A  hot  battle  then  ensued  but  after  a  gallant 
resistance  Strieker  retired  with  a  loss  of  24 
killed.  139  wounded  and  SO  prisoners,  whereas 
the  British  lost  46  killed  and  273  wounded.  On 
13  September  Broke  resumed  the  march,  but 
on  viewing  the  American  defenses  decided  to 
wait  until  the  fleet  had  silenced  the  forts. 
About  sunrise  of  the  13th  five  bomb  vessels 
began  to  bombard  Fort  UcHenry  from  a  dis- 
tance of  two  miles.  The  heavier  British  ships 
could  not  approach  within  range  owiog  to  the 
shallowDeas  of  the  river  and  those  of  the 
Ughter  ships  that  did  approach  were  driven 
off  quickly.  During  the  day  and  following 
ni^ht  1,500  shells  were  thrown  ioto  the  fort 
with  comparatively  little  injury  and  the  loss 
of  oafy  four  men  killed  and  24  wounded.  Ac- 
cordingly Admiral  Cochrane  and  Colonel 
Broke  decided  the  capture  of  the  towo  would 
be  too  costly  and  retreated  to  the  lower  Ches- 
apeake. On  19  September  Cochrane  sailed 
for  Halifax  and  on  14  October  the  troops  were 
transported  to  Jamaica,  later  to  participate  in 
the  battle  of  New  Orleans.  Francis  Scott 
K^  witnessed  the  bombardment  from  the 
British  admiral's  ship,  whither  he  had  gone 
to  obtain  the  release  of  some  friends,  and 
when  at  dawn  he  saw  the  flag  still  floating 
over  the  fort  he  wrote  'The  Star-Spanglea 
Banner.'  Consult  'American  State  Papers. 
MiliUry  Afiairs*  (Vol.  I,  p.  S91)  ;  Adams, 
Henry,  'The  United  Sutes'  (Vol.  VlII,  pp. 
166-73);  Brackenridge.  H.  M.,  'History  ot 
the  Late  War'  (pp.  265-73) ;  Glieg,  G!.  R., 
'Campaigns  of  the  British  Army  at  Washing- 
ton and  New  Orleans'  (pp.  170-98)  ;  James, 
William,  'Military  Occurrences'  (Vol.  11,  pp. 
308-34) ;  Lossing,  'War  of  1812'  (pp.  949-57)  ; 
"  •-  irf,  J.  T..  'History  of  Maryland'  (VoL 
~i-137)  ;  Wiley  and  Rines,  ""  "  '- 
(Vol.  IV,  pp.  33-36). 


BALTIMORE  FAMILY,  founders  and 
proprietors  of  Maryland,  consisted  of  seven  suc- 
cessive lords  ot  the  barxjny  of  Baltimore  in  the 
Irish  peerage,  and  a  cadet  who  was  goremor 
has  been  added. 

GeoKGE  Caltest,  the  1st  lord:  h.  about  1580, 
Kipling,  near  Bolton  Castle,  Yorkshire:  d.  15 
April  1632.  He  graduated  from  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  ISW;  traveled  abrjsad,  and  after 
his  return  became  secretary  to  Sir  Robert  Cecil 
(afterward  Lord  Salisbury),  clerk  of  ^e 
Crown  of  Ireland,  1606,  and  clerk  of  the  Coun- 
cil. 160B.  He  assisted  James  in  his  contro- 
versial writings,  had  charge  of  die  Spanish  and 


Italian  correspondence  during  the  Secretary  of 
State's  absence  in  1613,  was  on  a  committee  to 
investigate  Irish  Catholic  grievances  the  same 
year,  was  knighted  1617,  and  in  1619  was  made 
Secretay  of  State  by  Bnckingham's  favor.  He 
represented  Yorkshire  iointly  with  Sir  Thomas 
Wentworlh  (aflerwara  Lord  Strafford)  in  the 
Parliament  of  1621,  and  in  the  stormy  times 
that  followed  was  a  mediator  hetween  Parlia- 
ment and  King,  with  the  usual  fate  of  being 
diought  a  spy  [^  the  one  and  lukewarm  by  die 
other.  The  French  Ambassador  styled  him  an 
honest,  sensible,  well-intentioned  man  and 
zealous  patriot,  and  therefore  without  influence. 
He  had  principal  charge  of  the  foreign  negotia- 
tions while  James  was  chasing  the  will-o'-the- 
wisp  of  the  Spanish  marriage  and  making  Eng- 
land a  nullity  in  die  Thirty  Years'  War;  Cal- 
vert's later  Catholicism  made  him  suspected  as 
favoring  the  latter  policy,  but  in  fact  he  wished 
a  more  energetic  one.  On  14  Jan.  1624  he  was 
one  of  the  nine  councillors  who  apposed  a 
breach  with  Spain.  In  Januarv  162S  he  an- 
nounced himself  a  Roman  Catholic;  his  con- 
version is  credited  to  Gondomar,  the  famous 
Spanish  Ambassador,  and  Lord  Arundel  of 
Wardour,  his  son's  father-in-taw.  On  12  Feb- 
ruary he  resigned  his  office  and  was  given  the 
barony  of  Baltimore:  which,  as  James  hated 
•apostasy,*  measures  his  esteem  tor  Calvert 
On  the  accession  of  Charles  I,  in  1635,  Balti- 
more refused,  from  conscientious  scruples,  to 
take  the  oath  of  supremacy  and  abjuration,  and 
Charles  gave  him  a  handsome  letter  to  the  Lord 
Deputy  of  Ireland.  In  1627  he  was  summoned 
to  court  to  consult  on  the  peace  with  Spain,  but 
thenceforth  took  no  part  in  public  business,  de- 
voting himself  to  colonisation.  Already  in 
1621-22  he  had  planted  a  colony  in  Newfound- 
land, chartered  m  1623  as  Avalon ;  in  1627  and 
1^8-29  he  visited  it,  but  the  severe  climate  dis- 
ap^inted  him  and  he  begged  for  a  grant  in  a 
milder  one.  Without  waiting  for  a  reply  he  at- 
tempted to  explore  Virginia  for  a  settlement; 
but  the  Jamestown  dficials  of  the  old  Virginia 
company  refused  permission  unless  he  would 
take  the  oath  above.  The  region  satisfied  his 
ideal,  however,  and  he  ^rsisted  in  asking  a 
grant  there  against  the  dissuasions  of  (Tharles, 
who  finally  assigned  him  a  northeastern  tract, 
now  the  States  of  Maryland  and  Delaware; 
but  the  same  interests  delayed  die  proceedings, 
and  before  the  charter  was  signed,  H)  June  1632, 
Baltimore  died.  The  usual  assumption  that  he 
intended  the  colony  for  a  Roman  Catholic  es- 
tablishment is  refuted  by  the  fact  that  the 
charter  established  the  Church  of  England  and 
did  not  even  specify  toleration  for  other  creeds, 
which  was  not  made  a  provision  of  law  tilt 
1649,  though  of  course  intended,  and  proclaimed 
at  once  on  the  establishment  of  the  colony. 
Baltimore  thougiit  —  wrongly,  as  it  turned  out 
—  that  the  proprietary's  power  and  the  religion 
of  the  cho*;en  colonists  would  prevent  the  pet^e- 
cution  of  his  own  faith,  and  had  neither  wish 
nor  power  to  persecute  others.  That  he  meant 
it  as  an  asylum  and  breeding-ground  for  his 
religion  is  a  matter  of  course.  If  was  also  to 
be  a  feudal  aristocracTi  but  with  an  assembly 
of  freemen  whose  consent  was  necessary  to  the 
validity  of  taws.  In  a  word,  Baltimore  was  a 
conservadve  of  high  principles  and  moderate 
temper.  ^-^  > 

,,i,!=,i=,L,oogle 


12Q 


BALTIMORE   FAMILY 


Cecilius  or  Cecil  Calvibt,  the  24  !ord: 
b.  about  !60S;  d.  30  Nov.  1675-  He  married 
Anne  Howard,  daughter  of  Lord  Arundel  of 
Wardour  (after  whom  Anne  Arimdei  County 
of  Maryland  b  named),  about  1623.  The 
charter  of  Maryland  granted  to  his  father  was 
transferred  to  him  as  heritor;  but  he  never 
visited  it  during  the  43  years  of  bis  life  there- 
after, sending  deputies  in  his  place,  and  manag-  . 
ing  its  business  and  political  affairs  judiciously 
from  England,  settling  disputes  of  natives  or 
colonists  sensibly  and  placably,  and  esteemed 
a  worthy  successor  to  his  father.  Down  to  the 
civil  war  of  1642  he  had  little  to  do  but  sup- 
jKirt  his  brother,  Leonard,  as  governor;  but  his 
policy  then  became  difficult  He  tried  to  steer 
a  middle  course,  and  avoid  either  for  himself 
or  the  colony  any  pronounced  declaration  of 
sympathies   or   allegiance   which   might   expose 


ind  the  Parliamentary  triumphs  at  home, 
showed  him  at  last  that  this  could  not  be  main- 
tained, and  that  with  the  Puritans  at  the  head, 
the  Roman  Catholic  supremacy,  though  used 
Qnly  to  preserve  themselves  from  persecution, 
must  be  given  up.  On  9  June  1647  Leonard 
died,  after  appointing  as  ms  provisional  suc- 
cessor an  ardent  churchman  and  loyalist. 
Thomas  Green;  but  Lord  Baltimore  in  1648 
appointed  Capt.  William  Stone  and  had  him 
settle  some  500  Puritans,  harried  by  the  Vii- 
ginia  Cavaliers,  in  Marj^land  When  the  news 
of  the  King's  death  arrived,  Green,  in  Stone's 
absence,  proclaimed  Charles  II  King,  as  did 
Virginia;  on  which  William  Claiborne  (q.v.. 
and  below),  the  treasurer  of  Virginia,  joined 
the  Parliamentary  party,  obtained  a  commission 
to  reduce  the  two  rebellious  provinces,  and, 
after  overthrowing  the  Virginia  government, 
forced  Governor  Stone  to  renounce  hi3 
allegiance  to  Lord  Baltimore  and  give  it  to  the 
"keepers  of  the  liberties  of  England.'  When 
Cromwell  dispersed  the  LongParliament  Stone 
repudiated  the  agreement;  Claiborne  marched 
against  him,  deposed  him  and  appointed  a  Puri- 
tan government  which  at  once  most  ungrate- 
fully disfranchised  all  Catholics  and  repealed 
the  Colonial  Toleration  Act  of  1649.  In  January 
1654  Cxomweli  himself  intervened,  and  forbade 
the  Virginia  authorities  to  molest  Lord  Balti- 
more or  his  officers  in  Maryland.  Baltimore 
thereupon  ordered  Stone  to  overturn  the 
Puritan  government,  but  Stone's  force  was  de- 
feated and  himself  captured  Baltimore,  how- 
ever, kept  his  favor  with  the  Puritan  adminis- 
tration ;  the  commissioners  of  plantation  de- 
cided that  the  province  was  his,  and  in  1658  it 
was  restored  to  him,  Claiborne's  influence  was 
at  an  end,  and  Baltimore  had  no  further  troubles 
over  Maryland. 

Leonard  Calvert,  younger  brother  of 
Cecilius.  was  sent  out  by  the  latter  as  first  gov- 
ernor of  the  new  colony:  b.  about  1606;  d.  June 
1647.  He  set  sail  22  NTov.  1633,  in  the  Ark  and 
the  Dove,  with  about  200  Roman  Catholic  set- 
tlers of  good  families;  arrived  24  Feb.  1634,  at 
Point  Comfort,  landed  25  March  on  an  island 
iji  the  Potomac,  which  they  named  Saint  Clem- 
md  founded  on  the  site  of  an  abandoned 


who  had  lived  ■ 


:   years   among   the 


Indians  and  helped  hun  to  gain  their  consent 
to  the  settlement.  But  he  found  Kent  Island 
in  the  Chesapeake,  the  great  island  oiq>osite 
Annapolis,  settled  by  one  William  Claiborne 
(q.v.),  under  a  grant  from  the  dissolved  Vir- 
ginia company,  effectively  enough  to  have  a 
representative  in  the  Virginia  I^islature.  Cal- 
vert claimed  ri|^t  of  property  and  political 
jurisdiction  over  the  island,  Claiborne  denied 
both,  and  Virginia  upheld  him ;  and  the  war- 
fare that  ensueid  embroiled  the  two  colonies  for 
many  j^ears,  complicating  itself  with  the  issue 
of  Churchmen  against  Catholics,  then  ^by  the 
oddest  irony  of  fate)  with  Cavaliers  in  Vir- 
ginia against  the  Puritans  who  had  overborne 
the  Cawolics  in  Maryland,  and  finally  with  a 
rankling  boundary  dispute.  Claiborne  poisoned 
the  Indians'  minds  against  the  Marylanders  as 
a  set  of  treacherous  Spaniards;  Calvert  sent  an 
expedition  against  him,  which  captured  two 
boats,  with  mutual  loss  of  life,  in  April  and 
May  1635.  Claiborne  had  further  losses,  and 
became  bankrupt,  but  in  1637  bought  of  the  In- 
dians Palmer's  Island,  at  the  head  of  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  as  beyond  Baltimore's  grant,  and 
petitioned  for  an  injunction  against  Baltimore's 
mterfering  with  him.  The  commissioners  of 
plantation  refused  him  the  grant,  despite  his 
purchase,  on  the  ground  that  he  had  only  a 
trading  license.  Meantime  Kent  Island  con- 
tinued insubordinate,  and  Calvert  had  to  make 
an  expedition  against  it  in  person,  reducing  it 
and  occupying  Palmer's  Island  also,  and  captur- 
ing one  of  Claiborne's  lieutenants,  who  was  put 
to  death  for  piracy  and  murder  in  the  former 
troubles.  Calvert  now  undertook  to  introduce 
the  feudal  system  contemplated  by  his  father's 
charter;  but  as  the  freemen's  consent  was  neces- 
sary to  this,  and  they  refused  to  give  it  to  their 
own  abasement,  the  scheme  was  blocked  and 
in  fact  never  carried  out.  The  civil  war  of 
1642  having  broken  out,  cautious  steering  was 
needed  to  avoid  risking  confiscation  from  one 
side  or  the  other,  and  Calvert  went  to  England 
to  consult  his  brother,  leaving  one  Brent  as 
deputy,  who  brought  on  the  very  catastrophe 
dreaded,  by  seizing  a  Parliamentan'  vessel  and 
imprisoning  the  captain,  Richard  Ingle.  Ingle 
escaped,  obtained  letters  of  marque  from  Parlia- 
ment, allied  himself  with  Claiborne,  who  had 
been  made  the  treasurer  of  Vir^nia  for  lite  by 
the  King,  but  had  no  politics  except  for  his  own 
hand,  and  by  the  time  Calvert  returned  with  a 
new  commission  in  1644  had  possession  of  the 
colony  and  was  plundering  right  and  left.  Cal- 
vert, in  an  attempt  at  repossession,  was  defeated 
and  fled  to  Vir^nia,  which  had  remained  loyal 
to  the  King,  and  appealed  to  the  colonial  gov- 
ernment for  help;  they  refused  to  give  it;  finally 
he  got  a  force  together,  and  in  December  1646 
returned  and  drove  Ingle  out  —  one  of  the  fly- 
ing rebels,  however,  carrying  off  all  the  early 
records  of  the  colony,  whidb  have  never  re- 
appeared. He  died  the  next  year,  leaving  an 
unfortunate  provisional  appointment  of  a  suc- 
cessor, which  made  even  worse  trouble  for  the 
colony  than  the  last  deputy. 

John,  the  3d  lord;  Charles,  the  4th;  Bene- 
dict, the  5lh;  Chakles,  the  6th;  and  FiiEiwiiicit, 
the  7th  and  last,  complete  the  roll.  Frederick 
was  a  foolish  and  worthless  rake^  and  perhaps 
worse.  Bom  in  1731,  he  died  14  Sept.  1771,  leav- 
ing no  legitimate  heirs,  but  apparently  a  natural 


BAI.TIUOSS  AND  OHIO  RAILROAD 


Ul 


brood  of  ___,_._._       _ 

in  Uaiyland  were  bequeathed  to  a  child,  Henry 
Hariord,  but  four  years  later  were  rendered 
worthless  by  the  Revolution. 

BibHoKnushy^  'Diet  National  Biog.> 
(London)  ;  Browne,  W.  H.,  'Georfte  Calvert 
and  Cecil  Calvert,  Lords  Baltimore'  (New 
York  1890)  :  Hall,  C.  CL  'The  Lords  Balti- 
iiioTe>  (Baltunore  1905);  Kennedy,  J.  P.,  'Dis- 
courses on  the  Life  of  George  Calvert>  (Balti- 
more 1845). 

BALTIHORB  AND  OHIO  RAIL- 
ROAD, The  Historv.— The  fact  that  the 
only  use  of  rails  for  locoiuotioii  in  1827  on 
either  side  of  the  Atlantic  was  for  coal  carry- 
ing, renders  the  more  remarkable  the  action  of 
the  coterie  of  merchants  and  bankers  of  Balti- 
more, gathering  at  Philip  Thomas'  house  on 
the  evening  of  18  February  of  that  year,  in  de- 
ciding to  proceed  forthwidi  to  build  a  railroad 
for  geneiil  purposes.  The  Ohio,  at  Hlieeliug, 
was  made  the  objective  point;  the  interventng 
Blue  Ridge  and  Allegheny  Mountains  evidently 
soggesting  no  difficulties  that  could  not  be  sur- 
mounted. But  a  week  elapsed  from  the  time 
of  the  initial  meeting  to  the  second,  at  which 
the  committee  appointed  at  the  first  reported 
the  resolution,  namely ;  'That  immediate  ap- 
plication be  made  to  the  Legislature  of  Mary- 
land for  an  act  incorporating  a  Joint  stock 
company  to  be  styled  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Railroad  Company,  and  clothing  such  company 
with  all  powers  necessary  for  the  construction 
of  a  railroad  with  two  or  more  sets  of  rails 
from  the  City  of  Baltimore  to  the  Ohio  River." 
The  capital  stock  was  fixed  at  $5,000,000. 

The  Baltimore  and  Oluo's  charter,  granted 
of  date  28  Feb.  1827,  was  the  first  anywhere 
coming  into  existence  defining  and  authorizing 
procedure  to  completion.  Under  it  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio  Railroad  Company  is  still  act- 
ing, it  being  the  only  enactment  of  the  charac- 
ter of  the  pioneer  days  of  the  railroad  in  this 
country  or  Europe  remaining  fully  operative; 
the  B.  ft  O.  being  the  single  railroad  company 
of  those  times  yet  retaining,  unchanged,  its 
original  name  and  organization. 

On  23  April  1827  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
Railroad  Company  was  '  formally  organized, 
Philip  E.  Thomas  elected  president  and 
George  Brown  treasurer.  Preparations  were 
immediately  inaugurated  to  secure  a  survey  of 
the  proposed  line,  the  measures  to  which  end 
were  begun  on  2  July.  In  this  the  United 
States  government  authorities  were  induced 
to  co-operate  to  lie  extent  of  relieving  Cot 


Stephen  H.  Long,  of  the  Topographical  Corps, 
from  his  regular  duties,  who,  with  Jonathan 
Knigfat,    a    0"!^^    <:ivil    engineer    of    repute, 


forthwith  proceeded  with  the  actual  work,  the 
date  of  its  formal  commencement  being  20 
November.  On  5  April  1828  they  subnutted  the 
result  of  their  labor  to  that  period;  and  the 
liiM.west  to  the  Patapsco  and  thence  via  its 
valln  to  Point  of  Rocks  on  the  Potomac  was 
dedtW  ttpon  as  the  first  section  to  be  under- 

Bnt  persislent,  bitter  and  vehement  opposi- 
tion by  the  canal  authorities  was  encountered 
and  llus  was  even  carried  to  legislative  cham- 
bers and   the  courts,  but  despite  this  trouble 


aad  a  few  adverse  decisions  by  the  courts,  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  pudied  on  from  Baltimore 
west,  and  three  miles  were  completed  and  ex- 
perimented upon  early  in  1829.  On  22  May 
1830  the  first  section  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
—  that  from  Baltimore  to  HIicott  Qty,  a  dis- 
tance of  14  miles — was  formally  opened  for 
pubUc  use.  Horse-power  waa  the  standard 
means  of  locomotion  pending  development  of 
the  locomotive  to  a  more  assuring  stage  than 
then  reached  an)fwhere  from  whence  reliable 
information  could  be  obtained.  (See  Locoiio- 
TivE,  Thb)  .  ^Brigades  of  cars*  were  an- 
notmced  to  nm  three  times  each  way  daily,  the 
fare  named  at  25  cents  and  business  commenced 
in  earnest  This  was  four  months  in  advance' 
of  the  formal  opening  of  the  Liverpool  and 
Manchester,  the  first  railway  abroad  for  gen- 
eral purposes,  its  date  being  IS  Sept.  1830. 

Many  difficult  problems  in  the  mechanics  of 
railraa<ung  were  decisively  solved.  Car  wheels 
were  first  made  with  the  flange  on  die  inside 
edge,  but  their  causing  so  many  derailments 
and  so  frequently  breaking  led  to  the  change 
of  the  flange  to  the  outer  edge.  But  this  in- 
creased the  difficulty  on  the  curves  and  the 
conical  flange  was  invented.  The  anti-friction 
box  on  the  axles  and  the  practice  of  placing 
on  the  outside  instead  of  the  inside  of  the 
wheels  were  both  first  introduced  by  Winans; 
as  was  also  the  eight-wheel  car.  When  the 
main  line  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  was  com- 
pleted its  roadbed  embodied  the  highest  en- 
gineering skill  of  the  period  in  the  traversing 
of  mountain  ranges ;  was  the  longest  continuous 
railroad  in  the  world,  with  the  greatest  brides, 
trestles  and  tunnels.  Its  track  construction 
throughout,  and  especially  its  manner  of  meet- 
ing the  curvature  and  providing  against  slides 
from  the  environing  mountain  sides,  were  les- 
sons in  line  construction  and  operation  availed 
of  by  the  whole  world. 

■  The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  was  completed  to 
Frederick,  61  miles,  1  Dec.  1831;  to  Point  of 
Rocks,  69  miles,  1  April  1832;  and  to  Harper's 
Ferry,  81  miles,  1  Dec  1834.  The  initial  move 
toward  Washington  was  the  letting  of  the  con- 
tract in  May  1833  for  the  construction  of  the 
Thomas  Viaduct  spanning  the  Patapsco  at  Re- 
lay. This  remarkable  granite  structure,  de- 
signed and  erected  under  the  personal  super- 
vision of  Benjamin  H.  Latrobe,  was  built  for 
the  carrying  of  six-  or  seven-ton  engines  draw- 
ing from  15-  to  20-ton  trains,  and  meets  with 
equal  safetv  the  demand  of')l70-ton  locomotives 
at  the  head,  of  12-  to  15-hundred  ton  trains.  It 
was  the  marvel  in  the  worid's  railway  circles 
when  constructed.  The  longest,  highest  and 
genera  I  Ijr  most  imposing  railroad  crossing 
known,  it  was  the  first  on  a  curve  and  regarde<( 
tlierefore,  as  the  boldest  of  departures  from  the 
rule. 

Two  years  were  required  to  complete  the 
Washington   branch,   and   it   was   not   until   25 


awakening.  With  the  opening  of  the  brandi, 
the  railway  postal  service  came  into  being,  its 
earliest  form  the  boarded-up  end  of  a  ba^^age 
car,  the  two  keys  of  which  were  held  hy  the 
postmasters    of    Wa^ington    and    Baltimore. 


.Google 


ISS 


BALTIMORE  ORTOLB— BALTZBR 


The  declaratkm  of  the  first  railroad  dividend  in 
history,  a  semi-annual  of  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio,  was  made  simultaneousty  with  the  open- 
ing of  the  Washington  branch,  and  the  securi- 
ties of  the  latter  were  the  first  of  American 
railway  issues  marketed  abroul 

The  greatest  of  eventualities,  however, 
with  which  the  Washington  branch's  history  is 
linked  was  the  birth  of  the  telegratA.  "What 
Hath  God  Wrou^t,*  the  first  fcur  words 
transmitted  by  wire  over  a  public  line,  were 
sent  from  Baltimore  to  Washington  via  the 
roadbed  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  branch. 

Hancock,  123  mites  from  Baltimore,  was 
reached  by  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  on  1  June 
1842;  Cumberland,  176  miles,  on  5  Nov.  1S42; 
Piedmont,  206  miles,  on  21  July  1851;  Fair- 
mont, 302  miles,  on  22  June  1852 ;  and  the  last' 
spike,  ftnishing-  the  great  undertaking  from  Bal- 
timore to  Wheeling,  379  miles,  was  driven  on 
24  Dec  1852.  The  formal  opening  of  the  road 
was  marked  by  a  notable  demonstration  10  Jan. 
1853.  There  being  no  rail  connection  beyond 
and  the  prospects  brii^t  for  Cincinnati 
Louisville  business  in  the  one  direction  and 
Fittsburgh  in  the  other,  a  company  was  organ- 
ized and  a  daily  steamboat  service  established 
'superior    to    anything    floating   upon    western 

With  the  completion  of  the  Farkersburg 
branch  from  Grafton  —  or  the  mouth  of  Three 
Forici,  as  it  was  then  known  —  to  Parkersbut^, 
1  Uay  1857,  the  Ohio  was  reached  at  another 
pcunt,  and  a  very  important  one,  as  through 
rail  connection  had  been  perfected  thence  to 
Cincinnati,  10  days  before,  20  April.  The 
opening  of  the  Farkersburg  bridge,  /  Jan.  1871, 
was  the  last  link  in  the  continuous  rail  from  the 
Chesapeake  to  the  Mississippi 

The  old  Marietta  and  Cincinnati,  the  Ohio 
and  llfississtppi  and  other  railways,  once  sep- 
arately conducted  companies,  long  since  became 
component  parts  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
system,  which,  since  the  finishing  of  the  Chi- 
cago division,  10  Nov.  1874,  has  been  among 
the  foreiDost  in  the  metropolis  of  the  northwest, 
as,  through  being  the  pioneer  into  Cincinnati 
and  Saint  Louis  from  the  East,  it  has  ever 
been  in  those  centres. 

At  Pittsburgh,  as  well,  the  Baltimore  and 
Ohio's  position  is  a  commanding  one.  Reaching 
the  great  central  point  from  Cumberland  in 
July  1660,  later  building  and  acguisitions  led  to 
ramating  lines  to  Cleveland,  Giicago,  Gncia- 
nati.  Wheeling  and  other  points  of  traffic  con- 
centration. Eastward  from  Baltimore  the  con- 
structwn  of  tiie  extension  to  Philadelphia  and 
its  opening,  19  Sept.  1886,  together  with  secu- 
ri^  holdings  in  Imcs  through  to  New  York 
assured  important  place  among  the  railways 
centring  in  the  country's  leading  city. 

Mileage.— On  30  June  1915  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  Railroad  proper  consisted  of  the  fal- 
lowing lines: 

Neo  York  Diitriet 5 .  3S 

IiUto  line  District I.1M  08 

Wheeling  Diitrict l.ltU.OO 

Rttsbni^  Dirttirt i.lSl  t9 

SombmaMn  DiMiiM MS.SS 


By  dtvisiona  tUi  uile^w  is  as  follows; 

Knr  Yoax  DBrraicr S.iS 

New  York  Diviiion J. 39 

Haik  Linb  Dectuct I.IM.M 

PhihdsIpbU  DiriikRi 119.  St 

Baltimon  Divuian US. SO 

Cnmbetbiad  DiviiioD 19Z.W 

Sbenuidoah  DWiuDn. I14.3T 

MoDongKb  DMson 414 ,  10 

WmuHa  DmucT l.lOt.MI 

WhMltoa  Dinnan 217.43 

Ohio  RivB  DivJDon 131. S4 

Clevekod  DivwoQ 313. 91 

Nsmrk  Diviiioa 410.01 

PrmBuiCH  DtnsicT i  ,151.49 

CsnnBllnills  Diviiioa 348.31 

PitlatniT(h  DivUion 341. » 

NswCartk  Diviiion 177.73 

ChitngD  DivUion 1B3.9S 

SOITTKWBSTBKN  DlSTSICT VU.35 

Ohio  Division .  ,  . : 335 .  14 

Indimns  Diviiion 133 .49 

lUinoit  Di»iiioo 3M.71 

Onuul MtU foe  «atn  B.  ft  O.  STHem  .    4,S3J,2T 

Eqiiipm«nt.— The  total  eqmjMnent  for  the 
entire  system,  valued  at  $93,906,383.33,  as  of  30 
June  1915,  was  as  folktws: 

_•  Tnlltn 1,399 

.__-_  C^n I.IW 

Plcuht  Cats >«,0»7 

S*tnc*  Cm 3,171 

Staun  Uabten  ud  Togs 14 

Barge*,  noatB  and  Soowi Ill 

Traffic  Statistics.— For  the  year  endint;  30 
June  1915  the  total  number  of  tons  of  frewbt 
carried  by  the  B.  ft  O.  system  was  64,375495. 
The  total  ton  mile^e  was  12.970,894,074.  The 
number  of  passengers  carried  was  ^,581,992, 
or  714,368,423  passengers  one  mile.  The  freight 
earnings  for  the  B.  &  O.  lines  were  $70,780,- 
808.51  and  the  passenger  earnings  were  $14,- 
059^.41. 

Financea.— The  general  income  account  of 
the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  Company  for 
the  year  ending  30  June  1915  was  as  follows: 

Gnu  earaina* tSl  ,S1S .  797 .34 

Operalinc  upenKa 63,915.307.74 

Net  wninai  IfOD  operstioM I17,S90,1W.M 

Other  mcoa» 3.1M.B47.77 

*33,131.t37.37 
Total  paymenU,  indudiiMi  dmdeadi 31,379,663.51 

Surplai Vn.Vi.K 

The  capital  stock  (preferred  and  common) 
outstanding  on  30  June  1915  was  $210811,- 
885.17;  the  funded  debt  was  $398,799,1^^1; 
the  total  capiul  liabilities  $609,611,044.98.  The 
capital  assets  of  the  company  were  $620,109,- 
759.23,  consisting  of  the  following:  Cost  of 
road,  including  bonds  and  stocks  hield  by  trus- 
tees, $441310,562.45;  real  estate,  $6,6^,735.88: 
equipment,  $93,703,383.33.  The  compaiv  also 
owned  bonds  and  stocks  of  railroad  and  other 
corporations  to  the  value  of  $77,923,077 i7. 

BALTIMORS  ORIOLE.    See  Okiolb. 

BALTISTAN,  bal-te-stiin',  or  LITTLE 
TIBET,  an  elevated  plateau  tiirough  which  the 
upper  Indus  (lows.  It  lies  below  the  Kara- 
Koram  Mountains  and  the  Himalayas,  widi  a 
mean  elevation  of  11,000  feet,  and  contains  the 
nameless  peak  marked  K",  28,278  feet  high,  next 
to  Everest,  the  highest  on  the  globe.  It  is 
politically  a  province  of  Kashmir. 

BALTZBR,  Johann  Baptlata,  German 
Andemacb  1803;  d.  1871.     He 

.mz.d.,  Google 


BALTZBK~BA1.0CUI8TAN 


Bresiau.  He  was  an  enthunaatic  follower  of 
Georg  Hermes  in  the  Utter's  effort  to  cAect  a 
reconciliation,  of  Roman  Catholic  teaching  with 
the  newer  German  philosophy.  In  1839  he  broke 
away  from  this  connection  and  became  a  fol- 
lower of  Anton  Gimtber.  When  Giinlher  came 
under  the  ban  of  the  Oiurch  Baltier  submitted, 
but  he  was  soon  involved  in  other  difBculties 
with  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  and  these  dif- 
ferences led  to  his  suspension  in  J862.  He 
opposed  the  promulgation  of  papal  infallibility 
and  became  an  araent  promoter  of  the  Old 
Catholic  movement  He  wrote  *IHe  bibtische 
Sch6pfungsgeschichte>  (2  vols.,  1867-73)  and 
'Ueher  die  Anfange  der  Organismen'  (4th  ed, 
l8fS).  Consult  the  biographical  sketches  by 
Friedberg  (Leipzig  1873)  and  by  Melzer  (Bonn 
1877),  both  in  favor  of  Baltzer's  attitude,  and 
Franz  (Berlin  1873),  representing  the  opposite 

BALTZER,  Wilhelm  Bdaard,  German 
theologian:  b.  Hohenleine  1814;  d.  Grotiineen 
1887.  He  was  educated  at  Leipzig  and  Halle, 
and  was  ordained  to  the  Lumeran  ministry. 
His  liberal  views  led  to  his  being  looked  on 
with  disfavor,  and  in  1847  he  founded  a  free 
church  of  his  own  and  soon  became  the  leader 
of  the  movement  known  as  the  'Freie  (Je- 
meindeu,'  or  free  religious  communities  wbich 
arose  in  opposition  to  dogmatic  and  traditional 
theology.  Battzer  was  the  leader  of  the  move- 
ment until  1881,  when  he  retired  to  Grotzingen, 
and  spent  his  remaining  years  in  the  promotion 
of  vegetarianism.  He  wrote  ^Alte  und  neue 
Weltanschauung 
Welt,  und  Me 
Kochbuch'   (I4th  ed..  1900). 

BALUCHI,  bq-loo'che,  the  language  of 
Baluchistan,  one  of  the  Iranian  group  of  lan- 
guages. There  are  two  dialects,  tne  north 
Baluchi  and  the  south  Baluchi,  or  Maprani; 
the  latter  shows  more  ancient  features. 

BALUCHISTAN,        bS-loo'che-stan',        a 


former  on  the  west,  Afghanistan  and  the  North- 
west Frontier  province  on  the  north,  Sindh, 
the  Punjab  and  part  of  tiie  Frontier  province 
on  the  east  and  uie  Arabian  Sea  on  the  south; 
area,  about  134,638  square  miles.  It  is  wholly 
under  British  influence  and  partly  under  British 
rule,  an  area  of  9,096  stjuare  miles  forming 
part  of  the  Indian  empire;  the  rest  of  the 
country  is  divided  into  Agency  territories  under 
British  control  (about  45.132  square  miles),  and 
the  native  states  of  Kalat  and  Las  Belas.  The 
genera!  surface  of  Baluchistan  is  rugged  and 
mountainous,  with  some  extensive  intervals  of 
barren  sandy  deserts.  In  the  case  of  the  prin- 
cipal ranges,  the  general  parallelism  and  uni- 
formity of  their  formation  are  somewlwt  re- 
markable, one  system  having  an  inclination  from 
north  to  south,  another  from  east  to  west. 
Many  of  these  mountains  are  of  great  height 
and  are  covered  with  snow.  There  are  several 
broad  and  higb  table-lands,  extremely  cold  in 
winter  and  extremely  hot  in  summer.  Miikrsn 
in  the  south,  the  ancient  Gedrosia,  is  one  of  the 
hottest    regK>ns   of   the  globe.     Some  of   the 


moiiBtain  chaini  are  .. , , 

clouns  marine  sbells  and  corals  identical  with 
umilar  objotts  ^cked  iq*  on  the  sea-shores  at 
this  day.  Exoopttng  fragments  of  quartz  found 
in  Lus,  primary  formations  have  not  been  ob- 
served in  any  part  of  the  Baluchistan  Moun- 
tains. The  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  is 
believed  to  be  considcrsble,  but  is  almost  uo* 
developed;  lead,  iron,  many  kinds  of  mineral 
salts,  coal,  admtos,  chrotnite  and  oil  have  been 
found.  Throo^iout  Baluchistan  there  is  a  great 
de&deiKT  of  water,  partknlarly  in  summer.  In 
the  nortiieast  part  are  the  nvers  Bolan  and 
Mula,  the  courses  of  which  form  the  celebrated 
passes  bearing  their  names,  leading  from  the 
valley  of  the  uidus  to  Baluchistan  and  Af  ^lan- 
istan.  In  the  sontli  are  the  Hingol  and  the 
Dasht  which  dow  into  die  Arabian  Sea.  The 
coast  has  a  lengtti  of  about  600  miles ;  it  is  very 
little  indented  and  has  no  good  harbors.  The 
soil  is  not  in  general  fertile,  but  by  patient  in- 
dustry tile  plains  and  valleys  can  be  made  pro- 
ductive in  wheat,  barle]^  and  millet.  The  other 
chief  crops  are  rice,  maize  and  potatoes.  V^;e- 
tables  are  abundant,  and  excellent  fruits  are 
produced  in  the  gardens  and  orchards  in  die 
neighborhood  of  the  towns.  Panjgur  in  Makran 
is  celebrated  for  its  dates.  Fme  camels  are 
bred  in  large  numbers. 

The  inhabitants  are  composed  of  numerous 
races,  the  chief  of  which  are  the  Baluchis  or 
Baloch,  the  Pathan  and  the  Brahuis,  different 
in  their  languages,  figures  and  manners,  and 
each  subdivided  into  a  number  of  minor  tribes. 
The  Baluchis  are  of  Arabian,  Dravidian  and 
Persian  stock,  and  though  essentially  robbers 
and  raiders  have  many  fine  characteristics.  The 
Brahuis  are  less  addicted  to  predatory  violence 
Both  races  are  hospitable,  brave  and  capable  of 
enduring  much  fatigue.  Many  of  them  live  in 
rude  tents  made  of  black  felt  or  coarse  cloth 
of  goat's  or  camel's  hair  stretched  over  a  frame 
of  wickerwork.  Both  Baluchis  and  Brahuis  are 
Mohammedans  of  the  Sunnite  creed.  Both  are 
less  violent  and  bloodthirsty  than  the  Pathan, 
The  Baluchi  language  resembles  the  modern 
Persian,  the  Brahui  presents  many  points  of 
agreement  with  the  Hindu.  The  manufactures 
are  mostly  confined  to  coarse  fabrics,  a  few 
matchlocks  and  other  weapons,  and  iron  work 
for  agricultural  purposes.  Leather  work  and 
pottery  are  manufactured  in  certain  parts  and 
the  Brahui  women  do  excellent  needlework. 
Overland  trade  with  India  is  carried  on  by  the 
Sindh-Pishin  Railway  and  camel  caravans,  the 
chief  exports  bring  mustard,  rope,  raw  wool 
and  food  grains.  The  chief  exports  by  sea  are 
dates,  matting  and  dried  fish.  The  Khan,  so  far 
as  his  rule  extends,  has  unlimited  power  over 
life,  person  and  property.  He  usually  resides 
at  fCalat,  and  his  rule  is  almost  confined  to  tiie 
country  around  it.  Quetta  is  the  largest  town. 
It  is  occupied  bv  a  British  garrison  and  strongly 
fortified.  Southern  Baluchistan  was  the  ancient 
Credrosia,  described  by  Arrian,  the  historian  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  The  country  was  ruled 
by  Hindu  princes  until  the  end  of  the  l7th  cen- 
tury when  it  was  subdued  by  the  Brahuis  under 
their  leader,  Kumhar.  who  had  been  summoned 
to  assist  the  Hindu  rulers  against  turbulent 
tribesmen.  A  descendant  of  Kumbar.  Nasir 
Khan,  was  confirmed  in  his  authorit)'  over 
numerous  tribal  chiefs  by  the  celebrated  Nadir 


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BALUCKI  —  BA1.ZAC 


Shah,  ruler  of  Perm,  wba  overran  Baluchistan 
during  bis  invasion  of  Hindustan  in  the  middle 
of  the  18th  ccQturv,  and  as  Khan  of  Kalat, 
Nasir  proved  himself  the  ablest  roler  who  ever 
governed  the  country.  On  his  death  in  1795 
he  left  it  in  a  fairl}^  prosperous  condition  but  it 
suffered  later  from  intestine  wars  and  its  bound- 
aries have  been  curtailed.  In  1839  when  the 
British  were  advancing  toward  Afghanistan 
the  treacherous  conduct  of  the  Khan  led  to  the 
capture  of  Kalat  by  General  Willshire.  In  1854 
a  treaty  was  executed  between  the  British  gov- 
ernment and  Nasir  Khan  II  under  which  he 
received  a  yearly  subsidy  of  50,000  rupees  which 
was  later  raised  to  iOO.OOO  rupees.  British  resi- 
dents were  appointed  to  the  court  of  the  Khan 
hut  the  country  was  considered  independent 
until  1877  when  the  cantonment  of  pnetta,  now 
the  headquarters  of  the  administration  and  ter~ 
minus  of  the  Indian  railway  system,  was  occu- 
pied by  British  troops.  In  1879  the  district  was 
taken  over  by  the  administration  on  behalf  of 
the  Khan  and  in  1883  was  made  over  to  the 
British  by  the  Khan  together  with  the  district 
of  Bolan  on  payment  of  an  annual  quit-rent. 
Other  districts  have  also  been  assigned  to  Great 
Britain  and  go  to  make  up  British  Baluchistan 
(about  9,096  square  miles),  administered  by  a 
chief  commissioner  under  the  governor-general 
of  India.  Other  territories  under  British  con- 
trol have  an  area  of  about  45,132  square  miles. 
Kalat  and  Las  Betas,  formerly  a  fief  of  the  Khan 
of  Kalat,  are  under  the  control  of  a  British 
political  agent  in  Kalat.  Their  comlnned  area 
IS  80,410  square  miles.  There  are  832  miles  of 
metaled  and  partly  metaled  roads  in  the  whole 
of  Maluchistan.  In  1917  tfiere  were  782,648 
Mohammedans,  37,602  Hindus,  630  Sitdis  and 
5,065  Christians.  In  1916  there  were  73  govern- 
ment and  aided  and  unaided  schools  with  3,263 
pupils  and  70  private  schools  with  865  pupils. 

Bibliography. —  Consult  the  annual  adminis- 
tration reports  of  the  Baluchistan  Agency 
(Calcutta)  ;  also  Hughes,  A.  W..  'The  Country 
of  Baluchistan'  (London  1877) ;  MacGregor, 
C,  'Wanderings  in  Baluchistan*  (London 
1882)  ;  Oliver,  E.  E.,  'Across  the  Border  or 
Pathan  and  Baluch'  (London  1891);  Holdich, 
Sir  T.  H.,  "The  Indian  Borderland'  (London 
1901);  id.,  'The  Gates  of  India'  (London 
1910)  ;  Dames,  'The  Baloch  Race'  (Asiatic  So- 
dety  Moi»graphs,  Vol.  IV,  London  1904). 

John  B.  McDowweli, 
Editorial  Staff  of  The  At       '' 


free  and  spontaneous  humor  —  and  in  both 
novel  and  comedies  held  up  to  a  genial  ridi- 
cule the  shortcomings  and  prejudices  of  Polish 
society.  Among  his  prindpat  works  of  interest 
may  be  mentioned  'The  Awakening'  (1863)  ; 
'The  Young  and  die  01d>  (1866);  'LifeAmonR 
Ruins'  (1870);  'The  Jewess'  (1871);  'ForSins 
Not  Committed'  (1879);  '250,000'  (1883).  The 
best  among  his  comedies  are  'The  Chase  After 
a  Man'  (1869);  'The  Emancipated'  (1873); 
'Amateur  Theatre'  (1879)  ;  'The  Town  Coun- 
cil" (1880);  'The  Open  House'  (1883);  'Miss 
Valeric'  (1891);  'The  Burgomaster  of  Pipi- 
dowka'  (1894). 


BALUSTER,  or  BALLI8TBR,  a  kind  of 
short  column,  sometimea  in  the  form  of  an 
ancient  bow,  sometimes  made  after  the  model 
of  Greek  and  Roman  columns,  emph^ed  in  the 
construction  of  balustrades. 

BALUSTRADB,  a  series  of  balusters  sur- 
mounted by  a  rail,  and  placed  as  an  ornament 
on  lar^e  buildings,  above  the  cornice,  or  as  a 
protection  to  enclose  bridges,  stairs,  balconies, 
altars  and  the  like. 

BALUZB,  ba-lilz,  Btienne,  French  scholar 
and  historian;  b.  Tulle,  24  Dec.  1630;  d.  Paris, 
28  July  1718.  He  early  acquired  distinction  by 
his  varied  and  thorough  knowledge,  and  was 
called  to  Paris  by  the  celebrated  Colbert,  who 
commissioned  him  to  make  up  his  private  li- 
brary. In  1707  he  was  appointed  to  the  super- 
visorship  of  the  royal  college,  and  dismissed 
from  that  office  in  1709,  bSng  suspected  of 
having  in  his  'Histoire  Genealogique  de  la 
Maison  d'AuvcTKne,  designedly  established,  by 
documentary  evidence,  that  the  princes  of  Bouil- 
lon were  descended  from  the  ancient  dukes  of 
Guienne,  counts  of  Auvergne,  and  therefore 
owed  no  allegiance  to  the  king  of  France.  Such 
an  offense  could  not  be  forgiven ;  and  Batuze, 
deprived  of  nearlj^  all  his  income,  was  compelled 
to  reside  successively  at  Rouen,  Blois,  Tours 
and  Orleans,  and  not  until  after  the  conclusion 
of  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  was  he  permitted  to 
return  to  Paris.  He  was  of  the  most  amiable 
temper,  and  his  wit  was  equal  to  his  cheerfut- 

BALVAHY,  the  Magyar  name  for  tdol, 
found  in  medixval  Latin  documents  of  Hun- 
gary, and  also  in  Hungarian  geography,  ap- 
plied to  various  heights  which  were  the  last 
strongholds  of  paganism  in  the  11th  century. 
~  BALVAS,  Antonio,  Spanish  poet :  b.  Segi^ 
via  in  the  middle  of  the  16th  century;  d-  1m9. 
He  wrote  <EI  poeta  Castellano'  (1627).  a  woric 
highly  praised  by  Lopez  de  Vega.. 

BALY,  Williun,  English  physician :  b : 
King's  Lynn  1814;  killed  in  a  railway  accident 
near  Wimbledon,  28  Jan.  1861.  He  studied  at 
University  College  and  Saint  Bartholomew's 
Hospital,  London,  in  Paris,  at  Heidelberg  and 
Berlin,  where  he  received  his  M.D.  degree  in 
1836.  He  commenced  practice  in  London,  and 
in  1840  was  appointed  phjisician  to  Millbank 
penitentiary,  where  he  allamed  a  reputation  as 


expert  in  the  hygiene  of  prisons,  on  dyse 
.  y  and  cholera.  He  was  appointed  lecturer 
Saint  Bartholomew's  Hospital;  became  a  fellow 


of  the  Royal  Society  in  1847;  in  1859  was  chosen 
as  one  of  the  physicians  to  the  royal  family, 
and  later  became  censor  to  the  Cxillege  of 
Phj^icians  and  Crown  representative  in  the 
Medical  O^uncil.  He  wrote  'Diseases  of 
Prisons';  'Gulstonian  Lectures  on  Dysentery' 
(1847);  translated  from  the  (^rman  Miiller's 
'Elements  of  Physiology'  and  'Recent  Ad- 
vances in  the  Physiology  of  Motion,  the  Senses, 
Generation  and  Development'  ;  and,  with  Gul^ 
wrote  'Epidemic  dolera'   (1854). 

BALZAC,  hal'zSk'  Honor6  de,  French 
novelist:  b.  Tours,  16  May  1799;  d  Paris,  17 
Aug.  1850.  His  family  was  of  no  account,  and 
the  aristocratic  *de*  (adopted  perhaps  in  good 
faith)  dates  from  1830  or  thereabouts.  The 
itself   seems  to  have   been  properlr 


.Google 


HOHOItfi  DE  BALZAC 


tizcdbyGooi^Ie 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


lai 


spelled  Balsa,  or  Balias,  the  first  to  alter  it 
being  the  novelist's  father,  whose  parents  were 
peasants  in  Laagatioc.  Little  is  known  of  the 
elder  Balzac's  career,  except  that  he  was  at  one 
time  a  lawyer  and  later  an  officer  in  the  com- 
missarnt;  he  married  past  middle  age,  and  at 
the  time  of  Honore's  birth  filled  certain  mu- 
nicipal offices  in  the  city  of  Tours.  He  is  rep- 
resented as  a  man  of  whimsical  character, 
caustic  but  indulgent,  with  a  wonderful  memory, 
and  full  of  schemes  for  making  millions  and 
TCKhinK  the  age  of  100.  His  wife,  whose  name 
was  Sallambier,  had  good  looks  and  a  fortune; 
she  is  said  to  have  been  pious  and  imaginative, 
and  devoted  to  her  children's  welfare,  but 
by  no  means  outwardly  tender  to  them.  At 
any  rate  Honori  and  his  favorite  sister  Laure 
(afterward  Uadame  Surville),  if  not  her  two 
younger  children  also,  were  brought  up  very 
ttricEly. 

He  was  sent  to  school  early  with  the  Ora- 
torians  of  Vendome  and  was  as  miserable  there 
as  his  Louis  Lambert.  All  he  learned  was  by 
desultory  reading,  and  that  in  books  too  deep 
for  his  age.  His  masters  thouf^t  him  dull  and 
lazy,  and  his  absent-mindedness  having  devd- 
o|ied  into  a  sort  of  daze,  he  was  withdrawn  by 
his  parents  and  became  a  day-scholar  for  a  time 
at  the  College  de  Tours.  Neither  there  nor  at 
a  boarding-school  in  Paris,  to  which  city  the 
family  removed  in  1814,  was  he  by  any  means  a 
brilliant  pupil;  and  at  home  not  only  his  talents 
but  the  ambition  to  write  which  nad  alrea^ 
seized'  upon  htm  remained  quite  unsuspected. 
In  1815  he  was  put  into  a  lawyer's  office  and  18 
months  later  be^m  to  work  with  a  notary,  both 
his  chiefs  being  intimate  friends  of  the  family; 
at  the  same  time  he  attended  various  lectures  at 
the  Sorbonne,  and  was  becoming  familiar  with 
the  great  writers  oE  his  country'.  His  mind  was 
made  up  to  devote  himself  to  literature,  when  in 
1819,  M.  de  Balzac,  who  had  recently  lost  money 
in  speculation  and  was  about  to  retire;  an- 
nounced to  Honor6  that  his  friend  the  notary 
offered  to  take  him  into  partnership  with  the 
prospect  of  succeeding  to  his  practice.  Honort 
resisted,  and  begged  for  a  chance  to  show  his 
literary  gift;  after  some  discussion  his  father 
gave  him  his  way  and,  while  the  family  made 
Its  own  home  at  ViUeparisis,  he  was  installed  in 
an  attic  near  the  Arsenal  Library  on  a  two 
years'  trial  of  his  powers,  with  an  allowance 
barely  sufficient  to  keep  him  from  starvii^. 
Here  in  cold  and  hunger  and  solitude,  but  sup- 
ported by  his  unconquerable  gaiety  and  self- 
confidenc^  he  set  to  work  first  on  two  tales 
which  were  soon  to  be  finished,  then  a  comedy, 
lastly  a  tragedy  in  verse,  'Cromwell,'  which  he 
firmly  believed  to  be  a  masterpiece.  He  brought 
it  home  with  him  in  the  spring  of  1820;  the 
family  yawned  when  he  read  it,  and  a  friend 
to  whose  judgment  this  first  composition  was 
submitted,  Andneux.  the  academician  and  pro- 
fessor, recommended  the  young  man  to  try  his 
band  at  anything  in  the  world  but  literature^ 
He  had  only  spent  15  months  of  his  orobation, 
but  his  mother  insisted  that  he  should  now  live 
at  home;  privations  had  already  told  upon  his 
vigor,  and  he  was  obliged  to  recruit  in  Tonraine 
b^ore  settling  down  at  ViUeparisis.  There, 
nothing  discouraged,  in  the  next  five  years  he 
wrote,  wiA  Afferent  collaborators,  no  less  than 
31  volontes  of  fiction,  and  found  publishers  for 


Aem.  Of  the  en&re  wovthlesSncss  of  this  early 
work  he  was  perfectly  aware;  it  appeared  un- 
der various  pseudonyms  ('Horace  de  Saint- 
AuUn*'  was  tile  favorite),  and  when  long  after- 
ward in  great  distress  for  money  he  allowed  it 
to  be  republished,  he  would  never  acknowledge 
the  paternity. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  he  became  acquainted 
with  the  Bemy  family,  then  resident  at  ViUe- 
parisis, and  formed  with  Madame  de  Bemy  —  a 
woman  more  than  20  years  older  than  himself  — 
a  close  friendship  which  lasted  until  her  death 
in  1836,  and  to  which  he  owed  perhaps  the  most 
generous  and  disinterested  sympathy  that  he 
ever  received  from  man  or  woman. 

In  1824,  determined  to  win  his  independence, 
voung  Balzac  returned  to  Paris  and  set  up 
business  as  a  publisher  on  borrowed  capital. 
He  had  a  great  scheme  —  the  first  of  many  — 
for  making  a  fortune  by  t>ringing  out  one- 
volume  editions  of  the  French  classics,  and 
be^n  with  Molidre  and  La  Fontaine ;  but 
chiefly  for  want  of  proper  advertising  the  ven- 
ture tailed.  He  next  became  a  printer,  having 
induced  his  father  to  advance  him  the  sum  nec- 
essary to  buy  the  stock  and  a  printer's  license, 
and  seeing  a  type-foundry  offered  at  a  bargain 
he  presently  acquired  that  also.  It  was  a  mo!t 
disastrous  speculation ;  bankruptcy  was  only 
averted  by  the  help  of  his  mother  and  of  Mme. 
de  Berny,  and  this  was  the  beginning  of  his 
life- long  indebtedness. 

Before  bis  business  was  wound  up  Bahac 
was  already  at  work,  in  a  room  in  the  Rue  de 
Toumon,  upon  the  first  novel  to  which  he  signed 
his  name.  <Les  Chojjans'  was  finished  duriiig 
a  visit  to  Four^res,  m  the  district  which  is  the 
scene  of  the  historical  events  it  describes,  and 
published  in  1829  with  some  success.  The 
rather  cynical  manual  called  <La  Physiologic  dn 
Mariage*  followed ;  then  a  number  of  shorter 
stories,  and,  in  1831,  'La  Peau  de  CHiagrin' — 
with  which  book  his  reputation  became  fairly 
established.  Publishers  and  editors  now  sought 
for  his  work,  and  the  curiosity  and  interest  ttis 
writings  already  excited  are  attested  by  the 
anonymous  correspondence  which  began  at  this 
time  to  pour  in  upon  him.  It  was  in  this  w^y 
that  in  1830,  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  two 
women,  the  Marchioness  de  (Castries  and  Mme. 
Hanska,  whose  names  cannot  be  omitted  from 
any  account  of  his  life.  For  Mme.  Castries 
Balzac  conceived  a  transient,  but  certainly 
strong  passion,  whidi  seems  to  have  only  grati- 
fied tne  vanity  of  a  rather  heartless  but  very 
intelligent  great  lady;  she  made  a  plaything  of 
him;  but  he  owed  to  her  his  most  genuine  in- 
sight into  the  manners,  traditions  and  ideals  of 
the  close  society  of  the  Faubourg  Saint-Ger- 
main. Her  portrait,  it  is  conjectured,  may  be 
found  in  <La  Duehesse  de  Langeais*  Mme. 
Hanska^  a  Polish  lady  of  noble  birth,  married  to 
a  Russian  in  the  Ukraine,  was  the  object  of 
his  deepest  and  most  enduring  affection,  and 
finally  became  his  wife.  His  letters  to  this 
•Elrangere*  have  in  recent  years  been  pub- 
lished; they  are  discreet,  frequent  and  volumi- 
nous, for  these  friends  or  lovers  were  seldom 
together,  even  after  the  death  of  M.  Hanska, 
until  the  last  two  years  of  Balzac's  life.  His 
biographers  hare  little  tenderness  for  Mme. 
Hanska;  hers  was  certainly  an  inexpansive 
natnre ;  her  love  for  her  only  chHdi,  die  Countess 


Google 


DM 


Anna  (afterward  Mme.  Mniazech),  EMms  to 
have  almost  excluded  other  aff ections ;  she  cared 
excessively  for  her  rank  and  her  comfort;  tor- 
tured the  great  man  by  iMig  deferring  to  fulfil 
her  secret  engagement  with  him,  and  in  his  last 


Hanaka's  proper^  in  the  Ukraine;  that  hia 
health  began  to  give  serious  aax-ivcy.  For  ft 
time  he  improved;  but  the  cUmatc,  the  nncer- 
taintjr  in  which  he  was  kept  as  to  the  reward 
of  his  k>ng  devotion,  certam  material  obstadef 
to  his  marriage,  the  necessity  of  conducting  hi* 


Balzac's  story,  from  1830  onward,  i>  mainly 
the  story  of  his  herculean  industry;  and  the 
most  memorable  dates  in  his  life  are  doubtless 
those  of  the  production  of  such  masterpieces  as 
'Louis  Lambert>  (1832),  'Le  M*decin  de  Cam- 


(1834),  'Cisa.1  Birotteau>  (1837),  'Illusions 
Perdues'  (1835-41),  'Les  Paysans'  (1844-45), 
<La  Cousine  Bette'  (1846),  'Xc  Cousin  Pons' 
(1847).  Between  1830  and  1842  he  wrote  no 
less  than  79  novels,  besides  much  other  literary 
work.  After  that  date  his  literary  activib' 
slackened  somewhat  as  his  health  bMjan  to  fail 
But  during  a  considerable  number  otyears,  for 
long  intervals  together,  be  never-Avorked  less 
than  12  hours  each  day,  often  worked  for  IS 
hours,  or  even  for  20  at  a  stretch,  supportiw 
himself  on  a  lean  diet  in  which  fruit  was  af 


t  of  harness,  even  during  his  fre- 
quent absences  from  Paris — whether  staying 
with  friends  in  the  French  provinces,  or  art 
collecting  in  the  north  of  Italy,  or  mme-pros- 
pecting  m  Sardinia  (one  of  his  most  extraordi- 
nary ventures),  or  visiting  Mme.  Hanska  at 
(icncva,  Vienna,  Berlin  or  Saint  Petersburg. 
These  travels,  a  short-lived  loumalistic  enter- 
prise—La Chroniqite  de  Paris  —  several  excur- 
sions into  drama,  more  than  one  attempt  to 
force  the  doors  of  the  French  Academy,  and 
many  quarrels  with  the  press  —  a  lawsuit  with 
the  Revue  dt  Paru  made  some  stir  in  1836  — 
are  the  chief  outward  events  of  Balzac's  nia>- 
turitjr.  Throu^out  his  career  the  money  ques- 
tion  is  distressingly^  prominent,  and  the  history 
of  Balzac's  liabilities  is  long  and  queer  and 
complicated.  "The  sums  be  made  by  his  pen 
were  very  considerable;  but  his  optimism  was 
at  least  as  great  as  his  acquisitive  faculty:  No 
man  was  more  capable  of  [wnurious  living; 
none  loved  luxury  DCtter;  but  decent  comfort 
and  regularity  were  beneath  or  beyond  bin. 
Spells  of  asceticism  were  succeeded  by  fits  of 
extravagance:  the  story  of  his  suburban  prop- 
erty Lei  Jardics,  of  hie  famous  walking- stid^ 
of  the  financier  Goujon's  house  in  the  Rue 
Fortunfie  (now  the  Rue  Balzac),  which  he 
bou^t  for  his  future  wife  and  spent  half  a  mil- 
lion in  filling  with  works  of  art^the  very 
works  described  in  'Le  Cousin  Pons' — ^bal- 
ances the  stoY  of  his  sacrifices,  privations  and 
his  games  of  hide-and-seek  with  creditors.  He 
was  a  born  speculator;  he  was  also  the  most 
generous  of  men,  and  sometimes  unfortunate 
m  the  objects  of  his  generosity. 

The  strain  entailed  1^  Baliac's  way  of  living 
and  by  his  constant  mental  agitation  was  such 
as  no  constitution- and  lus  was  extraordinarily 
robust  —  could  resist  very  long.  From  1842,  or 
thereabouts,  he  began  to  suffer  from  lime  to 
time  with  heart  and  lung  troubks,  and  from 
1845  onward  he  was  isrely  well.  It  was  during 
lus     second     stay    Vt    ^nerxKhovmiia,    lime. 


misunderstandings  with  members  of  his  < 
family,  and  the  efiort  to  force  himself  to  work 
when  work  was  be/ond  his  failing  i^sical 
powers,  all  hastened  his  end.  His  marriage  was 
solemnized  at  last  in  Uarch  I8S0,  at  Bemtcbe^ 
in  Poland  J  rather  more  than  tyfo  mondis  later 
Balzac  arnved  in  Paris  with  his  bride.  He  was 
a  dying  man,  thou^  he  clung  almost  to  the  last 
to  the  hope  of  hving  to  finish  *The  Human 
Comedy,'  and  extinguish  what  was  left  of  his 
debts.  Victor  Hugo  was  among  those  wbg  vis- 
ited his  deathbed,  and  the  same  great  poet  it 
was  who  paid  a  splendid  tribute  to  his  friend 
and  peer  at  the  graveside  in  Pere  Lachaisb 
Occurring  in  the  midst  of  a  grave  political 
crisis,  his  death  was  less  noticed  th«n.jni^t 
have  been  expected;  but  thou^  widely  read 
and  fervently  admired  amons  his  cDntemfio- 
raries  —  more  especially  perhaps  in  foreign 
countries  — it  wanted  at  least  another  genera- 
tion to  assure  his  fame;  nor  (dianks  to  a  com- 
bative spirit  and  an  iiuenuons  vanity)  did  b» 
lack  enemies;  thou^  Otc  mere  dedications  of 
bis  novels  are  enough  to  show  that  his  friends 
were  among  the  elect  of  his  age,  and  it  is  im- 
possible to  read  bis  correspondence  without  a 
feeling  of  respect,  and  even  of  affection,  for  a 
personality  so  rich,  so  valiant,  so  tenacious  and 

It  is  best,  in  so  slight  an  estimate  of  Balzac's 
colossal  achievement  as  can  be  attempted  her^ 
to  le&ve  out  of  account  not  only  the  wortitless 
fiction  of  his  nonage  btil  also  his  ptays,  of  ^^uch 
only  ont  'Mercadet,'  first  called  'Le  Faiseur,* 
and  produced  widi  considerable  changes  after 
its  author's  death,  can  be  said  to  have  won  or 
deserved  success.  An  exceptional  place  belongs 
to  the  'Merry  Tales,'  not  so  much  in  virtue  of 
their  notorious,  guileless  and  jovial  salaciw  as 
because,  while  the  form  is  more  essential  Acre 
than  in  anything  else  he  wrote^  they  are  among 
the  veiy  few  skilful  patUchts  in  literature  — 
for  the  lapses  they  contain  from  either  the 
langiuge  or  the  atmosphere  of  the  earl^  French 
Rermistance  are  astonisblngty  few — m  whidi 
the  mere  erudition  does  not  replace  or  over- 
shadow other  merits.  They  are  memorable  for 
their  genuine  zest,  inventive  vigor  and  shrewd 
hiunanity. 


Comedy,'  which  it  is  necessary  to  consider  a_ 
one  work  in  order  to  appreciate  die  audacity 
and  breadth  and  steadiness  of  aim  which  arc 
essential  titles  to  his  ntnk,  not  merely  as  the 
father  of  the  modem  novd  and  Ae  supreme 
master  of  the  craft,  but  as  a  genras  of  the  tmi- 
Tcrsal  order.  In  its  most  obvious  bearing,  it  is 
an  ima^native  reconstruction  of  French  society 
in  every  part  and  aspect,  with  all  the  vicissitudes 
and  variations  diat  afifectcd  it  between  Ute 
Revolution  and  the  middle  of  Lonia  Philippe's 


Waverley  novds,  but  more  conMsmtUr  and  co- 
..mzcd.vGoOglc 


tsn 


herently  executed  out  of  mare  copious  materiaL 
The  ptcturescju^  hawever,  was  subordinate  to 
the  pbilosophiou  intere&t,  as  be  conceived  it,  of 
Bauac's  undertaking.  He  intended  his  work  for 
nothing  less  than  a.  natural  history  of  civilized 
roan,  which  should  illustrate  the  war  between 
the  passions  of  the  individual  and  the  social 
instinct  or  die  conimoD  interest,  the  diSerentia- 
tkin  of  types  t^  the  action  of  gregarious  life, 
the  reflection  of  personality  in  matter  and  the 
stamp  of  habits  and  calluig  upon  character. 
The  theory  outlined  bj;  Buffon  and  bequeathed 
by  Geoffroy  Saint  Hilaire  to  the  first  evolution- 
ists, which  supposes  a  single  original  pattern 
of  organic  creation  varied  ty  the  mere  efforts 
of  environment,  fasotiated  Balzac  by  a  partly 
cbinterical  but,  at  any  rate,  suggestive  analogy 
with  human  existence.  'Does  not  society,'  Ee 
asked  in  his  general  preface  of  1842,  "make  of 
man,  according  to  the  sphere  in  which  his  ac- 
tivity develops,  35  many  different  men  as  there 
are  species  in  zoology?"  This  conce^on  is 
enou^  to  explain  one  great  characteristic  of 
his  novels  —  the  imporhuice  attributed  in  them 
to  atmosphere,  to  local  influences,  to  material 
conditions,  to  all  that  the  elder  novelists  bad 
regarded  as  accidental  and  accessory.  It  is 
Balzac  who  set  the  example  of  bestowing  as 
much  care  upon  thingt  as  upon  men  in  works 
of  fiction.  The  description  of  streets,  houses, 
furniture  and  works  of  art,  of  implements  and 
equipages,  of  dress  and  pastimes,  of  customs 
and  offices,  business  and  procedure  and,  in  par- 
ticular, of  aH  that  pertains  to  money,  is  through- 
out 'The  Human  Comedy,'  not  onty  exact  and 
elaborate  (sometimes  to  the  point  of  tedious- 
ness  and  disproportion),  but  above  all  signifi- 
canL  S^chard's  printing-press  and  Gaudissart's 
advertisements,  the  laboratory  of  Balthazar 
Clacs,  the  aroma  of  Maman  Vauquer's  dining- 
room,  are  part  and  parcel  of  those  famous  per- 
sonages. 

"riie  French  imagination  had  tended  for 
some  time  to  desert  that  psychology  w  abstracio 
which  had  been  at  once  the  glory  and  the  )imi< 
tation  of  the  great  classical  authors,  and  to  pay 
more  attention  to  the  setting  and  the  back- 
ground of  fictitious  characters.  Diderot  par- 
ticularly, who  on  several  grounds  might  be 
called  a  herald  of  Balzac  (and  resembled  him 
in  vitality,  variety  of  knowledge,  fertility,  hasty 
2nd  unequal  execution),  had  done  much  to  carry 
into  pure  literature  a  spirit  of  curiosifi?  about 
the  common  diings  of  life,  a  new  multiplicity 
of  interests  and  concern  for  reality,  and  some 
of  the  results  of  natural  science.  But  the  ro- 
mantic contemporaries  of  Balzac,  most  of  whom 
were  irresistibly  allured  by  the  prestige  of  the 
old  and  the  distant,  used  the  extension  of  ima^- 
native  matter  to  enhance  the  picturesque  value 
of  descriptions,  radier  than  to  enrich  the  defi- 
nition of  human  types ;  for  their  interest  in 
characters  Is  generally  insufficient,  being  de- 
pendent upon  an  introspection  distorted  as  often 
as  not  by  a  morbid  vanity.  Balzac  is  unique 
in  this,  that  with  a  searching  modernity  of  out- 
look which  omits  none  of  the  sensible  elements 
of  life  from  his  imaginary  world,  he  is  yet 
essentially  the  restorer  of  tile  old,  patient,  con- 
structive psycbolc^  and  of  the  drama  of  in- 
tern^ action.  It  IB  remarkable  how  tnuch  of 
the  spirit  of  the  grand  siieU  survives  in  his 
work;  how  much  of  La  Bruyire  in  the  brilliant 


pages  of  moral  amtlyaii,  of  Comeille  in  soom 
of  his  heroes  of  the  will,  of  Moliere  in  the 
smiling  sanity  oi  his  attitude  toward  a  neces- 
sarily unperfect  society,  of  Racine  in  the  sym- 
pathetic presentment  of  absolute  passiona  and 
their  victims!  Balzac's  personages  —  even  the 
second^  figures — are  at  once  individuals  and 
types.  They  live  with  the  intense  life  of  living 
men  and  women;  and  we  accept  them  as  great 
moral  symbols.  They  are  highly  differentiated, 
particularized  with  an  unsurpassable  sureness 
of  detail;  but  they  are  also,  one  and  all,  in- 
formed Inr  an  idea — so  that,  though  there  is 
only  one  Goriot,  he  sums  up  all  the  tragedy  of 
a  primal  affection  run  to  seed  and  despitefully 
entreated;  and  there  is  only  one  Baron  Hulot, 
but  he  contains  all  the  shame  of  elderly  profli- 
eacy,  bringing  disaster  on  whole  families;  and 
Cesar  Birotteau  is  inimitable,  but  he  stands  for 
all  that  is  sterling  as  well  as  all  that  is  ridicu- 
lous in  the  middle  class. 

In  the  vitality  of  his  creatures  Balzac  is  not 
inferior  to  Shakespeare  himself.  But  we  be- 
lieve not  only  in  the  people  lie  made,  but  in  the 
whole  world  of  'The  Human  Ctnnedy,'  and 
accept  it  as  a  rival  of  reality.  This  mastery  of 
illusion,  the  very  highest  virtue  in  a  writer  of 
fiction,  does  not  depend  upon  veracity  or  exacti- 
tude of  detail  ^a  test  which  upon  the  whole  he 
sustains  triumpoantly),  but  is  simply  the  power 
to  imagine  strongly.  It  is  true  that  in  this  case 
a  system  of  composition  which  discarded  chap- 
ters, or  rather  made  of  each  novel  (by  the  con- 
tinual reappearance  of  old  friends  among  the 
characters)  a  chapter  in  the  whole  work,  is  a 
powerful  help  to  illusion;  so  of  course  are  the 
accumulation  of  circumstances,  and  especially 
perhaps  the  variety  and  distribution  of  interests, 
in  which  Balzac's  astonishing  invention  seezns 
to  play  the  part  of  chance. 

The  work  of  Balzac  displays  at  one  view  the 
whole  capacity  of  the  form  of  literature  called 
fiction,  its  scope  and  possibility  of  content.  The 
ordinary  tone  of  the  French  novel  had  once 
been  heroic  and  pastoral ;  then  it  bad  tended  to 


one  class  by  showing  the  manners  of  another. 
The  picturesque  romance  had  been  succeeded 
by  'realistic*  satires  upon  society  and,  with  the 


trines.  Perhaps  all  these  phases  are  repre- 
sented in  'La  Comedie  Humaine';  the  novel 
according  to  Balzac  is  simply  a  universal  instru- 
ment like  Homer's  epic  or  Shakespeare's 
drama.  The  ineffaceable  mark  of  his  achieve- 
ment upon  his  successors  is  that,  since  Balzac, 
the  novel  in  France  b  not  a  toy  but  a  serious 
art.  Balzac  indeed  would  not  have  been  con- 
tent with  the  qualification;  half  the  preface 
already  referred  to  is  an  apology  for  the  novel 
considered  as  a  work  of  science  and  a  means  of 
propaganda,  and  to  him  — to  his  precept  rather 
than  to  his  practice  —  must  be  traced  the  arro- 

fant  pretensions  of  some  modem  writers  of 
ction,  their  sermons  and  sociology  and  what 
Flaubert  So  disdainfully  called  their  manie  Ae 
conclttre.  A  work  of  ima^nation  does  not  need 
the  protection  of  a  political  creed  or  a  scientific 
hypothesis;  it  is  Balzac's  weakest  side  that, 
while  he  sinks  what  we  call  his  personality 
almost  always,  he  frequently  obtrudes  fallibte 


Google 


las 


BALZAC  —  B  AHB  ARRA 


opinions — matter  for  argument  —  into  the  do- 
main of  the  imagination.  His  royalism  is  an 
interesting  fact,  but  in  his  novels  it  is  irrtle- 
vant ;  the  same  is  true  of  many  of  his  political 
prophecies.  It  should  be  added  that  he  seldom 
intervenes  directly  in  the  discussion  of  scien- 
tific theories  (which  hold  a  somewhat  important 
place  in  his  novels),  though  with  characteristic 
credulity  he  identifies  himself  expressly  with  the 
Speculations  of  the  phrenologists!  There  was  a 
mystic  in  Baltac,  and  that  section  of  his  worl^ 
'Philosophical  Studies,'  which  deals  with  the 
solitary  adventures  of  the  mind  in  regions 
beyond  the  world  oi  sense,  is  strangely  original 
and  fascinating. 

He  was,  b  some  degree  reluctantly,  an 
artist^ a  prodigious  though  an  imperfect  artist 
His  defects  of  form  have  been  exaggerated. 
His  style,  like  Saint- Simon's,  is  vigorous  and 
vivid  in  default  of  correctness,  and  full  of  for- 
tunate phrases;  but  he  was  wanting  in  the  sense 
of  idiom,  and  the  effort  to  condense  his  thought 
often  produced  a  climisy  syntax  and  obscurity. 
Haste  no  doubt  accounts  for  some  base  coin- 
age, repetition  and  inadequate  expressions.  As 
of  other  writers  of  his  stature  it  may  be  said 
of  faim  that  his  fecundity  was  necessarily  waste- 
ful, so  that  a  part  of  his  work  is  greater  than 
the  whole.  This  exuberance,  a  certain  worship 
of  the  excessive,  a  stupendous  confidence  for 
which  no  design  is  too  large,  and  a  preference 
for  the  expressive  over  the  symmetrical,  for 
color  over  draughtsmanship,  are  characteris- 
tics which  he  shares  with  several  great  French- 
men of  his  generation  —  the  generation  con- 
ceived in  camps  and  lulled  by  the  guns  of 
Austerlitz,  which  grew  up  haunted  by  a  vision 
of  heroical  accomplishment.  Honor*  de  Balzac 
Stands  beside  Victor  Hu^  and  Jules  Midielet 
and  Hector  Berlioz  and  Eugene  Delacroix  —  a 
giant  among  giants,  a  perennial  force  among 
the  intellectual  forces  of  the  world.  See  Pbhe 
Goriot;  EixiENiE  Gbandet;  C^as  Bibotteau; 
Magic  Skik,  The. 

Bibliography. — The  best  edition  of  the  com- 

?1ete  works  of  Honore  de  Balzac  is  the  'Edition 
Wfinitive'  (in  24  volumes,  Paris  18«»-76). 
Uniform  with  it  are  the  letters  to  Mme.  HanskL 
■Lettres  i  I'Elrang^re,'  posthumously  publishea 
in  1899.  There  exist  numerous  En^ish  trans- 
lations of  individual  novels.  Prof.  G.  Saints- 
tmry  in  the  general  edition  of  a  complete  Eng- 
lish translation  of  a  'Human  Comedy,'  ^ 
various  hands,  in  40  volumes  (London  1895- 
98).  The  letters  to  Mme.  Hanska  have  been 
translated  by  D.  F.  Hannigan — 'Love  Letters 
of  Balzac'  (London  1901).  Among  biograjdi- 
ical  and  critical  studies  of  Balzac  the  more 
valuable  are  the  following:  L.  Gozlau,  'Balzac 
Chez  lai>  0862)  ;  E.  Bire,  'Balzac'  (1897)  ;  Le 
Breton,  'Baliac,  I'homme  et  I'ceuvre'  (1905); 
F.  Bmnettire;  'H.  de  Balzac*;  Vicomte  Spoet- 
hoerch  de  Louvenjoul,  'Histoire  des  ceuvres  de 
Balzac'  (1880)  ;  'La  Genese  d'un  Roman  de 
Balzac'  — 'Les  Paysans'  (1901);  <Un  pays 
perdu  d'H.  de  Balzac'  (1903).  The  short  life 
of  her  brother  by  Mme.  Snrvtlle  (Laure  de 
Baltac).  first  published  in  1858.  is  included  in 
the  volume  of  the  'Edition  Definitive'  contain- 
ing Balzac's  general  correspondence.  In  Eng- 
lish Mr.  Frederick  Wadmore  has  written  a 
'Life  of  Balzac'  ;  and  a  better-informed  study 
by  Miss  M.  F.  Sandars  appeared  in  1904,    Con- 


sult also  Chapman,  J.  J.,  'Great  Genius^  —  in- 
cluding Euripides,  Shakespeare,  Balzac  (New 
York  191S);-Faguet,  E..  'Balzac'  (Paris  1913^ 
and  trans,  with  notes  Boston  1914)  ;  GUlett^ 
F.  B.,  'Title  Index  to  the  Works  of  Honore 
de  Balzac'  (Boston  1909)  ;  James,  H.,  'Notes 
on  Novelists'  (New  York  1914);  Lilly,  W.  S., 
'Balzac  Re-Read'  {NiiuUetith  Century  aid 
After,  New  York  1916). 

F.  Y.  Eccues. 

BALZAC.  Jean  Louis  Gnez  de,  French 
essayist  and  letter  writer:  b.  Angouleme  1597; 
d.  18  Feb.  1654,  In  his  youth  he  was  secretary 
to  Cardinal  La  Valetfe  at  Rome.  He  returned 
to  Paris,  devoted  himself  to  literature,  and  un- 
der Richelieu  became  councillor  and  histori- 
ographer of  France,  and  was  one  of  the  most 
influential  members  of  the  Academy  from  its 
foundation,  likewise  a  sort  of  oracle  of  the 
Hotel  Rambouillet  His  influence  on  French 
prose  is  ranked  with  that  of  Malherbe  on 
poetry.  Besides  his  'Letters'  (1624),  which 
are  elaborate  epistles  with  a  definite  attempt  at 
style,  he  wrote  'The  Prince'  (1631),  a  glorifi- 
cation of  absolute  monarchy;  'The  Etotard' 
(1648);  'The  Christian  Socrates'  (1652);  and 
'Aristippus'  (1658)  ;  the  latter  imended  to  por- 
tray the  idea!  statesman.  His  'Letters'  were 
edited  t)y  Larroque   (1874). 

BALZANI,  bal-tsa'-fj?,  U«o,  Coost,  Italian 
historian :  b.  Rome,  6  Nov.  1847,  He  recdved 
his  education  at  the  university  of  his  native 
city.  He  soon  became  distinguished  as  a  bril- 
liant scholar  in  his  chosen  field  of  histoiy  and 
received  many  honors  at  home  and  abroa<l  He 
is  president  of  the  Realc  Societa  romana  di 
storia  patria,  member  of  the  Reale  Accadcmia 
dei  lincei  and  of  the  Instituto  Storico  Italiano. 
He  received  the  honorary  degree  of  Litt.D. 
from  the  University  of  Oxford  and  was  elected 
a  corresponding  fellow  of  the  British  Academy. 
His  publications  include  'Le  cronache  Italiane 
nel  Medio  Evo,'  'II  Regesto  di  Farfa  di 
Gregoriodi  Catino'  (1879);  'The  Popes  and 
the  Hohenstaufen ;  'II  'Chronicon  Farfense*'; 
'Sisto  V ;  'Early  Chroniclers  of  Italy' 
(1883) ;  besides  many  contributions  to  the 
transactions  of  the  various  institutions,  Italian 
and  foreign,  of  which  he  is  a  member. 

BALZICO,  bal-tse'ko,  Alfonso,  the  most 
prominent  Italian  sculptor  of  his  time:  h.  at 
Cava  di  Tirreni,  near  Salerno,  1825;  d.  1901. 
He  received  his  early  art  education  at  the 
Academy  of  Naples,  finishing  lus  studies  in 
Rome.  For  his  royal  patron,  Vii^or  Emmsnuel 
I,  whose  cai)ital  was  then  at  Turin,  he  produced 
tus  masterpiece  in  1867,  the  equestrian  statue 
in  bronze  of  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Genoa.  His 
subsequent  life  was  spent  in  Rome,  which  had 
become  the  national  capital.  His  nude  'Geo- 
patra'  received  the  gold  medal  at  Paris  in  190O, 
and  among  his  other  works  are  'John  the  Bap- 
tist,' 'The  Free,*  the  marble  monument  of 
'Bellini,*  the  musical  composer,  and  'Victor 
Emmanuel'  in  bronze,  the  two  latter  in  Naples. 

BAMBARRA,  Mm-bir'r^,  west  Africa, 
a  negro  kingdom,  lying  at  the  point  where  5 
W.  long,  and  12"  N.  lat,  cross.  It  was  first  vis- 
ited by  Mungo  Park,  In  the  east  the  country  is 
flat  and  swampy;  but  in  the  west  there  are  low 
chains  of  granite  hills.  The  climate  in  some 
parts  is  intensely  hot,  hut  generally  heahhfvL 


,CiOog[e 


BAMBSRO  —  BAMBOO 


180 


The  land  is  well  watered  and  fertile.  The  rainy 
season  is  from  June  lo  November.  Cotton, 
maize,  yams,  com,  rice  and  many  kinds  of  fruit 
are  raised.  The  principal  towns  are  Sego, 
Sansandin,  Yamina  and  Baminako.  Uany  local 
merchants  are  very  wealthy,  and  a  quite  exteu' 
sive  trade  is  earned  on.  the  natives  working 
articles  in  gold,  ivory  and  iron.  In  1881  a  treaty 
with  the  Sultan  of  Seeo  opened  up  the  country 
to  French  traders.  The  region  is  A  part  of  the 
French  West  African  colony  of  upper  Sen- 
egal and  Niger.  The  inhabitants  are  heathens 
of  mixed  negro  and  Falah  blood  and  belong  to 
the  Mandingo  family.  They  number  about 
2,000,000,  are  a  mild  and  industrious  people, 
but,  despite  the  fertile  soil  and  their  thnfty 
habits,  they  have  been  reduced  to  the  direst 

?>verty  by  thur  Mohammedan  oppressors,  the 
oucouleurs. 

BAMBERG,  biml^rg,  Bavaria,  town  in 
upper  Franc9nia,  on  the  navigable  Regniti 
(which  here  divides  into  two),  three  miles 
above  its  junction  with  the  Main,  partly  on  a 
plain,  partly  on  hills,  amid  vineyards  and  gar- 
dens,  and  30  mites  north  of  NuremberK.  Its 
chief  ediiice  is  the  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral, 
built  in  the  12th  century,  and  fornung  one  of 
the  finest  examples  of  the  transition  trom  the 
Romanesque  to  the  Gothic  s^Ie,  with  four 
towers,  a  noteworthy  portal  ana  interesting 
sculptures  and  monuments.  Other  buildings 
include  the  old  palace  or  residence;  another 
palace,  formerly  occuiwed  by  King  Otto  of 
Greece ;  the  former  castle  of  the  pnnce-bishops 
of  Bamberg,  etc  The  educational  institutions 
.include  a  college  or  lyceura,  an  old  and  a  new 
Wmnasium,  a  Roman  Catholic  seminar>[,  an 
{observatory,  rtc.  There  is  a  library  containing 
300.000  volumes,  with  valuable  manuscripts  and 
early  printed  books.  There  are  manufactures 
of  cotton  and  woolens,  besides  other  industries, 
such  as  market-gardening  and  seed-growing, 
brewing,  etc  The  industnes  ccmsist  chiefly  of 
the  manufacture  of  beer,  cotton,  woolens, 
gloves,  furniture,  musical  instruments,  shoes 
and  leather  goods,  tobacco,  sugar,  starch,  etc. 
The  city's  government  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
municipal  council  of.  42  members  and  an  execu- 
tive board  of  19,  elected  by  the  former.  The 
United  States  is  represented  by  a  resident 
consul.     Pop.  (1910)  48,063- 

BAHBERGBK,  bam'bfrg-ir,  Heinrich 
von,  Austrian  pathologist :  b.  Prague,  1822 :  d. 
1888.  He  was  graduated  in  medicine  in  1847, 
and  became  professor  of  special  pathology  and 
therapeutics,  first  in  the  University  of  Wijrz- 
burg,  and  in  1872  in  the  University  of  Vienna. 
Of  his  numerous  publications,  two  have  been 
held  in  particularly  high  esteem,  'On  the  Dis- 
eases of  the  Chylopoietic  System*  (1855),  and 
'Treatise  on  Diseases  of  the  Heart'  (1857). 

BAMBERGER,  Ludwig,  German  statea- 
man :  b.  Mainz  1823 ;  d.  1899.    Bom  of  Jewish 

e rents,  he  was  educated  at  Giessen,  Heidel- 
rg  and  (^ottingen;  took  part  in  the  revolu- 
tion of  1849,  cond^nned  to  death,  went  into 
exile  and  returned  on  the  amnesty  of  1866, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  German  Reichstag 
1873-80.  He  was  an  advocate  of  free  trade, 
and  on  account  of  his  opposition  to  Bismarck's 
economic  policy,  he  left  the  National  Liberal 
party  and  joined  the  "Secessionists,"  a  group 
which  later  became  a  part  of  the  German  Lib- 


eral ^rty.  His  publications  include  'Monsieur 
de  Bismarck'  (of  which  there  is  an  English 
translation);  'The  Five  Milliards';  'Germany 
and  Sk>cialism',  and  a  volume  of  reminiscences. 

BAMBINO,  bam-b*'no  (Ital.,  «child»),  the 
figure  of  our  Saviour  represented  as  an  infant 
in  swaddling  clothes.  The  'Santissimo  Bam- 
bino' in  the  Church  of  Ara  Cceii  at  Rome,  a 
richly  decorated  figure  carved  in  wood,  is 
specially  venerated  and  is  often  the  object  of 
impressive  religious  demonstrations. 

BAMBGCCIADES,  bim-bficb-I-ad/,  paint- 
ings generally  grotesque,  of  common,  rustic  or 
low  hfe.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  nick- 
name of  Peter  Van  Laer,  a  Dutch  painter  of 
the  17th  century,  who,  on  account  of  his  de- 
formity, was  called  bamboccio  (cripple). 
Teniers  is  the  great  master  of  this  style. 

BAMBOO,  the  common  name  of  more 
than  200  species  of  about  20  genera  of  peren- 
nial, mostly  tree-like,  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
grasses  unevenly  distributed  throughout  the 
world,  but  more  abundant  in  southern  Asia, 
where  160  or  more  species  are  found  from  sea- 
level  to  altitudes  of  10,000  feet  or  slightly  more 
in  the  Himalayas;  and  next  most  plentiful  in 
America,  where  there  are  about  70  species, 
some  of  which  reach  elevations  of  15,000  feet 
in  the  Andes.  Occasional  specimens  of  the 
larger  spacies  attain  a  height  of  120  feet  and  a 
girlh  ot  three  feet  From  the  jointed  root- 
stock  the  numerous  jointed,  usually  strat^ 
and  erect,  bnt  sometimes  crooked  or  creeping 
stems  prow  without  branches  until  the  full 
hnght  IS  reached,  when  a  more  or  less  dense 
thicket  of  horizontal  limbs  is  developed,  and 
the  great  panicles  of  flowers  appear. 
,  The  number  of  uses  to  which  these  plants 
are  put  rivals  that  of  the  palms.  In  fact  the 
various  species  can  be  utilized  for  man's  every 
purpose  The  light,  elastic  hard  stems,  hollow 
or  slightly  pithy,  except  at  the  points,  which 
have  strong  partitions,  are  used  for  bridges, 
masts,  poles,  joists,  fishing-rods,  etc. ;  when  the 
partitions  are  removed,  tor  waterpipes;  when 
sawed  in  sections,  for  pails  (the  natural  parti- 
tions serving  as  bottoms),  cooldng-utensils, 
life-preservers,  bows,  arrows,  quivers,  walking- 
canes,  flutes  and  smoldng-pipes ;  when  split,  for 
nets,  hats,  fishing-rods,  wiocer-work  and  um- 
brellas. Parts  of  the  leaves  of  some  species  are  . 
used  for  paper-making,  thatch  and  hats;  the 
young  shoots  of  some  are  used  as  food,  either 
boiled  or  pickled;  the  seeds,  for  food  and  for 
making  a  kind  of  beer;  some  of  the  spiny  spe- 
cies are  planted  as  hedges  for  defense  against 
foes,  animal  and  human. 

Some  species  yield  'Indian  honey*  (so  called 
by  the  Greeks),  the  air-dricd  saccharine  exuda- 
tions from  the  nodes.  Sometimes  this  sub- 
stance is  called  tabaris  or  tabosheer  (q.v.), 
wtuch  is  properly  a  phosphorescent  substance 
obtained  from  other  species  and  from  related 
Ijrasses.  Many  of  the  species  are  of  exceed- 
mgly  rapid  growth;  even  in  greenhouses  speci- 
mens have  been  known  to  attain  a  height  of  20 
months  or  even  less  time.    In  arid 


grow  in  such  places.  Many  si)ecies  are  culti- 
vated for  ornament,  not  only  in  warm  coun- 
tries, but  in  greenhouses.  Some  species  thrive 
in     climates     where     the     thermometer     does 


Google 


180 


BAMBOO  RAT— BAMAK 


not  fall  much  below  the  freezing-point  In 
genera]  the  hardy  species  do  best  in  deep,  rich 
soil  and  warm  situations  protected  from  severe 
winter  winds.  The  roots  should  be  given  a 
protective  mulch  of  litter  in  autumn,  and  this 
should  be  allowed  to  remain  during  the  sum- 
mer as  a  moisture  conserver.  For  an  account 
of  ornamental  bamboo  culture  in  greenhouses 
and  out  of  doors,  and  of  the  ornamental 
species  Krown  in  America,  consult  Bailey, 
'Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture.' 

BAMBOO  RAT,  a  name  given  to  several 
Bpedes  of  mole-rats,  of  the  genus  RkiMomys, 
found  in  the  bamboo  jungles  of  India. 

BAHBOROUGH  (bim'bur-&)  CASTLE, 
an  ancient  English  castle  on  the  coast  of  North- 
umberland, formerly  with  its  connected  estate 
the  property  of  the  Forsters,  and  forfeited  to 
the  Crown  in  1715,  both  being  purchased  by 
Lord  Crewe,  bishop  of  Durham,  and  be- 
queathed by  nim   for  charitable  purposes. 

BAMBOUK,  bvm-book',  or  BAMBUK, 
west  Africa,  region  in  the  French  colony  of 
Senegal,  between  the  Falemi  and  Senegal 
rivers,  between  lal.  12'  30*  and  14"  30*  N. ;  long. 
10"  30*  to  12"  15'  W.,  and  estimated  to  be  about 
140  miles  in  length  by  80  to  100  in  breadth. 
Besides  the  Senegal,  its  tributaries,  the  Palimi 
and  the  Bafing  (or  upper  Senegal)/  form  its 
natural  boundaries.  A  considerable  part  is 
somewhat  rugged,  though  not  very  elevated, 
the  highest  pomts  seldom  exceeding  60O  feet 
The  valleys  and  plains  are  Temarkably  fertile. 
The  baobab,  calabash,  tamarind,  with  a  variety 
of  acacias  and  palms,  reach  the  utmost  limit  of 
their  f ruitfulness ;  maize,  millet,  cotton  and  a 
multitude  of  leguminous  plants  grow  almost 
without  culture,  and  rice  is  produced  in  the 
lowlands^  which  are  subject  to  inundation.  Its 
nnhealthm ess,  however,  makes  it  almost  unin- 
habitable by  Europeans.  The  animals  comprise 
lions  and  elephants,  wild  cattle,  crocodiles,  etc. 
Gold  is  found  in  abundance.  It  is  carelessly 
worked,  and  is  given  to  traders  in  exchange 
for  salt,  an  article  in  great  demand,  and  various 
other  goods.  Bambouk  is  more  sparsely  in- 
habited than  formerly.  The  natives  are  Man- 
dingoes   and   form   a   considerable   number   of 


mfed< 


hostile  to  each  other.  They  ostensibly  profe_. 
Islam,  but  practically  they  are  pagans  and  of  a 
very  ferocious  disposition,  llie  country  has 
latterly  been  fully  explored  by  the  French,  who 
are  developing  its  resources  and  have  con- 
structed a  railway  along  the  Senegal  from 
Kayes  to  Bafulabi.  In  the  15th  century  the 
Portuguese,  allured  by  the  fame  of  its  gold, 
invaded  Bambouk,  but  ultimately  perished  al- 
most to  a  man,  partly  through  intestine  dis- 
sensions and  debauchery,  and  partly  by  the 
weapons  of  the  natives.  It  has  been  under 
French    protection     since     1858.       Pop.     about 

8oo,ooa 

BAHIAH,  ba-m«-an',  a  valley  and  pass  of 
Afghanistan,  the  latter  at  an  elevation  of  S,496 
feet,  the  only  known  pass  over  the  Hindu  Kush 
for  artillery  and  heavy  transport  The  valley 
is  one  of  the  chief  centres  of  Buddhist  wor- 
ship and  contains  two  remarkable  colossal 
statues  and  other  ancient  monuments. 

BAHHAKO,  ba-malco.    See  Bahbarra. 


BAHPTON  LECTURES,  a  course  of  lec- 
tures established  by  John  Bampton,  canon  of 
Salisbury,  who  bequeathed  certain  property  to 
the  University  of  Oxford  for  the  endowment 
of  ci^t  annual  divinity  lectures  to  be  annually 
delivered.  The  subjects  prescribed  are  the  Con- 
firmation of  the  Christian  faith  and  the  confuta- 
tion of  all  heretics  and  schismatics;  the  divine 
authority  of  the  Scriptures ;  the  authority  of 
the  primitive  Fathers  in  matters  of  Christian 
faith  and  practice;  the  dtvinily  of  Christ;  the 
divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  the  Apostles'  and 
Nicene  creeds.  The  lecturer  must  have  taken 
the  degree  of  M.A.  at  Oxford  or  Cambridge, 
and  the  same  person  may  not  lecture  twicer 
The  first  course  of  lectures  was  delivered  in 
1780,  and  they  have  been  delivered  every  year 
since,  with  the  exception  of  1834,  1835  and  I84I. 
A  list  of  the  lectures  will  be  found  in  the 
yearly  'Historical  Register  of  the  University 
of  Oxford- 


education  in  his  native  place,  including  a 
thorough  knowled^  of  French  and  Italian. 
He  traveled  extensively  in  the  Balkans,  and  in 
1844  became  tutor  to  the  dau^ters  of  Prince 
Alexander  Karageorgevitch  at  Belgrade.  He 
was  editor  and  publisher  of  the  literary-scien- 
tific periodical  Duhrovtiik  in  the  city  of  the 
same  name  in  1849-53.  In  1854  he  became  in- 
structor in  French  and  Italian  in  the  Belgrade 
Lyceum,  but  the  adverse  criticism  on  his  ode 
addressed  to  the  Sutlan  obliged  him  to  resign 
this  post  and  he  thereafter  devoted  himself  to 
literary  pursuits  and  travel.  His  works  include 
the  Italian  lyrics,  'II  terremoto  di  Ra^sa* ; 
'II  Moscovito* ;  'Radimiro';  'The  Woman's 
Educator'  (3  vols.,  Belgrade  1847),  written  for 
the  young  princesses  to  whom  he  was  tutor;  a 
drama,  'Mejrima' ;  'Various  Songs'  (1853), 
and  the  tragedies  'Dobvilo  et  Milenka* ;  'Tsar 
Lazar* ;  'The  Death  of  Prince  Dobroslav* ;  Jan 
Hus'  (1884);  'Martha  the  Statholder;  or.  The 
Fall  of  Novgorod  the  Great'   (1881). 

BAN,  the  title  of  the  governors  of  certain 
military  districts  in  the  eastern  part  of  Hun- 
gary, corresponding  to  the  German  title  of  mar- 
grave. The  ban  is  nominated  by  the  king,  ren- 
ders an  oath  to  the  Die^  and  formerly  had  very 
extensive  powers,  exercising  an  almost  absolute 
authority  in  the  political,  judicial  and  militaiy 
affairs  of  his  district  The  progress  of  Turldsh 
conquests  after  the  unfortunate  battle  of 
Mohacs  in  the  16th  century  extinguished  the 
most  of  the  banats,  and  there  remains  now  only 
the  banal  of  "Temesvar,  the  ban  of  which  is  the 
third  great  dignitaty  of  the  Hungarian  king- 
dom and  has  tne  title  of  ban  of  Croatia. 

In  Teutonic  history  the  ban  was  an  edict  of 
interdiction    or    proscription :    thus,    to    put    a 

Erincc  under  a  ban  of  the  emjiire  was  to  divest 
im  of  his  dignities  and  to  intertUct  all  inter* 
course  and  all  offices  of  humanity  with  the 
offender.  Sometimes  whole  dties  have  been 
put  under  the  ban;  that  is,  deprived  of  their 
rights  and  privileges. 

BANA,  ba'n*.  in  Hindu  iiiytholog)%  a  thou- 
sand-armed demon  or  giant  who  was  the  enemy 
of  Vishnu,  but  the  friend  of  Siva. 

BANAK,  or  BANNOCK,  an  Indian  tribe 
of  Idaho.    Its  territory  formerly  extended  over 


vGoogIc 


southern  Idaho  and  eastern  Oregon;  bnt  the      few  months  the  younR  banana  plants  will  be 
tribe  is  now  concentrated  on  the  Fort  Hall  and      several  feet  high  and  b^  that  time  the  smaller 
"t^ — -  "'  •'■-  '-*•"      twigs    and   branches    will    have    broken    down 


I^onhi  reservations,  Idaho.    Those  of  the  1: 

reservatian  are  confederated  with  the  Sboshoni. 
BANANA,  ba-na'n4,  an  island  in  west 
Africa,  north  of  the  month  of  the  Kongo ;  also 
a  seaport  of  the  Kongo  Free  State,  situated  on 
the  island.  A  few  ^ears  a^  the  town  was  an 
important  commercial  station,  but  after  the 
building  of  the  railroad  from  Matada,  and  the 
establisnment  of  an  ocean  steamship  line  direct 


almost  completely.  Clearing  the  underbni^ 
and  ^owth  of  grass,  weeds,  etc.,  is  then  done 
and  in  a  few  months  more  the  banana  plants 
will  have  reached  almost  their  full  height  and 
size  and  occasional  cleanioKwill  keep  down  the 
excess  of  wild  growths.  The  banana  plant  is 
characterized  by  an  underground  root  sialic  on 
which  occur  buds  or  eyes,  which  grow  c 


to  that  place,  Banana  began  to  decline,  and  at      «P,  thus  forming  a  new  aerial  portion  or  sucker, 
last  iost  all  its  trading  importance  when  the     Once  the  plantation  i-  ——J    *'• — ' 


extensive  Dutch  firms  formerly  established 
there  removed  their  headquarters  to  Katnnda 
and.Kisanga,  in  Portuguese  territory. 

BANANA.  A  well-known,  edible  fniit 
produced  by  twrbaceous  plants  of  the  same 
name,  belonging  to  the  genus  Jfiua  and  sub- 
1  £tiwwja.  More  than  60  species  have 
describe i  but  four  species  are  of  special 
importance,  ifusa  sapientum,  which  includes 
the  majority  of  the  bananas  grown  in  the  west- 
em  hemisphere;  Miua  cavendishii,  which  is  the 
species  grown  in  the  Canary  Islands  and  in 
southern  China,  and  Musa  acuminala,  the  ban- 
ana of  the  East  Indies  and  Malay  Archipelago. 
Here  also  should  be  mentioned  Musa  paradis- 
iaca,  the  plant  commonly  known  as  the  plan- 
tain and  differing  from  the  banana  in  taste  and 
in  composition, 

/The  banana  is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of  the 
East  Indies  or  Malay  Archipelago,  but  was 
early  introduced  either  by  accident  or  design 
into  the  tropical  remans  surrounding  the  Car- 
ibboan  Sea,^nd  the  fruit  is  now  grown  in  large 
quantities  in  Central  America,  some  portions  of 
South  America  and  the  West  Indies^  and  these 
regions  constitute  the  main  producing  centres 
for  the  American  trade  and  for  a  portion  of 
the  European  trade.  The  banana  is  !U»o  an  im- 
portant crop  in  the  Canary  Islands,  from  which 
large  numbers  are  shipped  to  the  British  Isles. 
It  grows  abundantiy_  through  the  Pacific 
islands,  the  Malay  region  and  the  East  Indies, 
and  together  with  the  plantain  constitutes  one 
of  the  main  starchy  foods  of  enormous  popula- 
tions in  all  these  countries.  The  bananas  <^i 
American  commerce  are  largely  of  the  'GroaL 
Michel*  type,  as  it  is  called,  a  variety  of  Musa 
sapientum,  which  produces  a  firm  and  finely 
flavored  fruit  wiui  good  shipping  qualities. 
Red  bananas  are  also  grown  m  considerable 
quantities.  Bananas  form  one  of  the  principal 
articles  of  export  from  Costa  Rica,  Guatemala, 
Honduras,  northern  Panama,  northern  Colom- 
bia and  from  the  island  of  Jamaica.     Nicara- 


. .  _-  supply   of   plants   so   that   the   weaker 

and  less  desirable  ones  are  pruned  out.  In 
the  course  of  time  there  results  therefore,  a 
large  mat  of  plants  surrounding  tne  spot  where 
the  single  bit  was  planted.  Tne  banana  plant 
does  not  possess  a  true  stem  above  the  ^ound, 
but  the  psendo-stem  consists  of  the  basal  por- 
tions of^  the  leaf  stalks,  which  overlap  one 
another  and  are  tightly  pressed  together,  so 
that  a. trunk  of  from  8  to  15  inches  in  diam- 
eter when  matured  is  produced.  When  the 
plant  is  fully  matured,  a  bud  forms  in  the  root 
stalk,  grows  up  through  the  centre  of  this  mass 
of  leaf  stalks  and  anally  emeiges  from  the 
centre  of  the  crown,  this  emergence  \ytmg 
known  as  the  'shooting.*  The  bud  gradual^ 
imfolds  and  a  lar^  number  of  clusters  of 
flowers  open  up.  Each  of  these  clusters  ia 
protected  in  the  bud  by  a  thick  overlapping 
bract.  Only  the  upper  clusters  of  flowers  are 
fertilized  and  produce  fruit,  the  lower  ones 
withering  and  falling  away.  The  number  of 
clusters  developing  fruit  is  variable,  ^neially 
rtmning  from  6  to  15.  Each  cluster  is  known 
as  a  hand  and  the  individual  fruits  as  fingers. 
When  the  fruit  is  approaching  full  devekip- 
ment  cutting  takes  place,  as  the  fruit  is  never 
allowed  to  ripen  on  the  plant  The  bunch  of 
fruit  is  removed  and  the  plant  which  produced 
it  is  cut  down  to  the  ground,  as  each  plant 
produces  bnt  a  single  Dunch.  By  a  proper 
selection  and  pruning  of  suckers  (he  cultiva- 
tions are,  therefore,  kept  in  almost  continual 
yi'produclion  over  a  series  of  years. 
'  The  Froit—  The  fruit  has  a  very  agreeable 

flavor  and  taste  and  contains  a  large  amount 
of  starch  and  sugar,  and  is.  therefore,  of  ^reat 
value  from  the  food  standpoint  Analysis  of 
tbe  banana  shows  on  the  averse  7SJ  per  cent 
of  water,  1.3  per  cent  protein,  0.6  per  cent  fat, 
22  per  cent  carbohydrate  and  0.8  per  cent  ash. 
Analysis  of  the  ash  shows  a  high  percentage 
of  alkaline  salts,  so  that  from  the  food  stand- 
pcunt  it  is  an  extremely  valuable  food,  espe- 
cially for  the  production  of  quick  energy.  Ib 
calories  the  banana  yields  about  460  per  pouniL 
or  approximately  the  same  as  green  com  ana 
tu^r  than  any  other  fresh  fruit.     Compared 

_.  „.     .  _  ._.       .__,  _. with  potatoes,  the  analysis  is  nearly  the  same, 

tiiemethods  of  cultivation  depending  upon  the  being  somewhat  hidier  in  fat  and  lower  in 
soil  and  climatic  conditions.  In  Central  Amet-  protein,  also  slightly  higher  in  carbohydrate, 
ica  a  new  plantation  is  usually  developed  from  In  calories  the  potato  yields  385  per  pound 
virgin  forest  in  the  river  valley  or  coastal  plain  and  the  banana  460.  Aside  from  use  of  the 
areas  by  first  clearing  out  the  undergrowth,  fruit  in  the  raw  condition,  it  may  be  used  to 
lining  and  planting  the  bits  or  portions  of  root  advantage  as  a  cooked  vegetable, 
stalk  used    as   seed,    then    felling  the    forest.  Other  Ubm  of  the  Plant. —  The  tree  of  the 

which  in  these  climates,  with  abundant  rainfall,  fruit-producing  banana  of  commerce  contains 
quickly  undergoes  decomposition,  adding  to  the  a  certain  amount  of  fibre  which  might  possibly 
humus  content  of  the  soiL    In  the  course  of  a     be   utilized  in   the   production   of   paper  and 


C,  Mexico  and  Cuba  also  export  bananas 
je  quantities.     The  total  number  exportea 
from  these  regions  amounts  to  from  40,000,000 


large 

i  50.000,000  bunches  annually. 
CnhiratlODr— Bananas  are  cultivated '  on  i 
large  scale  in  all  these  countries,  differences  in 


A, 


13S 


BANANA-BIRDS — BANCROFT 


twine,  although  up  to  ihe  present  time  this 
has  never  bten  developed  commerciaily.  The 
Musa  texlilU  of  the  Philippines,  a  closely  re- 
lated species,  constitutes  tnc  main  source  of 
the  hemp  used  for  cordage  and  in  certain  in- 
stances ihe  thin  leaf  blades  are  used  for  wrap- 
ping purposes. 

BANANA-BIRDS,  any  of  several  small 
West  Indian  insect  and  honey-eating  birds  that 
frequent  the  banana  groves,  especially  the 
banana-quit  {Certhiola  fiavcola)  of  Jamaica, 
whose  pretty  ways  are  described  at  length  by 
Gosse  in  his  books  on  the  natural  history  of 
that  island.  One  species  (C.  bahatnensis)  occa- 
nonally  visits  Florida.  All  these  birds  are 
brilliantly  plumaged,  usually  rich  blue  with 
yellow  markings,  and  represent  the  sun-birds 
(q.T.)  of  the  Eastern  tropics. 

BANANA-FISH.    See  LADy-riSH. 

BANANAL,  ba  n^-nal',  also  called  Santa 
Anna,  an  island  in  Brazil,  formed  by  the  river 
Araguaya,  in  the  province  of  Goyaz.  Its  length 
b  WO  miles,  breadth  35  miles.  It  is  covered 
with  dense  forests,  aod  has  in  its  middle  an 
extensive  lake.  Soil,  fertile.  Also  tbe  name  of 
several  small  villages  in  Brazil. 

BANAS,  bq-nas',  a  common  name  for  riven 
in  India.  The  most  important  are:  (1)  a 
river  of  Sbutia  Nagpur,  Bengal,  having  a 
northwest  course  of  about  70  miles  and  tail- 
ing into  the  Sone,  near  Rampur;  (2)  a  river 
which  rises  in  the  Aravulli  Mountains,  and, 
after  a  southwest  course  of  180  miles,  is  lost 
in  the  Runn  of  Cutch;  (3)  a  river  of  Rajpu- 
tana,  also  rising  in  the  Aravulli  Mountains, 
flowing  northeast  throuR^  Mewar  for  120  miles, 
dien  southeast  and  falling  into  the  Chambal, 
after  a  total  course  of  300  miles. 

BANAT,  Hungary;  Banat,  term  applied  to 
any  district  ruled  by  a  ban  (q.v.).  A  large 
and  fertile  region,  consisting  of  the  counties 
of  Temesvar,  Torontal  and  Krassd-Swiriny ; 
principal  town,  Temesvar.  The  Banat  is  one 
of  the  most  fertile  and  best  cultivated  districts 
of  Hungary.  Owing  to  its  mild  climate  and 
rich  soiH  abundant  crops  of  grain  and  fruits 
are  raised,  while  the  mountains  contain  rich 
mineral  deposits,  especially  coal.  Among  its 
numerous  mineral  springs,  the  best  known  are 
those  of  Mriiidia,  in  Krass6-Sz6reny  County. 
The  district,  which  from  1652  to  1716  was 
under  Turkish  dominion,  became  uninhabited 
and  covered  with  forest  and  marshes,  but  was 
reclaimed  under  Maria  Theresa,  who  drained 
the  land  b^  means  of  canals  and  by  free  grants 
of  land  mduced  a  considerable  immigration 
from  Germany,  Turkey  and  Serbia,  thereby 
laying  Ihe  foundations  of  its  present  prosper- 
ity. In  1779  it  was  united  with  Hungary.  It 
was  formed  into  an  Austrian  crownland  in 
1849  but  was  restored  to  Hungary  in  )fi60. 
The  population  exceeds  1,500.000. 

BANBRIDGB,  Ireland,  a  market  town  in 
County  Down,  22  miles  southwest  of  Belfast, 
situated  on  the  Bann.  It  has  an  Episcopal 
church  in  the  Gothic  style,  and  several  other 
churches.  It  is  a  thriving  seat  of  linen  manu- 
facture in  all  its  stages,  from  the  prMiaration 
of  the  soil  for  the  flax  seed  to  the  nnishing 
of  the  finest  linen.  Miles  of  bleaching-greens 
exist  in  the  vicinity,  while  there  are  numerous 
factories  along  the  Bann.    Pop.  (1911)  S.lOl'. 


BANBURY,  En^and,  a  municipal  bor- 
ou^  and  parish  of  Oxfordshire,  on  the  river 
Cherwell  and  the  Oxford  Canal,  22  miles  north 
of  Oxford  and  86  northwest  of  London  try  rail. 
Its  strong  castle,  built  about  1125,  was  demol- 
ished during  the  Great  Rebellion,  when  Ban- 
bury was  noted  for  Puritanical  zeal.  In  1469 
the  Yorkists  were  defeated  in  the  vicinity.  The 
town  is  still  famous  for  its  cakes  and  ale,  as 
in  Ben  Jonson's  day;  and  it  manufactures  web- 
bii^,  agricultural  implements  and  rope.  Among 
the  buildings  are  the  parish  church  (1797)  and 
tbe  town  hall  (1854).    Fop.  (1911)  13,458. 

BANC  (Lat.  Banau,  Ger.  Bank,  a  bench}, 
legally  a  seat  or  bench  of  justice,  and  in  this 
sense  has  given  rise  to  the  expression  in  courts 
of  connnon  law,  'sitting  in  banc,*  or  ir  banco 
—  tt^t  is,  sitting  together  on  the  bench  of  the 
respective  courts. 

BANCA.  banli^,  BANKA.  or  BANGKA, 
an  island  of  the  Mala^  Archipelago,  Dutch 
East  Indies,  between  Sumatra  and  Borneo; 
area,  4,446  square  miles.  Long  and  narrow  in 
outline,  and  hilly  in  the  north  and  south,  the 
greater  part  of  the  area  is  heavily  timbered. 
The  climate  is  moist  and  unhealthful  for  Euro- 
peans, the  rainfall  averagii^  annually  120 
inches.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  excellent  tin 
obtained  in  black  alluvium  in  the  north  end  of 
the  island,  about  25  feet  below  the  surface,  and 
of  which  the  annual  yield  is  as  high  as  20,000 
tons.  These  mines  are  a  government  monopoly. 
Banca  likewise  yields  iron,  copper,  lead,  tim- 
ber, soffo,  pepper,  nutmegs,  benzoin,  etc  Tbe 
po[>ulalion  was  estimated  in  1913  at  113,653,  of 
which  less  than  300  are  Europeans  and  35,000 

BANCA,  a  boat  used  in  the  Philip^es, 
made  from  a  single  log  and  furnished  with  an 
out-figger. 

BANCO,  a  term  designating  the  monev  in 
which  the  banks  of  some  countries  keep  or  Icept 
their  accounts  in  contradistinction  t      ' 


a  was  apphed  to  the  Hamburg  bank 
before  Oie  adoption  (in  1873)  of  tbe 
new  German  coinage.  The  mark  banco  had  a 
value  of  35.43  cents,  but  there  was  no  corre- 


BANCROI^T,  Atron,  Unitarian  clergy- 
man: b.  Reading,  Mass.,  10  Nov.  1755;  d.  19 
Aug.  1839.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1778;  became  pastor  in  Worcester  in  1785, 
where  he  remained  nearly  SO  years.  Besides  a 
great  number  of  sermons,  his  works  include  a 
'Life  of  George  Waslungton'  (1807).  He 
was  the  father  of  the  historian,  George 
Bancroft 


uated  Bt  Dartmouth 
Theological  Seminary  in  1867,  and  at  the 
University  of  Halle,  Germany.  He  was  or- 
dained to  the  Consr^ational  ministry  in  1867, 
but  has  never  held  a  pastorate.  In  1873  he 
was  made  principal  of  Phillips  Academy,  An- 
dover,  Mass.,  and  since  then  has  sent  more 
boys  to  colleges  and  scientific  schools  than  amr 
other  American  secondary  school  teacher,     m 


BANCROFT 


bas  frequent^  conttUxited  religious  «id  edu- 
utionai  articles  to  periodicals. 

BANCROFT,  Edward,'  American  natural- 
ist and  chemist:  b.  Weatfield,  Mass.,  1744; 
i.  IS20.  In  hia  youth  he  went  to  Gtiiana  and 
there  practised  medicine.  Me  afterward  re- 
sided in  England  where  he  gained  the  friend- 
ship of  Franklin,  whose  influence  obtained  for 
bim  a  place  on  the  staS  of  the  Monthly  Review. 
He  published  several  strong  articles  in  defense 
of  American  rights  and  in  vindication  of 
Franklin's  connection  with  the  'Hutchinson 
Papers'  episode.  He  was  cfaaiged  with  arson 
in  1777,  and  was  obliged  to  See  to  Paris, 
where  the  American  Commissioners  employed 
him  as  a  spy.  It  has  been  often  charged,  and 
without  much  foundation,  that  he  obtained 
some  information  from  his  former  teacher, 
Silas  Deane,  and  sold  it  to  the  British  govem- 
ment  In  1769  be  published  'Natural  Histor>- 
of  Guiana',  and  in  1794  'Experimental  Re- 
searches Concerning  the  Philoso^y  of  Per- 
manent Colors,'  the  first  of  a  senes  on  colors 
and  calico  printing.  Parliament  in  1785 
granted  him  special  rights  for  the  importation 
and  use  of  a  certain  kind  of  oak  bark  in  calico 
printing.  Consult  Wharton,  'Diplomatic  Cor- 
respondence of  the  American  Revolution' 
•   (Washington  1889). 

BANCROFT,  George,  American  historian : 
b.  Worcester,  Mass..  3  Oct  1600;  d.  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  17  Jan.  1891.  He  was  the  son  of 
Rev.  Aaron  Bancroft  (q;y.),  a  Unitarian 
cler^man,  and  Lucretia  Chandler  Bancroft. 
He  ntted  for  college  at  Phillips  Academy,  Exe- 
ter, N.  R,  entered  Harvard  College  at  the  age 
of  13,  and  was  graduated  before  reaching  his 
17tfa  birdtday.  Edward  Everett,  then  professor 
of  Greeit,  having  proposed  that  some  young 
graduate  of  promise  be  sent  to  Germany  for 
purposes  of  study  in  order  that  he  might  after- 
ward become  one  of  the  corps  of  instructors, 
Bancroft  was  chosen,  and  in  the  summer  of 
1818  went  to  Gottingen,  where  two  years  later 
he  received  his  degree  of  Ph.D.  At  Gottingen 
he  studied  German  literature  under  Benecke- 
Italian  and  French  literature  under  Artaud  and 
Bunsen;  Oriental  languages  and  New  Testa- 
ment Greek  under  Eichhorn;  natural  history 
under  Blumenbach ;  and  the  antiauities  and 
literature  of  Greece  and  Rome  under  Dissen, 
an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Plato,  with  whom 
be  went  through  a  thorough  course  of  Greek 
philosophy.  But  his  chief  attention  was  given 
to  histoiy,  which  he  studied'tliider  Heeren,  the 
greatest  historical  critic  bl  that  day,  and  one 
of  the  most  sdenti&c  of  alP  historians.  In 
choosing  this  special  branch,  Bancroft  gave  as 
a  reason  his  desire  to  see  if  facts  would  not 
clear  up  theories  and  assist  in  getting  out  the 
true  one.  For  a  time  he  also  studied  at  Ber- 
lin, where  he  was  warmly  received  by  the  lead- 
ers in  the  academic  world,  notably  Wolf,  the 
editor  of  Homer;  Schleiermacber  and  Hegel, 
to  whom  he  brought  tidings  of  their  fame  in 
the  New  World.  In  an  extended  tour  through 
Germany  and  other  countries  he  met  Goeuie 
at  Jena,  studied  for  a  time  with  Schlosser  at 
Heidelberg,  formed  an  acquaintance  with  Man- 
zoni  at  Milan  and  a  life  friendship  with  Chev- 
alier Bunsen  at  Rome,  where  he  also  met  Nie- 
bufar.  At  Paris  he  was  kindly  received  by 
Cousin,  Benjamin  Constant  and  Alexander  von 


rell,  he  established  the  famous  Rot 
School  at  Northampton,  Mass,  a  preparatory 
school  far  in  advance  of  its  time  as  to  systems 
of  study  and  classbooks.  The  teachers  were 
good,  the  instruction  inspiring  and  the  students 
led  a  happy,  healthy  life,  but  the  tmdertaking 
proved  a  failure  nnancially.  Bancroft  with- 
drew in  1830,  and  Cogswell  two  years  later. 
Many  of  their  students  afterward  became  men 
of  national  reputation  or  prominence,  among 
them  being  J.  L.  Motley,  Elleiy  Channing, 
G.  £.  Ellis  and  Theodore  Sedgwick.  Hence- 
forward his  career  is  best  separated  mto  po- 
litical and  literary.  During  the  Round  Hill 
years  he  had  cut  loose  from  the  political  tradi- 
tions of  the  Harvard  circle.  In  a  oublic  speech 
in  1826  be  had  avowed  his  principles  to  be  for 
universal  suffrage  and  uncompromising  democ- 
racy, and  at  once  became  foremost  in  the  coun- 
cils of  the  Democratic  party,  though  twice  de- 
clining nomination  or  election  to  the  State  leg- 
islature. Van  Buren  appointed  him  collector 
of  the  port  of  Boston  (1838-41)  and  his  ad- 
ministration of  the  office  won  the  praise  of  his 
political  opponents.  While  collector  he  ap- 
pointed Nathaniel  Hawthorne  and  Orestes 
Brownson  to  oflices  within  his  jurisdiction.  In 
1844  he  was  defeated  as  the  Democratic  candi- 
date for  governor  of  Massachusetts,  althoug& 
he  received  more  votes  than  any  previous  can- 
didate of  his  party.  In  1845  he  became  Secre- 
tary of  the  Navy  under  Polk.  It  was  he  who 
planned  and  established  the  Naval  Academy  a 


Secretary  of  War  ordered  General  Taylor  to 
march  into  Texas,  thus  ultimately  leading  to 
the  annexation  of  that  State.  During  1846-49 
he  was  Minister-plenipotentiary  to  Great  Britain 
and  there  successfully  urged  upon  the  British 
ministry  the  necessity  of  adopting  more  liberal 
navigation  laws.  His  reputation  as  a  man  of 
letters  put  the  manuscript  treasures  of  the 
great  English  families  at  his  disposal  and  be 
comUned  bis  public  duties  with  ardent  his- 
torical researches.  From  1849  to  1867  he  lived 
in  New  York  city,  absorbed  in  literary  work. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  was  a  patriotic  War 
Democrat  and  delivered  a  powerful  speech  ef- 
fectually demolishing  the  Constitutional  plea 
for  slavery.  Before  both  Houses  of  Congress 
he  delivered  a  masterly  eulogy  on  Lincoln.  Ap- 
pointed Minister  to  Prussia  in  1867  he  achieved 
a  diplomatic  triumph  in  bringing  about  the 
adoption  of  treaties  in  which  England  and  Ger- 
many finally  recognized  the  right  of  expatria- 
tion and  abandoned  their  doctrine  of  "once  a 
citiien,  always  a  citizen.'  In  the  northwest 
boundary  treaty,  negotiated  by  Polk,  there  was 
an  ambiguitv  concerning  a  portion  of  the  line. 
It  was  decided  to  submit  the  point  to  the  Ger- 
man EJnpcror  for  arbitration.  Bancroft  pre- 
pared the  whole  American  argument  and  tiie 
reply  to  the  case  of  the  British.  The  decision 
was  unreservedly  in  favor  of  the  United  States. 
His  first  publication  was  a  volume  of 
'Poems'  (1823),  all  European  in  theme.  This 
was  followed  by  books  for  the  use  of  his  stu- 
dents, translations  of  Heeren's  'Politics  of  An- 
cient Greece'  (1824)  and  Jacobs'  'Latin  ttf^d- 


Cioogle 


cr>  (1S25).  His  first  aiticte  in  the  North 
American  Review  aimeared  in  October  1823, 
and  was  a  notice  of  Schiller's  'Minor  Poems' 
with  numerous  translations.  Thenceforward 
he  wrote  in  almost  every  volume,  but  always 
on  classical  or  German  themes,  until  in  Jan- 
nary  1831,  he  took  up  'The  Bank  of  ihe  United 
States,'  and  in  October  1835  *The  Documen- 
tary History  of  the  American.  Revolution.'  The 
two  latter  mdicate  the  direction  his  historical 
studies  had  taken.  Then  came  the  beginnings 
of  his  great  'History  of  the  United  States,* 
the  work  which  gave  him  his  greatest  fame. 
The  first  volume  appeared  in  1834,  the  second 
in  1837,  the  third  in  1840,  the  fourth  in  1852, 
the  fifth  in  1853  and  so  onward  to  the  tenth  in 
1874.  The  earlier  volumes  were  received  with 
enthusiasm  in  America,  pirated  in  England, 
translated  into  Danish,  Italian,  German  and 
French,  both  with  and  without  the  author's 
permission.  The  15th  edition  of  Vols.  I-IIl 
was  issued  in  1853.  The  design  of  the  work 
was  as  deliberate  as  Gibbon's,  and  almost  as 
vast  and,  like  Gibbon,  Bancroft  lived  to  see  his 
work  accomplished.  The  history  of  the  United 
States  from  1492  to  1789  is  treated  in  three 
parts.  The  first  deals  with  'Colonial  History, 
1492-1748.'  The  second  part,  'The  American 
Revolution,  1748-^,'  is  divided  into  four 
epochs  called  respectively:  'Overthrow  of  Uie 
European  Colonial  System,  1748-63' ;  'How 
Great  Britain  Estranged  America,  1/63-74' ; 
'America  Declares  Itself  Independent,  1774- 
75'  1  and  'The  Independence  of  America  Ac~ 
knowledsed,  1776-82.'  The  last  part,  thou^ 
published  as  a  separatx  work,  entitled  'His- 
tory of  the  Formation  of  the  Constitution, 
1782-89,'  is  really  a  continuation  of  the  'His- 
tory.' The  work  is  still  the  most  popular  and 
widely  read  of  the  larger  American  histories. 
Bancroft's  materials  and  facilities  for  writing 
it  were  better  and  more  extensive  than  any 
other  writer  on  our  Anglo-American  history 
has  enjoyed.  His  private  collection  of  manu- 
scripts and  documents,  original  and  copies  (now 
in  the  New  York  PubUc  Library),  was  by  far 
the  finest  o£  his  day  in  private  hands,  and  su- 
perior to  most  institutional  collections.  His 
merits  as  a  historian  are  positive  and  incon- 
testable. For  his  subject  he  had  a  boundless 
and  untiring  enthusiasm,  and  he  was  permeated 
with  that  democratic  spirit  without  which  the 
faistoi7  of  the  United  States  cannot  be  ade- 
quately written.  Though  his  early  style  is 
justly  open  to  the  charge  of  being  pompous,  in- 
flated and  over-ornamented,  it  is  essentially 
picturesque,  and  the  earlier  defects  were  greatly 
remedied  by  his  successive  revisions  of  the 
work.  His  command  of  his  resources  was  mas- 
terlj;,  and  a  far  from  favorable  critic  candidly 
admits  that  'one  must  follow  him  minutely 
through  the  history  of  the  war  for  independ- 
ence to  appreciate  m  full  the  consummate  grasp 
of  a  mind  which  can  deploy  militaty  events 
in  a  narrative  as  a  general  deploys  brigades  in 
a  field.  Add  to  this  the  capacity  for  occa- 
sional maxims  in  the  highest  degree  profound 
and  lucid,  and  you  certainly  combine  in  one 
man  some  of  the  greatest  qualities  of  the  his- 
torian,* It  has  been  said  that  be  made  no  ef- 
fort to  avail  himself  of  the  materials  and  re- 
sults of  other  investigators,  but  nowhere  does 
he  claim  finality  for  his  work,  and  his  later 


umet,  upon  which  he  hatf  spent  a  solid  year 
in  revision.  Again  (New  York  1884-87)  he 
published  what  he  termed  the  'author's  last  re- 
vision* in  six  volumes  large  octavo.  In  this  he 
made  considerable  changes  in  arrangement  and 
the  subdivisions,  all  tending  to  a  better  order- 
ing of    the  narrative,     'There   were    frequent 


tions  and  redundancies  were  cast  out. 
final  changes  have,  in  the  judgment  of  good 
scholars,  better  fitted  the  work  for  permanent 
favor.  It  will  remain  necessary  to  toe  student 
until  another  historian,  with  equal  or  better 
facilities,  shall  rewrite  the  story  in  a  way  to 
gain  wider  nmpathy.  Present  tendencies  and 
methods  in  historical  study  and  writing  g[ive 
little  evidence  that  such  another  vrill  soon  arise. 
His  lesser  worics  include  'Poems'  (1823)  ;  'Ut- 
eraiy  and  Historical  Uisceilanies'  (^1855) ; 
'Memorial  Address  on  the  Life  of  Lmcofai* 
(IE  -  -  -..._. 

(It-  ,  .     - 

United  States  Wounded  in  the  House  of  Its 
Guardians'  (1886) ;  'Necessity,  Reality  and 
Promise  of  the  Pr<^Tess  of  the  Human  Race' 
(1854);  'Oration,  4  July  1826,  Northampton,  . 
Mass.';  'Oration  Before  the  Democracy  of 
Springfield,  Mass.,  4  July  lg36' ;  'Address  at 
Hartford,  Conn.,  18  Feb.  1840' ;  'History  of  the 
Formation  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States'  (1882));  'Oration  Delivered  at  the 
Commemoration,  in  Washington,  of  the  Death 
of  Andrew  Jackson,  27  June  1845.'  To  the 
'American  Encyclop«dia'  he  contributed  the 
article  on  Jonathan  Edwards.  Consult  Green, 
'George  Bancroft'  (1891)  :  WalUs,  'Mr.  Ban- 
croft as  a  Historian'  (1896) ;  West,  'George 
Bancroft'  (1900);  Higginson,  T.  W.  George 
Bancroft  in  'Carlyle's  Laugh,  and  Other  Sur- 
prises' (Boston  1909);  Howe,  M.  A.  DeW, 
•The  Life  and  Letters  of  George  Bancroft' 
(New  York  1908) ;  'Report  ot  Committtc 
Charjed  with  Placing  the  Memorial  to  Mark 
the  Birthplace  of  (jeorge  Bancroft'  (Proceed- 
ings of  the  Worcester  Society  of  Antiquity, 
Vol.  XVII,  pp.  a!^292  Worcester,  Mass., 
1901) ;  'Oliver  Ha»rd  Perry  and  the  Battle  o£ 
Lake  Erie'  (Rhode  Island  Education  Depart- 
ment, Newport  1912) ;  Stippel,  H.  C,  'A  Bibli- 
ography of  Books  and  Pamphlets  by  George 
Bancroft'  (On  Howe's  'Life  and  Letters'  of 
Bancroft,  mentioned  above.  New  York  1906)  j 
Basselt,  John  Spencer,  "The  Middle  Group  of 
American  Historians'    (New  York  1916). 

George  Edwin  Rines. 
BANCROFT,  Hubert  Howe,  Americ&n 
historian:  b,  Granville,  Ohio,  5  May  1832;  d 
Walnut  Creek,  Cal-,  2  March  19ia  He 
worked  on  his  father's  farm  and  attended  the 
academy  until  16,  when  he  entered  as  clerk  a 
bookstore  in  Buffalo  whose  proprietor  three 
years  later  sent  him  with  a  stock  of  books  to 
open  business  in  San  Francisco  where  he  ar- 
nved  in  March  1852.  While  building  up  a 
large  bookselling  and  publishing  business  the 
young  man  became  interested  in  gathering  ma- 
terial for  the  history  of  this  new  and  fascinat- 
ing land,  until  his  collections  reached  M,000 
books,  maps  and  MSS..  when  he  erected  for  it 
a  library  buildii^  on  Valencia  street    Here  it 


.Google 


BAHCBOPT 


185 


remained  imtil  it  passed  into  tfae  poasession  of 
,  the  University  of  California  at  Berkeley.  Am- 
Itttious  at  length  to  reduce  this  vast  wealth  of 
material  to  forms  of  practical  utility,  Hr.  Ban- 
croft  put  at  work  a  dozen  men  to  classify  and 
eitrart  the  essential  facts  of  history  and  de- 
Tclopment  and  place  the  results  in  his  hands  in 
proper  form  for  writing  a  series  of  histories 
covering  the  western  half  of  North  America, 
fratn  Alaska  to  Panaina,  as  he  had  planned. 
This  woric  covered  a  period  of  30  years,  and 
the  i«sult  was  the  publication  of  the  following 
series:  ^Native  Kaces  of  the  Pacific  States' 
(5  vols.):  *Histofy  of  Central  America'  (3 
vols.)  ;  ^History  of  Mexico'  (6  vols.)  ;  'North 
Uexicaa  States'  (2  vols.) ;  'California*  (7 
vols.);  'Aritooa  and  New  Mexico'  (1  vol.): 
'Utah  and  Nevada'    (IvoL);    'Colorado  and 


1S7S  became  rector  of  Teversham,  Cambrid^. 
In  1584  he  was  appointed  rector  of  Saint  An- 
drew's, Holborn,  where  his  great  abilities  and 
zeal  as  a  champion  of  the  Church  led  to  his 
rapid  promotion.  He  became  treasurer  of 
Saint  Paul's  Cathedral  in  1585,  and  the  fol- 
lowing year  became  a  member  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical commission.  On  9  Feb,  1589  he  preached 
at  Paul's  Cross  a  sennon  which  was  in  sub- 
stance a  passionate  attack  on  the  Puritans;  aa 
assertion  of  the  divine  rif^t  of  bishops,  and 
urged  the  theoiy  of  the  apostolic  succession. 
In  1597  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  London 
and  was  present  at  the  death  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  con- 
ference of  prelates  and  Presbyterian  divines, 
held  at  Hampton  Court  in  1604,  and  in  the 
same  year  became  president  of  the  Canterbury 
Convocation,  at  which  he  presented  and  caused 
'"   be  passed  a  book  of  canons  aimed  at  Puri- 


Idaho  and  Montana*  (1  voL) ;  'British  Colttm-      tanism  and  which  forced  many  clergymen  t 


(1  vol.)  ;  'Popular  Tribunals*  (2  vols.)  ;  'Ea- 
ses' (1  vol.);  'Literary  Industries'  (1  vol.). 
Other  and  later  woi^  are  'Book  of  the  Fair,' 
'Book  of  Wealth'  (1910J  ;  'Resources  of  Mex- 
ico,' and  'The  New  Pacific' ;  'Some  Cities  and 
San  Francisco'  (1907);  'Retrospection.  Per- 
sonal and  Political'    (1912). 

BANCROFT,  Mule  Effie  Wilton,  Lady, 
English  actress:  b.  Doncaster  1839.  She  is  a 
dauf^ter  of  Robert  Pleydell  Wilton.  After 
acting  as  a  child  in  the  provinces,  she  first  ap- 
peared in  London  15  Sept  1856  at  the  Lyceutn, 
as  the  boy  in  'Belphegor.'  She  was  very  pop- 
ular in  several  boy  characters,  in  burlesques 
at  various  theatres,  and  as  Pippo  in  the  'Maid 
and  the  Magpie*  at  the  Strand  Theatre.  She 
remained  at  the  Strand  until  1865,  when  with 
H.  J.  Byron  she  be^n  the  memorable  manage- 
ment of  the  old  Prmce  of  Wales'  Theatre  with 
the  production  of  the  Robertson  comedies.  She 
secured  Squire  Bancroft  as  leading  actor  and 
the  house  soon  became  noted  for  its  realistic 
presentation  of  the  social  life  of  the  day. 
Among  the  successes  of  those  years  were  'So- 
ciety' (1865);  'Ours'  (1866);  'Caste'  (1867); 
*Play'  (1868);  'School'  (1869),  and  'M.  P.* 
(1870).  Miss  Wilton  became  Mrs.  Bancroft 
in  1867  and  regularly  took  the  leading  feminine 
roles.  Among  the  prominent  actors  presented 
at  this  theatre  during  the  management  of  Mrs. 
Bancroft  and  Mr.  Byron  were  Cogfalan,  Hare, 
tbe  Kendals  and  Ellen  Terry.  They  migrated 
to  tbe  Haymarket  In  1880,  and  continued  the 
production  of  modem  comedy.  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Bancroft  retired  from  the  stage  in  1885  and 
have  rarely  appeared  since,  a  noteworthy  oc- 
casion was  the  revival  of  'Diplomacy*  in  1893 
at  tbe  Garrick.  Mrs.  Bancroft  is  joint-author 
of  'Mr.  and  Mrs.  Bancroft  On  and  Off  the 
Stage'  (1888);  and  sole  author  of  'A  River- 
side Story*  (1890)  ;  'My  Daughter'  (1892)  ; 
<A  Dream'  (1903)  ;  'The  Shadow  of  Neeme' 
(1912),  and  with  Mr.  Bancroft.  'The  Ban- 
crofts; Recollections  of  Sixty  Years'  (1909). 
BANCROFT,  Richard,  English  divine:  b. 
Famworlh,  Lancaiihire,  1544;  d.  12  Nov.  1610. 
He  was  graduated  at  Cambridge  University, 
where  he  received  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1570. 
He  was  ordained  soon  afterward  and  was  ap- 
pointed chaplain  to  tbe  bishop  of  Ely,  and  m 


In  November  1604^ 
he  became  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in  which 
capacity  he  continued  to  show  the  same  zeal 
and  severity  as  before  in  suppressing  heresy 
and  schism.  He  involved  himself  in  a  struggle 
to  make  the  ecclesiastical  courts  independent 
of  the  law  by  speciously  magnifying  the  royal 
authority  over  them.  In  the  last  few  months 
of  his  life  he  took  part  in  the  discussion  about 
the  consecration  of  Scottish  bishops,  and  ad- 
vised their  consecration  by  bishops  of  the  Eng- 
lish Church.  By  this  act  were  laid  the 
foundations  of  riie  Scottish  Episcopal  Chuni. 
Bancroft  was  'chief  overseer"  of  the  author- 
ized version  of  the  Bible.  While  Bancroft's 
character  was  defective  by  his  intemperate  zeal, 
the  Anglican  Church  owes  its  present  consti* 
tution  and  firm  position  in  the  state  largely  to 
his  labors.  Consult  Usher,  'The  Reconstruc- 
tion of  the  English  Church*  (New  York  1910). 
BANCROFT,  Sir  Squire,  English  actor: 
b.  London,  4  May  1841.     He  was  educated  at 

trivate  schools  in  England  and  France,  and 
rst  appeared  on  the  stage  at  Birmingham  in 
1861.  He  acted  afterward  in  Dublin  and  at 
leading  provincial  theatres  with  all  the  prom- 


wilh  Effie  Wilton,  whom  he  mar- 
ried in  1867.  For  20  years  he  was  manager 
of  the  Prince  of  Wales'  and  Haymarket  the-  , 
atres,  during  which  the  modern  revival  of  die 
stage  was  started  He  retired  from  the  man- 
agement in  1885.  He  acted  afterward  with 
Irving  in  'The  Dead  Heart'  (1889)  at  the 
Lyceum,  and  in  'Diplomacy'  at  the  Garrick 
in  1893.  In  1897  he  was  knighted  by  Queen 
Victoria  for  notable  services  to  his  profession. 
He  has  devoted  much  time  to  "reading"  for 
hosiHtals  throughout  the  country,  and  is  a 
member  of  Lord  Chamberlain's  advisory 
board  for  the  licensing  of  plays.  Consult 
'Mr.  and  Mrs.  Bancroft  On  and  Off  the  Stage, 
Written  by  Themselves'  (1888);  and  '"nie 
Bancrofts:  Recollections  of  Sixty  Years' 
(1909). 

BANCROFT,  Wildw  Dwigh't,  American 
chemist  r  b.  Middletown,  R.  I.,  1  Oct.  1867. 
He  was  educated  at  Harvard  and  abroad,  and 
obtained  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  at  Leipzig  in  1892. 


1S6 


BANCROFT — BAND-FISH 


1894-95,-  was  appointed  assistant  professor  of 
chemistry  at  Comeil  in  189S,  becoming  full 
professor  in  1903.  In  1896  he  founded  the 
Journal  of  Physical  Chemistry  and  became  its 
editor.  In  1905  he  was  chosen  president  of  the 
American  Electro- Chemical  Society,  and  in 
1910  of  the  American  Chemical  Society.  He 
ip  a  member  of  the  Washington  Academy  of 
Sciences  and  of  the  Frankhn  Institute.  Be- 
sides numerous  articles  in  scientific  journals, 
he  has  published  *The  Phase  Rule'    (1897). 

BANCROFT,  William  Amos,  American 
street  railway  president :  b.  Groton,  Mass.,  26 
April  18S5.  He  was  graduated  from  Harvard 
in  1878,  elected  mayor  of  Cambridge  in  1893 
and  four  times  re-elected.  He  has  neld  other 
public  positions  and  has  been  trustee  or  di- 
rector in  many  educational  and  financial  insti- 
tutions. He  has  been  president  of  the  Boston 
Elevated  Railway  Company  since  1899;  private 
to  colonel,  5th  Massachusetts  Volunteer  Militia; 
brigadier-general.  United  States  Volunteers, 
Spanish  War;  chairman  Republican  State  con- 
vention (1893) ;  overseer,  Harvard  (1893- 
1905),  and  trustee,  Phillips-Exeter  Academy, 
Exeter,  N.  H.,  since  1902. 

BAND,  in  orchiteclurt,  any  flat  fascia  or 
ornament  which  is  continued  horizontally  along 
a  wall,  or  1^  which  a  building  is  encircled. 
Bands  often  consist  of  foliage,  quatrefoils  or 
of  simple  bricln.  Band  of  a  shaft  is  the  mold- 
ing or  suits  of  moldings  by  which  the  pillars 
and  shafts  are  encirclea  in  Gothic  architecture. 
Several  bands  are  often  placed  at  «iuai  dis- 
tances on  the  body  of  the  shaft,  when  it  is  long, 
in  which  case  they  are  known  as  shaft-rings. 

As  veiltnent,  bands  are  linen  pendants  from 
the  neck,  forming  part  of  clerical,  legal  and 
academic  costume.  It  is  a  moot  question 
whether  they  are  a  survival  of  the  amice  or 
immediate  descendants  of  the  wide  falling  col- 
lar which  was  a  part  of  the  ordinary  civilian 
dress  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  In  the  Angli- 
can Church  they  are  seldom  worn,  except  by 
ultra- low  churchmen,  but  they  are  in  common 
use  with  Presbyterian  ministers  (ordained 
ministers  as  distinguished  from  licentiates). 
Foreign  Catholic  ecclesiastics  wear  black  bands 
with  a  narrow  white  border. 

lu  music,  a  number  of  trained  musicians 
in  a  regiment,  intended  to  march  in  front  of 
the  soldiers  and  play  instruments,  so  as  to  en- 
able them  to  keep  step  as  they  move  forward; 
also  any  similarly  organized  company  of  musi- 
cians, though  unconnected  with  the  army;  an 
orchestra.  The  word  is  also  applied  to  the 
subdivisions  of  an  orchestra,  as  string-band, 
wind-band,  etc.  Until  the  12th  century  there 
was  DO  regular  organization  of  the  wandering 
or  roving  musicians,  but  early  in  the  13th  cen- 
tury bands  of  pipers  and  trumpeters  were 
formed,  and  later  guilds  were  developed  for 
the  protection  of  the  musicians.  These  guilds 
were  subjected  to  and  influenced  by  the 
peculiar  restrictions  defining  the  social  status 
of  every  calling  during  the  Middle  Ages.  It 
was  not  until  the  18th  century,  however,  that 
instrumental  music  had  developed  into  the 
groups  we  know  to-day.  The  full  orchestra, 
combining  every  element  and  vehicle  of  musi- 
cal expression,  appealed  to  those  of  cultured 
musical  taste;  the  brass  band  was  suited  to 
church  and  community  music;  and  the  military 


band   appealed  to  the   people   at   large.     See 
Band,  Militart. 

The  modem  so-called  concert  military  hand 


band  comi>ositions  the  strings  are  not  used  at 
all,  the  wind  instruments  being  depended  on 
for  the  interpretation  of  the  piece.  In  order 
to  secure  the  desired  tone  and  color,  new  in- 
struments have  been  invented  and  introduced. 
The  concert  military  band  has  reached  its 
greatest  development  in  the  United  States, 
where  it  appears  to  have  evolved  from  the  In* 
dependence  Day  concerts  held  annually  on  Bos- 
ton Common.  These  celebrations  brou^t  into 
prominence  as  a  bandmaster  Patrick  Sarsfield 
Gilmore.  The  concert  type  has  been  further 
developed  since  his  time  by  D.  W.  Reeves, 
Victor  Herbert  and  John  Philip  Sousa. 
Sousa's  organization  is  regarded  as  the  highest 
type  of  concert  military  band.  Its  members 
are  veiy  carefully  selected.  It  is  modeled  on 
the  celebrated  band  of  the  French  G&rde 
Rfpublicaine. 

BAND;  Military,  an  organized  body  of 
musicians  m  the  army  service.  In  all  countries 
bands  are  organized  and  maintained  in  each 
infantrv  regiment,  or  battalion  if  the  latter  is 
the  unit.  The  strength  of  these  bands  and  the 
number  and  nature  of  their  instruments  vary 
considerablv,  as  also  do  the  rank  and  status 
of  the  ban^aster.  Bands  in  the  United  States 
army  are  recruited  generally  for  that  specific 
purpose,  the  members  being  enlisted  men,  usu- 
ally 28  in  number.  Instruments  are  supplied 
by  the  Quartermaster's  Department,  and  a 
school  for  army  bands  is  maintained  at  (gov- 
ernor's Island,  N.  Y.  Bandmasters  in  Eng- 
land are  specially  trained  at  Kncller  Hall,  re- 
ceive extra  pa^  and  are  recruited  from  boys 
from  military  mstitutions,  schools  and  training 
ships.  The  leading  military  bands  of  Europe 
are  the  Royal  Artillery,  Royal  Marine  and 
Ctuards'  Band,  of  England;  the  Kaiser-Franc 
Grenadier  Band,  of  Germany ;  the  Guides' 
Band,  of  Belgium;  the  Garde  R^ublicaine 
Band,  of  France;  the  Imperial  Guards  Band,  of 
Austria;  the  Ottoman  Palace  Band,  of  Turkey; 
the  Bersaglieri  Band,  of  Italy ;  the  Czar's  Reg- 
iment of  Guards  E^nd,  of  Russia.  Consult 
'United  States  Army  Regulations*  (or  compo- 
sition and  equipment  of  United  States  army 
bands.  For  band  instrumentation  consult 
Clappil,  A.  A.,  'The  Wind  Band  and  Its  In- 
struments' (New  York  1911).  Consult  also 
Grove,  'Dictionary  of  Music*  (London  1903); 
Rode,  <  Musikalisches  Konversations-Lexicon' 
(Berlin  1877). 

BAND-FISH,  a  genus  in  the  family 
Cepolida,  having  the  body  much  elongated  and 
compressed,  and  is  covered  by  very  small 
scales.  The  dorsal  fin  is  very  long  and  con- 
sists like  the  anal  of  soft  rays.  The  tail  verte- 
brae are  very  numerous  and  the  whole  struc- 
ture of  the  body  exhibits  unusual  delicacy,  so 
that  specimens  are  seldom  obtained  in  an  un- 
injured state.  All  the  species  inhabit  quiet 
depths  and  are  unable  to  contend  with  waves 
and  currents.  The  snake-like  form  and  the 
beauty  of  their  colors  make  them  objects  of 
great  interest.  One  species,  the  red  band-fish 
(C  rubeseensy,  not  uncommon  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, is  occasionally  cast  ashore  by  storms 


BAND-HBETINGS  — BAND  SAW  BLADES 


1S7 


on  the  British  coasts.  It  is  about  IS  inches 
long.  Its  brilliant  appearance,  when  seen  mov- 
ing in  the  water,  has  sugiKested  the  names  of 
fire-flame  and  red  ribbon,  t^  which  it  is  known 
at  Nice.  The  home  of  the  genus  is  in  Japanese 
waters.     See  OAR-riSH. 

BAND-MEETINGS.  In  earl^  Metho- 
dism Wesl^  encouraged  the  system  of  bands. 
These  consisted  of  not  more  than  five  or  six 
persons  of  similar  circumstances  in  life,  and 
to  some  extent  of  similar  taste,  who  met  to- 
gether to  converse  freely  touching  their  Chris- 
tian experience  and  their  habits  of  life.  The 
examination  of  personal  character  was  very- 
strict,  and  the  intention  was  to  promote  a  more 
holy  and  useful  life.  Each  band  met  weekly 
for  its  own  religious  services:  but  they  also 
occasionally  met  in  general  bana-meeting.  Band 
meetings,  however,  were  not  enjoined  as  a  rule 
of  discipline,  and  they  were  not  at  any  time 
generally  observed.  In  1812  the  Wesleyan  con- 
ference endeavored  to  revive  and  extend  their 
mission.  In  America  these  meetings  were  never 
or^niied  to  any  ^reat  extent;  they  were  held 
in  a  few  of  the  cities  and  of  the  larger  towns, 
but  at  present  they  are  almost  unknown. 

BAND  SAW  BLADES.  Owing  to  the 
increased  value  of  timber  in  America  more 
and  more  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  eco- 
nomical conversion  thereof  into  the  sawn  prod- 
uct ready  for  market.     The  methods 


1  indifferent  quality  so  far  as  sawing  was 
concerned. 

The  attention  of  the  operator  being  directed 
to  band  saw  blades,  these  have  come  mto  quite 
general  use  for  various  purposes.  A  test  of 
ue  band  saw  blade  has  proven  its  advantages 
to  be  so  great  that  it  has  displaced  not  only  the 
small  scroll  or  'jig"  saws  for  bracket  sawing 
and  ornamental  scroll  and  curved  work,  but 
has  also  displaced  reciprocating  saws  and  cir- 
cular saws  for  heavier  work. 

A  band  saw  consists  of  a  thin  band  or  rib- 
bon of  steel  with  teeth  cut  in  one  edge,  the  two 
ends  being  welded  together,  making  it  contin- 
uous. When  in  use  it  is  mounted  an  two 
wheels  like  a  belt  and  made  to  travel  at  a  rapid 
rate  of  speed  by  revolving  one  of  the  wheels. 
For  scroll  work  its  advantage  over  the  recipro- 
cating and  jig  saw  lies  mainly  in  the  increased 
and  uniform  speed  at  which  the  saw  blade 
travels  which  enables  the  operator  to  better 
control  the  work  in  hand  and  to  feed  the  mate- 
rial toward  the  saw  constantly,  and  thus  to 
turn  out  more  and  better  work  than  would  be 
possible  with  a  reciprocating  saw  cutting  on 
the  downward  stroke  only.  Its  narrower  kerf 
also  is  more  economical  of  lumber,  particularly 
in  resawing. 

In  sawing  lops  the  advantage  of  a  band  saw 
as  compared  with  a  reciprocating  saw  may  be 
judged  when  we  state  chat  the  band  saw  blade 
travels  at  the  rate  of  from  6,000  to  10,000  feet 
per  minute,  whereas  a  reciprocating  saw  mak- 
mg  200  strokes  of  18  inches  to  the  minute 
would  only  have  a  cutting  speed  of  300  feet  per 
minute.  The  band  saw  traveling  more  than  20 
times  as  fast  as  the  reciprocating  saw  will  nat- 
urally perform  nearly  or  quite  as  much  work 
as  20  reciprocating  saws.  The  single  recipro- 
cating saw,  because  of  its  limited  capacity,  was 


succeeded  by  what  is  termed  in  the  United 
States  a  gang,  in  Europe,  a  log  frame,  and  in 
Canada  a  gate.  The  gang  saw  mill  for  log 
sawing  consists  of  a  sufficient  number  of  re- 
ciprocating saws  placed  side  by  side  in  a  frame 
to  saw  completely  at  the  one  operation  an  en- 
tire log.  The  advantage  of  the  band  log  mill 
over  the  gang  lies  in  its  adaptability  to  the  saw- 
ing of  each  ioK  to  the  l>est  advantage;  as  but 
one  cut  is  made  at  a  time,  and  as  the  face  of 
the  log  is  exposed  to  the  view  of  the  sawyer, 
he  can  judge  through  what  portion  of  the  log 
the  next  cut  should  be  made  to  yield  the  best 
.results.  The  circular  saw  turns  out  nearly  or 
quite  as  much  product  as  the  band  saw,  but  as 
it  requires  a  much  larger  kerf,  is  far  more 
wasteful  and  the  finish  f^ven  to  the  wood  by 
the  band  saw  is  much  superior.  The  success 
of  the  band  saw  is  due,  first,  to  the  skill  of  the 
saw  maker  in  turning  out  saw  blades  of  a  tem- 
per at  once  hard  and  tough,  to  retain  a  good 
cutting  edge  and  at  the  same  time  flexible 
enough  to  pass  over  the  wheels  without  crack- 
ing; second,  to  the  skill  of  the  saw  filer  in 
"fitting'  his  saws.  Band  saws  require  to  be 
"tensioncd*  from  time  to  time  when  in  use, 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  saw  stretches  on  the 
cutting  edge  by  the  continuous  strain  on  the 
teeth.  By  the  word  "tensioning"  is  meant  the 
expanding  of  the  central  portion  and  hack  of 
the  saw  blade  either  by  the  use  of  a  hammer 
and  anvil  or  by  what  arc  termed  'stretching 

The  use  of  the  band  saw  has  brought  forth 
an  extensive  line  of  saw  fitting  tools  such  as 
saw  "swages"  which  are  deseed  to  expand 
the  points  of  the  teeth,  "pressure  side  dressers" 
or  "tooth  formers"  or  "shapers"  which  are  in- 
tended to  give  form  to  the  swaged  points  of  the 
teeth,  automatic  saw  sharpeners,  etc.  With 
the  use  of  these  improved  appliances  it  was 
found  that  thinner  and  thinner  band  saw  blades 
could  be  used,  and  for  "resawing"  purposes, 
that  is,  the  sawing  of  (ilanks  and  boards  into 
two  or  more  thinner  pieces,  this  is  especially 
desirable.  The  plank  or  boards  to  be  lesawn 
are  fed  to  the  saw  b^  means  of  rollers.  Saws 
as  thin  as  .02  of  an  mch  in  thickness  are  suc- 
cessfully used.  Such  saws  remove  a  kerf  of 
practically  one'  thir^-second  of  an  inch.  In 
log  mills  the- band  saw  blades  are  usually  12 
inches  in  width  and  49  feet  long,  of  14  gauge, 
and  with  teeth  three-fourths  of  an  inch  long, 
and  spaced  l>i  inches  from  point  to  point.  The 
size  of  the  gullet  (between  the  teeth)  must  be 
abundantly  large  to  hold  all  the  sawdust  gath- 
ered during  transit  through  the  largest  diame- 
ter of  log  to  be  cut  Too  small  a  gullet  causes 
chattering  of  the  saw.  The  strain  put  upon  the 
saw  is  as  much  as  the  metal  will  bear  and  re- 
main elastic,  the  object  being  to  have  the  cut- 
ting edge  rigid,  and  yet  the  band  as  a  whole 
able  to  adjust  the  shock  of  a  sudden  obstacle, 
like  a  hard  knot.  For  sawit^  very  hard  wooo 
the  teeth  are  shorter  and  spaced  one-third  more 
to  the  foot  and  have  very  little  set  For  cut- 
ting white  pine  and  similar  woods  the  gauges 
recommended  for  all  widths  of  saw  are  as  fol- 
lows: Bands  up  to  14  feet  long.  22  gauge;  from 
15  to  17  feet,  21  gauge;  from  18  to  20  feet,  20 
gauge;  from  21  to  24  feet,  19  gauge;  from  25 
to  30  feet  18  gauge.  For  hard  woods  like  oak 
and  beech,  the  thickness  should  be  increased 


_,00' 


gle 


138 


BANDA   ISLANDS  — BANDANA 


one  nnmber  on  each  leogdi  quoted,  and  the 
teeth  spaced  closer.  For  cutting  metal  the 
tbidcness  is  increased  three  numbers  in  the 
gauge  ajid  the  teeth  spaced  about  20  points  to 
the  inch,  with  little  or  no  set  Gonsmt  Grim- 
shaw,  R.,  'Saw  Filing  and  Management'  (New 
York  1901)  ;  Johnson,  C  L..  'The  Saw  Diction- 
ary' (Seattle  1909). 

BANDA  ISLANDS,  Dutch  East  Indies^  a 
group  belonging  to  Holland,  in  the  Indian 
Ardhipelago,  south  of  Ceram;  the  largest,  Great 
Banda,  being  12  miles  long  by  two  broad,  while 
Crtienong  Api  is  an  active  volcano  nearly  8,000 
feet  high.  They  have  a  rich  soil  admirably 
ada_pted  for  the  cultivation  of  the  nutmeg, 
which  is  their  chief  product,  others  being  cocoa- 
nuts  and  sago.  The  total  area  of  the  group  ii 
about  19  square  miles  and  the  capital  of  the 
group  is  Banda,  the  scat  of  the  assistant  resi- 
dent It  is  well  fortified  and  has  a  good  har- 
bor. Tatti  wood  is  grown  on  the  island  of 
Rosingen.  Pop.  about  9,500,  of  whom  less  than 
600  are  Europeans.  The  islands  were  discov- 
ered in  1512  fy  the  Portuguese,  who  were  dis- 
possessed by  the  Dutch  in  the  ]7tb  century. 

BANDA  ORIENTAL,  ban'd*  o-re-in-Ul, 
the  name  formerly  given  to  that  region  east  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  Uruguay  River,  which  is 
now  included  in  the  repuUic  of  Uruguay.  See 
Uruguay  —  Hisitmy. 

BANDAGE,  a  surgical  wrapper  applied  to 
some  part  of  the  body.  Bandages  are  employed 
for  a  variety  of  purposes.  One  of  their  chief 
uses  is  to  secure  dressings  or  splints.  Another 
is  to  give  support  to  a  limb  or  to  restrain  its 
movements,  or  to  exert  pressure  upon  it  so  as 
to  aid  in  restraining  bleeding  at  some  point;  or 
a  bandage  may  be  used  to  promote  healing;  as 
in  the  case  of  ulcers,  or  to  aid  in  the  removal 
of  swelling.  In  these  latter  cases  the  bandage 
must  be  applied  with  a  considerable  degree  of 
tightness,  and  great  care  must  be  exercised  that 
it  be  evenly  put  on,  and  that  the  tightness  vnth 
which  it  is  drawn  does  not  give  rise  to  disturb- 
ances of  the  circulation  b)^  undue  and  irregular 
pressure.  Suppose,  for  instance,  the  arm  is 
being  bandaged  from  the  hand  well  up  over  the 
upper  arm.  The  arteries  which  carry  the  blood 
down  the  limb  are  for  the  most  part  deeply 
seated  and  well  protected  by  muscles,  so  that 
they  are  practically  unaffected  by  any  ordinary 
degree  of  pressure  on  the  surface.  But  many 
of  the  veins  which  carr^  the  blood  back  to  the 
heart  up  the  limb  run  immediately  under  the 
skin,  and  will  be  pressed  upon  considerably  by 
a  bandage  applied  round  the  arm.  If  the  ban- 
dase  is  ma(U  too  tight  at  the  elbow,  say,  the 
s  will  be  compressed  and  the  blood  will  flow 


blood  is  all  the  time  being  carried  down  to  the 
haJid  in  the  arteries,  which  are  unaffected,  the 
veins  in  the  forearm  and  hand  will  become 
swollen  and  gorged  with  blood.  The  pressure 
of  blood  in  the  veins  will  become  so  great  that 
fluid  will  be  pressed  out  of  the  finer  vessels 
Into  the  surrounding  tissues,  and  the  hand  will 
become  swollen,  puffy  and  dropsical,  while 
much  pain  will  be  experienced.  If  the  tight 
turns  of   the   bandage  are  now   loosened  the 


veins  will  again  offer  a  free  passage  to  the 
blood  and  the  swelling  and  pain  will  gradually 
subside.  The  proper  method  in  such  a  case  is 
not  necessarilv  to  bandage  loosely,  but  to  ban- 
dage uniformly,  beginning  with  the  requisite  de- 
gree of  tightness  at  the  very  extremity  of  the 
limb  and  continuing  evenly  and  reguurty  up- 
ward. A  general  rule  in  bandaging  a  liml^ 
Never  let  the  bandage  be  tighter  up 


then. 


iformly.  To  this  may  be  added,  a 
second  rule,  that  if  a  bandage  requires  to  be 
tightly  applied  in  the  course  of  a  limb  it  must 
be  begun  at  the  extremity.  It  is  specially  neces- 
sary to  follow  these  rules  when  tne  bandage  is 
applied  to  secure  a  splint,  since  it  must  be  ti^t 
enough  to  keep  the  splint  in  accurate  position, 
or  to  keep  a  pad  firmly  applied  over  a  wound 
for  the  arrest  of  bleeding.  Bandages  usually 
consist  of  strips  of  unbleached  or  bleached 
calico,  linen,  flannel,  muslin,  etc.  Elastic  ban- 
dages and  mdia-rubber  bandages  are  also  in 
use  for  particular  cases.  The  material  should 
be  torn  into  strips  of  the  requisite  breadth  and 
the  bandages  should  have  no  hem  or  ed^ng, 
as  this  would  prevent  them  stretching  equally 
in  all  directions.  The  strips  should  be  rolled 
for  use  into  firm  rollers,  a  roller 


3}4  inches.  For  the  chest  and  abdomen 
the  breadth  should  be  4'/i  inches:  for  the  fin- 
ders three-quarters  of  an  inch.  The  triangular 
bandage  (Esmarch's)  is  of  all  others  the  one 
made  use  of  for  rendering  temporary  aid  in 
cases  of  accident,  and,  through  the  training  af- 
forded by  'first  aid  to  the  injured*  associations, 
is  now  familiar  to  almost  everyone.  The  ban- 
dage is  made  of  a  square  yard  of  linen  or  calico 
halved  diagonally,  each  half  having  of  course 
two  sides  36  indies  in  length,  with  a  base  of 
fully  SO  inches.  When  it  is  desired  to  exert 
very  considerable  pressure  upon  a  part  for  a 
length  of  time,  or  when  it  is  desireif  to  keep  a 
limb  or  a  joint  motionless  for  some  time,  this 
ma^  be  done  without  the  use  of  splints  by  stif- 
fening the  bandages  with  starch  or  plaster  of 
Paris. 

BANDAI-SAN,  ban'dl-san',  Japan,  a  vol- 
cano on  the  island  of  Nippon,  140  miles  north 
of  Tokio.  Its  summit  consists  of  several  peaks, 
the  highest  of  which  is  6,03S  feet  above  the 
ocean  and  4,000  feet  above  the  surrounding 
plain.  On  15  July  1888  there  was  a  terrible  ex- 
plosion of  steam  which  blew  out  a  side  of  the 
mountain,  making  a  crater  more  than  a  mile  in 
width  and  having  precipitous  walls  on  three 
sides.  The  debris  of  broken  rock  and  dust 
poured  down  the  ^lope  and  over  an  area  of  27 
square  miles,  killing  461  persons  and  covering  a 
number  of  villages. 

BANDAJAN,  a  pass  over  a  range  of  the 
Himalayas,  in  Cashmere,  14,854  feet  above  sea- 
level. 

BANDANA,  a  cotton  handkerchief,  having 
a  dark  ground  of  turkey-red,  blue  or  purple, 
variegated  with  simple  patterns  of  white  or 
bright  yellow,  their  bri^t  colors  making  them 
a  favorite  head-covering  for  Southern  negro 
women.  Original^  manufactured  in  the  East 
Indies,  the  beauty  and  durability  pf  their  colors 


Google 


BANDS  HOXItE  — BAHDIBRA 


catiMd  socfa  a  denuuid  diM  the  manufacture  of 
them  was  established  elsewhere  The  proceu 
is  first  to  dye  the  doth  a  dark  color,  commonly 
turkey-red,  which  serves  as  a  ground.  The 
white  spots  constituting  the  pattern  are  after- 
ward produced  b)[  discharging  the  color  with  a 
solution  of  chlorine.  In  order  to  confine  the 
discharging  fluid  to  the  exact  points  to  be  oper- 
ated upon,  the  pattern  is  cut  out  in  leaden 
plates,  upon  which  the  fluid  will  not  act,  and  as 
many  handkerchiefs  or  pieces  of  cloth  as  are 
to  be  operated  upon  are  enclosed  between  pairs 
of  these  patterns  and  subjected  to  enormous 
pressure,  the  discharging  fluid  being  run  in  at 
the  top  and  prevented  by  the  pressure  from 
spreading,  so  that  the  pattern  is  brought  out 
clean  on  the  spots  subjected  to  the  action  of 
the  fluid. 

BANDS  NOIRE,  bind  nwiir,  an  appella- 
tion given  during  the  French  Revolution  to 
companies  of  capitalists  and  speculators  who 
bought  up  the  forfeited  estates  of  the  durch 
and  nobility.  They  were  considered  by  many  as 
hordes  ai  vandals  bound  to  destroy  the  monu- 
ments which  kings,  nobles  and  religious  orders 
had  erected  all  over  France:  and  thence  the 
scornful  denomination,  which  was  continued 
nearly  up  to  1830.  But  while  the  Bande  Noire 
removed  some  castles  and  monasteries  which 
ought  to  have  been  preserved  as  relics  of  art 
and  religion,  they  did  much  toward  the  pros- 
I>erity  of  the  country  by  improving  unproduc- 
tive lands  and  disseminating  among  the  people 
landed  property  which  previously  was  concen- 
trated in  the  hands  of  privileged  classes.  The 
term  was  originally  applied  to  a  body  of  Ger- 
man soldiers  who  were  employed  in  the  Italian 
wars  by  Louis  XII  of  France,  and  who  received 
the  name  from  carrying  black  colors  after  the 
death  of  a  favorite  commander.  The  appella- 
tion was  also  assumed  for  the  same  cause  by 
'  different  Italian  and  French  troops  in  the  16th 


BANDED  PEAK,  or  MOUNT  HES- 
PERUS, a  summit  of  the  San  Juan  Mau^taia^ 
in  southern  Colorado ;  ahitud^  12,860  feeL 

BANDBLIER,  ban-di-ler,  Adolpb  Fnnds 
Alphonse,  American  archaeologist :  b.  Berne,  6 
Aug.  1840:  d.  Madrid^  19  March  1914.  Settled 
early  in  the  United  States,  where  he  did  im- 
portant work  under  the  direction  of  the  Arcbx- 
ological  Institute  of  America.  His  studies 
were  chiefly  among  the  Indians  of^  New  Mex- 


1903  he  was  engaged  for  the  remainder  of  his 
life  in  preparation  of  works  on  the  history  and 
archxolo^  of  Spanish  America.  He  is  also 
the  author  of  'An  of  War  and  Mode  of  War- 
fare* (1877);  'Social  Organiialion  and  Gov- 
ernment of  Ancient  Mexicans'  (1878);  'Ten- 
ure of  Lands  and  Inheritances  of  Ancient  Mex- 
icans* (1878)  :  <An  Archaeological  Tour  into 
Mexico*  (1885) :  a  novel  of  Pueblo  Indian  life 
<The  Delight  Makers';  'The  Gilded  Man  and 
Other  Pictures  of  the  Spanish  Occupancy  of 
America*  (1893).  He  contributed  over  60  ar- 
ticles to  the  'Catholic  Encyclopedia,'  etc. 

BANDELLO,  iAn-dil'o.  HUteo,  Italian 
novelist:  b.  (^stelnuovo  about  1480;  d.  1561. 
He  studTed  at  Rome  and  Naples  and  applied 
himself  almost  exclusively  to  polite  literature. 


In  his  youth,  he  ms  a  Domtnican  monk,  and 
was  entrusted  with  the  education  of  the  cele- 
brated Lucrezia  Gonzaga.  After  the  b«ttle  of 
Pavia  he  was  banishea  from  Italy  as  a  parti- 
san of  the  French,  and  Henry  II  of  France 
gave  him  in  ISSO  the  bishopric  of  Agen.  He 
left  the  administration  of  Lis  diocese  to  the 
bishop  of  Grasse,  and  employed  himself,  at 
the  advanced  age  of  70,  in  the  completion  of 
his  novels,  of  which  be  published  three  volumes 
in  1554;  a  fourth  was  published  in  1573,  after 
bis  death,  which  took  place  in  1561.  He  also 
published  some  poems.  His  novels  are  in  the 
style  of  Boccaccio  and  are  characterized  by  even 
^-eater  license.  His  stories,  together  with  the 
introductory  notes,  afford  a  valuable  insight 
into  the  social  customs  of  his  age.  Byron, 
Lope  de  Vega  and  Massin^r  availed  them- 
selves of  much  of  his  material.  Consult  Masi, 
E.,  'Matteo  Bandello  o  vita  italiana  in  un 
novelliere    del'    500>,    (Bologna    1900).     Ban- 


BANDXRAS,  Rio  de,  a  river  of  Mexico, 
on  the  east  coast;  so  called  (river  of  fUgs) 
because  when  discovered  in  1518  by  Juan  de 
Grijalva,  the  natives  waved  white  flags  at  the 
end  of  their  spears  in  token  of   friendship. 

BANDETTINI,  ban-dit-te'n^  Teresa, 
Italian  poet;  b.  Lucca,  12  Aug.  1763;  d.  1837. 
Beginninjf  life  as  a  danseuse,  she  (fiscovercd 
her  poetic  talent  as  if  by  accident,  and  came 
to  be  known  and  honored  in  most  ^arts  of  her 
country.  She  was  especially  gifted  in  improvis- 
-ing  verse.  She  was  called  the  Amarilla  Etrusca. 
Of  her  finished  poems  there  remain  'La  Morte 
de  Adanoide' ;  'II  Polidoro* ;  'La  Rosmunda' ; 
and  some  shorter  pieces. 

BANDICOOT.  (1)  A  large  dark-coloivd 
rat  (Netokia  bandicota)  of  southern  India  and 
Ceylon,  where  it  is  known  as'  the  'pig-rat*  on 
account  of  the  taste  of  its  flesh,  which  is  a  fa- 
vorite article  of  food  amoug  the  natives  of  the 
dry  hilly  districts  it  frequents.  As  its  food  is 
chiefly  grain  and  roots  it  does  much  harm  to 
gardens;  and  it  is  also  destructive  to  poultty. 
It  has  the  habit  of  storing  rice  in  its  under- 
ground nests  against  the  famine  of  the  dry  sea- 
son. (2)  In  Australia,  a  small  marsupial  with 
long,  narrow  head  and  muzzle  belonging  to  the 
family  Peramelida.  Many  species  are  scattered 
throughout  Australasia.  They  live  in  wann 
nests  underground,  and  feed  upon  inseclSi 
worms  and  vegetable  food.  The  hare-like 
marsupials  of  the  closely  allied  genus  PerogaU 
are  known  as  rabbit-bMidicoots,  and,  like  the 
other,  frequently  injure  vegetable  gardens. 
Consult  Gould,  'Mammals  of  Australia*  (Lon- 
don 1863). 

BANDIBRA.  bin-dt-fi'Ta  AttUlo  and 
Bmilio,  two  brothers  of  a  Venetian  fami^, 
lieutenants  in  the  Austrian  navy,  who  attempted 
a  rising  in  favor  of  Italian  independence  in 
1843.  The  attempt  was  a  failure,  and  they 
fled  to  Corfu;  but,  misled  by  false  information, 
they  ventured  to  land  in  Calabria  with  20  com- 

r ions,  believing  that  their  appearance  would 
the  signal  for  a  general  insurrection.  One 
of  their  accomplices  had  betrayed  them,  and 
the  party  was  captured  at  once  by  the  Neapoli- 
tan police.    Attilio  and  Emilio  were  shot,  along 


Google 


140 


BANDINELLI  —  BANirF 


with  seven  ol  their  comrades,  in  tbe  puMic 
square  of  Cosenza,  25  July  1844. 

BANDINELLI,  ban-d^-nil'-le,  Buda,  or 
Bartolommeo,  Italian  sculptor :  b.  Florence 
1493,  the  son  of  a  goldsmith;  d  1560.  He 
learned  his  art  under  the  sculptor  Rustid,  but 
modeled  his  style  after  that  of  Michelangelo, 
whom  he  vainly  attempted  to  rival  and  whom 
he  hated  with  life-long  hatred.  He  was  patron- 
ised by  the  Medici,  and  in  honor  of  the  pres- 
ence of  Leo  X  in  Florence  he  executed  the 
model  of  a  colossal  statue  of  Hercules  which 
was  intended  to  surpass  the  David  of  Michel' 
angelo.  Another  work  of  his  was  an  inferior 
copy  of  the  Laocoon  group  for  Francis  I.  He 
produced  also  Hercules  and  Cacus  (at  Flor- 
ence), a  somewhat  heavy  work,  88  figures  of 
apostles,  prophets  and  saints  in  the  choir  of 
the  cathedral  at  Florence,  a  Bacchus,  an  Adam 
and  Eve  in  the  Bargello,  etc 

BANDIT  (It  boKdito),  originally  an  exile, 
banished  man  or  outlaw;  and  hence,  as  per- 
sons  outlawed   frequently  adopted   the  profes- 


n  of  b 


r  highwayman, 
s  with  brigand. 


the  V 


to  be  synonjimous  with  brigand.  Of  all  Euro- 
pean countries  Italy  has  perhaps  been  most 
infested  with  banditti.  Thn*  used  to  form  a 
kind  of  society  of  themselves,  subjected  to 
strict  laws,  and  living  in  open  or  secret  war 
with  the  civil  authorities.     Peter  the  Calabrian, 


Napoleon,  'emperor  of  the  mountains,"  "king 
of  the  woods,"  'protector  of  the  conscribed,* 
and  "mediator  of  the  highways  from  Florence 
to  Naples.*  The  government  of  Ferdinand  I 
was  compelled  to  make  a  compact  with  this 
bandit.     One  of  the  robbers  entered  the  royal 


adventurers  of  all  kinds  united  with  them.  The 
Austrian  troops  which  occupied  Naples  were 
obliged  to  send  'la[^  detachments  to  repress 
them.  The  bandits  used  to  exact  from  stran- 
gers and  natives  a  sum  of  money  for  protection, 
and  give  ihem  in  return  a  letter  of  security. 
In  Sicily  the  Prince  of  Villa  Franca  declared 
himself,  from  political  and  other  views,  the 
protector  of  bandits-  he  gave  them  a  livery 
and  treated  them  with  much  confidence,  which 
they  never  abused.  Banditti  are  still  active  in 
Italy,  Sicily,  Turkey  and  elsewhere. 

BANDOLIER,  a  large  leathern  belt  or 
baldrick,  to  which  were  attached  a  bag  for 
balls  and  a  number  of  pipes  or  cases  of  wood 
or  metal  covered  with  leather,  each  containing 
a  charge  of  gunpowder.  It  was  worn  by 
ancient  musketeers,  and  hung  from  the  left 
shoulder  under  the  right  arm  with  the  ball  bag 
at  the  lower  extremity,  and  the  pipes  sus- 
pended on  either  side.  The  name  is  now  given 
to    a    similar    belt    in    which    cartridges    are 

BANDON,  Ore.,  citv  in  Coos  County,  at 
die  mouth  of  the  Coquille  River,  and  90  miles 
directly  southwest  of  Eugene.  Its  manufactures 
include  woolen  goods,  lumber,  shooks,  butter, 
dieese,  condensed  milk,  railroad  ties,  poles  and 
matchwood.  It  has  two  banks  and  an  assessed 
valuation  of  $843,893.  There  arc  two  schools 
embracing  grades  and  high  school.  The  prin- 
cipal buildings  are  the  two  local  banks,  schools, 
post-office,    hotels,    restaurants    and    hospitals. 


Bandon  has  also  a  shipyard  and  is  a  coast  guard 
sUtion.    Pop.  2,500. 

BANDON,  a  river  of  Ireland  which  rises 
in  the  Carberry  Mountains,  and  at  its  mouth 
forms  the  harbor  of  Kinsale.  Spenser  de- 
scribes it  as  *the  pleasant  Ban  don,  crowned 
by  many  a  wood.*  It  has  a  course  of  40  miles, 
for  15  of  which  it  is  navigable  to  Innishannon, 
four  miles  below  Bandon. 

BANEBERRY.    See  Act£A. 

BANER,  b4-nar^  Tohan  Giutafason,  Swed- 
ish general  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War:  b.  1596: 
d  1641.  He  made  bis  first  campaigns  in  Poland 
and  Russia,  and  accompanied  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus,  who  held  him  in  high  esteem,  to  Germany. 
After  the  death  of  Gustavus  in  1632  he  had  the 
chief  command  of  the  Swedish  army,  and  in 
1634  invaded  Bohemia,  defeated  the  Saxons  at 
Wittstockj  24  Sept.  1636,  and  took  Tot^au.  He 
ravaged  Saxony  again  in  1639,  gained  another 
victory  at  Chemnitz,  and  in  1640  defeated  Pic- 
colomini.  In  January  1641  he  very  nearly  took 
Ratisbon  by  surprise. 

BANEZ,  Dominic,  theologian:  b.   1528  in 


in  philosophy  and  theology  at  the  University 
of  Salamanca,  where  he  nad  as  teachers  tbe 
famous  Melcbior  Cano  and  Peter  and  Dom- 
inic Soto.  In  1581  he  was  appointed  professor 
in  this  university,  which  was  then  dividing  the 
honors  and  prestige  of  the  Sorbonne.  He  was 
recognized  as  one  of  the  clearest  and  niost 
acute  interpreters  of  the  'Stmuna*  of  Saint 
Thomas,  and  his  chief  works  were  commen- 
taries on  the  same.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  controversy  on  divine  grace,  predestina- 
tion, etc,  in  which  he  opposed  the  theories  of 
Molina.  For  several  years  he  acted  as  con- 
fessor to  Saint  Theresa,  and  at  his  command 
she   wrote   her   spiritual    treatise,    'Camino    de, 

BANFF,  bSmf,   Canada,   popular   pleasure 

resort  in  southwestern  Alberta,  on  the  Bow 
River  and  on  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railroad. 
It  is  picturesquely  situated  amid  the  scenery 
of  the   Rocky  Mountains,  and  contains  a  boil- 


within  the  area  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Na- 
tional Park  of  Canada.  Consult  'Banff  tn  the 
Canadian  Rockies'   (Montreal  1900). 

BANFF,     Scotland,     seaport    and    county 

town  of  Banffshire,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dev- 
eron,  SO  miles  northwest  of  Aberdeen,  on  the 
Great  North  of  Scotland  Railroad.  The  town 
is  well  built,  has  clean,  well-paved  streets  and 
contains  BanfF  Castle,  an  academy,  town  ball, 
a  museum  and  several  libraries.  In  the  neigh- 
hood  to  the  south  is  Duff  House  and  park,  the 
seat  of  the  late  Duke  of  Fife,  who  in  1906 
presented  the  house  and  the  portion  of  the 
park  surrounding  it  (about  140  acres)  to  the 
towns  of  Banff  and  Macduff.  There  is  a 
seven-arch  bridge  over  the  Deveron,  uniting 
Banff  with  the  seaport  of  Macduff.  The  prin- 
cipal manufactures  are  beer,  leather,  woolens 
and  iron  goods.  Agricultural  products,  grain, 
cattle,  salmon  and  herrings  are  exported.  The 
government  Is  vested  in  a  provost  a,nd  coun- 
cil; and  BanfF,  with  Macduff,  Elgin,  Cullen, 
Inverarie,  Kintore  and  Peteriiead  returns  oob 


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BAHVPSHIRB — BANGALORE 


141 


member  to  Parliatnent.  Banff  is  a  place  of 
great  antiquth',  its  first  charter  bavinK  been 
^ntcd  by  Malcolm  IV  in  1163,  and  further 
privileges  were  conferred  by  Robert  Bruce  in 
1324  and  Robert  II  in  1372.  Archbishop  James 
Sharp  was  bom  here  in  1618.  Consult  Cra- 
mond,  'The  Annals  of  Banff'  (Aberdeen  1893). 
Pop.  (1911)  3,821. 

BANFFSHIRE,  Scotland  a  county  in  the 
north,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Moray 
Firth,  on  the  west  by  the  county  of  Elgin  ana 
part  of_  Inverness,  on  the  south  and  east  by  the 
county 'of  Aberdeen.  The  soil  is  for  the  most 
part  a  rich  loam  or  deep  clay.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Spey  and  Deveron,  with  the  Isl^ 
a  tributary  of  ue  formEr,  and  the  Avon  and 
Fiddich  of  the  latter;  besides  which  there  are 
many  other  main  and  tributary  streams.  The 
mountains  rise  in  altitude  as  they  recede  from 
the  sea,  the  most  celebrated  beingj  Cairngorm, 
which  19  4,095  feet  hi([h.  The  pnndpa!  crops 
are  barley,  oats,  turnips  and  potatoes,  Uttle 
wheat  being  raised.  Special  attention  is  paid  to 
the  cultivation  of  turnips,  the  chief  object  of 
the  fanner  being  the  rearing  and  fee<Ung  of 
cattle.  The  total  area  of  Banffshire  is  410,000 
acres.  Nearly  two-fifths  of  the  total  surface 
is  under  cultivation,  and  about  one-fifth  is  oc- 
cupied hy  woods  and  plantations.  Since  about 
the  middle  of  the  19th  century  large  tracts  of 
formerlj;  waste  land  have  been  reclaimed. 
Fishing  is  a  staple  industry.  The  salmon  caught 
in  the  Spey  and  Dcvcron  constitute  an  im- 
portant article  of  tratHc,  the  valued  rental  of 
the  Duke  of  Richmond's  salmon  fishings  in  the 
former  being  over  $60,000  a  year.  Banffshire 
possesses  several  woolen  factories,  tanneries, 
rope  and  sail  works,  ship-building  yards,  brew- 
enes.  lime  works  and  many  distilleries,  the 
whisKey  being  generally  known  under  the  name 
of  Glenlivet,  after  a  glen  in  the  countj;.  Among 
the  natural  productions  limestone  is  the  most 
prevalent.  Serpentine  also  abounds  in  several 
places,  especially  at  Portsoy,  where  it  is  known 
as  'Portsoy  marble*;  it  is  wrought  into  vases 
and  other  ornaments.  Ironstone  and  manga- 
nese also  occur,  and  Scotch  topazes  or  cairn- 
gorm stones  are  found  on  the  mountains  in 
the  south  of  the  county.  The  chief  towns  and 
villages  are  Banff,  Uacduff,  Keith  and  Buckie. 
Pop.  (1911)  61,402. 

BANFPY,  Baron  DCBiderias,  HuiKarian 
statesman :  b.  Koloisvar,  Hungary,  18*t ;  d. 
Budapest,  23  May  1911.  He  went  into  politics 
as  a  TOrtisan  of  Koloman  Tisza,  who  gave  him 
an  official  post  in  1875.  In  1833  he  was  ap- 
pointed administrator  of  the  Bistritz-Nasiod 
district,  where  he  actively  pursued  the  policy 
of  Magyarising  the  non-Hagyar  inhabitants. 
He  became  president  of  the  lower  House  of 
'  the  Hun^tian  Rdchstag  in  1892  and  Prime 
Minister  m  1895.  In  that  capacity  he  secured 
the  i»ssage  of  the  dvil  marriage  and  divorce 
bills  in  the  face  of  violent  clerical  opposition, 
and  renewed' the  Ausglcich  with  Austria,  but 
it  was  not  ratified  l:^  the  Austrian  legisla- 
ture ;  andj  as  he  had  meanwhile  won  a  gen- 
eral election  by  official  pressure  unparalleled 
even  in  Hungary,  he  encountered  still  more 
strenuous  opposition  and  was  replaced  by  Herr 
von  Szcll  in  1899.  Most  of  BaaSy's  followers 
were  defeated  in  the  1901  elections;  but  he 
rctunied  to  public  life  in  1903  and  took  a  very 


active  part,  as  an  extreme  Nationalist,  in  com- 
bating Count  Tisza  during  the  latter* s  premier- 
ship in  1904-06.  The  elections  of  1906  left 
him  with  only  II  followers,  most  of  them 
more  or  less  independent,  and  from  then  till 
his  death  he  took  but  little  part  in  politics. 

BANG,  a  drink.    See  Bangue. 

BANG,  bang,  Bcmbard  Laurita  Fredcrik, 
Danish  scientist:  b.  1848.  He  is  professor  of 
pathology  and  therapy  in  the  Roval  Veteri- 
nary and  Agricultural  College,  Copennagen.  He 
has  made  extetisive  researches  in  veterinary 
science,  especially  in  regard  to  contagious  abor- 
tion and  tuberculosis.  In  1892  he  originated 
his  method  of  eradicating  tuberculosis  from 
dairy  herds  W  isolating  mildly  affected  ani- 
mals and  artificially  feeding  their  calves  with 
milk  free  from  tubercle  bacilli.  The  results 
have  been  favorable  in  Denmark,  Norway  and 
Sweden.  In  1896  Bang,  in  conjunction  with 
Striboll,  discovered  the  cause  of  contagious 
abortion  in  cattle,  and  has  since  devoted  much 
Study  to  its  treatment  and  the  possibility  of 
immunizing  herds.  He  has  published  many 
articles  on  professional  topics  in  the  leading 
veterinary  and  other  scienbfic  journals  of  the 


ist:  .        ,    _    

Bang  first  came  into  literary  notice  about  1879, 
since  which  time  he  has  published  a  num- 
ber of  novels  and  some  poems.  'Hopeless 
Generations*  (Haabiose  Sicker);  'Eccentric 
Tales'  (Excentriske  Noveller) ;  'Under  the 
Yoke>  (Under  Aaget);  < Ten  Years >  (Ti  Aar)  ; 
and  'By  the  Roadside'  (Ved  Veien),  are  the 
titles  of  some  of  them.  The  last  named  is 
considered  the  masterpiece.  A  collection  of  his 
works,  edited  by  Etta  Fedem,  has  been  pub- 
lished  in    German    (1910). 

BANG,  Feder  Georg,  Danish  jurist  and 
statesman:  b.  Copenhagen  1797;  d.  1861.  He 
became  professor  of  law  at  the  University  of 
Copenhagen  in  1830  and  took  an  active  interest 
in  politics,  holding  several  offices  in  his  native 
city  and  becoming  several  times  Minister  of 
Agriculture  and  Minister  of  the  Interior.  In 
1854  he  became  Prime  Minister,  and  later  was 
Supreme  Court  justice.  He  published  'Lare- 
bog  i  de  til  den  romerske  privat  Ret  hen- 
horende  Discipliner'  (2  vols..  1833-35),  and 
'Systcmatisk  Fremstilling  af  den  danske  Pro- 
cesmaade',  with  J.  C.  Larsen  (5  vols.,  1841-43). 

BANGALORE,  ban^-lor',  Hindustan,  a 
fortified  town  in  Uie  native  state  of  Mysore, 
70  miles  northeast  of  Seringapatam.  It  stands 
on  a  plateau  3,000  feet  above  sea-level,  and  is 
divided  into  two  parts,  the  old  native  town 
and  the  cantonments.  The  chief  buildings  are 
the  government  house  (where  the  British  resi- 
dent hves),  and  the  new  public  offices,  the  pal- 
ace of  the  maharajah,  the  central  jmI,  etc 
There  is  a  fine  public  pleasure-garden.  In  the 
old  town  stands  the  fort,  reconstructed  by 
Hyder  Ali  in  1761  and  captured  by  Lord  Com- 
wallis  in  1791.  Latterly  the  town  has  greatly 
prospered.  There  are  manufactures  of  silks, 
cotton  cloth,  carpets,  etc.  Bangalore  is  noted 
for  its  salubrity.  There  are  a  number  of  Euro- 
pean educational  institutions,  and  the  chief, 
the  hisj]  school  of  the  province,  is  well  at- 
tended.    The  military  cantonment,  housins  k 


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142 


BANOB— BANGOR 


large  Britisli  and  narive  force,  is  to  the  north- 
east.    Pop.  (1911)   189,485. 

BANGE,  banzh,  Valennd  de,  French  artil- 
lery colonel ;  b.  Balignicourt  1833.  In  1873,  as 
director  of  the  atelier'de-pr^sion  in  the  Cen- 
tral Dipot  at  Paris,  he  reconstructed  both  the 
li^t  and  heavy  £eld  pieces  of  the  day,  and 
bis  models  were  adopted  by  the  French  army 
in  1879.  In  1884  he  was  uie  successful  com- 
petitor with  Knipp  for  the  contract  to  supply 


tion,  whose  establishments  at  Dcnain,  Douai 
and  Crenelle  he  converted  into  ordnance  fac- 
tories. His  grni  has  been  preferred  also  by 
England,  Sweden  and  Italy.  In  I88S  at  the 
Antwerp  Exposition  be  made  a  13^-inch  gun, 
35  feet  long;  from  which  were  fired  two  pro- 
jectiles uF  1,320  pounds,  employing  charges  of 
440  pounds  of  powder,  and  with  a  range  of 
about  12  miles.  The  gun  burst  at  the  third 
discharge.  He  was  the  first  to  employ  effect- 
ively the  screw  principle  in  the  mechanism  of 
the  breech  bloct,  «nd  his  gas  check,  which 
prevents  the  escape  of  gases,  is  now  generally 
used  in  all  guns  of  the  screw  breech-block  ty^e. 
See  Ordnance.  Consult  Hennebert,  <L'Artil- 
Icrie  Krupp  et  I'artillerie  de  Bange*  (1886). 

BANGKOK,  or  BANKOK,  Siam,  capital 
of  the  kingdom,  extending  for  three  or  lour 
miles  on  both  sides  of  the  Menam,  which  falls 
into  the  Gulf  of  Siam  about  15  miles  below.  It 
consists  of  three  parts  — the  town  proper,  the 
floating  town  and  the  royal  palaces  The  town 
proper  occupies  an  island  seven  or  eight  miles 
in  circuit,  and  is  surrounded  with  walls  and 
bastions ;  situated  in  the  midst  of  gardens  and 
luxuriant  foli^e,  it  presents  a  very  picturesque 
appearance.  The  floating  town  consists  of 
wooden  houses  erected  on  bamboo  rafts 
moored  to  the  bank  in  rows  eight  or  more  deep 
The  palace,  occupying  an  island  in  the  river, 
is  surrounded  by  high  walls.  Though  the  ^en- 
eral  character  of  the  buildings  is  not  imposmg, 
numerous  temples,  glittering  with  gilding  and 
terminating  in  lofty  spires,  are  seen  in  many 
quarters.  The  approach  to  Bangkok  by  the 
Menam,  which  can  be  navigated  bjr  ships  of 
350  tons'  burden  (large  sea-going  ships  anchor 
at  Paknam,  below  the  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river),  is  exceedingly  beautiful.  As  the  town 
is  neared,  numerous  temples  present  themselves, 
and  floating  houses  become  common,  and  finally 
the  whole  dty,  with  its  rich  gardens  and  shin- 
ing tem^es  and  palaces,  bursts  full  upon  the 
view.  The  royal  palaces,  noblemen's  houses, 
monasteries  and  dwellings  of  Europeans  are  oi 
stone,  and  much  modem  improvement  has  re- 
sulted in  the  extension  of  well  laid-out  streets, 
lined  by  brick  houses,  electrically  lighted,  and 
traversed  by  electric  street  railroads.  Four 
lines  of  steam  railroad  connect  with  the  prov- 
inces. The  circumference  of  the  walls  of 
Bangkok,  which  are  15  to  30  feet  high  and  12 
broad,  is  about  6  miles.  Bangkok  is  the  con- 
stant residence  of  the  king.  The  palace  is 
surrounded  by  high  walls  and  is  nearly  a  mile 
in  circumference.  It  includes  temples,  public 
oflices,  accommodation  for  officiafs  and  for 
some  thousand  soldiers,  with  their  necessary 
equipments,  a  theatre,  apartments  for  a  crowd 
or  female  attendants  and  several  Buddhist 
temples   or  chapels.     Several   of   the   famous 


white  elephants  are  kept  in  the  courtyard  of 
the  palace.  Throughout  the  interior  are  dis- 
tributed the  most  costly  articles  in  gold,  silver 
and  precious  stones.  The  temples  of  Bangkok 
are  innumerable,  and  decorated  in  the  most 
goi^eous  style,  the  Siamese  taking  a  pride  in 
^vishing  their  wealth  on  them.  In  the  neigfa- 
borhooa  of  Bangkok  are  iron  mines  and  for- 
ests of  teakwood.  The  trad^bodi  inland  and 
forei^  is  very  extensive.  The  foreign  trade 
of  Slam  centres  in  Bangkok  and  is  mainly  in 
the  hands  of  the  Europeans  and  Chinese.  The 
chief  exports,  rice,  sugar,  pepper,  cardamoms, 
sesame,  hides,  fine  woods,  ivory,  feathers  and 
edible  birds'  nests,  have  reached  a  total  annual 
value  of  over  $21,000,000.  The  imports  are 
tea,  manufactured  silks,  and  piece  goods. 
opium,  hardware,  machinery  and  glass-wares, 
valued  annuativ  at  over  $16,800,00a  The 
United  States  nas  a  resident  consular  agent. 
The  population  is  about  500,000.  nearly  half  of 
whom  are  Chinese,  the  others  incluifi:^  Bur- 
mese, Annamese,  Cambodians,  Malays,  Eura- 
sians and  Europeans.  Bangkok  was  an 
unimportant  river  village  prior  to  1769,  when 
it  was  selected  by  King  Paya  Tak  for  his 
capital 

BANGOR,  Ireland,  seaport  towi^  coun^ 
Down,  situated  on  an  acclivity  on  the  south 
side  of  Belfast  Laugh,  four  miles  northwest  of 
Donaghadee  and  12  miles  east  of  Belfast  It 
consists  of  three  principal  and  several  smaller 
streets,  and  has  an  Episcopal  church,  a  Meth- 
odist and  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel,  and  two 
Presbyterian  churches ;  an  endowed  school,  six 
national  schools,  a  Protestant  hall  and  a  branch 
of  the  Belfast  Bank.  The  male  population  is 
chiefly  employed  in  seafaring  pursuits,  the 
females  in  hand-sewing  in  all  its  branches.  It 
has  manufactures  of  embroidered  musUns  and 
linen  goods.  Bangor  is  a  favorite  bathing 
resort  Bangor  Abbey,  a  free  school,  taught 
by  the  monks,  was  founded  by  Saint  Congall 
in  555  A.D  and  had  3,000  students  in  the  9th 
century,  when  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes. 
The  parish  church  now  occupies  the  site.  Con- 
sult Healy,  'Ireland's  Ancient  Schools  and 
Scholars>   (1890). 

BANOOR,  Me.,  the  chief  city  of  eastern 
Maine,  is  a  port  of  entiy  and  the  seat  of  Penob- 
scot County.  The  dty  is  on  the  west  bajik  of 
the  Penobscot  River,  across  its  affluent  the  Ken- 
duskeag,  and  at  the  bead  of  navigation,  about 
28  miles  from  Penobscot  Bay.  It  is  on  the 
Maine  Central,  Bangor  &  Aroostook  and  several 
other  raiIroa<b,  with  steam  and  electric  lines 
radiating  in  all  directions:  is  on  the  main  line 
from  Boston  to  Saint  ^obn  and  HalifajL,  and 
also  has  direct  steamship  connection  with  Bos- 
ton, being  the  terminus  of  the  Bangor  Division 
oi  the  Eastern  Steamship  Company.  Bangor  is 
76  miles  northeast  of  Augusta,  137  miles  north- 
east of  Portland  and  246  miles  from  Boston. 
Pop.   (1914),  26^061. 

Trade  snd  Commerce,— Situated  near  the 
geographical  centre  of  Maine  and  at  the  head 
of  navigation  on  the  largest  river  of  the  State; 
Bangor  occupies  a  highly  favored  position  and 
one  destined  to  be  even  more  commanding  with 
the  growth  and  development  of  the  expan^ve 
territory  north  and  east  and  tributary  to  her. 
As   the  shire  town  of  Penobscot  County,  as 


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IM 


■be  trade  centre  and  shipping  point  of  a  large 
and  rich  agricaltural  section  and  for  many 
ihriving  industrial  communities ;  as  a  p<nnt  of 
convergence  for  numerous  important  railway 
and  steamship  lines,  and  a  consequent  tarrying 
place  for  great  numbers  of  tourists,  snortsmen 
and  commeroal  travelers;  these  together  with 
the  busy  cosunerce  of  its  port,  the  metropoli- 
tan character  of  its  hotels  and  the  compact- 
ness of  its  business  section,  give  to  the  dty 
a  much    more  populous  appearance   than  the 

S'ven  figures  would  indicate.  Bangor  has  a 
le  harbor,  casi^  accessible  for  vessels  of 
large  size.  Although  nearly  30  miles  from 
tlie  bay  and  60  miles  frcMu  Qie  ocean,  the  tide 
rises  about  17  feet,  and  there  is  a  sufficient 
depth  of  water  to  float  the  largest  of  ocean 
steamships.  The  Penobscot  River,  whose  waters 
unite  with  those  of  the  bay  of  the  same  name; 
is  a  noble  water  hi(^way,  rising  300  miles 
away  amid  the  mountains  and  forests  of  north- 
western Maine.  In  the  8,200  square  miles 
drained  by  the  Penobscot  there  arc  1,604  tribu- 
tary streams  indicated  on  the  State  map,  and 
46/  lakes  and  ponds.  Bangor  is  one  of  the 
greatest  lumber  markets  in  the  North,  there 
being  tributary  to  the  city  the  great  forests 
of  spruce  traversed  by  the  Penobscot  and  down 
which  the  logs  are  floated;  and  has  every  sort 
of  manufactoiy  of  wood  and  allied  products, — 
saw,  planing,  wood  pulp,  and  molding  mills; 
factories  of  lumiture,  carriages,  trunks,  valises, 
agricultural  implements,  boots,  shoes  and  moc- 


and  pork-padang  establi^ments.  Ice-cutting 
is  also  an  important  industiy,  Penobscot  ice 
beii^   exceptionally   pure. 

HantifactureB  and  Induttries.— Bangor's 
manufacturing  establishments  number  in  the 
vicinity  of  300,  embracing  about  100  different 
kinds  of  industries  and  employing  several 
thousand  hands.  These  figures  are,  however, 
inade<^aate  to  correctly  portray  the  city's  raanu- 
factunng  interests,  as  many  of  the  important 
establistunents  are  outside  the  city's  limits. 
Therefore,  while  the  manufactures  of  these 
mills  are  purely  Bangor  products,  the  plants 
themselves  and  most  of  the  employees  belong 
properly  to  other  towns.  In  recent  years  pulp 
ana  paper  manufacturing  has  made  great  ad- 
vance and  numerous  pulp  and  paper  mills  are 
now  in  operation  along  the  Penobscot,  from 
those  of  the  Eastern  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany at  South  Brewer  to  the  immense  plant  of 
dte  Great  Northern  Paper  Company  at  Milli- 

In  recent  years  diversified  manufactures 
have  been  multiplying  and  many  and  varied 
are  the  products  ot  these  establishments.  Here 
is  located  a  trunk  manufacturing  establish- 
ment which  shipped  recently  a  whole  train- 
'  load  of  trunks,  the  largest  shipment  of  trunks 
ever  made  by  one  manufacturer  in  this  country 
or  the  world.  There  are  located  here  great 
wood-working  plants  from  whence  ^o  all  over 
die  country  the  finest  designs  in  intenor  decora- 
tions and  architectural  wood- working.  The 
United  Stales  census  of  1914  recorded  122 
manufacturing  establishments  employing  1,614 
persons,   of  whom   1,2)0  were  w^e   earners. 


this,  $1,605,000  was  the  value  added  by  manu- 

Bangor  is  a  tnide  centre  for  eight  counties, 
and  is  connected  with  their  principal  places  by 
steam  or  electric  roads,  or  by  water  communica- 

Banks,  etc. — Bangor  has  three  national 
banks,  two  savings  banks,  two  trust  and  bank- 
ing companies,  two  loan  and  building  associa- 
tions and  two  Durine  insurance  companies. 
There  are  two  daily  papers  and  several  weekly 
and  monthly  publications.  There  is  a  Chamber  of 
Commerce  with  attractive  rooms  at  the  city 
hall.  The  Kenduskeag,  flowing  through  the 
centre  of  die  city,  b  spanned  by  several  bridges, 
and  the  city  is  connected  with  Brewer  across 
the  Penobscot  by  a  bridge  1,300  feet  long.  A 
dam  across  the  Penobscot  just  above  the  city 
furnishes  water  supply  and  power,  the  ci^ 
owning  both  its  waterworks  and  munidp^ 
lighting  plant  The  assessed  property  valua- 
tion of  Bangor  is  $24^00,000. 

Buildings,  ctc^  The  city  has  a  fine  granite 
custom-house  and  post-office,  the  county  court- 
house which  is  a  credit  to  the  great  county  of 
Penobscot,  of  wiuch  Bangor  is  the  shire  town. 
Bangor's  dty  hall  —  the  Hersey  memorial  build- 
ing— is  an  imposing  edifice  which  refleifls 
credit  upon  the  city.  Bangor  suffered  a  $4,000,- 
000  conflagration  in  1911  but  the  dty  has 
wholly  recovered  and  the  new  buildings  are 
modem  and  substantial  structures.  The  Ban^r 
public  library  is  one  of  the  foremost  institu- 
tions of  its  kind.  Tl}e.  Bangor  Auditorium 
Assodation  has  erected  the  largest  building  of 
its  kind  in  the  Stale,  and  here  each  fall  are 
held  the  eastern  Maine  musical  festivals.  The 
Eastern  Maine  General  Hospital  is  one  of  the 
important  institutions  here  and  Bangor  is  also 
the  home  of  die  Bangor  State  Hospital  for  the 
Insane.  The  Bangor  Theological  Seminary  is 
a  time-honored  institution  of  learning,  and  only 
nine  miles  away  in  the  town  of  Orono  is  the 
University  of  Maine,  the  law  school  of  which 
is  located  in  Bangor. 

GoTemmettt. —  Bangor  received  a  city  char- 
ter 12  Feb.  1834.  The  city  seal  is  typical,  the 
rising  sun  in  the  background  illustrating  the 
Sunnse  State,  and  the  spruce  tree  in  the  centre 
portraying. the  great  lumber  interests,  while  in 
the  immediate  foreground  are  gear  wheel, 
anchor  and  plow,  emblematie  of  manufactures, 
commerce  and  agriculture.  The  government  is 
vested  in  a  mayor,  who  is  elected  annually,  and 
a  council  divided  into  two  chambers.  The  dty 
has  seven  wards,  and  one  alderman  and  three 
coundlmcn  are  chosen  annually  from  each 
ward,  the  dty  government  comprising  the 
mayor,  seven  aldermen  and  21  councilmen. 
Most  of  the  appointments  and  administration 
offices  are  subject  to  the  control  of  the  mayor 
and  dty  counal, 

Historr, —  Bangor's  present  site  was  in  the 
early  days  the  camping-ground  of  the  Tarra- 
tines,  a  famous  tribe  of  Indians.  It  was  in  1769 
that  Jacob  Buswdl,  Bai^for's  first  white  settler, 
came  here  from  Massachusetts.  He  was  a 
hunter  and  boatbuilder,  and  established  his  home 
near  the  site  of  Saint  John's  Roman  Catholic 
Church  The  place  was  for  a  time  known  as 
Kadesquit,  afterward  as  Condeskeag,  and  later 
as  Kenduskeag.  The  locality  bad  been  visited 
by  the  French  as  early  as'  1605,  and  was  one  of 
the  many  places  identified  widi  the  mythical 


.Google 


IM 


Nonimbcga.  Kendiukeag  plantatioa  was  CHily 
a  small  hamlet  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution 
and  durinR  the  time  when  the  British  had  con- 
trol of  the  river  the  hardships  were  severe.  At 
the  instigation  of  Rev.  Seth  Noble,  Bangot's 
first  clergyman,  the  name  of  Kenduskeag  was 
finally  abandoned  and  Sunbury  adopted.  Wilh 
the  growth  of  the  place  the  people  became  im* 
patient  of  the  plantation  organization  and  dele- 
gated Parson  Noble  to  proceed  to  the  General 
Court  at  Boston  and  secnre  an  act  of  incorpora- 
tion. Minister  Noble  was  a  great  lover  of 
music,  and  the  hymn  tone  of  Bangor  was  such 
a  favorite  with  him  thai  that  name  was  substi- 
tuted for  SunbutT  and  tbe  act  incorporating  the 
town  of  Bangor  was  passed  25  Feb.  1791. 

Bangor  early  gave  attention  to  the  matter 
of  improving  her  transportation  facilities,  and 
she  had  her  railroad  when  most  of  the  proud 
cities  of  to-day  knew  nothing  of  such  things. 
As  early  as  1636  her  enterprising  citizens  built 
a  railroad  to  Old  TowtL  a  dozen  miles  up  the 
river,  with  a  view  of  aimng  the  development  of 
her  natural  resources ;  and  this,  one  of  the  ear- 
liest railroads  in  America,  prospered  for  nearly 
a  third  of  a  century.  Not  only  did  the  dty 
have  one  of  the  first  railroads  in  the  country 
but  the  pioneer  iron  steamship  constructed  in 
America  was  built  to  run  to  this  port  and  bore 
the  name  Bangor.  She  was  built  in  1845  on 
the  Delaware,  her  owners  being  the  Bangor 
Steam  Navigation  Company  of  Maine,  and  she 
was  designed  for  passenger  and  fraght  service 
between    Boston   and   Bangor.      Witun    recent 

gars,  through  the  enterprise  of  some  of 
anger's  pubuc- spirited  meti,  Aroostook  County 
has  been  brought  into  direct  railroad  commu- 
nication with  Bangor  through  the  construction 
of  the  Bangor  &  Aroostook  Railroad,  this  sys- 
tem having  numerous  branches  to  important 
points  in  northern  Maine,  it  having  also  ab- 
sorbed the  Bangor  &  Piscataquis  Railroad.  In 
recent  years  there  has  been  no  more  important 
railroad  enterprise  inauguated  in  New  England 
than  that  of  the  Bangor  &  Aroostook,  and  under 
its  enterprising  and  iirogressive  management  it 
has  become  a  potential  factor  in  the  develop- 
ment of  Bangor  and  the  immense  territory 
stretching  to  the  northward.  Bangor  business 
men,  ever  alert  to  adopt  the  newest  methods, 
inaugurated  in  this  dty  the  first  electric  rail- 
road in  Maine  and  more  recently  electric  roads 
have  been  constructed  reaching  Hampden  and 
South  Brewer  on  the  south  and  Old  Town  and 
Qiarleston  on  the  north.  These  electric  lines 
bring  Bangor  and  the  territory  immediately  con- 
tiguous into  close  touch,  and  the  benefits  accru- 
iag  therefrom  are  far-reactung. 

Located  as  the  city  is,  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  imperial  Penobscot,  at  its  junction  with  the 
less  pretentious  Kenduskeag,  the  business  is 
largely  iti  the  valley,  while  the  surrounding 
heights  afford  picturesque  sites  for  residences. 
The  diversified  aspect  is  heightened  by  the 
wealth  of  trees  along  the  residential  streets,  and 
few  localities  are  to  be  found  with  greater 
scenic  attractions.  From  the  highlands  over- 
looking the  dty  the  view  is  particularly  fine, 
the  mountains  which  fill  the  eastern  horizon 
making  a  fitting  background  to  the  picture.  The 
Kenduskeag  has,  through  much  of  its  course, 
very  precipitous  banks,  a  notable  illustration 
being  (he  historic  Lover's  Leap,  a  tnile  above 


the  d^;  and  akmg  this  ^cturcsqiie  stream  are 
iiuimierable  gems  of  scenic  bcanfy. 

Bangor  enjoys  the  imique  distinction  of 
being  the  only  place  of  its  size  on  the  globe 
where  salmon  ny-fishing  can  be  successfully 
practised  witiun  the  dor's  limits,  and  in  one 
season  a  Bangor  iimtber  manufacturer  brought 
to  the  gaS  and  successfully  landed  27  salmon, 
aggregating  500  pounds  in  wei^it  The  Bangor 
salmon  pool,  whence  are  taken  all  the  salmon 
caught  with  a  fly  on  the  Penobscot,  is  situated 
about  a  mile  above  the  dty  and  hist  below  the 
falls  that  span  the  river  at  the  Bangor  watcr- 
worics  dam. 

Bangor  is  the  home  of  many  sportsmen  and 
is  the  headquarters  in  this  section  for  sports- 
men's supplies  of  all  descriptions.  Nearly  all 
the  parties  of  sportsmen  who  in  the  season  visit 
the  great  wilderness  of  northern  and  eastern 
Maine  make  this  their  rendervoui  and  procure 
their  outfits  here.  Moose  and  deer  are  multi- 
plying rajndlv  as  the  result  of  wise  game  laws, 
and   Maine  is   truly   the   sportsmen's   paradise. 

Popnlatioii.— In  the  year  1800  the  popula- 
tion of  Bangor  was  277,  Fn>m  1830  to  1834 
Bangor  expanded  rapidly  and  when  in  the 
latter  year  a  city  charter  was  adopted  the  popu- 
lation was  about  8,000.  The  census  for  1900 
save  Bangor  a  population  of  21,850;  tbe  popu- 
&tion  in  1910  was  24,803,  and  with  the  towns 
immediately  environing  including  the  d^  of 
Brewer  across  the  river,  about  50,000. 

BANGOR,  North  Wales,  episcopal  dty 
and  parliamentary  boroagfa,  in  Carnarvonshire, 
near  the  northern  entrance  to  the  Menaj  Strait, 
nine  miles  northeast  of  Carnarvon  and  60  mites 
west  of  Chester.  It  consists  chiefly  of  one 
})rindpal  street  about  a  mile  in  length,  nestling 
in  a  narrow  valley,  but  there  is  also  a  higher 
and  more  modern  quarter  called  Upper  Bangor, 
overlooking  the  strait.  Two  miles  to  the  west 
the  Menai  suspension  bridge  and  Stephenson's 
famous  Britannia  tubular  bridge  one  mile  to 
the  south  span  the  Menai  Strait  The  prindpal 
public  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  the  Ushop's 
palace,  deanery  house.  University  Collie  of 
North  V/ales,  training  college  for  teachers,  etc. 
Bangor  is  the  oldest  bishopric  of  Wales,  hav- 
ing Been  founded  \n  Saint  Deiniol  in  550  a.d. 
He  built  a  cathedral,  which  the  Saxons  demol- 
ished in  1071,  and  the  new  edifice,  completed  in 
1102,  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1402.  "The  pres- 
ent structure  was  in  building  in  1496-1S32;  it 
is  of  cruciform  design,  214  by  60  feet,  and  has 
a  tower  60  feet  in  heighL  Modern  improve- 
ments have  been  freely  introduced.  There  are 
plants  for  gas  and  electric  lighting  and  a  free 
public  library.  There  are  numerous  educational 
institutions,  including  the  University  College  of 
North  Wales.  Independent,  Baptist  and  Normal 
colleges.  The  muniupality  was  incorporated  in 
1883.  The  chief  local  trade  is  through  the  Pea-  - 
rhyn  slate  quarries,  in  which  3,000  wage  earners 
are  employed.  The  annual  fairs  are  thronged 
with  buyers  and  sellers.  "The  fact  that  the  har- 
bor is  not  suited  to  large  vessels  makes  the 
trade  by  sea  of  small  proportions.  Pop.  about 
11,500. 

BANGOR,  Pa.,  borough  of  Northampton 
County,  15  miles  north  of  Easton;  on  the  Ban- 
gor and  Portland  and  New  Jersey  Central  rail- 
ways. There  are  numerous  slate-quarries,  silk 
mills,  machine  shops,  and  the  products  of  the 

., I,.. 1.,  Google 


BANGOR  THBOLOOICAL  SBUINARY  —  BANIAN 


slatc-nults,  etc.,  find  an  extensive  market.  Ban- 
gor was  settled  in  1760  and  incorporated  in 
1875.    Pop.  (1910)  5,369. 

BANGOR  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY 
(Coneregationat).  Originated  with  the  Society 
for  Theological  Education,  which  was  estab- 
lished in  Portland  in  1811  and  chartered  in 
1812.  The  seminary  was  chartered  by  the  le^s- 
lalure  of  Massachusetts,  of  which  Maine  was 
then  a  province,  25  Feb.  1814 ;  opened  at 
Hampden  in  1816;  removed  to  Bangor  in  1819, 
and  graduated  its  first  class  2  Aug.  1820.  It 
was  founded  to  provide  an  educated  ministry 
for  northern  New  England,  then  frontier 
country  and  being  rapidiv  settled.  It  was  first 
formed  on  the  f&n  of  Ue  English  Dissenters' 
schools  vrith  Iwo  years'  classical  and  two  years' 
theological  instruction.  In  1627  it  was  reorgan- 
ized on  the  American  plan  of  a  three  years' 
(faeologicai  course.  It  is  governed  by  an  inde- 
pendent   board    of    trustees,^  having    only    a 


five  ana  a  librarian,  besides  a  varying  number 
of  lecturers.  It  has  real  estate  valued  at  $100,- 
000,  about  $300,000  worth  of  productive  endow- 
ment, including  about  ^,000  of  scholarship 
funds,  and  $10,000  as  fund  for  the  board  lec- 
tDTcship,  the  latter  providing  two  courses  of 
lectures  on  scientific  and  cultural  subjects  each 
year.  An  annual  event  of  wide  inHuence  is 
'Convocation  Week,"  consisting  of  four  courses 
of  five  lectures  by  me  foremost  men  of  affairs, 
and  free  to  the  public.  The  seminary  is  open 
to  students  of  any  denomination  and  is  largely 

Stronized  by  other  than  Gingregationaltsts. 
the  first  100  years  of  its  history,  just  clos- 
ing, it  has  graduated  935  men,  educated  for  a 
year  or  more  320  others,  furnished  a  very  large 
proportion  of  the  Congregational  ministers  now 
or  in  the  past  active  in  Maine,  sent  score*  of 
ministers  to  the  churches  outside  Maine  and 
many  missionaries  to  all  quarters  of  the  globe. 

BANGORIAN  CONTKOVBRSY,  a  con- 
trover^  stirred  up  by  a  sermon  preacjied  be- 
fore George  I  in  1717,  by  Dr.  Hoadly,  bishop 
of  Bangor,  from  the  text  'My  kingdom  is  not 
of  tliis  world*  —  in  which  the  bishop  contended 
in  the  most  pronounced  manner  for  the  spirit- 
oal  nature  of  Oirisl's  kingdom.  The  contro- 
versy was  carried  on  with  great  heat  for 
■nany  years  and  resulted  in  an  enormous  col- 
lection of  pami^lets.    See  Hoadly,  Benjauin. 

BANGS,  John  Kendrick,  American  humor- 
Ul  and  editor :  b.  Yonkers,  N.  Y..  27  May  1862. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Lift,  and  has 
long  been  famed  for  his  light  verse  and  humor- 
ous stories,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
•Coffee  and  Repartee'  (1886)  ;  'New  Waggings 
of  Old  Tales,>  with  F.  D.  Sherman  (1887); 
'The  Idiot'  (1895)  ;  'Mr.  Bonaparte  of  Corsi- 
M>  (1895);  'Water  Ghost  and  Other  Stories,' 
'The  Mantel-Piece  Minstrels,'  'The  Bicyclers 
and  Other  Farces,'  <A  Houseboat  on  the  Styx,' 
and  <A  Rebellious  Heroine'  (1896) ;  'The  Pur- 
suit of  the  Houseboat>  (1897);  'Enchanted 
Typewriter'  (1899);  'Uncle  Sam,  Trustee' 
(1902);  'Andiron  Tales'  (1908);  'The  Foot- 
hills of  Pamasnis'  (1914)  ;  and  'Lady  Teazle,* 
a  musical  comedy  version  of  'The  School  for 
Scandal.'  He  became  editor  of  Harper's 
Wttkly  in  1900.  of  the  MelropoHtan  Magasine 


BANGS,  Lemuel  Bolton,  American  pby^- 
cian:  b.  New  York,  9  Aug.  1842;  d.  New  York, 
7  Oct.  1914.  He  was  graduated  from  the  Col- 
lege of  Physicians  ana  Surgeons  in  1872;  was 
professor  of  geni to-urinary  diseases  in  the 
Post-Graduate  Medical  School  and  Hospital  of 
New  York,  and  Uter  at  Bellevue  Hospital  Med- 
ical College,  and  was  consulting  surgeon  to  va- 
rious hospitals  in  New  York.  He  was  presi- 
dent of  tbe  American  Association  of  Genito- 


BANGS,  Nntbao,  American  dei^yman 
and  author:  b.  Stratford,  C«nn.,  2  May  1778; 
d.  New  York,  3  May  1862.  He  entered  the 
Methodist  ministry  in  I80I,  preached  for  some 
years  in  Canada  and  removed  to  New  York  in 
1810.  In  1820  he  became  head  of  the  Metho- 
dist Book  Concern,  which  he  reorganized  thor- 
oughly, nayin^  off  its  debts,  extending  its  busi- 
iiess  and  putting  it  on  a  paying  basis.  He  was 
also  charged  with  the  censorship  of  all  its  pub- 
lications. In  1829  he  declined  the  bishopric  of 
Canada.  He  edited  the  Christian  Advocate  and 
the  Methodist  Magazine;  was  founder  and  sec- 
retary of  the  Methodist  Missionai7_  Society; 
president  of  Wcsleyan  University,  Middletown, 
CoiHi.,  in  1841 ;  and  in  pastoral  work  from  1842 
until  his  retirement  in  1852.  His  chief  work 
was  'A  History  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  1776-1&I0'  (4  vols,,  1839-42);  others 
are  'Errors  of  Hopkinsianism'  (1815);  'Pre- 
destination Examined'  (1817)  ;  'Original  Church 
of  Christ*  (1836)  ;  'State  and  Responsibflitiej 
of  the  Mediodist  Episcopal  Church'  (1850). 
Consult  his  life  by  A.  Stevens'  (New  York 
1863). 

BANGUE,  or  BANG,  a  drink  much  used 
throi^hout  the  East  as  a  means  of  intoxication, 
prepared  from  the  dried  leaves  of  the  Indian 
hemp,  which  are  also  called  by  this  name.  See 
Hashish. 

BANGUBD,  bfin-gld',  Philippines,  the  cap* 
ital  of  the  province  of  Abra,  Luzon,  236  miles 
north  of'  Manila.    Fop.  about  13,500. 

BANGWEOLO,  bii^wS-dlS  (also  called 
Bemba),  a  great  central  African  lake,  discov- 
ered by  Livingstone  in  1868,  which  is  150  miles 
long  by  75  wide,  and  3,700  feet  above  the  sea. 
The  C^ambeze,  which  flows  into  it,  and  the 
Luapula,  which  issues  from  it,  constitute  the 
head'Slream  of  the  Kongo.  The  shores  arc 
flat,  and  parts  of  the  lake  are  mere  marsh.  In 
the  northwestern  part  are  four  large  islands 
inhabited  by  the  Mno^wa,  a  race  of  fishermen 
and  herdsmen.  On  its  southern  shore  Living- 
stone died 

BANIAN,  or  BANYAN  (from  Sanskrit 
6o«m,  a  merchant),  the  name  commonly  given 
by  Europeans  to  Hindu  merchants,  brokers,  etc., 
in  Bengal  and  western  Hindustan.  They  are 
often  men  of  great  wealth  and  carry  on  most 
extensive  dealings,  their  operations  extending 
as  far  as  the  borders  of  the  Russian  and 
Chinese  territories,  the  Persian  Gulf  and  east- 
em  Africa.  They  are  great  travelers  and  hvn 
counting-homes  in  almost  every  trading  town 
of   importance  in   Asia.     English   sailor*   "" 


ira -can  i 

Lioogle 


BANIAN  TREE—  BANK 


baman  days  those  days  on  which  they  have  no 
flesh  meat.  Probably  the  name  has  a  reference 
to  the  habits  of  this  class ;  because,  before  peo- 
ple were  acquainted  with  the  abstinence  of  all 
the  Hindus,  it  was  thought  to  be  confined  to 
the  Banians. 

BANIAN  TREE.    See  Banyan. 

BANIH,  bi'nhn,  John,  Irish  writer:  b. 
1798;  d.  1842.  He  earlv  exhibited  a  taste  for 
literature,  and  before  his  20th  year  wrote  a 
play  called  'Damon  and  Pythias,'  which  was 
afterward  performed  at  Covent  Garden.  His 
fame  rests  on  his  novels,  in  which  his  brother 
Michael  (q.v.)  collaborated,  and  particularly  on 
the  'O'Hara  Tales,'  in  which  Irish  life  in  all 
its  features  is  admirably  portrayed. 

BANIM,  Michael,  Irish  novelist:  b.  Kil- 
kenny, S  Aug.  1?96;  d.  Booterstown,  30  Ai^. 
1874.  He  claimed  to  have  written  13  out  of 
the  24  books  of  fiction  confusedly  associated 
with  the  names  of  John  and  Micnael  Banim, 
and  called  himself  the  author  of  'Crohoore  of 
the  Bill  Hook,'  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the 
'CHara  Tales' ;  'The  Ghost  Hunter'  (1833) ; 
•Father  ConnelP  (1842).  and  <The  Town  of 
tie  Cascades'  (2  vols.,  1864). 

BANISHMENT  (the  act  of  putting  under 
ban,  proclamation,  as  an  outlaw),  a  technical 
term  in  Scotch  criminal  law  for  the  punish- 
ment of  sending  out  of  the  country  under  pen- 
alties against  return.  This  pumshment  was 
formerly  much  used  in  various  forms  —  for 
example,  banishment  to  the  plantations  or  col- 
onies; to  England  (even  after  the  Union); 
from  a  particular  county  in  Scotland,  etc 
Sometimes  capital  punishment  was  commuted 
to  banishment  for  service  in  a  foreign  ^ar. 
The  old  Scotch  doom  of  deportation  was  grad- 
ually merged  in  transportation  under  various 
British  statutes. 

'Banishment  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense 
of  expulsion  or  deportation  by  the  political  au- 
thority on  the  ground  of  expediency,  as  well 
as  in  the  sense  of  transportation  or  exile  by 
way  of  punishment  for  crime.'  3  Am.  &  Eng. 
Efflc  Law  (2d  ed)  770.  The  United  Slates 
Supreme  Court  decided  in  the  case  of  Foi^ 
Yue  Ting  v.  United  States,  149  U.  S.  W8,  that 
the  right  to  exclude  or  to  compel  aliens,  or  any 
class  of  aliens,  absolutely  or  upon  certain  con- 
ditions, in  war  or  in  peace,  is  an  inherent  and 
inalienable  ri^ht  of  every  sovereign  and  inde- 
pendent nation.  The  idea  of  banishment 
occurs  in  the  ostracism  and  pelalism  of  Greece, 
and  die  relegation,  exile  and  deportation  of 
Rome.  It  was  generally  accompanied  by  for- 
feiture of  civil  rights.  In  England,  voluntary 
banishment  was  called  abjuration.  Banishment 
still  obtains  in  Turkey,  while  the  Russian  sys- 
tem  of  banishment   to   Siberia  is  well  known. 

BANISTER,  John,  Anglo- American  scien- 
tist: b.  England;  d.  1692.  He  settled  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  later  in  Virpnia.  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Jamesburg,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  botany.  He  was  a  contributor  of 
a  catalogue  of  Virginia  plants  to  Ray's  'His- 
tory of  Plants,'  in  1660.  The  genus  Banitlcria 
was  named  in  his  honor.  His  publications  in- 
clude 'Observations  on  the  Natural  Produc- 
ticms  of  Jamaica' ;  'The  Insects  of  Viiginia' ; 
'Curiosities  in  Vir^nia,'  etc. 


BANISTER,  John,  son  of  the  preceding: 
b.  Virginia;  d.  1787.  He  was  educated  in  Eng- 
land and  studied  law  there;  became  colonel  in 
the  Virginia  militia;  was  a  member  of  the 
Virginia  assembly,  and  prominent  in  the  patri- 
otic conventions  of  the  Revolutionary  period; 
was  a  representative  from  Virginia  in  the  Con- 
tinental Congress  in  1778-79,  and  one  of  the 
signers  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation. 

BANJARHASSIN,  faa-ya-mas'sfn,  Bor- 
neo, a  town  near  the  southeastern  ande  of  the 
island,  under  the  government  of  the  Dutch,  on 
an  arm  of  the  Banjar,  about  14  miles  above  its 
mouth.  Owing  to  the  marshy  ground  and  fre- 
quent inundations  of  the  river  the  houses  are 
built  on  piles,  and  many  of  them  on  rafts,  the 
front  next  the  river  being  iised  as  a  shop  or 
stall  on  which  wares  are  exposed  for  sale.  On 
market  days  the  water  is  covered  with  sldlfs, 
having  a  single  individual  in  each,  moving  about 
selling  vegetables,  etc  The  people  are  con- 
tinually on  the  river,  all  necessaries  being  pur- 
chased at  these  floating  markets,  and  all  busi- 
ness being  done  on  the  water.  In  every  respect 
it  is  a  floating  town,  possessing  neither  carria^ 
□or  horses;  the  only  animals  kept  being  pigs, 
goats,  ducks,  geese  and  fowls.  The  bouses  of 
the  European  functionaries,  the  government 
buildings,  and  the  fort,  are  built  partly  of  stone 
and  partly  of  wood.  The  Fort  Tatas  is  sur- 
rounded with  paUsades,  and  contains  the  resi- 
dent's house,  the  magnzines  and  barracks.    Ex- 


very  artistically  made;  and  imports  rice,  salt, 
sugar,  opium,  coral,  Chinese  porcelain,  silk, 
cutlery,  gunpowder,  etc     Pop.  aoout  53,000. 

BANJO  (a  negro  corruption  of  bandort, 
Italian,  ftOHtJoca,  from  Greek  pandoura,  a  three- 
stringerf  instrument),  the  favorite  musical  in- 
strument of  the  negroes  of  the  Sonthcm  States, 
and  now  widely  popular  elsewhere.  It  is 
five-stringed,  has  a  body  like  a  tambourine, 
covered  with  velltua  or  parchment  strained  to 
dnuqhead  tension  by  adjustable  clamps  set 
close  around  the  hoop,  and  a  fretted  neck  like 
a  guitar.  The  back  is  open.  The  strings  pass 
from  a  tail  piece  over  a  low  bridge  similar  to 
a  violin  bridge  and  thence  to  the  ttmitig  pegs. 
The  banjo  is  played  by  stopping  the  strings 
with  the  fingers  of  the  left  band  and  plucking 
or  striking  them  with  the  Angers  of  the  right 
The  upper  or  octave  string;  however,  is  never 
stopped.  This  string  is  16  inches  long,  the 
tunmg  peg  being  part  way  up  the  neck.  The 
other  four  strings  are  24  inches  long.  When  in 
position  for  claying  the  octave  string  is  held 
uppermost  It  is  tuned  to  E'.  Next  to  it  is 
the  lowest  toned  string,  tuned  to  A,  and  the 
other  three  strings  rising  in  tone,  E°,  G",  and 
B".  The  music  for  the  banjo  is  written  on  the 
treble  def  —  an  octave  above  the  tones  as 
played.  In  some  countries  a  6-string  banjo  is 
in  use,  and  there  is  also  a  9-string  mstnunenl 
of  the  same  class. 

BANK,  Bank*,  Bankers.  The  term  bai^ 
and  its  derivatives  does  not  occur  in  classi- 
cal Latin,  It  first  appears  in  low  Latin  about 
the  beginning  of  the  13th  century,  when  it 
seems  to  have  been  brought  into  Italy  by  the 
Norsemen  and  where  it  disfdaced  the  Roman 
mtiua,  as  appUed  lo  the  bench,  table,  counter. 


BANK  OP  AHSTBRDAH  — BANK  HOLIDAYS 


147 


or  counting- tables  or  boArd  upon  which  the 
dealer  in  money  sorted  and  counted  his  coins. 
The  Greelc  words  for  a  banker  or  dealer  in 
moneys  were  Irapeeeta  and  coUybista,  both  of 
which  were  adopted  by  Roman  writers.  The 
Romans,  in  successive  ages,  had  various  terms 
for  what  would  Dow  be  called  a  banker  or 
bankers;  and  it  is  under  these  heads  that  in- 
formation must  now  be  sou^t  concerning  their 
rise  and  development.  "Diese  Roman  terms 
were  mensarius,  a  sorter  and  counter  of  coins; 
mtmtntiiariiu,  a  money'  changer;  fcmator,  a 
lender  of  money  on  interest ;  negotiator,  a 
lender  of  money  in  the  provinces,  where  the 
usury  laws  ^d  not  prevail  Camsor  nitmmtU' 
oritu'  also  appears  in  some  works. 

The  cotmting-table  is  still  employed,  chiefly 
in  national  mints.  It  consists  of  a  wooden 
board  with  a  hundred  or  a  thousand  circular 
holes,  cavities  or  depressions,  suitable  to  the 
size  of  the  coins  to  be  counted.  A  large  heap 
of  such  coins  is  thrown  upon  the  board,  one  end 
of  the  board  is  then  raised  so  as  to  form  an 
incline,  when  the  holes  are  at  once  filled ;  the 
surplus  coins  roll  off;  and  thus  the  counting 
of  a  thousand  coins  is  done  in  a  moment. 

It  is  perhaps  owing  to  the  absence  of  the 
term  'bank'  or  banker  in  classical  works  that 
banks  are  commonlysupposed  to  be  of  medixval 
or  modern  origin.  This  is  so  far  from  the  truth 
that  the  necessity  for  their  adoption  has  re- 
sulted in  their  establishment  in  all  ages  and 
countries  where  the  government  was  sufficiently 
powerful   to   protect   their   funds   from   pillage 


__    ....  !  necessary  and  lawful  func-. 

tions.  The  earliest  governments  of  this  char- 
acter  were  pontifical,  the  sovereign  being  both 
Idng  and  high  priest;  for  example,  the  Brah- 
minical  sovereigns  of  India.  In  the  •Gentoo,* 
or  Brahnunical  code,  a  translation  of  which. 
Governor  Warren  Hastings  presented  to  the 
East  India  Company,  there  occur  allusions  to 
Bundhoos,  or  bankers,  and  to  lenders  of  money 
other  than  pawnbnjcers,  coupled  with  the 
names  of  several  sorts  of  money — gold,  silver, 
copper  and  cowrie  shells.  The  governor  al- 
ludes to  this  code  as  of  "the  remotest  antiq- 
uity,* which  is  evidently  true  as  to  some  parts 
of  it,  while  other  parts  are  as  evidently 
mediaeval.  One  of  its  provisions,  a  peculiar 
one,  occurs  also  in  the  Athenian  and  Byzantine 
codes,  thouRh  which  of  them  was  borrowed 
from  the  omer  is  difficult  to  decide.  Says  the 
Gentoo  Code,  iii,  3,  *If  a  man  hath  borrowed 
money  from  another  upon  agreement  for  a  low 
rate  of   intM'est  and  afterward,   thoueh  at  his 


principal 


of 

interest,  the  former  agreement  shall  be  ob- 
served,* or  held  good,  ^  the  magistrate.  Tlie 
corresponding  Greek  rule  will  be  found  in  our 
article  on  Bvzantium,  Bank  of. 

Until  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the 
I,a.tin  forces  in  1204,  the  prerogative  of  coin- 
ing gold,  a  heritage  from  the  ordinances  of 
Ai^ustus.  was  enjoyed  exclusively  by  the 
Basileus  and  respected  by  the  various  princes 
of  Christendom.  As  a  matter  of  fact  there  were 
no  gold  coins  struck  in  Christian  Europe  be- 
l>veen  Charlemagne  and  the  fall  of  the  'Greek* 
empire;  the  only  coins  of  that  metal  (barring 
a  few  modem  counterfeits)  being  the  bezants 
(and  their  parts)  of  Constantinople  and  the 
dinars,    etc.,    of    Saracenic    mintage.     As    the 


e  valued 

gold  coins,  there  existed  no  encouragement 
to  establish  a  bank  until  the  gold  prerogative 
of  the  Basileus  was  destroyed  and  local  coin- 
age of  gold  was  permissible.  Hence  such 
coinages,  together  with  the  establishment  of 
banks  of  exchange  and  deposit,  and  transfer, 
as  well  as  the  open  use  of  bills  of  exchange, 
warrants,  checks,  transferable  bank  receipts, 
etc.,  may  all  with  confidence  be  dated  from 
1204,  or  such  other  local  date  as  coincided  with 
it,  bearing  in  mind  that  the  ,£ra  Hispanica  used 
in  some  of  the  Christian  kingdoms  of  Spain, 
began  38  s.c,  and  the  Mt^  Augusta,  used  in 
other  states,  both  in  Spain  and  elsewhere,  be- 
«ui  15  B.C.  The  earliest  gold  coins  of  Christian 
Europe  after  the  fall  of  Constantinople  were 
struck  in  10  different  principalities  between  that 
date  and  1257,  when  Venice  struck  its  first 
sequin.  Among  the  earliest  banks  were  those 
of  Venice.  1252  (from  11S7  to  I2S2  it  was  a 
chamber  of  loans,  not  yet  a  bank)  ;  Delft,  1313; 
Calais,  1329;  Geneva,  1346;  Florence,  1350; 
and  Barcelona,  1401.  For  the  industrial  history 
of  the  world's  great  banks  see  articles  in  this 
Encyclopedia  as  follows :  Ancient  banks: 
AusTESDAU,  Bank  of;  Babcelona,  Bank  of; 
Byzantium,  Bank  of;  Fugcers,  Bank  of  the; 
Genoa,  Bank  of;  Hambuhc,  Bank  of;  Medici, 
Bank  of  the;  Nurekberg,  Bank  of;  Stock- 
holm, Bank  of;  Tviul  Bank  of;  Venice, 
Bank  of.  Modem  banks:  Deutsche  Bank; 
Diskonto-Gesellschaft  ;  Diesdener  Bank; 
England,  Bank  of;  France,  Bank  of;  Italy, 
Bank  or;  National  City  Bank  of  New  York. 
Sec  also  Banks  and  Banking. 

BANK  OP  AMSTERDAM.  See  Amster- 
dam, Bank  of;  Banks  and  Banking — Origin 
AND  Development  or  Banking  (article  1). 

BANK  OF  BAHCBLONA.  See  Barce- 
lona, Bank  of;  Banks  and  Banking  —  Origin 
AND  Development  of  Banking  (article  I).        ^ 

BANK  CHECKS.    See  Banks  and  Bank-  f 
INC  —  Commercial  Paper   (article  17), 

BANK  CURRENCY.    See  Currency. 

BANK  DEPOSITS.  See  Banks  and 
Banking  — Guaranty  cw  Bank  Deposits 
(article  20). 

BANK  OP  ENGLAND.  See  England, 
Bank  of. 

BANK  OF  FRANCE.    See  Fbakce.  Bank 

OF. 

BANK  HOLIDAYS,  days  during  which 
banks  are  legally  closed.  In  the  United  States 
they  are:  1  January,  or  New  Year's  Day,  a 
legal  or  bank  holiday  in  all  the  States  except 
Arkansas,  Delaware,  Georpa,  KentucW,  Maine, 
Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  Rhode  Island, 
and  North  and  South  Carolina.  Fourth  of 
July,  Independence  Day  and  25  December, 
Christmas  Day,  are  batdc  holidays  in  all  the 
States  and  Territories  of  the  Union.  Thanks- 
giving Day  and  public  fast  days  appointed  by 
the  President  of  the  United  Stales  are  also 
legal,  or  bank,  holidays.  Twelfth  of  February, 
the  anniversary  of  the  birth  of  Abraham 
Uncoln,  is  a  legal  holiday  in  nine  States. 
February  22,  the  anniversary  of  the  birth  of 
Washington,  is  a  legal  holiday  in  all  the  States 
save  Arkansas,  Iowa  and  Mississippi,  llie 
first  Monday  in  September.  Labor  Day,  ij  a  , 

holiday  in  nearly  all  the  States,     Jan"Vy,ftOQlC 


BANK  OF  NORTH   AHQUCA  —  SANKRUFTCT 


anniversary  of  the  battle  of  New  Orleans,  and 
Fireman's  Day,  4  March,  are  legal  holidays  in 
Louisiana.  Good  Friday  is  a  legal  holiday  in 
Florida,  Louisiana,  Minnesota  and  Pennsyl- 
vania; and  Shrove  Tuesday  in  Louisiana  and 
Alabama.  Decoration  E>ay  (North)  and  Me- 
morial Day  (South)  are  observed  in  the  several 
States. 

!n  Eneland  and  Ireland  the  banlc  holidays 
are :  Good  Friday,  Easter  Monday,  the  Monday 
in  Whitsun  week,  called  Whil  Monday,  the 
first  Monday  in  August,  and  26  December, 
called  Boxing  Day.  In  Scotland:  (I)  New 
Year's  Day;  (2)  ihe  first  Monday  in  May;  (3) 
the  first  Montky  in  August;  (4)  Christinas 
Dav. 

When  one  of  these  holidays  falls  on  Sun- 
day it  if  observed  on  the  followinK  day,  and  a 
note  or  check  becoming  due  on  aliolioay  or  a 
Sunday  is  payable  on  the  first  business  day 
following. 

BANK  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.  See 
Bakking  in  the  United  States. 

BANK  NOTE  ISSUES.  See  Banks  and 
Banking  —  Bank  Note  Issues  (article  19). 

BANK-SWALLOW,  a  smalt  swallow; 
familiar  not  only  in  all  parts  of  America,  but 
in  most  other  countries,  tor  its  habit  of  breed- 
ing in  colonies  in  holes  in  sand- banks.  It  is 
sooty  black  above,  and  white  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  body,  with  a  dusky  band  across 
the  breast.  This  swallow  comes  from  its 
winter  home  in  the  tropics,  among  the  earliest 
birds  of  spring,  and  spreads  northward  even 
to  the  borders  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Many, 
however,  remain  within  the  United  Stales, 
where  companies  of  them  seek  the  banks  of 
streams  or  exposed  cliffs  of  sand,  and  bore  in 
close  proximity  a  great  number  of  tunnels, 
which  may  be  seven  or  eight  feet  deq>.  The 
bill  and  feet  are  both  exceedingly  weak,  yet 
with  these  feeble  tools  each  pair,  workuig 
alternately  and  with  great  diligence,  comi>lete 
their  excavation  in  a  surprisingly  short  time. 
The  same  bank  will  be  occupied  year  after 
year.  The  inner  extremity  ol  the  tunnel  is 
furtiished  with  a  nest  of  dry  grass  and  feathers, 
and  there  are  laid  in  June  four  or  five  pure 
white  eggs.  The  tunnds  are  used  as  roosting 
places  at  night  by  both  sexes,  and  when  the 
young  are  hatched  they  will  scramble  to  the 
mouth  of  the  burrow  and  may  be  seen  sitting 
there  some  days  before  they  obtain  strength  and 
courage  to  launch  forth  upon  their  wings. 
These  swallows  feed  entirely  upon  small  insects 
caught  in  the  ^r,  and  the  sight  of  a  crowd  of 
(hem  darting  about  the  neighborhood  of  their 
homes,  with  a  constant  twittering,  is  a  familiar 
sight  of  our  country  districts.  The  English 
sparrows  trouble  them  greatly  by  seizing  upon 
their  burrows  and  dragging  out  (he  furniture; 
and  snakes  and  mice  sometimes  enter  the  holes, 
but  against  most  enemies  these  swallows  are 
well  protected.  Our  common  species  (Ciivicola 
riparia)  is  also  numerous  throughout  Europe 
and  Asia.  Very  similar  species  inhabit  tne 
Oriental  region  and  Africa.  These  birds  are 
well  described  in  all  standard  works  of  ornithol- 
ogy, and  some  special  information  may  be 
obtained  in  the  'Monograph  of  the  Hi  run - 
dinidar'  by  Sharpe  and  Wyatt  (1885^94);  and 
in  'Bird  Watching,*  by  Edmund  Selous  (1901). 
See  Swallow. 


BANKRUPT,    a    term    derived    generally 


broken  in  case  of  their  failure.  The  word  in 
its  most  general  soise  signifies  an  insolvent 
person,   but   more  strictly   an    insolvent  mer- 

There  is  perhaps  no  branch  of  legislation 
more  difficult,  and  at  the  same  time  more  im- 
portant, than  that  which  defines  the  relatioiu 
of  debtors  and  creditors.  One  of  the  first 
objects  of  all  laws,  after  the  protection  of  the 
person,  is  the  enforcement  of  the  obligation  of 
contracts,  and  amon^  all  the  contracts  made  in 
a  community  those  imposing  the  obligation  to 
0^  money  constitute  the  most  niunerous  class. 
Some  of  the  first  questions  in  legislation  are: 
By  what  means  shall  this  obligation  be  en- 
forced and  by  what  penalties  shall  the  breach 
of  it  be  punished?  In  many  communities,  es- 
pecially in  the  earlier  stages  of  civiliiation,  the 
Weach  of  such  a  contract  or  obligation  is  re- 
garded as  a  crime;  and  the  insolvent  debtor  is 
treated  as  a  criminal.  The  ancient  laws  upon 
this  subject  in  England  so  regard  the  insolvent 
trader.  The  early  laws  of  the  Romans  and 
Athenians  authorized  the  mo^  rigorous  meas- 
ures for  procuring  satisfaction  of  a  debt,  even 
permitting  the  sale  of  the  debtor  into  slavery 
for  this  purpose.  The  Battas  of  Sumatra  still, 
it  is  re[>orted,  sell  not  only  the  debtor  but  also 
his  family  for  the  benefit  of  the  creditor.  But 
as  dviliiation  advances  the  laws  put  a  more 
mild  construdtion  upon  the  debtor's  failure  to 
fulfil  his  contract,  and,  with  certain  qualifica- 
tions, and  under  certain  restrictions,  attribute 
it  to  misfortune,  and,  on  giving  up  his  property 
to  be  divided  among  his  creditors,  discharge 
him  from  all  further  liability. 

The  power  of  making  bankrupt  laws  in  the 
United  States  was,  by  the  Constitution,  con- 
ferred on  Congress,  which  alone  had  the  power 
to  make  a  bankrupt  law  applicable  to,  and  bind- 
ing upon,  all  creditors  in  die  United  States,  and 
for  all  descriptions  of  debts.  This  power  was 
first  exercised  Iw  Congress  in  1800,  hy  the  en- 
actment of  a  bankrupt  law  hmited  to  five 
years,  and  which  expired  by  its  own  limitation. 
This  act  was  modeled  upon  the  En^sh  statutes 
of  bankruptcy  existing  at  the  time,  and,  like 
them,  was  applicable  to  no  debtors  except 
merchants.  Both  by  the  English  statutes  and 
the  French  Code,  persons  capable  of  becoming 
bankrupts  are  sudi  as  fall  under  the  general 
.description  of  merchants,  which  the  French 
describe  as  commerqants. 

A  statute  in  the  reign  of  Geoixe  III,  re- 
lating to  bankrupts  in  Scotland,  describes  a 
Eerson  capable  of  becoming  such  to  be  one  who 
either  for  himself,  or  as  an  agent  for  others, 
seeks  his  living  by  buying  and  selling,  or  by  the 
workmanship  of  goods  or  commodities" ;  an 
English  statute  of  the  rdgn  of  George  IV, 
embodying  the  previous  acts  and  judicial  de- 
cisions on  this  subject,  enumerates  particularly 
the  descriptions  of  persons  who  are  to  be  con- 
sidered merchants  and  capable  of  becoming 
bankrupts.    See  Bankruptcv  Ijiws. 

BANKRUPTCY,     A,     by    Bjorvstjerne 


B  JOHN  SON.      The    appearance    of     Bjot 
'Bankruptcy*  in  1875  marks  a  new  departure 
in  Norwegian   literature.     For  the  first    time 


RANKRUPTCY  LAWS 


149 


moiic^  oecotoea  ibe  lubject  of  a  poetical  pn>- 


Bjdrasoo  handles  with  daring  skill.  He  deals 
wtth  the  financial  situation  of  a  modern  busi- 
ness man  and  does  not  disdain  figuring  out  his 
Micts  and  his  liabilities.  The  play  is,  furiher- 
more,  significant  because  of  me  fact  that  it 
introduces  for  tbe  first  time  the  modem  cul- 
tnred  Norwegian  home.  There  had  been  some 
poTtrayals  of  home  life  previous  to  this  but 
onfy  glimpses  or  at  most  a  picture  of  home 
chillea  by  the  iron  determination  of  a  Brand. 
In  'Bankruptcy'  home  takes  its  place  upon  the 
stage  in  all  its  fullness  of  meaning,  with  its 
joys  and  with  its  sorrows.'  The  theme  of  tlte 
play  is  a  baainesj  man's  obligation  to  his  fellow- 
men  whose  moneys  are  entrusted  to  his  care. 
In  how  far  may  be  risk  the  funds  at  his  dis- 
posal? Has  he  the  right  to  do  business  in 
such  a  w^  that  his  ventures  if  unsuccessful 
will  mean  losses  to  his  fellows?  The  spirit  ot 
the  play  is  to  the  contrary,  and  Bjomson  shows 
admirably  how  miserable  is  the  life  of  a  man 
who  tries  to  avoid  fundamental  moral  law.  He 
shows  the  baneful  influence  exeried  on  the 
man's  family  and  home.  The  success  of  'Bank- 
ruptcy' was  .spontaneous.  The  pictures  are 
simply  and  naturally  drawn,  ana  they  made 
an  irresistible  appeal  to  the  common  man.  This 
was  no  doubt  partly  due  to  die  sound  humor 
pervading  the  work.  Consult  Henrik  Ja^er, 
'Illustreret    norsk    literaturhistorie*     (Vol.    II, 

B.  589-639  and  711-768)  ;  Georg  Brandes,  'Det 
odeme  Gjennembruds  MaentP  (pp.  1-69,  tr, 
by  Mary  Morison  in  a  volume  entitled  'Henrik 
Ibsen,  Bjomstieme  Bjomson:  Critical  Studies.' 
By  George  Brandes,  1899). 

Joseph  Alexis, 
Professor  of  Germanic  Languages  and  Litera- 
tures, Untversity  of  Nebraska. 
BANKRUPTCY  LAWS.  When  a  person 
is  unable  to  pa^  his  debts  in  full,  the  law  of 
dviliied  countries  adopts  some  means  of  satis- 
fying the  creditors,  as  far  as  diey  can  be  satis- 
fied, out  of  the  debtor's  estate,  and  relieving 
the  debtor  himself  from  pressure  which,  by  his 
own  efforts,  he  would  not  be  likely  to  over- 
come. The  debtor  having  been  declared  a 
bankrupt,  his  property  vests  in  his  creditors  for 
the  purpose  of  being  divided  ratably  among 
them,  and  consequently  he  starts  anew,  entirely 
relieved  from  the  obligations  thus  partially  sat- 
isfied. In  general  terms  this  is  the  process  of 
bankruptcy  as  observed  in  modern  societies. 
The  taw  of  bankruptcy  is,  in  fact,  a  modern 
creation  slowly  evolved  out  of  the  Criminal 
Code  in  answer  to  the  necessities  of  a  widely 
spread  industrial  life. 

The   early  law   of   Rome,   while  prohibiting 
contracts  of  usury,  ^ye  the  legal  creditors  the 


ery.  The  Lex  Poelelia  (about  326  ac.)  enabled 
a  debtor  who  could  swear  to  being  worth  as 
much  as  he  owed  to  save  his  freedom  by  re- 
/;  and  mai^  years  after- 
_.  of  Julius  Cxsar  established 
me  eessta  AoMomm  as  an  available  remedy  for 
all  honest  insolvents.  "The  bankrupt  law  was 
slowly  developed  in  England.  The  first  Eng- 
lish statute  on  bankruptcy  (34  and  35  Henry 
VIII,   c   4)    was  directed-  against   fraudulent 


debtors,  and  gave  power  to  the  lord  chancellor 

and  other  high  officers  to  seize  their  estates  and 
divide  them  among  their  creditors.  In  Eng- 
land, before  1841,  only  a  tradesman  could  be  a 
bankrupt.  The  distinction  was  then  abolished. 
It  was  abolished  in  the  United  States  in  1869. 
In  the  United  States,  Congress  alone  has  power 


may  enact  such  statutes  when  there  is  no  law 
of  Congress  in  operation.  The  first  general 
bankrupt  act  in  the  United  States  was  passed  in 
1800  and  was  repeated  in  1803.  In  1841  an- 
other law  was  put  in  operation,  with  a  special 
view  of  meeting  the  urgent  needs  of  debtors 
who  had  been  ruined  \ry  the  commercial  revul- 
sion of  1837-38,  and  who  could  receive  no  ef- 
fectual relief  from  local  laws.  This  act  was 
repealed  in  13  months,  but  in  the  meantime  a 
large  number  of  cases  had  been  di^iosed  of, 
amounting  to  3,250  in  Massachusetts  alone.  An- 
other bankrupt  law  was  passed  which  took  ef- 
fect 1  June  1867.  It  was  framed  with  great 
care  by  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives, of  which  Mr.  Jenckes  was  the  chairman 
and  chief  woridng  member.  Its  authors  hoped 
that  it  would  form  a  permanent  addition  to  the 
jurisprudence  of  the  country,  but  it  was  re- 
pealed within  a  few  years. 

An  act  "to  establish  a  uniform  system  of 
bankruptcy  throughout  the  United  States,'  was 
passed  by  both  Houses  of  the  5Sth  Congress, 
and  by  the  approval  of  President  McKinley  be- 
came a  law  on  1  July  1898.  The  question  had 
been  brought  before  Congress  for  several  years, 
the  issue  not  being  between  the  ^litical  par- 
ties, but  on  the  method  of  legislation,  one  side 
favoring  the  creditor  and  the  other  the  debtor 
class.  The  Nelson  bankruptcy  bill,  which  at  the 
first,  or  special,  session  of  the  55th  Congress 
passed  the  Senate,  failed  to  receive  the  consent 
of  the  House.  The  new  law  was  a  compromise 
between  the  Nelson  bill,  calculated  chiefly  to 
benefit  debtors,  and  the  Torrey  bill,  designed 
to  guard  the  interests  of  both  creditors  and- 
debtors.  The  adaption  of  the  bill  which  be- 
came a  law  was  mainly  through  the  long-con- 
tinued efforts  of  Senator  Hoar  (Rep.  Mass.), 
aided  especially  by  Senator  Nelson  (Rep., 
Minn.),  and  Representative  George  W.  Ray 
(Rep.,  N.  Y.).  A  conference  between  the  two 
Houses  was  held,  which  reached  an  agreement 
on  15  June,  the  report  being  adopted  by  the 
House,  28  June,  by  a  vote  of  133  to  S3;  present 
and  not  voting,  24.  All  the  votes  against  the 
bill  came  from  the  South  and  the  Tar  West 
Slight  changes  to  correct  defects  in  this  act 
have  since  been  made  through  three  supplemen- 
tary acts  approved  S  Feb.  1903,  IS  June  1906 
and  25  June  1910,  and  further  supplemented  by 
ruling  of  the  Supreme  Court,  as  to  matters  of 
practice,  and  by  ofbcial  forms  of  the   same   court 

The  provisions  under  which  a  man  can  be 
thrown  into  bankruptcy  against  his  will  are  as 
follows:  (1)  where  a  man  has  disposed  of  his 
property  with  intent  to  defraud;  (2)  where 
he  has  disposed  of  his  property  to  one  or  more 
creditors  to  give  a  preference  to  them;  (3) 
where  he  has  given  a  preference  through  le^ 
proceedings;  (4)  where  a  man  has  made  a 
voluntary  assignment  for  the  benefit  of  hia 
creditors  generally;  (5)  where  a  man  admits 
in  writing  that  he  is  a  tankntpt.    The  last  two 


gle 


.  are  practically  voluntary  proceed- 
ings. Under  the  common  law  a  man  is  con- 
sidered insolvent  when  he  cannot  pay  his  debts 
when  they  are  due;  under  the  new  law  he  is 
deemed  insolvent  only  when  his  property,  fairly 
valued,  is  insufficient  to  pay  his  debts.  Only 
two  onenscs  are  cited  under  the  new  law;  one 
when  property  is  hidden  away  after  proceed- 
ings in  bankruptcy  have  been  begun,  and  the 
other  when  perjury  is  discovered.  Discharges 
are  to  be  denied  in  only  two  cases ;  one,  in 
«4iich  either  of  the  offenses  detailed  has  been 
committed,  and  the  other,  when  it  is  shown 
that  fraudulent  books  have  been  kept  The 
term  of  imprisonment  for  either  of  these  of- 
fenses is  not  to  exceed  two  years. 

The  law  provides  a  complete  system 
throughout  the  United  States,  and  for  its  ad- 
ministration hy  the  United  States  courts  in 
place  of  the  different  systems  formerly  in  ex- 
istence in  the  various  States  administered  by 
Stale  courts.  In  hankruptcy  proceedings  a 
banlcrupt  debtor  may  turn  over  all  his  properW 
to  the  court,  to  be  administered  for  the  benefit 
of  his  creditors,  and  then  get  a  complete  dis- 
charge from  his  debts.  A  bankrupt  may  of  his 
own  motion  offer  to  surrender  his  property  to 
die  administration  of  the  United  States  court 
and  ask  for  his  discharge  in  voluntary  bank- 
ruptcy, or  creditors  may  apply  to  the  court  to 
compel  a  bankrupt  to  turn  over  his  property  to 
be  administered  under  the  act  for  the  benefit 
of    the    creditors    in    involuntary    bankruptcy. 


s  entitled  to  a  judgment  of  c 


.    full 


not  affected  by  this  law,  but  remain 
force  and  effect. 

Extended  powers  are  mven  by  the  law  for 

the  taking  possession  and  the  administration 
of  the  assets,  among  others,  to  allow  and  dis- 
allow all  claims  against  bankrupt  estates ;  ap- 
point receivers  and  take  the  necessary  measures 
for  the  preservation  and  charge  of  the  property 
of  a  bankrupt ;  to  arraign,  try  and  punish  bank- 
rupts, officers  and  other  persons,  and  the  agents, 
ofncers  and  members  of  the  board  of  directors 
or  trustees,  or  other  similar  bodies  or  cor^- 
rations  for  violation  of  the  act ;  to  authorize 
the  business  of  the  bankrupt  to  be  conducted 
for  limited  periods ;  to  cause  the  assets  to  be 
collected  and  reduced  to  money  and  distributed, 
and  substantially  determine  all  controversies  in 
relation  thereto;  to  enforce  obedience  to  lawful 
orders  by  fine  or  imprisonment ;  and  to  extra- 
dite bankrupts  from  one  district  to  another. 
As  all  questions,  both  of  law  and  fact,  in  rela- 
tion to  the  property  of  the  rights  of  the  various 
parties,  must  be  decided  in  the  bankruptcy  pro- 
ceeding, it  is  provided  that  referees  be  ap- 
pointed, who  are  charged  with  the  duty  of 
hearing  the  allegations  and  testimony  of  all 
parties,  and  deciding  all  such  questions  as  may 
arise.  Each  case,  as  it  comes  up,  is  assigned 
to  some  referee,  whose  duty  it  is  to  adjudicate 
and  pass  upon  all  such  questions  arising  therein 
in  the  first  instance,  the  right  being  reserved  to 
any  parties  to  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the 
referee  to  the  United  States  District  Court  The 
duties  of  the  referee  are  substantially  of  a  judi- 
cial character,  and  he  occupies  mudi  the  posi- 
tion of  a  judge  of  primary  resort,  subject  to  an 


.  required  to  take  the 
that  prescribed  for 
judges  of  the  United  States  courts. 

Provision  is  made  in  the  act  for  allowing 
bankrupts  to  compromise  or  settle  with  their 
creditors  by  proceedii^s  known  as  composi- 
tion proceedings,  wheret^,  if  a  bankrupt  and 
a  majority  of  his  creditors  agree  upon  some 
basis  of  settlement,  the  same,  if  approved  by 
the  court,  shall  become  tnnding  upon  all  cred- 
itors. The  decision  of  the  question  as  to  the 
approval  of  compo^tions  and  granting  dis- 
cE^rges  to  a  bankrupt  from  his  oebts  is  speci- 
fically reserved  by  the  act  to  the  judges  of  the 
United  States  courts ;  hut  the  court,  by  virtue 
of  its  general  powers,  raa^  refer  such  matters 
to  the  referee  to  take  testimony  and  report  to 
the  court  his  opinion  thereon.  The  aim  of  the 
act  has  been  to  make  the  expense  of  the  pro- 
ceedings depend  largely  upon  the  amount  of 
the  property  involvecC  and  the  compensation  of 
the  referee  is  fixed  substantially  at  1  per  cent 
on  the  amount  distributed  to  the  creditors  in 
ordinary  cases,  where  the  assets  are  distributed 
by  the  court,  and  one-half  of  1  per  cent  in 
composition  cases,  and  the  trustees  who  have 
charge  of  the  actual  management  of  the  bank- 
rupts' property  receive  as  compensation  such 
commissions  on  accoimts  paid  out  by  them  as 
dividends  as  the  court  may  allow,  not  to  ex- 
ceed, however,  3  per  cent  on  the  first  $5,000, 
2  per  cent  on  the  second  $5,000,  and  1  per 
cent  on  all  sums  in  excess  of  $10,000. 

Bibliogimphy.—  Brandenburg,  'Law  of 
Bankruptcy'  (3d  ed,  Chicago  1903)  ;  Collier, 
•Law  and  Practice  in  Bankruptcy'  {9th  ed., 
Albany  1912);  Brandenberg,  E.  C.  *Law  of 
Bankruptcy'    (3d  ed.,    1913). 


m^  e 

rising  to  or  near  the  surface,  composed  of  sand, 
mud  or  gravel.  When  tolerably  smooth  at  the 
top  they  constitute  shallows,  shoals  and  flats; 
but  when  rocky  becrane  reeis,  ridges,  keys,  etc- 
A  good  chart  always  defines  them,  indicating 
whether  they  are  sands  or  rocky. 

BANKS,  Sir  Joseph,   English  naturalist: 


other  branches  of  natural  history,  to  whidi  hb 
attention  had  already  been  turned  from  about 
the  age  of  14.  He  formed  a  volunteer  class 
in  the  university  and  brought  Mr.  Lyons  from 
Cambridge  to  teach  it.  In  May  1766  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  in 
the  following  summer  he  went  to  Newfound- 
land and  proceeded  to  Hudson  Bay  to  collect 
plants.  In  1768  he,  with  Dr.  Solander,  a  pupil 
of  Linnxus  and  assistant  librariait  at  die 
British  Museum,  accompanied  Cook  on  his 
voyage  of  discovery,  Banks  being  appointed 
naturalist  to  the  expedition.  In  an  expedition 
into  the  interior  of  the  desolate  Tierra  del 
Fuego,  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the 
countty,  the  two  naturalists  narrowly  escaped 
perishing  with  cold.  Banks  procured  the  in- 
troduction of  the  bread-fruit  tree  into  the  West 
Indies,  and  he  wrote  the  botanical  ohserva- 
lions  in  the  account  of  Cook's  voyages.  In 
1772  he  visited  Iceland  with  Dr.  Solander,  in 
order  to  make  himself  acquainted  with  its 
natural  productions.  During  this  voyage  the 
Hebrides   were   examined,    and   the   columnar 


BAHK8  — BANKS  AHD  BAHKIHO 


ISl 


stratification  of  the  rocks  aurroundit^  the 
caves  of  Staffa  was  made  known  to  natuialisti 
for  the  first  time.  Banks  became  president  of 
the  Royal  Society  in  1777.  In  1781  he  was 
made  a  baronet  The  French  chose  him  a 
member  of  the  National  Institute  in  18Q2,  be- 
cause to  his  intercession  they  owed  the  recovery 
of  the  papers  of  La  Peyrouse  relating  to  his 
voyage,  which  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of 
the  Bntish.  His  library  and  his  collections  in 
natural  history  are  celebrated.  Besides  other 
contributions  he  wrote  *A  Short  Account  of 
the  Causes  of  the  Blight,  the  Mildew,  and  the 
Rust  in  Com>  (1805).  In  accordance  with  a 
contingent  bcnuest  his  collections  were  added  . 
to  the  British  Museum,  The  genus  Banktia, 
of  the  natural  order  ProUacetr,  was  named  in 
honor  of  him  by  the  younger  LinnKUS. 

BANKS,  LouIb  Albert,  American  clergy- 
man and  author:  b,  Corvallis,  Ore.,  12  Nov. 
1855.  He  was  educated  at  Philomath  College 
and  at  Boston  University.  He  entered  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  ministry  in  1879 ;  was 
pastor  of  the  Independence  Avenue  Church, 
Kansas  City,  in  1909-11  and  since  then  has  been 
engaged  as  evangelist  in  union  evangelistic 
campaigns.  He  was  the  Prohibition  candidate 
for  governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1893.  Among 
his  numerous  writings  arc  'The  People's 
Christ'  (1891)-  'The  White  Slaves'  (1892); 
'Anecdotes  and  Morals'  (1894);  'Honeycomb 
of  Lifo>  (1895)  ;  'Christ  and  His  Friends' 
fI896);  'Live  Boys  in  Oregon'  0897);  'My 
Young  Man'  (1899)  ;  'Chats  With  Young 
Christians'  (1900);  'The  Great  Saints  of  the 
Bible'  <I901)  ;  'Youth  of  Famous  Americans' 
(I90Z)  ;  'Soul-Winning  Stories'  (1903)  ;  <Tht 
Religious  Life  of  Famous  Americans'  (1904); 
'Spurgeon's  Illustrative  Anecdotes'  (1906) ; 
'Sermons  Which  Have  Won  Souls'  (1908); 
'The  Problems  of  Youth'  (1909);  'The 
WoHd's  Childhood'  (1910) ;  'The  Great 
Themes  of  the  Bible'  (1911):  'A  Summer  in 
Peter's  Garden'    (1913);  etc.,  etc 

BANKS,  Nathaniel  Prentiss,  American 
soldier  and  statesman :  b.  Waltham,  Mass.,  30 
Jan.  1816;  d.  there  1  Sept  1894.  Entirely  self- 
taught,  he  worked  himself  up  from  the  position 
of  bobbin-boy  in  a  cotton  factory  to  the  editor- 
ship of  a  weekly  newspaper.  He  read  law,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  and  hepn  to  practise,  but 
soon  became  active  in  politics.  Elected  to  the 
Massachusetts  legisbture  in  1849,  he  became 
speaker  in  1851-52,  In  1853  he  was  president 
of  the  Massachusetts  Constitutional  Convention, 
and  the  same  year  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a 
Coalition  Democrat  The  session  which  be- 
gan 3  Dec.  1855,  was  memorable  for  its  bitter 
speakership  contest,  the  candidates  being  Banks 
and  William  Aiken,  a  large  slaveholder  of 
South  Carolina.  The  contest  lasted  two 
months,  the  President's  message  being  withheld, 
and  all  legislative  business  blocked.  The  ser- 
geant-at-amis  borrowed  $20,000  from  a  Phila- 
delphia bank  in  order  to  make  advances  to 
needy  members  of  both  parties.  On  the  133d 
ballot  2  Feb.  1856,  Mr.  Banks  was  elected. 
None  of  his  decisions  while  speaker  were  ever 
reversed  by  the  House,  He  was  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  1857-59.  In  1861  President  Lin- 
coln appointed  him  major-general  of  volunteers. 
He  conducted  active  operations  in  the  Shenan- 
doah Valley  and  fought  with  credit  at  Win- 


chester and  Cedar  Mountain.  In  co-operation 
with  Admirals  Farragut  and  Porter  he  in- 
vested Port  Hudson  and  unsuccessfully  at- 
tempted to  carry  it  by  assault.  In  1864,  much 
against  his  judgment,  he  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  Red  River  Ejcpedition,  which  re- 
sulted most  disastrously  for  the  Federal  forces. 
Banks  was  widely  censured  and  soon  relieved 
of  his  command.  General  Grant,  years  later,  in 
his  'Memoirs'  furnished  a  full  vindication  of 
Banks  by  giving  the  name  of  the  superior  officer 
responsible  for  the  expedition.  From  1866  to 
1876  General  Banks  represented  his  old  district 
in  Congress,  and  was  proniinent  as  chairman 
of  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Relations.  He 
was  United  States  marshal  for  Massachusetts, 
1879-88,  In  1891  Congress  bestowed  on  him 
an  annual  pension  of  $1,200,  a  severe  mental 
disorder  having  come  upon  him. 

BANKS,  Thomas,  English  sculptor :  b. 
Lambeth,  29  Dec.  1735;  d.  2  Feb,  1805.  He 
studied  sculpture  in  die  Royal  Academy,  and 
was  sent  as  one  of  its  students,  to  Italy,  Here 
he  executed  several  excellent  pieces,  particularly 
a  bas-relief  representing  Caractacus  and  his 
family  before  Claudius,  and  a  Cupid  catching  a 
butterfly.  Among  other  works  executed  by  him 
was  a  colossal  statue  showing  Achilles  enraged 
for  the  loss  of  Briseis,  now  in  the  entrance  hall 
of  the  Royal  Academy,  He  was  also  the 
sculptor  of  the  admired  monument  of  Sir  Eyre 
Coote  in  Westminster  Abbw,  and  of  those  of 
Dr.  Watts  and  WooHett  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  17S5. 

BANKS,  Sir  William  HitcheU,  Scottish 
surgeon  and  anatomist:  b.  Edinburgh  1842;  d. 
1904.  He  was  graduated  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
versity in  1864,  was  ap^inted  demonstrator  of 
anatomy  in  the  University  of  Glasgow,  and  later 
was  consulting  and  operating  surgeon  at  Liver- 
pool. He  originated  the  modem  method  of 
operating  for  cancer  of  the  breast  He  reorgan- 
ized the  Liverpool  Medical  School  and  founded 
University  College,  where  he  was  for  a  time 
professor  of  anatomy.  He  was  chosen  first 
president  of  the  Liverpool  Biological  Society  in 
1886.  In  1897  he  delivered  the  address  in  sur- 
gery before  the  British  Medical  Association  at 
Montreal.  He  published  numerous  papers  and 
addresseR, 

BANKS  LAND,  an  island  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  discovered  Iq-  Parry  in  1819,  explored 
by  McCIure  in  1850,  and  named  by  him  Baring 
Island,  It  is  separated  by  Banks  Strait  from' 
Melville  Island,  lyin^  to  the  northwest,  and  by 
Prince  of  Wales  Strait  from  Prince  Albert 
Land,  lying  eastward, 

BANKS  AND  BANKING.  This  depart- 
ment has  been  developed  to  give  a  concise 
digest  of  banking,  finance  money,  history  of 
banking,  etc.    It  is  subdivided  as  follows; 

I.  Oriam  and  Devriopment  13.  8a*iiam  Bank*. 

□I  Bunking,  14.  Pcstu  9*vinn  Builn. 

1.  The  PuncCkHH  of  Banks.  15.  Bulk  Orgui»ation  and 

3.  World  Syatemi — Typea.  Mamigement. 

4.  Intemation^  Banking.  16.  Bank  Saperviiiaii. 

5.  Poicisn  Eachaage.  \1.  Conuiwrdal  Paper..^ 

6.  Investment  Bonkmc.'  IB.  Bank   and   Tnut   Com- 

7.  Tlie  aearing  Houae.  pany  Adverlkina. 
S,  Bankinc  in   Qw  UnMd  19.  Bank  Note  Ibi». 

States.  m  Guanntr    of  Bask   D*> 
■I,  The    National    Banking  poaita. 

9yit«n.  1\.  Truit  Coniianiea.  -i^ 

la  State  BankinK  Syitem.  11.  Banhcn'  Amod-'"- 
11,  Private  Baaki.  the  United  81 


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160         BANKS  AND  BANKING  —  ORIGIN  AND  DBVBLOPHENT,  ETC.  (1) 


1.  ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT 
OP  BANKING.  Bmk  (from  the  medieval 
banciu  and  banco,  the  ancient  name  having 
been^cuw,  a  purse  for  money,  (Cicero,  Verr. 
2).  Bancui  or  banco  is  commonly  traced  to  the 
bmck  whereon  money-changers  sat,  when  bank- 
it^  merely  consisted  in  the  purchase  and  sale 
of  uncurrent  coins,  but  as  uiown  in  Madox's 
'History  of  the  Exchequer,>  this  is  erroneous. 
Bancus  or  banco  relates  only  to  the  Justice^ 
Bench  to  which,  in  the  12th  century  in  Ejigland, 
common  causes,  "Common  Pleas,*  began  to  tie 
removed  from  the  King's  Bench  to  local' courts. 
The  point  is  important,  because  it  disposes  of 
the  fable  tliat  banks  owe  their  origin  to  the 
money  changers  of  the  Dark  Ages.  Primarily 
a  bank  or  fisc  means  a  place  of  deposit  for 
money,  open  to  the  public.  Banks  can  be  traced 
back  to  Rome,  Greece,  Egypt,  Babylon,  indeed 
to  every  country  which  issued  money  susceptible 
of  being  counted,  and  whose  government  was 
SufEciently  powerful  to  protect  their  funds  from 
pillage  and  sufficiently  just  to  permit  the  exer- 
cise by  the  bankers  of  their  useful  and  lawful 
functions.  The  word  bitndkoo,  a  bank,  is  even 
used  in  the  Code  of  Menu  {p.  10),  but  the  date 


The  earliest  settled  and  permanent  govern- 
ments were  pontifical,  the  sovereign  beinK  both 
king  and  hit^  priest.  Hence  the  earliest  banks 
in  tne  Occident  were  the  national  temples,  such 
aa  Delphi  and  Delos  in  Greece,  whose  activities 
in  this  respect  date  back  to  the  earliest  use  of 
coined  money.  This  money  they  received  on 
deposit  and  loaned  out  at  rates  of  interest  vary- 
ing frjsm  10  to  30  per  cent  per  annum. 

Following  the  temple  banks,  perhaps  coeval 
with  them,  were  those  private  bankers  whom 
we  first  near  of  in  Babylon,  tempo  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, under  the  title  of  'Egibi  and  Sons,' 
about  600  B.C.  (Cuneiform  inscription).  The 
state  bank  at  Ihon,  mentioned  by  Boeckh,  as 


..'  2d  centuiy  B.C.  Ahout  the  same  period 
Theocritus,  wiose  "Idylls"  date  260  ilc,  men- 
tions a  banker  at  Alexandria,  by  name  Caicus, 
who  paid  interest  on  deposits  withdrawable  at 
pleasure  of  the  depositor,  and  payable  not  on^ 
m  business  hours,  but  at  any  time  of  day  or 
night  {E4»it,  XXI,  iU).  tivy  (Vll.  21), 
mentions  bankers  (argenlarii)  in  Rome,  354 
B.C.  Tacitus  and  Suetonius  both  allude  to 
banks  in  Rome  during  the  reigns  of  Augustus 
and  Tiberius.  Adam  (Rom.  Am.)  cites 
numerous  instances  of  private  banks  and  bank- 
ing terms  and  incidents  during  the  early  em- 
IHre,  such  as  the  deposit  and  withdrawal  of 
money,  payment  of  interest,  checks  or  orders 
for  payment,  acceptances,  bankers'  books  of  ac- 
count kept  by  double  entry,  transfers  of  ac- 
counts, loans,  etc.  Of  late  years  an  iron  safe 
deposit  has  been  dug  up  of  the  time  of  Hadrian, 
attached  to  which  is  a  body  of  regulations,  very 
similar  to   those  now  in  vogue.     It  would  ap- 

Kar  that  the  emperors  had  become  the  sole 
nkers  of  the  empire.  Following  the  method 
which  he  adopted  with  respect  to  the  pontifical, 
censorial,  Iribunitial,  consular  and  other  powers 
of  the  state,  Augustus  absorbed  the  most  im- 
portant financial  powers  into  his  own  person, 
becoming  himself  essentially  a  corporation  sole: 
for  of  this  character  was  the  ofiice  inherited 


and  administered  by  his  official  successors.  The 
public  treasury  wu  called  ^rarium,  the  im- 
perial treasury  (practically,  the  national  bank), 
the  Fifcum.  It  received  and  paid  out  deposits 
of  money,  it  loaned  money  at  interest;  it  ac- 
cepted heritages  (some  persons  bequeathed 
their  entire  fortimes  to  it),  and  it  devoted  Urge 
funds  to  public  purposes. 

The  functions  performed  at  Rome  by  the 
Imperial  fisc  were  permitted  to  be  exercised 
in  the  provinces  by  the  Proconsular  fiscs,  until 
the  weakening  of  the  Central  power  and  en- 
croachments of  the  Proconsular  agents  broke 
down  the  entire  structure  of  Roman  authority. 
Lampridinus  makes  some  allusion  to  bankers  in 
the  reign  of  Alexander  Sever^s;  afterward,  all 
mention  of  banks  or  bankers  ceases  for  a  long 

In  the  rdgn  of  Alexander  Sevems  the  fiscal 
laws  and  system  of  the  empire  underwent  a 
radical  change,  yet  the  evidences  of  it,  as  re- 
vealed by  inscriptions  recovered  in  recent  times, 
are  scattered  over  several  centuries;  chiefly  tlie 
3d,  4th  and  Sth,  The  jpublic  treasury  and  Im- 
perial fisc  came  to  be  identical ;  a  change  traced 
to  Aureliap.  The  Lord  Treasurer,  Socrantm 
Largilionum,  managed  all  public  fimds;  while 
the  imperial  demesnes  and  privy  purse  were 
committed  to  the  Comes  rerum  privatarum, 
both  of  them  being  endowed  with  sacerdotal 
titles.  (Bury,  I,  44).  The  interdiction  against 
the  taking  of  interest  for  money  which  these 
changes  involved  hegan  a  new  period  in  the 
history  of  banks.  The  caiutal  of  the  empire 
had  been  transferred  to  Byzantium  (Constanti- 
nople), so  thai  Europe,  formerly  within  easy 
reach,  was  now  far  removed  from  the  court 
What  the  government  denied,  private  interest 
afforded;  the  Jews  braved  its  displea  ' 


Frudentius,  as  having  been  established  ii  ___  , 
about  A.D.  400.  For  a  period  of  two  or  three 
centuries  during  the  Dark  Ages  these  establish- 
ments appear  to  have  been  the  only  means  of 
procuring  loans  of  money. 

About  the  Sth  century  the  poverty  banks 
were  taken  over  by  fraternities  of  monks  and 
confirmed  by  the  Popes  as  monies  pielalis;  the 
right  to  exact  collateral  security  and  to  charge 
interest  being  affirmed  by  several  pontiffs,  es- 
pecially Pius  II  and  Sixtus  IV.  After  the  fall 
of  Constantinople  in  1204  the  monks  were 
superseded  in  this  lucrative  business  by  the 
Lombard  goldsmiths  and  monw  changers, 
whose  various  names  of  Bardis,  Corsini,  etc, 
neither  shielded  them  from  popular  aversion, 
nor  prevented  them  from  dnving  a  lucrative 
trade.  So  influential  did  they  become,  diat  in 
1311  one  of  their  number,  Raoul  the  goldsmith, 
was  ennobled  by  his  patron,  Louis  X;  the  first 
instance  of  the  sort  known  to  history.  In  1313 
there  was  a  "Lombard'  bank  at  Delft,  and  is 
1320  another  one  at  (probably)  Calais,  which 
latter  loaned  5,000  marks  (about  16,000  gold 
dollars)  to  Edward  III  of  England.  The  banks 
of  Geneva,  1345,  and  of  Florence,  circ.  1350, 
were  probably  an  evolution  from  the  Lombard 
goldsmiths,  just  as  the  latter  were  evolved  from 
the  monies  pietatis  and  these  again  from  the 
poverty  banks  of  the  Jews. 

For  the  first  time  in  400  years,  a  dmuD- 


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BANKS  AND  BANKING  — ORIGIN  AND  DBVBLOPUBNT,  ETC.  (1) 


IBS 


stance  entirely  overlooked  in  works  of  refer- 
enc<v  Chmlion  gold  coins  now  began  to  bv 
struck  in  Europe  outside  of  Constantinople, 
where  the  privilege  had  ever  been '  jealously 
guarded  by  the  Basileus.  This  bad  much  to  do 
with  the  pr<Mress  of  banks,  for  it  provided  a 
more  portable  and  reliable  money  than  the 
heterogeneous  and  often  debased  and  degnuUd 
silver  coins  of  the  various  priaciDalities  and 
kingdoms  which  bad  been  erected  upon  the 
ruins  of  the  empire.  The  first  Christian  gold 
coins  of  western  Europe  were  the  augustals  of 
Frederick  II,  1225,  followed  by  the  ducats  of 
Portugal,  same  year,  the  pavilions  and  acnels  of 
Louis  IX  of  France,  the  ducats  of  Florence 
and  Genoa,  1253,  and  the  sequins  or  ducats  of 
Venice,  1276.  Consult  Del  Mar,  'Science  of 
Money,'  p.  74. 

Confining  the  term  bank  to  its  more  modern 
sense,  what  may  be  rerarded  as  one  of  the 
earliest,  perhaps  the  earliest,  Christian  institu- 
tion of  Oiis  character,  was  the  Bank  of  Barce- 
lona, 1401.  As  the  operations  of  this  bank  had 
a  bearing  upon  the  affairs  of  America,  they 
claim  especial  interest  *In  Spain,  by  the 
ordinance  of  Valencia,  made  by  Kong  John,  who 
intjuered  the  kingdom  of  Aragon,  it  is  ex- 
'  ^  provided  that  reals  shall  only  be  coined 
alencia  and  that  the  minters  shall  be 
supervised  by  two  well-known  citizens ;  so  that 
no  fraud  shall  be  committed  as  to  material  or 
weight*  (Grimaudet,  'Law  of  Payment,'  New 
York  edition,  p.  14),  The  coin  referred  to  is 
the  familiar  Spanish  real  de  flala,  of  eight  to 
the  dollar.  This  coin  was  lawful  money  in 
the  United  States  down  to  1853  and  till  recently 
was  known  to  New  York  tradesmen  as  a  'shill- 
ing* and  throughout  the  Southern  States  and 
California,  as  the  •bit*  The  coinage  super- 
vision ordered  by  King  John  (father  of  Ferdi- 
nand, in  whose  rdgn  Columbus  discovered 
America),  was  afterward  extended  to  Barce- 
lona where  it  furnished  the  basis  for  the  ex- 
tensive dealings  of  its  bank  in  the  exchange  of 
full-weighted  reals  and  reals  de  b.  ocho  (dollar 
pieces  of  eight  reals)  for  the  heterogeneous 
CMUS  which  flowed  from  aU  parts  of  Europe 
into  that  great  commercial  emporium ;  among 
tfaem  the  coinages  of  Uosleia  Spain  (Granada). 

From  Barcehma  King  Jotui's  test  of  the 
comfc   called   in   Englandi   «The  Trial  of   the 


fr^ai." 


_  supervision 
and  testing  of  the  coins  is  still  conducted  in 
the  Amencan   mints   under    "    ' 


civilians  appointed  by  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury.  It  constitutes  the  groundwork  and 
basis  of  honest  money  and  banking. 

The  Bank  of  Barcelona  alio  received  on  de- 
posit and  disbursed  the  revenues,  or  part  of 
them,  of  the  four  great  ecclesiastico-military 
orders  and  kept  the  accounts  of  about  a  dozed 
other  orders  of  knighthood,  like  those  of  Cala- 
trava.  Saint  James,  Golden  Fleece,  Saint 
George,  etc,  some  of  which  were  ecclesiastical 
and  some  merely  chivalrous.  The  royal 
treasure,  formerly  deposited  in  the  castle  of 
Segovia,  is  believed  to  have  been  removed  to 
the  Bank  of  Barcelona,  because  the  Contador- 
General  is  known  to  have  drawn  some  of  his 
warrants  for  public  expenses  upon  th^t  institu- 


In  l^m  Isabella,  holding  court  at  Toledo, 
signed  a  decree  which  greatly  affected  the  btuik. 
To  support  the  government  of  Castile  Henry 
IV  had  issued  certain  cedulas  or  certificates  of 
annuities  assigned  on    the    public    rents,    and 


them  fran  die  bwiji^  Isabella's  decree,  de- 
notmdng  and  annulliRg  theie  certificates — vir- 
tually an  act  of  repudiation — was  entrusted  for 
execution  to  her  confessor,  Ferdinand  de 
Talavera,  who  performed  Us  task  with  sudi 
fidelity  that  it  'saved*  30,000,000  maravedia 
annually  to  the  Crown  (Prescott). '  If  the  bank 
survived  the  depletion  of  its  resources  in  148% 
it  could  scarcely  have  weathered  the  civil  war 
of  1517-22,  during  which  period  of  turbulence 
the  bank,  despairing  of  a  return  to  peace  and 
security,  appears  to  have  quietly  discharged  its 
obligstioas,  wound  up  its  afiairs  and  honorably 
dissolved. 

Between  the  Bank  of  Baxctlona  (barring 
the  'Bank*  of  Saint  George  at  Genoa,  14D7), 
that  is  to  say  between-1401  and  the  fonnationot 
the  Bank  of  Amsterdam,  1607,  works  of  refer- 
ence will  be  searched  in  vain  for  any  notice  of  a 
public  bank  in  Europe.  The  sigiiificant  abtence 
of  a  bank  in  any  kingdom  or  principaU^  of  the 
civilized  world  for  an  interval  of  over  200 
years,  is  not  even  commented  upon.  The  so- 
called  Bank  of  Venice,  which  is  assigned  to  die 
year  1157,  was  not  a  public  bank  until  1619, 
when  it  was  reorganiaed  as  the  Banco  ,di  Rialto, 
which  converted  it  into  a  public  bank  of  de- 
posit-and-withdrawaL  Meanwhile  the  Bank  of 
Venice  was  merely  a  Chamber  of  Loans 
(Camera  degli  Imprestigi^  into  which  patriotic 
capital  was  invited  to  assist  the  government  of 
Venice.  Even  had  it  been  a  public  bank  it  was 
not  in  a  position  to  exercise  die  proper  func- 
tions of  a  European  bank,  namely,  the  agglom- 
eration of  private  capital,  to  be  distributed  in 
loans  helpful  to  European  commerce  and  enter- 
prise. How  could  a  Venetian  bank  promote  or 
assist  the  trade  of  Spain,  France,  E^land,  the 
Netherlands  or  Germany?  It  could  not,  and 
in  fact  it  did  not  do  anything  of  the  sort  Be- 
tween the  dissolution  of  the  Bank  of  Barce- 
lona, rather  between  the  date  when  its  coxa.' 
mercial  activities  ceased,  about  1522,  and  the 
Bank  of  Amsterdam,  1607,  and  Hamburg,  1619, 
an  entire  century  elapsed.  What  institution  of 
security  and  commercial  credit  or  convenience 
filled  the  void? 

This  interval  witnessed  the  greatest  of  all 
commercial  events,  the  discovery,  conquest  and 
colonizadon  of  America,  the  abstraction  and 
removal  of  its  enormous  treasures  in  gold  and 
silver,  their  coinage  into  money,  the  opening 
to  plunder  and  afterward  to  commerce  of 
India,  China  and  Japan,  the  consolidation  of  the 
German  empire,  the  rise  of  prices  and  the 
progress  of  the  Reformation.  Where  are  the 
institutions  into  whose  hands  these  conquered 
treasures  mi^t  be  placed,  to  whom  could 
the  impatient  European  commerce  of  this  period 
apply  for  assistance?  There  seems  but  one 
reply. 

Charles  I,  King  of  Spain  and  sovereign  o{ 
America,  elected  Emperor  of  Germany  as 
Charles  V,  in  1515,  having  been  assisted  to  this 
elevation  by  the  banking  house  of  the  Fuggers 
of  Augsburg;  turned  over  to  them  the  jentire 


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154 


BANKS  AND  BAN KI HO  —  ORIGIN  AND  DEVXLOPHENT,  ETC.  (1> 


banking  buitness  oi  his  extensive  empire.    He 
assigned  (farmed)   to  them  the  monopoly  of 

Siicksilver  ( Almaden  mines  of  Spain) ,  the 
uadalcanal  silver  mines  and  virtual  control  of 
many  of  the  mines  in  America.  He  transferred 
to  them  the  vast  accounts  and  balances  of  the 
military  and  episcopal  orders.  He  even  granted 
to  them  the  royal  and  imperial  prerogative  of 
coinage  (1534).  They  conducted  the  mints  of 
Valencia,  Augsburg,  Weisscnhom  { Bavaria ), 
and  other  j)laces.  ^ey  even  were  pnvileged  to 
stamp  their  names  and  titles  upon  the  golden 
florins,  for  example.  Ant.  Fuggtr  D.  in  IVtit- 
tenhom,  1530-60.  For  upwards  of  a  century, 
inch  of  the  American  treasure  as  escaped  cap- 
ture W  the  English,  Dutch  and  French  cruisers 
passed  through  their  hands,  leaviiw  them  a 
fortune  estimated  at  60,000,000  florins  or 
ducats,  say  $150,000,000.  They  became  bishops, 
barons,  dukes,  even  princes,  and  their  house 
survives  to  the  present  day.  Such  was  the 
bank  ai  the  16th  century. 


lies,  the  sole  assistance  which 
joyed  from  the  vast  stores  of  the  precious 
metals  which  flowed  into  Europe  dunng  this 
period  came  from  or  through  the  house  of 
ruggers.  It  was  not  until  the  reign  of  Charles 
II,  1665,  some  sa^  Charles  III,  that  Spain  was 
enabled  to  establish  a  public  bank  for  the  con- 
venience of  the  pubUc:  that  of  San  Carlos. 
Meanwhile  the  Inquisition,  hv  burning  or  ban- 
ishing  the  Hoors  and  Jews,  bad  so  thoroughly 
destroyed  her  domestic  industry  that  it  im- 
parted to  this  little  known  institution  but  & 
feeble  existence.  To  American  readers  it  is 
only  known  through  the  pages  of  Blanqui. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  banks 
of  Amsterdam  and  Hamburg.  Between  them 
came  the  Bank  of  Middleberg,  1616,  and  after 
them  the  banks  of  Rotterdam,  1635  and  the 
Swedish  Riksbank  of  1656.  All  of  these  insti- 
tutions were  of  Protestant  origin,  opposed  to 
die  Catholic  house  of  Fugger,  which  after  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia  in  1646  lost  much  of  its 
imperial  support  and  influence 

These  northern  institutions  became  the 
effective  promoters  of  that  enormous  expansion 
of  commerce,  industry  and  the  arts,  which  be- 
stowed upon  the  l?th  century  the  name  of  the 
HaWon  Age.  They  promoted  and  supported 
die  English  and  Dutch  East  and  West  India 
companies,  the  African  Company  and  the 
lumerous  other  cosmopolitan  enterprises  of   a 


Scandinavian  ports  an  impetus  which  they  have 
ever  since  retained.  Until  1656,  when  the 
Riksbank  of  Sweden  issued  circulating  notes, 
their  functions  consisted  almost  solely  of  re- 
ceiving funds  on  deposit  for  safety,  and  loaning 
them  out  upon  commercial  or  governmental 
tills  of  exchange,  promissory  notes  or  bonds. 
Some  of  them  were  endowed  with  special  privi- 
leges or  monopolies,  as  the  banks  of  Amstei^ 
dam,  England  and  France  (Comptoir  des 
Escomptes).  AI]  of  them  were  of  great  service 
to  commerce,  indeed  the  Bank  of  Amsterdam 
went  so  far,  in  its  secret  loans  to  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company,  that  it  became  insolvent 
about  1760  and  was  liquidated  in  1819. 

Meanwhile  a  new  empire  had  arisen  beyond 


the  Crown)  a  fifth  of  the  gold  and  silver 
(found  or  captured),  according  to  the  terms  of 
the  Charier,  they  are  not  obliged  to  the  King, 
except  by  civility.'  (Sir  J.  R.  Seeley,  'Expan- 
sion of  England,'  Norman  Angell,  dtante,  p. 
376).  Such  became  flieir  justification  for  the 
Pine  Tree  coinage,  for  John  Blackwell's  bank 
and  for  colonial  bills  of  credit 

The    subsequent    institution    of    American 


the    Atlantic,    whose    growing    conunerce    de-  I 

manded  the  convenience  and  assistance  of  pub- 
Uc commercial  banks.  *In  1652  the  province  of 
Massachusetts  found  it  necessary  (for  it  was 
no  mere  act  of  vrantonnMs  or  of  profit-seeking  | 

by  the  colonj"),  to  defy  the  Royal  authority  1^ 
erecting  a  Mint  and  striking  Ptne-Tree  shillings. 
The  origin  of  this  silver  is  not  known.    In  1662  | 

some  of  the  silver  smug|^ed  out  of  Mexico  or 
captured  from  the  Spanidi  galleons,  found  its 
way   to    the    Chesapeake    and   was    coined  in  . 

Maryland.*  These  events  presaged  a  bank.  In 
16B0  a  bank  was  established  for  the  convenience  I 

of  planters  in  South  Carolina,  which  William 
Paterson,  afterward  promoter  of  the  Bank  of  I 

England,  now  fresh  from  the  Darien  colony  on 
Ae  Isthmus  of  Panama,  is  said  to  have  investi-  ' 

gtted.  Five  or  six  years  later,  1686,  John 
lackwell  and  his  coadjutors  united  to  estab- 
hsh  a  bank  of  issue  in  Boston,  also  in  defiance 
of  British  authority;  and  on  3  Feb.  1690,  the 
colony  of  Massachusetts  issued  ils  own  bills  of  ! 

credit.  It  has  been  suggested  that  these  bills 
were  to  pay  off  the  soldiers  in  the  Phips  cam- 
paign to  Quebec,  whereas  in  fact  the  notes  were 
issued  before  the  Phips  expedition  was  resolved 
upon.  One  of  these  notes  is  stilt  in  existence. 
(A  copy  will  be  found  in  Del  Mar's  'History 
of  Money  in  America,*  p.  79).  On  2  July 
1W2,  the  colonial  government  of  Massachusetts 
made  these  notes  legal  tenders  for  the  payment 
of  all  debts  and  obligations,  except  those  which 
had  been  contracted  in  special  moneys.  Tlw 
amount  of  the  notes .  outstanding  was  between 
£30,000  and  i40,000. 

The  pressing  necessity  for  circulating  money  I 

and  the  creation  of  banks,  two  subjects  unavoid-  I 

ably  connected  for  sustaining  and  developing 
the  exchanges  and  commerce  of  the  Bntisfa- 
American  colonies,  manifested  itself  almost  at 
the  outset  of  their  settlement ;  and  had  no  little 
to  do  with  their  subsequent  revolt  from  royal 
authority.  The  position  of  the  Crown,  as  laid 
down  in  the  celebrated  case  of  the  Mixt  Moneys, 
1604,  was  that  the  creation  and  issuance  of 
money  was  a  royal  prerogative,  which  could 
not  lawfully  be  exercised  by  any  other  power 


stitutes  for  coins,  were  needed  for  their,  ex- 
changes, had  to  come  from  England.  Such,  too, 
had  heen  the  position  of  the  Spanish  Crown; 
yet  the  necessities  of  Hispaniola,  Puerto  Rico 
and  other  Spanish  possessions  in  America,  had 
compelled  their  inhabitants,  so  early  as  1586,  to 
employ  leather  monns  in  their  dealings.  Con- 
sult iJewes,  Robert,  'Map  of  (^mmerce,'  Lon- 
don  1711,  p.   16., 

Strengthened  by  this  example,  the  attitude 
of  the  British  colonies  was  laid  down  in  1665 

positively  than   the   Mixt   Moneys   dc- 

*Th<  -       ■ 


vCiOOgIc 


BANKS  AND  BANKING— THE  rUNCTIOHS  OF  BANKS  (2) 


lU 


colonial  banks  and  iinies  of  money  are  treated 
under   appropriate  heads. 

BibUognpliy. — Adam,  Alexander,  'Roman 
Antiquities'  (London  1814)  ;  Anderson,  Adam, 
'History  of  Commerce'  (London  1787)  ;  Aris- 
totle, 'Economies'  (London  1870} ;  Bastiat, 
Frederick,   'Harmonies  of  Political  Economy* 

i London  1860) ;  Bayle,  Peter,  'Historicsd 
Hctionarr'  (London  1741);  Blanqui,  J.  A^ 
'History  of  Political  Economy'  (New  York 
1880)  ;  Boeckh,  Augustus,  'Public  Economy  of 
the  Athenians'  (London  1S57) ;  Boisard,  T., 
'Tiait^  des  Monoyea'  (Paris  1711);  Budeho, 
V.  R.,  <De  Monetis  et  re  Numaria'  (Col. 
Agripp.,  1591) ;  Bury,  J.  B.,  'Later  Roman  Em- 
pire' (London  1889) ;  Calcott,  M.,  'History  of 
Spain*  (London  1840);  Carr,  T.  S„  'Roman 
Antiquities*  (London  IS36) ;  Cicero,  ^De 
Offidis'  (Londini  1761);  D'Avenant.  Sir 
Charles,  'Trade'  (London  1690);  Davies,  Sir 
John,  'Case  of  the  Mixt  Moneys  in  Ireland* 
(London  1674);  Del  Mar,  Alexander,  'Works* 
(New  York  1904);  Drake,  Edward  Cavendish. 
'Voyages  and  Travels'  (London  1768) ; 
Grimaudet,  Francois,  'Law  of  Payment*  (New 
York  1900)  ;  Hazlitt,  W.  C,  'Coins  of  Europe* 
(London  1893);  Humboldt,  Baron  Alexander 
von,  'Fluctuations  of  Gold'  (New  York 
1900)  ;  Lover  (pseudonym),  'Money  the  Sinews 
of  Trade'  (Boston  1731);  Madox,  Thomas, 
'History  of  the  Exchequer'  (London  1769); 
Menu  (Menoo),  'Hindu  Code'  (ed.  N.  B. 
Halhed,  London  1776) ;  Moulton,  H.  G.,  'Prin- 
ciples of  Money  and  Banking'  (New  York 
1916);  Uun,  Tliomas,  'England's  Treasure' 
(London  1664);  Necker,  James  (Baron), 
'Finances  of  France'  (London  1?8S) j  Postleth- 
¥rayt,  Malachi,  'Encyclopedia  of  Commerce* 
(London  17S0)  ;  Prescott,  William  H.,  'Ferdi- 
nand and  Isabella'  and  'CxtnquesC  of  Mexico' 
(London  1854);  Raynal.  W.  T.  (Abb*),  'His- 
tory of  the  East  and  West  Indies'  ^London 
1783):  Reich  Emil,  'History  of  Civilization' 
(Cincinnati  1867)  ;  Lewes,  Robert,  'Map  of 
Commerce'  (London  1711) ;  Schoenhof,  J., 
'Money  and  Prices*  (New  York  1896)  ;  Sue- 
i,  Properlius,  Prudentius  and  Lampridit 


quiry  into  Credit'  (London  and  Philadelphia 
1807)  ;  TurpDt,  A.  R.,  'Wealth*  (London  177S)  ; 
Yarranton,  Andrew,  'England's  Improvement 
by  Sea  and  Land'  (London  1677) ;  Zimmer- 
man, E.  A.  W.,  'Present  State  o£  Europe' 
(London  1787). 

Alexander  Del  Mar, 
Author  'History  of  Monetary  Systems.'* 
2.  THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  BANKS.  The 
functions  of  banks  may  conveniently  be  divided 
into  those  relating  to  loans  and  mvestments, 
and  those  relating  to  money  and  the  substitutes 
for  coined  money  provided  by  banks.  Savings 
banks,    the   simplest   class    of   banking 


return  brings  to  them  deposits,  most  of  which 
remain  undisturbed  for  long  periods.  Safety 
of  principal  and  the  income  yield  are  there- 
fore the  considerations  which  determine  the 
character  of  the  investments  of  savings  banks. 
State  and  municipal  bonds,  the  bonds  of  estab- 
lished public  service  corporations  widi  a  good 
dividend  record  and  real  estate  mortgage  loans 


meet  these  reqqirements  and  make  np  the  bulk 
of  the  investments  of  this  class  of  banks. 
Through  the  facilities  which  ihey  savp\y,  thrift 
is  encouraged  and  much  income  which  other- 
wise might  be  wasted  is  made  available  to  in- 
crease  the  total  capital  of  the  community. 

Loans  and  InTestmenta.— Income  yield 
and  safety  are  quite  as  imponaat  for  other 
banks,  but  they  must  be  sought  in  a  narrower 
investment  field.  With  them  the  quality  of 
liquidness  is  also  essential,  aince  most  oi  the 
funds  which  they  employ  are  payable  on  de- 
mand, and  large  and  unexpected  parents  must 
freauently  be  made.  The  deposits  of  these 
banks,  commonly  known  as  commercial  or 
credit  banks,  consist  mainly  of  cash  resources 
which  are  being  currently  used  for  business 
purposes,  or  for  personal  expenditure.  They 
are  therefore  subject  to  continued  change, 
being  constantly  di^iwn  upon  by  their  owners. 
To  meet  this  situation  the  funds  of  commercial 
banks  must,  in  large  measure,  be  employed  in 
those  investments  which  can  quickly  be  con- 
verted into  cash.  In  other  words,  they  must 
be  liquid. 

Securities  for  which 'there  is  a  broad  mar- 
ket, such  as  most  of  those  which  are  listed  on 
stock  exchanges,  meet  this  requirement  of 
liquidness.  A  far  more  important  avenue  for 
the  employment  of  the  funds  of  commercial 
banks,  however,  arises  from  the  demand  for 
short  periods  of  time  which  comes  to  the  banks 
from  everyone  engaged  in  active  business. 
Working  capital  requirements  in  many  lines  of 
business  vary  with  the  seasons,  and  in  every 
line  of  business  with  the  volume  of  dealings. 
In  satisfying  these  requirements  the  banks 
secure  investments  ideally  suited  to  their  own 
needs.  At  the  same  time  a  valuable  service  is 
rendered  to  the  community.  Capital  is  econ- 
omized It  is  not  necessary  for  each  business 
to  supply  itself  permanently  with  sufficient 
capital  to  take  care  of  its  maximum  require- 


banker  is  exercised  in  selecting  from  the  mass 
of  would-be  borrowers  those  who  have  mani- 
fested capacity  to  employ  capital  wisely  and 
effectively. 

Commercial  banks,  including  the  banld:^ 
departments  of  trust  companies,  unlike  savings 
baiiks,  do  not  limit  their  loans  and  other  invest- 
ments to  the  funds  received  from  depositors 
and  shareholders.  They  lend  their  credit  and 
thus  create  a  large  part  of  the  funds  utilized 
by  borrowers.  They  are  able  to  do  this  be- 
cause they  provide  more  or  less  generally 
acceptable  substitutes  for  coined  money.  The 
hank  note,  the  promise  of  a  bank  to  pay  money 
on  demand,  is  obviously  a  credit  instrument 
which  is  a  substitute  for  money.  But  partly 
because  of  legislation  limiting  the  power  to  issue 
notes,  and  even  more  because  the  check  has  been 
found  more  convenient  for  most  purposes,  the 
hank  note  has  become  a  subordinate  and  rather 
special  means  of  extending  credit. 

Credit. —  Banks,  of  course,  do  not  extend 
credit  directly  by  issuing  checks,  since  the 
check  is  an  order  on  a  bank  to  pay  money,  not 
its  promise  to  pajr  money.  Such  orders  are 
based  upon  obligations  to  pay  money  recorded 
on  the  books  of  the  banks,  and  known  as  de- 
posits. Gearly,  a  bank  cannot  lend  its  already 
existing  obligations  to  pay  money  on  demand 


Google 


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BANKS  AND  BANKING— THE   FUNCTIONS  OF  HAHX8  (2> 


It  may  indeed  happen  tlut  a  bank  receives,  let 
us  say,  $1,000  in  money  from  a  depoiitor,  and  is 
on  that  account  in  position  to  lend  more  tlian 
might  otherwise  be  advisable;  but  even  here  it 
U  not  the  deposit  which  it  lends  but  either  the 
$1,000  or  (and  thii  is  far  mare  likely)  a  new 
right  to  draw  $1,000,  both  ttaiuactioiu  —  the 
receipt  of  the  thousand  dollars  and  the  loan  of 
the  thousand  dollars  —  creating  absolutely  simi- 
lar deposit  obligations. 

It  is  the  general  use  of  the  check  that 
makes  it  possible  for  banks  to  create  deposits 
through  their  lending  operations.    If  borrowers 


of  their  loans  from  the  banks  in  die  form  of 
money.  The  business  of  commercial  banks, 
like  that  of  savings  banks,  would  then  be 
limited  to  the  funds  received  from  depositors 
and  shareholders,  and  possibly  some  sli^t 
amount  in  addition  thereto,  smce  borrowers 
would  presumably  not  immediately  draw  out 
the  entire  proceeds  of  their  loans. 

It  may,  however,  be  objected  that  even 
though  the  borrower  does  use  checks,  the  bank 
will  be  obliged  to  make  payment  almost  as 
Speedily  as  if  mont?  were  used.  Checks  do 
not  circulate  inde&nitely;  they  are  quickly  pre- 
sented for  payment  over  the  counter,  or  bnr 
other  banks  m  which  they  have  been  deposited 
Assuming  that  a  bank  were  abruptly  to  double 
its  deposit  obligations  by  granting  many  new 
loans,  it  woula  unquesbonably  t>e  confronted 
;dmost  at  once  with  heavy  demands  for  pay- 
ment of  the  largely  increased  number  of  checks 
that  would  certainly  be  drawn  upon  iL  If, 
however,  and  this  is  the  usual  case,  all  the 
banks  of  a  locality  increase  their  loans  at  the 
same  time  with  a  consequent  expansion  of  de- 
posits, each  bank  will  have  a  greater  number 
of  checks  drawn  upon  it,  but  it  will  also  receive 
from  its  depositors  a  greater  number  of  checks 
drawn  on  the  other  banks.  There  would  be  a 
greater  number  of  checks  drawn,  but  not  a 
correspondinglv  greater  amount  of  cash  needed 
in  making  settlements  between  the  banks.  This 
increase  in  loans,  if  made  by.  the  banks  of  a 
•ingle  locality,  would  probably  lead  to  in- 
creased purchases  from  producers  elsewhere, 
thus  occasioning  a  balance  of  indebtedness 
against  the  local  banks.  Sooner  or  later  cur- 
rency would  have  to  be  shipped  to  the  banks 
in  other  parts  of  the  country,  and  this  would 
soon  prevent  furiher  expansion  and  might  make 
contraction  necessary;  but  again,  if  expansion 
of    banL   loans   were   country   wide,   this   difH- 


gency  would  not  present  itself  if  the  expansion 
of  credit  were  world-wide. 

The  general  expansion  of  credit  cannot  con- 
tinue indefinitely.  An  increasing  volume  of 
checks  like  an  increase  in  the  quantity  of 
money  has  the  same  tendency  to  bring  about 
an  advance  in  prices.  Rapidly  rising  prices 
invariably  stimulate  unhealthy  business  activ- 
ities. Sooner  or  later  the  expansion  of  credit 
is  checked  by  the  deterioration  in  the  average 
quality  of  the  loans  of  the  banks;  failures 
become  more  numerous;  confidence,  not  only 
bi  the  future  of  business,  but  also  in  the  banks, 
is  weakened ;  a  crisis  breaks  out  followed  by 
a  period  of  depression ;  the  volume  of  credit  is 
&cn  reduced  through  a  slackening  in  the  de- 


mand for  loons,  and  throu^  the  liquidation  of 
loans  previously  made. 

However  luiiversal  the  use  of  checks  may 
become,  the  individual  bank  does  not  on  that 
account  cease  to  be  subject  to  constant  demands 
for  cash.  A  bank  can  exert  no  control  over 
the  use  its  depositors  make  of  their  accounts 
from  day  to  day;  checks  deposited  with  it 
never  exactly  balance  checks  presented  for 
payment;  there  will  be  wide  variation,  some- 
timn  favorable,  sometimes  unfavorable.  In 
the  latter  contingency  reliance  may  be  placed 
upon  a  speedy  change  in  favor  of  the  bank. 
Uore  positive  action  is,  however,  certain  tn 
become  necessary  from  time  to  time  in  the 
experience  of  every  bank.  The  requirements  of 
depositors  will  occasionally  result  in  a  suc- 
cession of  unfavorable  balances^  and  further, 
every  bank  must  face  the  possioitity  that  un- 
founded rumors  may  subject  it  to  a  run.  It  is 
imperative,  therefore,  that  a  bank  be  able  to 
pay  large  amounts  of  money  on  demand, 
and  also  be  in  position  Quickly  to  replenish 
dniletcd  reserves.  Its  assets,  or  at  least  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  them,  must  be  of  such  a 
character  that  they  can  be  quickly  converted 
into  monn'.  To  serve  this  purpose  the  same 
degree  of  liquidness  in  all  assets  is  not  a 
requisite.  Immediate  conversion  into  cash  of  a 
portion  of  the  assets  of  a  bank  will  ordinarily 
serve  for  the  building  up  of  reserve  depleted 
on  account  of  untisuculy  laive  requirements  on 
the  part  of  depositors,  ancT  the  gradual  con- 
version of  the  remaining  assets  is  all  that  can 
be  deemed  tiecessary  for  exceptional  contin- 
gencies. Experience  shows  that  a  baikk,  all  of 
whose  assets  can  be  converted  into  cash  within 
a  few  months  without  loss,  is  altogether  un- 
likely to  be  disturbed  hy  lack  of  confidence, 
and  should  it  be  subjected  to  unfounded 
rumors,  no  difficulty  is  experienced  in  secur- 
ing the  necessary  funds  from  other  banks. 

Central  Banks.— In  the  development  of 
commercial  banking  in  most  countries,  there 
has  been  a  distinct  tendency  toward  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  special  class  of  institutions,  the 
erimary  function  of  which  is  to  enable  other 
anks  to  convert  their  assets  into  cash  in 
periods  of  stress.  These  special  banks,  com- 
monly known  as  central  banks,  maintain  them- 
selves in  ordinary  times  in  a  position  of  great 
slrcn^h.  They  endeavor  to  exercise  a  re- 
straining influence  during  periods  of  rapid 
credit  expansion,  but  when  the  emergency  pre- 
sents itself  grant  loans  freely.  The  Bank  of 
England  is  the  oldest  and  most  famous  insti- 
tution of  this  kind.  The  very  great  advantages 
secured  through  its  operations  and  those  of 
similar  institutions  in  other  European  countries 
led  to  the  establishment  in  the  United  Slates 
of  the  Federal  Reserve  Banks  in  1914.  See 
Fededal  Reshivb  System  ;  Federal  Farm  Loan 
Act;  Land  Credit. 

The  bank  notes  which  these  institutions 
Issue  are  as  serviceable  and  acceptable  for  all 
domestic  purposes  as  coined  money.  In  many 
countries  they  are  a  legal  tender.  Consequent^ 
these  central  banks  are  able  to  supply  the  other 
banks  with  such  amounts  of  cash  as  they  may 
need  to  meet  even  the  most  severe  contin- 
gencies. The  banks  are  thus  relieved  of  the 
necessity  of  resorting  to  general  loan  contrac- 
tion, a  method  of  strengthening  themselves 
which  caimot  be  carried  far  widiout  involving 


^lOO' 


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BANKS  AHD  BANKING— WORLD  SYSTEMS  —  TYPES  <3) 


W 


the   business    community   in    serious    financial 
difficulties. 

OuvES  M.  W.  Spkagub, 
Professor     Bonking     and     Finance,     Harvard 
University, 

3.  WORLD  SYSTEMS —TYPES.  The 
banlung  institutions  of  Europe,  with  the  in- 
crease of  ca^tal,  tbe  developtnent  of  industry 
and  the  growth  of  ioteraational  relBttoos,  have 
naturally  conformed  to  these  influences,  with 
the  result  that  there  is  an  approximation  every 
nhere  to  certain  standards  or  ^rpes  for  the 
(Ufferent  classes  of  banking  operations.    Such 


main  are  not  fundamental,  and  afford  little 
occasion  for  comparison  or  argument  as  to 
their  advantages  or  desirability,  but  are  ex- 
plained by  their  origin  and  ttie  established 
customs  of  the  people. 

Ceatiid  Banka  of  lima. —  In  every  country 
there  is  now  a  central  bank,  which  is  recognized 
to  be  the  bead  of  the  system,  and  is  charged 
with  certain  responsibilities.  It  is  the  fiscal 
agent  of  the  eovemment  and  the  custodian  of 
treasury  funds;  it  issues  the  paper  currency, 
carries  the  gold  reserve  and  holds  a  dominat- 
ing position  in  the  foreign  exchanges  and  the 
di^esttc  credit  situation.  It  is  the  final  de- 
pository of  the  other  banks  of  the  country,  and 
as  a  bank  of  re-discount,  with  the  power  of 
note-issue,  it  is  expected  to  have  at  all  times  a 
reserve  of  available  credit  which  will  be  used 
ai  needed  for  the  support  of  the  banking  and 
general  business  situation.  This  reserve  of 
credit  is  maintained  by  judicious  use  of  the 
disconnt  lat^  which  is  raised  and  lowered  to 
control  the  demand  for  credit.  In  all  European 
countries  judgment  has  been  ^ven  in  favor  of 
confiding  the  power  of  nole-issue  to  a  single 
bank,  but  in  Great  Britain,  Germany  and  Italy 
a  few  banks  which  were  m  possession  of  the 
right  of  note-bsue  when  the  present  system 
was  determined  upon  were  allowed  to  retain  a 
restricted  right 

These  central  baoks,  by  reason  of  the  pe- 
culiar responsibilities  with  which  they  are 
charged,  are  required  to  confine  their  credit 
operations  in  the  main  to  short  commercial 
loans,  usually  not  exceeding  four  months,  which 
facilitate  current  trade  and  industry.  Bills  of 
exchange,  arising  out  of  specific  transactions, 
and  financing  the  movement  of  commodities  to 
market,  constitute  the  principal  class  of  invest- 
ments. Loans  to  the  government,  however,  are 
authorized,  and  advances  upon  government  se- 
curities and  other  approved  collateral  are  made 
at  a  higher  rate  of  interest  and  in  limited 
amount.  Nothing  but  gold  and  shon  commer- 
cial   bills  are  considered  a  proper  cover   for 

The  capital  of  these  central  banks,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Russian  Imperial  Bank,  is  sup- 
plied by  private  shareholders^  but  in  many  cases 
the  executive  officers,  and  in  the  case  of  the 
Reichsbank  the  executive  board,  are  named  bv 
the  government.  The  Bank  of  England  whicft 
is  the  oldest  of  the  great  banks,  and  which  led 
in  the  demonstration  of  the  most  important 
functions  of  a  central  institution,  is  a  com- 
pletely private  institution  in  its  organization, 
but  its  policy  is  none  the  less  governed  by  a 
sense  of  public  responsibility.  All  of  these 
institotions  are  boimd  to  safeguard  and  pro- 


mote the  puMic  interest,   as   thdr  first  con- 
sideration. 

"ITie  most  noteworthy  difference  in  the 
operations  of  these  banks  has  been  in  the 
management  of  the  note  issues.  The  Bank  of 
England  is  authorized  to  issue  notes  to  the 
amount  of  £18,450,000  upon  the  security  of 
government  bonds  and  odler  securities  in  its 
possession,  but  all  issues  in  excess  of  this  must 
be  fully  covered  by  gold  in  its  vaults.  This 
requirement,  which  was  imposed  upon  it  bjr 
fhe  Act  of  1844,  was  prompted  by  a  belief  that 
excessive  note  issues  had  promoted  over-ex- 
tensions of  credit  the  exportation  of  gold  and 
the  recurrence  of  ftnancial  crises.  The  effect 
was  to  make  the  note-issue  absolutely  fixed 
save  as  the  stock  of  gold  in  die  bank  was 
increased  or  decreased.  This  restraint  upon 
issues  occasioned  less  inconveniences  in  Ejig- 
land  than  it  would  have  caused  on  the  Continent, 
for  the  reason  that  even  before  1844  the  bank 
check  had  become  to  a  great  extent  in  England 
a  snbstitme  for  the  bank  note.  With  tbe 
growth  of  the  joint-stock  banks  the  custom  of 
keeping  bank  accounts  and  making  payments 
by  check  has  been  steadily  spreading,  while  on 
the  Continent  it  remains  the  general  custom  to 
make  payments  in  currency.  The  restriction  of 
the  Act  of  1844  not  only  failed  to  prevent  the 
recurrence  of  crises  in  England,  but  it  actually 
hampered  the  hank  in  dealing  with  them  tO 
such  an  extent  that  m  1847.  1857  and  1866,  when 
confronted  by  emergencies  of  this  character. 


each  instance  afterward  gave  its  approval  1^ 
passing  an  act  of  indemnity.  The  situation 
upon  each  of  these  occasions  was  that  public 
confidence  in  the  general  state  of  credit,  and  in 
the  condition  of  certain  private  banking  insti- 
tutions, was  shaken,  but  uiere  was  no  want  of 
confidence    in    the    Bank    of    EJigland.      The 


able  to  give  security,  relieved  the  pressure  a  . 
stopped  the  panic.  This  demonstration  of  the 
effectiveness  of  flexible  note-issues  under  the 
control  of  a  strong  central  banking  institution 
has  had  a  powerful  influence  in  shaping  the 
banking  systems  of  other  countries.  In  Eng- 
land no  immediate  change  in  the  Bank  Act 
was  made,  but  an  important  change  was  made 
in  the  management  of  the  bank.  It  was  dis- 
covered that  t^  raising  the  discount  rate  the 
tendency  to  over-expansion  could  be  checked 
and  the  gold  reserve  of  the  bank  increased, 
thus  permitting  an  enlargement  of  credits, 
either  by  deposit  accounts  or  note  issues.  Since 
1866  this  knowledge  has  been  used  so  skilfully 
that  the  arguments  in  favor  of  a  liheraliiation 
of  note-bsues  have  not  been  pressed.  Id  1914, 
however,  following  the  outbreak  of  the 
European  War,  Parliament  passed  an  act  giv- 
ing the  Ministry  authority  to  permit  the  Bank 
to  issue  notes  without  the  statutory  reserve. 

The  statutes  governing  the  Bank  of  France 
fix  a  maximum  limit  upon  its  issues,  but  ttiis 
has  always  been  high  enou^  to  give  practical 
freedom  to  the  management,  which  within  the 
limit  named  is  without  restraint.  The  framers 
of  the  law  governing  the  Reichsbank  intro- 
duced a  novel   feature,  which  has  been  since 


I  is  a  provision  lev^i^  a 

Cioogle 


BANKS  AND  BANKING  —  WORLD  SYSTBHS  —  TYPES  (3) 


tax  upon  issues  in  excess  of  a  named  amount, 
which  is  assumed  to  be  sufficient  tor  normal 
requirements.  This  is  accompanied,  however, 
by  another  provision,  requiring  that  at  all  times 
a  mining um  reserve  of  33>^  per  cent  against 
outstanding  notes  shall  be  maintained.  The 
German  tax  upon  excess  issues  is  S  per  cent; 
in  the  United  States,  in  applying  the  plan  to 
the  Federal  Reserve  banks,  the  tax  is  a  pro- 
gressive one,  increasing  as  the  percentage  of 
reserve  diminishes. 

In  all  of  the  countries  where  the  central 
banks  are  owned  by  private  shareholders,  the 
profits  are  divided  with  the  Treasury  or  there 
are  other  compensations  to  the  Treasury  for 
the  charter  privileges. 

Conunercial  Banks  and  Diaconnt  Houses. 
—  In  a.il  countries  the  bulk  of  the  baokiDg  busi- 
ness with  the  public  is  transacted  by  what  are 
commonly  called  ^joint-stock*  banks,  although 
the  distinction  between  these  banks  and  me 
central  banks  is  not  in  the  fact  that  they  are 
joint'Stock  corporations  but  in  their  more 
private  character.  In  Eneland  there  must  be 
included  in  any  study  of  tnc  commercial  credit 
mrstem,  the  discount  houses  or  bill  brokers,  and 
the  accepting  houses  which  arc  auxiliaries  of 
the  banldtu;  system.  These  are  specialists  in 
credit,  ana  intermediaries  between  the  bor- 
rowers and  the  banks,  although  the  discount 
houses  accept  deposits  and  pay  interest  on 
them.  They  borrow  largely  from  the  banks, 
and_their_chief  function  ts.to  specialize  in  the 
several  lines  of  trade.  By  doing  this,  and  en- 
dorsing the  ^aper  they  handle,  they  raise  this 
paper  to  a  Higiier  grade  of  credit,  which  will 
command  a  tower  rate  of  interest  In  this 
difference  between  the  rate  which  this  paper 
would  have  to  bear  without  their  endorsement 
and  (he  rate  at  which  they  place  it  with  the 
banks,  they  find  their  compensation.  The  ac- 
cepting houses  perform  a  similar  function  in  a 
different  manner.  It  has  long  been  the  cus- 
tom for  the  seller  of  goods  to  draw  a  draft 
on  the  buyer,  payable  at  some  date  agreed  upon 
in  the  future,  which  the  buyer  'accepts'  as 
soon  as  it  is  presented  by  writing  the  word 
"accepted'  across  its  face  and  signing  his  name 
thereunder.  The  draft  when  assigned  by  the 
drawer  becomes  two-name  commercial  paper, 
and  is  usually  sold  on  the  market.  Evidently 
much  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  names, 
and  if  the  buyer  is  not  well  known  he  can 
afford  to  pay  a  commission  to  a  house  of  high 
standing  which  will  accept  for  him.  This 
custom  developed  gradually,  first  within  a  trade 
where  the  houses  knew  each  other,  until  it 
became  a  regular  business.  Back  of  these  dis- 
count houses  and  accepting  houses  are  the 
joint-stock  banks,  which  are  usually  in  the 
market  for  high-class  paper,  and  back  of  all 
is  the  Bank  of  England,  which  is  under  obliga- 
tion to  always  buy  paper  at  some  rate.  When 
the  war  broke  out.  and  jparalysis  fell  upon 
credit,  GO  important  was  it  deemed  that  the 
fluidity  of  bills  should  be  maintained,  that  the 
government  stepped  into  the  situation  and 
guaranteed  the  Bank  of  England  against  loss 
in  the  purchase  of  pre-war  bills. 

The  joint- stock  banks  of  Great  Britain 
carry  the  current  accounts  of  merchants  and 
manufacturers,  although  the  Bank  of  England 
also  does  lo  some  extent  a  general  banking 
business.    These  banks  lend  to  their  customers 


and  buy  bills  in  the  open  market.  They  also 
lend  upon  collateral,  and  in  recent  years  the 
practice  has  developed  among  them  of  accept- 
ing bills  for  houses  with  whose  affairs  they  are 
familiar.  This  shows  how  the  functions  oF  the 
banks,  the  discount  houses  and  acceptance 
houses  overlap  and  dovetail,  and  how  sharp  is 
the  competition  in  the  credit  field. 

The  joint-stock  banks  of  Great  Britain  are 
organized  under  the  General  Companies  Act. 
There  are  no  requirements  as  to  reserves  or 
regulating  the  character  of  the  business.  The 
practices  of  the  banks  have  been  established 
by  the  lessons  of  experience  and  the  teadiings 
and  writings  of  men  recognized  as  authorities. 
It  has  became  an  accepted  doctrine  that  bank 
investments  must  he  of  a  temporary  and  liquid 
character,  and  that  banks  shall  not  take  a 
propiietary  interest  in  any  business. 

On  the  Continent,  as  in  England,  tbe  joint- 
stock  banks  other  than  the  central  banks  are 
organized  under  the  general  incorporation  acts, 
and  arc  quite  free  as  to  the  character  of  busi- 
ness they  may  do.  There  are  no  requirements 
as  to  reserves  and,  in  most  countries^no  gov- 
ernmental inspection  or  supervision.  The  joint- 
stock  banks  of  Germany  nave  developed  ibar 
business  on  broader  lines  than  perhaps  any 
other  corporate  banking  institutions,  and  with 
practically^  the  freedom  of  private  banldng 
houses.  This  has  been  due  largely  to  the  raina 
development  of  German  industry  and  over-seas 
trade  since  1880,  and  the  demands  which  have 
fallen  upon  the  banks  in  connection  with  it. 
The  need  for  capital  to  finance  growir^  and 
profitable  industries  has  been  before  thdr  eyes, 
and  they  have  gone  further  than  British  banks 


they  have  considered  it  advisable,  instead  of 
restricting  their  interests  to  loans,  to  take  at 
times  proprietary  interests,  evidenced  by  stock 
and  to  be  represented  in  the  directorate  of  such 
companies.  They  have  organized  companies  to 
take  over  private  business,  and  reor^nized 
companies  to  increase  their  capital,  offenng  the 
bonds  and  shares  to  the  public  over  their 
counters,  through  their,  branches  and  upon  the 
stock  exchanges.  The  stock  exchanges  are  for 
tbe  most  part  controlled  by  the  banks,  and  most 
of  the  transactions  are  through  the  banks.  The 
head  of  the  leatUn^  German  joint-stock  bank 
stated  to  the  American  Monetary  Commission 
in  1908  that  that  bank  had  50  members  of  tbe 
Berlin  Stock  Exchange  to  attend  to  its  busi- 
ness. All  of  this  is  ailferent  from  banking  in 
England,  and,  as  to  relations  with  the  stock 
exchange,  from  banking  in  the  United  States, 
but  it  IS  not  so  difierent  as  possibly  at  first 
sight  appears  from  common  banking  practice 
in  America,  SO  far  as  capital  advances  are  con- 
cerned. It  is  common  knowledge  that  the  banks 
of  this  country,  particularly  in  the  smaller 
towns,  have  had  a  large  part  of  thdr  assets  in 
the  form  of  loans  whicn  represent  fixed  in- 
vestments. The  countrj;  has  been  growine 
rapidly,  every  branch  of  industry  has  required 
more  capital  and  the  only  source  of  supply  has 
been  the  local  credit  institutions.  As  a  result 
few  American  banks  outside  of  the  large  cities 
would  stand  the  theoretical  test  as  to  liquid 
conditions  any  better  probably  than  the  German 
joint-stock  banks,  and  many  of  them  not  so 


.Google 


BANKS  AND  BANKING  — WORLD  SYSTEMS  —  TYPES  (3) 


welL  The  American  banks,  however,  have 
been  prevented  b^  taw  from  taking  proprietary 
mterests.  The  German  policy  cannot  be  com- 
mended as  a  scientific  policy,  but,  although 
there  have  been  disasters  from  it,  on  the  whole 
it  probably  has  met  the  conditions  existing  in 
Germany,  and  promoted  the  development  of 
industries  more  effectuallv  than  a  more  rigid 
system  of  banking  would  nave  done.  The  Ger- 
man banks  which  have  come  through  the  ex- 
Grience  have  been  managed  with  great  ability. 
ve  prudently  built  up  larce  capitals,  and 
in  years  immediately  j)reeetoig  they  were 
in  a  condition  as  to  liquid  assets  that  was 
scarcely  open  to  criticism.  In  an  article  writ- 
ten for  the  National  Monetary  Commission  io 
]<»&  Herr  Mueller,  a  director  of  the  Dresden 
Bank,  and  who  served  upon  the  Imperial  Com- 
mission to  consider  a  revision  of  the  law 
regulating  the  Reichsbank,  stated  that  in  most 
of  great  German  banks  me  principle  was  ad- 
herwJ  to  of  not  allowing  the  total  amount  of 
tied-up  assets,  such  as  bank  sites  and  other 
fixed  investments  and  interests,  to  exceed  the 
bank's  own  pald-^p  capital,  plus  the  capital 
accumulations  which  in  the  United  States  are 
called  surplus  and  undivided  profits.  The  great 
capital  of  these  banks  permits  them  even  then 
to  have  large  fixed  investments. 

In  France  there  has  not  been  the  pressure 
for  capital  for  industrial  purposes  which  there 
has  been  in  Germany,  and  the  joint-stock  banks 
or  credit  societies,  as  they  are  called,  have  con- 
fined themselves  closely  to  the  financing  of 
current  trade.  In  other  countries'  of  Eurojie 
the  practice  varies,  and  everywhere  there  is 
almost  complete  freedom  from  legal  restraints. 

Investment  sad  Mortgage  Banks.— The 
Credit  Mobilier,  founded  in  France  in  18S2,  was 
the  original  of  a  type  of  investment  banks.  It 
sold  its  own  debentures  or  collateral  bonds 
against  holdings  in  its  own  possession  of 
various  securities  which  it  was  a  master  spirit 
in  promoting.    It  had  a  successful  i 


rate  of  interest,  usually  -3  per  cent,  which  they 

In  Germany  there  are  about  40  mortgage 
banks  which  pursue  a  similar  business  but  me 
bulk  of  their  loans  are  upon  urban  property. 
These  banks  are  requirecl  by  law  to  deposit 
their  mortgages  with  a  state  comptroller,  who 
then  gives  permission  for  the  issuance  of  bonds 
against  than.  These  banks  operate  upon  an 
exceedingly  small  margin,  the  difference  be- 
tween the  rate  received  u^n  mortgages  and 
the  rate  paid  upon  bonds  being  only  about  one- 


there  are  the  Landschaften,  or  mutual  credit 
associations,  which  receive  mortgages  from 
their  members  and,  holding  them  as  security, 
issue  their  own  bonds  to  the  borrower  v/hich 
he  may  negotiate  upon  the  investment  market 
This  system  was  establisfaed  W  Frederick  the 
Great  in  1769,  and  originally  designed  for  the 
benefit  of  the  large  estate-holders  only,  but  it 
has  been  developed  to  include  a  branch  for 
small  properties,  and  also  provide  subsidiary 
companies  whicb  write  insurance  and  grant 
teninorary  credits  to  members. 

Mntnal  Bai^  and  Co-operative  Societiea. 
—  These    are   known   in   all    the   < 


The  t^  of  "the  Credit  Mobilier,  the  ' 
which  signifies  a  mobilizing  of  credit,  has  been 
followed  to  some  extent  in  man^  countries,  but 
its  mistakes  have  been  a  warning  against  the 
policy  of  using  such  an  organization  to  pro- 
mote ne%v  enterprises.  The  English  investment 
companies  issue  their  own  debentures  based 
upon  securities  which  the^  have  purchased,  but 
their  purchases  are  confined  to  the  issues  of 
established  enterprises. 

The  mortgage  banks  of  Europe  are  organ- 
ized upon  me  above  principle.  The  Credit 
Foncier,  which  has  almost  a  monoply  of  the 
land  -mortage  business  of  France,  is  a  semi- 
public  institution,  the  capital  being  supplied  by 
private  shareholders,  although  originally  the 
government  gave  it  a  subsidy.  The  governor 
and  two  sub-governors  are  appointed  by  the 
government.  It  is  allowed  to  receive  a  limited 
amount  of  deposits  and  these  are  invested  in 
commercial  bills,  but  its  principal  business  is 
lending  upon  mortgage,  accepting  either  urban 
or  rural  estate  as  security.  A^nst  these 
mortgages  in  its  own  possession  it  issues  bonds. 
These  are  issued  in  series  without  date  for  pay- 
ment, but  are  called  yearly  as  the  amortization 
payments  allow.    They  are  called  by  a  lottery 


many,  where  they  i 
banking  accommodations  for  small  tradesmen 
and  farmers.  The  Schulze-Delitzsch  societies, 
so  called  for  the  founder  and  the  town  in  which 
the  first  one  was  established,  constitute  the 
leading  system.  They  receive  deposits  and  pay 
interest  u^n  them,  and  make  short  loans  upon 
the  promissory  notes  of  members.  They  extend 
personal  credit  only  to  members  but  they  may 
receive  deposits  from  others  and  employ  their 
surplus  funds  outside  the  membership.  At  their 
inception  they  were  purely  mutual  societies 
with  unlimited  liability  for  the  members,  the 
theory  of  their  organization  being  similar  to 
that  of  the  mutual  insurance  societies,  or 
orders,  now  prevalent  in  many  countries.  The 
unlimited  liability  of  all  members  helped  them 
to  get  deposits,  but  was  a  deterrent  to  member- 
ship for  those  who  did  not  want  to  borrow. 
Later,  societies  were  organized  which  issued 
shares  and  in  which  the  liability  of  shareholders 
was  limited  in  various  degrees.  It  might  be 
double  the  par  value  of  the  stock,  or  greater,  as 
determined  by  each  society  for  itself.  The  so- 
cieties are  independent  in  their  management, 
but  have  an  association  and  a  central  clearing 
agency.  The  Schulze-Delitzsch  societies  do 
practically  a  commercial  banldng  business.  The 
RaifFeisen  societies  are  upon  much  the  same 
plan,  and  lend  money  upon  several  years'  time, 
but  the  membership  is  chiefly  among  farmers. 
There  is  a  central  bank  in  Berlin  for  these 
societies,  to  whicb  the  state  of  Prussia  has  sub- 
scribed a  capital  of  SO,00D,000  marks.  It  is 
strictly  a  state  institution.  There  are  simitar 
societies  in  other  states  of  Germany.  The  total 
membershilj  within  the  empire  is  nearly  2,- 
000,000;  paid-in  capital  and  surplus  funds,  ap- 
proximately 350,000,000  marks:  deposits,  about 
2,335,000,000    marks.      The     Schulze-Delittsch 


3gle 


BANKS  AND  BANKING  —  I HTBRNATIONAL  BANKING  (4) 


and   Raiffeisen   systema  have  : 
velopment  in  Austria, 

In  France  the  Credit  Agrieole  Mutuel  rep- 
resents a  development  of  the  Raiffeisen  idea. 
Small  local  societies  had  been  doing  business 
with  moderate  success,  but  the  movement  was 
given  recognition  and  encouragement  in  1897, 
when,  upon  a  renewal  of  the  charter  of  the 
Bank 'of  France,  a  gratuitous  loan  of  40,000,000 
francs,  and  also  a  certain  share  in  the  annual 
earnings  of  that  institution,  was  exacted  from 
it  and  diverted  to  the  use  of  the  s^ricultural 
banks.  The  law  provided  for  the  organization 
oi  district  banks,  which  lend  the  availaUe 
funds  to  the  local  societies,  the  distribution  be- 
ing made  by  a  committee  of  pubhc  men,  in- 
cluding the  governor  of  the  Bank  of  France. 
The  peculiarity  of  the  system  seems  to  l>e  that 
it  depends  chiefly  upon  the  funds  received  from 
the  Bank  of  France,  which  it  is  allowed  to  use 
gratuitously.  These  funds  are  loaned  below  the 
ordinary  market  rate,  but  as  they  are  limited  in 
amount  the  growth  of  the  system  is  restricted. 
It  lends  only  to  provide  temporary  credit  to 
farmers. 

There  are  mutual  credit  associations  in 
Russia,  of  limited  liability,  whose  capital  is 
created  by  the  payment  on  the  part  of  each 
member  of  a  sum  equal  to  one-tenth  of  the 
credit  granted  them.  Associations  of  this  kind 
may  be  established  by  the  Zemstvos.  In  1907, 
the  sum  total  of  these  loans  and  discounts  was 
approximately  245,000,000  rubles.    A  project  is 

Sending  for  uie  establishment  of  a  central  bank 
ar  these  associations.  See  Co-OPERATIVE  Bank- 
ing; Federal  Faru  Loan  Act;  Land  Credit.. 

Saving!  Buika,  Municipal,  Postal,  Private. 
—  A  system  of  municipal  savings  banWs  has  its 
most  important  development  in  Germany  and 
Russia,  In  both  countries  the  banks  are  public 
institutions,  supported  by  the  credit  ol  the 
municipalities  and  conducted  under  their  super- 
vision. The  profits  go  to  the  surplus  fund  of 
the  banks,  or  may  be  in  part  expended  for  pub- 
lic purposes,  such  as  the  support  of  hospitals, 
parks,  etc.  In  Russia  the  municipal  banks  do 
a  general  banking  business  and  also  lend  money 
on  real  estate  security,  but  in  Germany  the  in- 
vestments are  confined  to  trustee  securities, 
as  fixed  by  law,  and  to  the  purchase  of  a  limited 
amount  of  commercial  bills. 

The  municipal  savings  bank  is  to  be  found 
in  other  countries  of  Europe,  and  there  are 
also  stock  company  savings  banks,  but  they  are 
without  special  features.  Mutual  societies  sup- 
ply, to  a  great  extent,  the  facilities  for  saving. 
Postal  savings  banks  have  been  established  in 
many  countnes,  Germany  being  an  exception, 
due  to  its  high  development  of  the  municipal 
savings  banks. 

Public  Loan  Banks.— In  France,  in  1830 
and  in  1848,  in  Prussia  in  1848.  1866  and  in 
1870,  and  in  the  German  empire  in  1914,  ihe 
governments  resorted  to  the  establishment  of 
public  loan  banks  or,  more  properly,  loan  offices, 
as  a  means  of  facilitating  in  an  emergency  the 
flotation  of  public  loans.  The  function  of  these 
banks  was  to  serve  in  a  subsidiary  capacity  to 
the  central  banks,  by  making  loans  upon  col- 
lateral security.  In  Germany,  in  1914,  one  of 
these  banks  was  established  in  every  city  where 
there  was  a  branch  of  the  Reichsbank.  They 
were  authorized  to  make  loans  upon  collateral 


or  goods,  and,  in  doing  so,  to  issue  notes  to 
the  maximum  aggregate  of  3,000,000,000  marks. 
These  notes  were  not  legal  tender  but  were  ac- 
ceptable at  the  Reichsbank  and  made  good  as 
basis  for  note-issues  by  the  latter.  It  was  an 
emergency  measure,  designed  to  aid  in  mobiliz- 
ing the  financial  resources  of  the  nation.  These 
banks  are  known  as  *Dar1ehnskassen,> 

Bibliography, —  Conant,  Charles  A.,  'Mod- 
em Banks  of  Issue'  (New  York  1915)  ;  Don- 
bar,  Charles  F„  *The  Theory  and  History  of 
Banking>  (New  York  J909)  j  Publications  of 
National  Monetary  Commission  (Washington 
1910), 

George  £,  Roberts, 
Assistant  to  the  President,  Nationai  City  Bank, 
New  York. 

4.  INTERNATIONAL  BANKING.  Prior 
to  the  enactment  of  the  Federal  Reserve 
Law  (q.v.')  under  which  National  banks  have 
obtained  authority  to  establish  branches  in 
foreign  countries,  international  banking  upon 
the  part  of  the  United  States  had  been  mainly 
confined  to  investment  banking,  and  efforts 
to  place  American  securities  in  Great  Britain 
and  the  countries  of  western  Europe.  The 
most  ambitious  effort  to  enter  the  commercial 
field  had  been  made  by  the  International  Bank- 
ing Corporation,  chartered  in  1902  by  ^e  State 
of  Connecticut,  which  beggin  business  with  a 
paid-up  coital  of  $3,000,000  and  surplus  fund 
of  $3,000,000.  It  had  at  that  time  15  offices 
abroad,  most  of  them  in  Asiatic  countries. 

The  Ne«d  of  Foreign  Banking  Facilities. 
— Although  the  slow  development  of  American 
banking'  operations  in  the  foreign  field  may  be 
attributed  in  part  to  the  fact  that  the  national 
banking  system,  to  which  most  of  our  large 
banking  institutions  in  the  past  have  belonged, 
until  recently  made  no  provision  for  such  ex- 
tension, it  is  also  true  that  there  has  been  little 
inclination  among  American  bankers  to  so  ex- 
tend their  business.  The  fact  that  branch  bank- 
ing has  had  small  development  within  the 
United  States  will  partially  explain  the  seeming 
lack  of  interest  in  branches  abroad.  The  com- 
paratively few  branch  establishments  that  are 
maintained  in  this  countrj",  with  few  exceptions, 
are  located  in  the  same  ci^  with  the  head  office, 
and  the  great  bulk  of  the  bankine  business  is 
done  by  independent,  locally  owned,  institutions 
which  have  but  a  single  office.  Our  people  have 
been  inexperienced  in  branch  banking,  and  not 
accustomed  to  entrusting  large  powers  to 
scattered  officials  at  great  distances. 

The  chief  explanation,  however,  for  the  in- 
difference of  American  bankers  to  mternalional 
opportunities  is  to  be  found  in  the  same  general 
situation  which  accounts  for  the  slow  develop- 
ment of  American  interest  in  foreign  invest- 
ments and  foreign  trade,  to-wit ;  the  all-absorb- 
ing needs  and  attractions  of  the  home  field. 
There  has  been  no  inducement  for  banking  capi- 
tal to  go  from  the  United  States  to  other  fields 
for  the  mere  profits  of  commerdal  banking. 
All  foreign  fields  are  already  occupied  by 
domestic  banking  institutions,  which  are  liket^- 
to  have  the  preference  for  purely  domestic  busi- 
ness, and  by  British  or  European  banking  cor- 
porations which  are  more  or  less  allied  with 
other  important  investments  in  the  same 
countries,  and  with  interests  that  are  active  in 
trade  with  these  countries.    It  has  been  evident 


vCiOogIc 


BANKS  AND  BAHKI  NO  —  INTERNATIONAL  BANKING  (4) 


Ifll 


that  American  baoks  abroad  would  have  little 
reason  tor  their  existence  unless  they  were 
serviceable  to  American  trade  and  Ametican 
capital  in  the  same  manner  thai  Biitith  and 
German  banks  have  been  serviceable  to  the 
trade  and  investments  of  those  countries. 

With  the  development  of  thia  country,  the 
growth  of  its  industries  and  the  accumulation 
of  capital,  the  attitude  of  its  people  toward 
trade  and  investments  abroad  has  been  chang- 
ing. Our  exports  no  longer  consist  almost  ex- 
clusively of  natural  and  crude  products.  The 
United  States  has  became  the  leading  producer 
and  a  heavy  exporter  of  steel  and  machinery, 
and  is  rapidly  increasing  its  exports  of  a  great 
variety  oi  manufactures.  At  this  stage  bank- 
ing facilities  abroad  become  a  factor  in  the 
development.  If  American  banks  in  foreign 
countries  require  for  their  prosperity  that  there 
shall  be  American  trade  with  those  countries, 
so  does  American  trade  have  need  for  an  ex- 
tension of  its  own  banking  facilities. 

The  services  which  a  banker  can  render  for 
his  client  in  foreign  countries  are  in  most  par- 
ticulars the  same  that  he  renders  at  home,  but 


services  incidental  to  the  fact  that  goods  are 
delivered  and  collections  are  made  in  foreign 
countries.  The  distances  are  ^rcat,  mails  are 
slow  and  cables  costly;  the  habits  and  customs 
of  the  people  are  different,  trade  conditions 
are  different,  the  tankage  is  usually  different, 
and  the  chances  of  misunderstandings  and  dis- 
agreements are  more  numerous  than  in  trade 
at  home.  There  is  great  help  to  the  exporting 
house  in  having  an  interested  representative  on 
the  ground  where  deliveries  and  collections  arc 
made,  and  next  in  efficiency  to  his  own  ex- 
clusive agent  is  the  branch  office  of  an  Ameri- 
can bank.  Collections  may  be,  indeed,  made 
through  a  domestic  bank,  or  through  a  branch 
office  of  one  of  the  European  banks,  but  it  is 
not  to  be  expected  that  mese  institutions  will 
feel  the  same  interest  in  promoting  the  trade 
that  will  be  felt  by  an  American  hank,  which 
realizes  that  its  own  future  is  involved  in  the 
development  of  American  trade.  It  is  more 
than  possible  that  the  interests  of  the  American 
exporter  may  clash  with  the  interests  of  older 
and  closer  clients  of  a  European  bank  and  in 
such  instances  the  invoices  and  terms  of  impor- 
tant transactions  may  become  known  to  com- 
petitors. In  any  event,  there  is  a  lack  of  the 
alert,  interested  attention  that  arises  from  a 
vital  common  interest,  and  from  the  direct  con- 
nection through  the  home  bank.  There  is  likely 
to  be  a  clearer  presentation  of  the  exporter  s 
case  through  the  latter  channel. 

One  of  the  most  important  services  that  a 
bank  can  render  is  that  of  supplying  informa- 
tion relative  to  credits.  In  many  countries  this 
information  is  difBcult  to  obtain,  and  those  who 
have  it  give  it  uj)  with  reluctance,  especially 
in  reply  to  written  inquiries.  Replies  are  vague, 
elusive  aJ»d  unsatisfactory.  It  cannot  be  ex- 
pected that  this  class  of  information  will  be 
given  frankly  and  accurately  by  mail  to  strang- 
ers. No  other  source  can  be  so  trustworthy  as 
a  locally  established  bank  which  is  linked  up 
in  every  interest  with  the  trade  which  it  is 
serving.  Credits  are  changing  constantly;  in- 
formation which  is'  good  at  one  time  may  be 
misleading  a  few  months  later;  the  exporter  in 


another  country  requires  an  allied  advisor  upon 
the  spot  who  will  not  wait  for  inquiries  but 
volimteers  his  counsel.  Moreover,  he  wants  a 
hanker  with  a  knowledge  of  the  credits  who 
will  give  him  assistance  in  carrying  them.  In 
short,  be  wants  the  service  whidi  his  own 
banker  is  accustomed  to  render  at  home  ex- 
tended to  the  forei^  trade. 

The  service  of  the  American  branch  bank 
does  not  end  with  attention  to  business  placed  m 
its  hands;  it  is  equally  interested  in  creating 
new  business.  It  makes  itself  familiar  with  all 
lines  of  trade:  it  studies  the  import  and  ex- 
port trade  of  the  country  in  which  it  is  located, 
with  a  view  to  developing  trade  with  its  home 
country:  it  takes  note  of  Opportunities  and  re- 
ports them  to  the  home  institutian,  which 
places  the  information  where  it  will  be  likely  to 
promote  action. 

The  import  trade  of  growing  or  developing 
countries  consists  to  a  great  extent  of  etfuip- 
ment  and  construction  materials,  for  use  in  new 
works  designed  to  increase  the  production  of 
the  countiv,  or  to  improve  its  facilities  for 
handling  the  products.  These  purchases  rep- 
resent investments  rather  than  consumption, 
and  very  often  they  represent  an  invesUnent 
of  foreign  capital,  as  in  the  construction  of 
railways  and  other  public  utilities,  or' manu- 
facturing plants.  The  investments  of  Great 
Britain  and  Germany  in  South  America  are 
very  large,  and  thery  have  been  made  usually 
by  sending  out  macluner<^  and  equipment  which 
were  the  product  of  their  home  shops.  Their 
manufacture  supplied  work  for  the  home  people 
and  when  converted  into  investments  abroad 
they  not  only  yield  good  returns  hut  they  create 
new  demands  for  repairs,  replacements,  ex- 
tensions, etc. 

These  investments  abroad  have  not  in  years 
^st  been  attractive  to  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  because  there  were  abundant  t^portu- 
nities,  as  good  as  any  in  the  world,  for  similar 
investments  at  home.  No  other  country  was 
growing  so  fast  in  population  as  the  United 
States,  and  so  long  as  there  were  extensive 
natural  resources  to  be  opened  up  here  it  was 
doubtful  policv  to  place  investments  abroad. 
But  the  United  States  is  no  longer  a  new  coun- 
try; the  main  railway  lines  have  been  con- 
structed, every  section  of  the  country  is  under- 
going development,  the  more  ea^ly  tilled  lands 
are  now  under  cultivation,  the  timber  lands 
have  advanced  greatly  in  value,  the  mineral 
resources  are  bein^  worked.  Both  populatiDn 
and  wealth  are  mcreasing  rapidly,  but  the 
country  has  reached  the  stage  where  raw  ma- 
terials, once  cheap,  are  becoming  dear  and 
affecting  the  cost  of  manufactures  and  the  cost 
of  living.  The  manufacturing  industries  are 
affected  both  by  the  increasing  cost  of  raw 
materials  and  by  the  increasing  cost  of  food, 
clothing  and  other  necessities  which  affect 
wages.  Already  the  United  States  has  become 
one  of  the  principal  importing  nations  of  woo! 
and  hides,  and  it  is  probable  that  our  consump- 
tion of  these  articles  will  steadily  increase 
taster  than  the  home  supply.  We  are  also  con- 
sumers in  vast  quantities  of  many  articles 
which  we  do  not  produce  at  all,  among  which 
are  coffee,  rubber  and  tin,  which  are  obtainable 
in  South  America.  In  short,  we  have  reached 
the  point  in  our  own  development  where  we 
can  advantageously  spare  some  of  our  o^Vtal 


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BANI^S  AND  BANKING  — POREIOH  BXCHAHOB  (5) 


As  a  result  of  the  European  War,  and  tbc 
closing:  of  European  markets  to  foreign  loam, 
an  important  aggregate  of  loans  to  fo reign 
governments  has  been  inade  in  the  American 
market.  Since  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
capital  will  continue  to  accumulate  rapidly  in 
the  United  Stttes,  and  there  will  be  less  differ- 
ence in  interest  rates  between  New  York  and 
European  markets  than  in  the  past,  it  is  prob- 
able that  New  York  will  continue  to  be  a  fac- 
tor in  transactions  of  this  class.  The  develop- 
ment of  any  country  in  international  banking 
is  dependent  finally  upon  the  relations  of  its 
people  to  international  affairs.  There  must  be 
an  important  body  of  traders  and  investors 
with  intematianat  interests  and  cosmopolitan 
views.  See  Co^fdcative  Baitking;  Fsdebal 
Reserve  Svsteu  (article  12) ;  FomcH  Ex- 
change (article  15) ;  World  Systems  (ar- 
ticle 3). 

FKANK  a.  VANDEtlLIF, 
President  National  City  Batik,  New   York. 
5.   FOREIGN     EXCHANGE.       Foreign 
exchange  may  best  be  described  as  the  system 


to  develop  the  dormant  resources  of  countries 
not  so  far  advanced  as  ourselves.  There  will 
be  an  economic  ^in  to  ourselves  and  to  the 
world  communit}/  in  doing  so, Just  as  there  was 
an  economic  gain  to  New  England  and,  the 
United  States  from  the  use  of  New  England 
capital  for  the  development  of  the  Western 
States  of  this  country.  This  investment  of 
United  States  capital  in  other  countries  will  be 
guided  and  stimulated  b;/  the  development  of 
mtemational  banking  facilities  with  headquar- 
ters in  this  country. 

Short  Loan  and  Commercial  BUlt.— 
There  is  yet  another  class  of  international 
banking  wnich  is  comparatively  new  in  this 
country  but  which  is  developing,  and  that  is 
the  class  of  banking  which  has  made  London 
the  chief  maiket  of  the  world  for  short  loans 
and  commercial  bills.  Here  again  the  defects 
of  our  national  banking  in  the  past  have  mili- 
tated against  us.  National  banks  not  being  per- 
mitted to  accept  drafts  for  future  payment. 
Even  our  own  foreign  trade,  both  exports  and 
imports,  has  been  financed  di rough  Inlls  upon 
London.  Most  of  the  time  there  has  been  no 
real  loss  to  this  country  by  this  process,  because 
it  has  been  possible  to  carry  the  drafts  at  a 
lower  rate  of  interest  in  London  than  in  New 
York.  In  the  future,  however,  this  situation  is 
likely  to  be  different,  not  so  much  because  of  a 
probable  change  in  the  London  situation  as 
because  of  the  changes  effected  here  by  the 
Federal  Reserve  system.  In  the  past  the  finan- 
cial banking  reserves  of  the  United  States  have 
been  kept  in  the  large  National  banks  of  New 
York  ci^,  which,  by  custom  and  as  a  result  of 
coRwetitive  conditions,  paid  a  uniform  rate 
of  2  per  cent  upon  them.  This  interest  bur- 
den made  it  incumbent  upon  diem  to  keep  die 
funds  employed  upon  the  most  favorable  terms 
possible,  and  this  employment  was  commonly 
found  m  loans  on  stock  exchange  collaterd. 
The  Federal  Reserve  system  transfers  the 
banking  reserves  to  the  Federal  Reserve  banks, 
and  forbids  their  employment  in  loans  upon 
stocks  or  bonds.  They  can  only  be  used  in 
rediscounting  paper  arising  out  of  commercial 
transactions.  Coincident  with  the  creation  of 
this  great  fund,  restricted  to  commercial  paper, 
has  come  permission  for  National  banks  to 
accept  pai>er  arising  out  of  international  trade, 
a  permission  which  extends  not  only  to  our 
trade  with  other  countries  but  to' trade  between 
all  countries.  These  acceptances  are  the  most 
desirable  paper  available  for  the  Federal  Re- 
serve banks,  and  as  they  pay  no  interest  on  de- 
posits, and  large  earnings  with  them  are  subor- 
dinated to  the  policy  of  having  liquid  assets  and 
developing  a  great  discount  market,  it  may  be 
expected  that  the  rate  on  this  class  of  paper 
will  hereafter  be  as  low  in  New  York  as  in  any 
market  of  the  world.  The  availability  of  the 
New  York  market  for  trade  bills  ultimately 
payable  elsewhere  will  of  course  be  affected  by 
other  factors  as  well  as  the  discount  rate,  and 
particularly  by  the  general  position  of  New 
York  in  the  worid's  exchanges,  but  it  is  and 
can  be  confidently  predicted  that  with  the  re- 
sources of  the  Federal  Reserve  system  behind 
it,  and  with  the  United  States  developing  as  a 
creditor  country.  New  York  in  the  future  will 
play  a  much  more  important  part  in  interna- 
tional banking  than  in  the  past. 


by  which  nayments  are  made  between  countries 
'laving  different  monetary  systems.  The  terms 
'Exchange*  and  ■Foreign  Exchange*  are  also 


used  as  meaning  the  drafts  drawn  ^  merchants 
and  bankers  resident  in  one  country  upon 
merchants  and  bankers  resident  in  another. 

Origin. —  Concerning  the  origin  of  the 
foreign  exchange  system  as  it  exists  at  present 
there  is  a  good  deaiof  doubt  The  best  opinion 
is  that  the  system  as  we  now  have  it  came  into 
existence  early  in  the  Middle  Ages  as  a  result  | 

of  the  commercial  dealings  between  the  north- 
ern Italian  republics  and  the  Levant    Venetian  i 
merchants,    for   instance,    purchasing   goods   in 
Alexandria,  found  that  on  account  of  the  prev- 
alence of  piracy  in  the  Mediterranean  payment              1 
for   such   goods  in  gold  was  extremely  haz- 
ardous.   It  being  the  case  that  the  merchants            i 
of  Alexandria  were  also  purchasers  of  goods  in 
Venice,  a  system  was  devised  whereby,  instead            i 
of  actual  gold  being  shipped  back  and  forth, 
merchants   in    Venice   having   money   owed   to              i 
them  from  Alexandria  were  able  to  receive  it              ' 
from  other  merchants  in  Venice  who  had  pay-            j 
ments    to    make    in    Alexandria.     Gradually    it              I 
came  about,  as  a  result  of  these  arrangements,              i 
that  Alexandria  kept  balances  in  Vemce  and            | 
vice-versa.    Payments  instead  of  being  made  by             . 
means  of  actual  gold  shipments  came  gradually 
to  be  paid  by  drafts  drawn  on  such  balances. 

The  Principle  Suted.— A  dear  under- 
standing    of     the     basic     principle     underlying 


international  transaction.  A  merchant  in  Mem- 
phis, Tenn.,  we  will  say,  has  sold  a  hundred 
bales  of  cotton  to  a  spinner  in  Liverpool, 
England.  For  the  merchant  in  Memphis  the 
important  thing  is  to  realize  upon  his  sale,  at 
the  earliest  possible  opportunihr,  United  States 
currency  or  credit  at  bank.  This  payment  be 
can  receive  in  two  ways.  Either  he  can  draw 
a  draft  upon  the  buyer  of  the  goods  in  Liver- 
pool in  sterling  (the  currency  of  the  buyer) 
and  sell  such  draft  in  Memplus  or  New  York 
at  the  current  rate  of  exchange  for  American 
dollars,  or  (2)  the  buyer  of  the  cotton  in  Liver- 
pool can  send  to  the  merchant  in  Memphis  a 
draft  drawn  on  some  point  in  the  United  States 


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BANKS  AND  BANKING— FORBION  EXCHANOB  (5) 


and  payable  in  United  States  currency.  Which- 
ever way  the  transaction  is  arranged,  the  de- 
ared  result  wilt  be  obtained  that  the  sriler  of 
the  goods  in  Memphii  iromediately  receives 
payment  in  bankable  ftinds. 

The  banking  machinery  requisite  for  the 
conversion  of  sterling  drafts  drawn,  for  in- 
stance, in  Memphis,  into  United  States  dol- 
lars, or  for  the  fumisbing  of  drafts  drawn  in 
sterling  to  American  merchants  who  have  pay- 
ments to  make  abroad,  is  relatively  simple.  It 
consists  simply  of  a  number  of  banks  and 
bankers  with  the  necessary  facilities  for  pur- 
chasing the  drafts  drawn  on  foreign  points  in 
foreign  currencies  offered  them,  and  for  selling 
to  their  clients  such  drafts  drawn  on  foreign 
points  in  foreign  currencies  as  may  be  desired. 
it  must,  however,  be  clearly  understood  that  the 
foret^  exchange  banker  is  not  merely  a  broker 
in  bills,  buying  bills  from  parties  who  have 
them  to  sell  and  selKng  the  same  bills  to  other 
parties  who  want  to  buy  them.  Having  bought 
exchange  drawn  in  a  foreign  currency  on  a 
foreign  point,  the  foreign  exchan^  banker  does 
Dot  resell  those  same  bills,  but  instead  sells  a 
draft  made  by  himself  upon  his  correspondent 
bank  abroad.  The  balance  abroad  out  of  which 
these  bankers'  drafts  are  paid  is  being  continu- 
ally replenished  by  remittances  from  this  side, 
of  foreien  exchange  which  the  banker  buys  in 
the  regular  course  of  business. 

The  foreign  exchange  banker,  in  other 
words,  maintains  a  depositary  abroad  with  whom 
he  deposits  the  bills  of  exchange  he  buys  and 
upon  whom  he  draws  the  drafts  which  he  sells 
his  clients.  Daily  these  balances  are  being 
drawn  upon  and  replenished.  At  all  times  they 
are  maintained  at  a  certain  point,  that,  of 
course,  depending  upon  the  standing  of  the 
banker  and  the  extent  of  the  foreign  exchange 
business  in  which  he  is  engaged.  Some  foreign 
exchange  bankers  carry  balances  at  only  one  or 
two  of  the  more  important  foreign  money 
centres.  Others  carry  balances  at  as  many  as 
20  or  30  foreign  points. 

As  a  result  of  the  arrangements  thev  have 
with  their  foreign  correspondents  and  tne  bal- 
ances they  carry  abroad,  foreign  exchan^ 
bankers  at  primary  points  arc  always  in  a  pos' 


required.  A  large  packing  house  in  Chicago,  for 
instance,  may  have  made  a  shipment  of  meat  to 
Amsterdam   and   as    a    result   be   offering    '' 


the  time  for  bills  of  this  character.  Some 
banker  will  readily  take  them  off  his  hands, 
knowing  that  he,  the  banker,  can  send  the  bills 
*  '  rrespondent  bank   in   Amsterdam   for 


siblv  at  the  time  that  he  buys  the  bills  drawn 
against  the  meat  shipment,  the  foreign  ex- 
change banker  knows  of  a  place  where  he  can 
sell  drafts  drawn  by  himself  at  a  rate  of  ex' 
change  which  will  show  him  a  profit  on  the 
transaction.  Nor  does  it  make  any  difference 
whether  the  drafts  he  buys  are  drawn  against 


meat  or  wheat  or  copper  or  whether  they  are 
payable  at  li^t  or  at  15  days'  sight  or  at 
90  days'  sight.  All  is  grist  that  comes  to 
the  foreign  exchange  banker's  mill.  His  aC' 
count  with  his  foreign  correspondent  is  a  melt- 
ing pot  into  which  he  can  put  bills  of  exchange 
of  every  variety,  the  whole  appearing  after  col- 
lection and  discount  as  a  cash  balance  upon 
which  he  can  draw  his  own  drafts. 

The  profit  made  by  the  foreign  exchange 
banker  comes  from  the  fact  that  he  can  regu- 
larly secure  a  better  rate  of  exchange  for  the 
drafts  drawn  by  himself,  which  he  sells  to  his 
clients,  than  he  has  to  pav  for  the  mercantile 
bills  of  exchange  which  he  buys  from  other 
clients  wid  with  which  he  is  continually  re- 
plenishing his  balance  abroad.  Between  bank- 
ers' bills  and  mercantile  bills,  however  good 
the  latter  may  be,  there  is  always  a  difference  in 
the  rate  of  exchange  Between  the  bill  drawn 
t^  Ae  banker  of  good  standing  and  the  mer- 
chant of  good  stanc^ng  this  difference  is  com- 
Eratively  slight,  but  as  between  the  bill  of  the 
nker  and  the  merchant  whose  paper  ir  —  — 


rate.  It  is  just  here  tibat  the  foreign  exchange 
banker  makes  the  bulk  of  his  profits.  The  bill 
of  this  mercantile  house  he  knows  is  perfectly 
good,  but  because  the  paper  is  not  particularly 
well  known  it  does  not  perhaps  command  the 
full  market  price.  This  paper  the  banker  bt^s 
knowing  that  it  is  good  and  that  it  will  be 
paid  u^on  maturity,  and  against  this  paper  he 
sells  his  own  bills  at  a  considerably  higher 
rate  of  exchange. 

Aside  from  the  trading  on  rates  described 
above,  there  are,  of  course,  great  speculative 
possibilities  in  the  forrign  exchange  market  for 
those  who  choose  to  take  them  up.  By  buying 
bills,  for  instance,  and  accumulating  a  lai«e 
l>alance  abroad  without  selling  his  own  drafts 
against  such  balance,  the  banker  puts  himself 
in  a  position  where  he  will  greatly  profit 
through  any  rise  in  rates  which  may  take  place 
—  or  vice-versa.  Foreign  exchange  banlcers, 
too,  sell  exchange  for  future  delivery  and  con- 
tract to  purchase  drafts  at  fixed  times  in  Ae 
future,  at  rates  which  they  figure  will  show 
them  a  profit  These,  of  course,  are  only  one 
or  two  examples.  The  opportunities  for  specu- 
lative operations  in  foreign  exchange  are  prac- 
tically unlimited. 

The  par  of  exchange  between  two  countries 
having  different  monetary  standards  as,  for 
instance.  Great  Britain  with  the  pound  sterling 
and  the  United  States  with  the  dollar,  is  the 
price  of  the  gold  unit  of  one  country  expressed 
in  the  currency  of  the  other.  In  a  new  gold 
pound  sterling  (sovereigii).  for  instance,  £ere 
is  an  amount  of  gold  whicn,  at  any  sub-Treas- 
ury in  the  United  States,  is  worth  $4.8665.  This 
sum  is,  therefore,  the  par  of  exchange  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 

From  this  par  of  exchange  the  rale  fluctuates 
upward  and  downward  according  to  the  supply 
and  demand.  If  American  merchants  or  bank- 
ers have  large  payments  to  make  on  the  other 
side  and  drafts  drawn  in  foreign  currencies  are 
in  great  demand,  it  naturally  follows  that  the 
price  in  dollars  which  must  be  paid  for  eadi 
pound  sterling,  mark  or  franc,  as  the  case  may 
be,  will  increase  (that  the  rate  of  exchange ^11 

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BANKS  AHD  BANKING— POBEION  SXCHANQB  (S) 


rise).  If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  large  amount  of 
drafts  drawn  on  foreign  points  in  foreign 
currencies  are  being  offered  for  sale  to  bankers 
engaged  in  the  foreign  exchange  business,  it 
stands  to  reason  that  Less  American  dollars  will 
be  paid  for  each  pound  sterling,  mark  or  franc, 
as  the  case  may  be  (that  the  rate  of  exchange 
will  dechne). 

The  principal  influences  having  a  tendency  to 
cause  the  rate  of  exchange  at  any  given  point 
to  rise  are  as  follows : 

Heavy  _  Imports  of  Mtrchfmdist. —  Mer- 
chandise imported  must  be  paid  for  —  usually 
by  means  of  a  draft  drawn  m  the  currency  of 
the  country  from  which  the  soods  are  coming. 
If,  thus,  imports  run  heavy,  uiere  is  necessarily 
a  big  demand  for  drafts  to  send  over  to  the 
shippers  from  whom  the  goods  are  coming.  The 
natural  effect  is  to  cause  a  rise  in  the  rate  at 
which  bankers  are  willing  to  sell  such  drafts. 

Heavy  Imports  of  Securities. —  Exactly  as 
merchandise  imported  into  the  country  must  be 
paid  for,  so  securities  imported  into  the  country 
must  be  paid  for.     The  moment  a  market  be- 

gins  to  repurchase  on  a  large  scale  its  securities 
eld  abroad,  or  to  purchase  foreign  securities 
there  is  set  up  a  strong  demand  for  bills  of 
exchange  drawn  on  the  market  where  the  buy- 
ing  is  being  done  to  settle  for  these  securities, 
A  time  when  New  York,  for  example,  is  bu^g 
stocks  heavily  in  London,  is  apt  to  be  a  time 
when  the  demand  for  sterling  drafts  is  so  great 
u  to  give  the  sterling  exchange  market  a  strong 
upward  tendeni^. 

A  Decline  in  Money  Rales  Below  the 
Level  .Prevailing  at  Other  Important  Foreign 
Centres. —  As  money  rates  decline  there  is  a 
strong  tendency  for  capital  to  seek  points  at 
which  a  better  rate  is  offered  for  its  use.  Trans- 
fer of  catntal  can  be  effected  only  through  re- 
mittances of  exchange  to  points  where  the 
capital  is  to  be  employed.  A  period  of  ex- 
tremely low  money  rates  at  a  point  like  New 
York,  for  example,  with  London  offering  a 
better  rate  for  capital  is  likely  to  be  a  time 
when  there  is  a  big  demand  for  bills  of  ex- 
changq  with  which  to  make  remittances  to 
London. 

The  prindpa]  influences  tending  to  cause  a 
decline  at  any  given  point  in  exchange  rates 
are  as  follows : 

Heavy  Exports  of  Merchandise. —  Pay- 
ment for  merchandise  exported  from  the  United 
States  is  made  largely  t^  drafts  drawn  in  the 
currency  of  the  country  to  which  the  goods  are 
shipped,  upon  the  buyer  of  the  goods  or  upon 
some  bank  abroad  designated  by  him.  A  time 
when  merchandise  is  moving  freely  out  of  the 
country  is  a  time  when  a  large  amount  of  such 
drafts  are  being  offered  to  foreign  exchange 
bankers.  The  result  is,  naturally,  to  cause  a 
decline  in  the  rate  which  bankers  are  willing  to 
pay  for  such  drafts. 

Heavy  Exports  of  Securities. —  Securities 
shipped  out  of  the  country,  as  is  the  case  with 
merchandise,  are  generally  paid  for  by  means 
of  a  draft  drawn  by  the  seller  upon  the  buyer. 
A  time  when,  for  any  reason,  large  amounts  of 
Stocks  or  bonds  are  being  shipped  out  is,  nat- 
urally, a  time  when  large  amounts  of  exchange 
are  bein^  drawn  and  offered,  with  a  consequent 
decline  m  the  rate  of  exchange. 

A  Rise  in  the  Rate  for  Money  Above  That 


PrevaHing  at  Other  Primary  Points  Abroad. — 
Just  as  tenkine  capital  tends  to  How  out  of  a 
market  where  the  money  rate  is  declining,  so  it 
tends  to  flow  mto  a  market  where  the  money 
rate  is  rising.  Let  money  rates  at  New  York, 
for  instance,  rise  considerably  above  those  pre- 
vailing in  London  or  Paris,  and  immecUalely 
foreign  capital  begins  to  flow  this  way  and 
American  bankers  begin  to  recall  to  this  market 
for  their  own  use  a  substantial  part  of  the  funds 
they  have  been  carrying  abroad.  This  recalling 
of  balances  is  effected  ^  diawin|C  drafts  on  cor- 
respondents abroad  and  by  offering  these  drafts 
for  sale  in  this  market,  the  effect  being  to  lower 
the  rate  of  exchange. 

There  is,  however,  a  limit  beyond  which, 
under  normal  circumstances,  the  rate  of  ex- 
change between  two  countries  having  the  gold 
standard  cannot  rise,  and  a  limit  beyond  which 
it  cannot  f  aU. 

The  extent  to  which  the  exchange  can  rise 
is  limited  by  the  point  at  which  it  becomes 
cheaper  for  parties,  having  payments  to  make 
abroad,  to  send  the  actual  gold  than  to  send  a 
banker's  bill  drawn  in  the  currency  of  the  place 
where  the  payment  is  to  be  made.  If,  for  in- 
stance, a  merchant  in  the  United  States  having 
a  payment  to  make  in  Great  Britain  finds  that 
each  pound  sterling  of  the  draft  he  wants  to 
buj;  will  cost  him  $4.89,  he  can  go  to  any 
United  States  sub-Treasury,  purchase  the  exact 
amount  of  gold  which  when  laid  down  abroad 
will  yield  one  pound  sterling,  and  send  it  to  the 
other  side  at  a  total  cost  to  him  of  considerably 
less  than  $4.69.  The  American  merchant's  idea 
being  to  discharge  his  obligation  abroad  with 
die  least  possible  expenditure  of  American  dol- 
lars, he  will  elect  to  send  the  actual  gold  rather 
than  to  purchase  and  send  a  banker's  draft. 

The  extent  to  which  the  exchange  can  fall 
at  a  point  like  New  York,  for  instance,  is  lim- 
ited hy  the  point  at  which  a  new  gold  sovereign 
laid  down  in  New  York  yields  net  a  greater 
amount  of  dollars  and  cents  than  each  pound 
sterling  of  a  prime  banker's  draft  drawn  on 
London  would  yield.  A  New  York  bank,  for 
example,  has  mon^  on  deposit  in  London  which 
it  wishes  to  withdraw  to  New  York.  It  will 
sell  its  drafts  onlv  down  to  the  point  at  which 
that  process  yielas  more  dollars  than  if  gold 
were  imported.  Below  that  point  the  rate  of 
exchange  cannot  fall. 

The  above,  however,  applies  only  where  there 
is  a  free  interchange  of  gold  between  markets. 
n  for  any  reason  the  natural  flow  of  gold  one 
way  or  uie  other  is  obstructed  or  restricted, 
exchange  may  rise  far  above  or  fait  far  below 
what  would  be  the  normal  gold  export  or  gold 
import  point.  By  interfering  with  the  natural 
outflow  of  gold  from  London  through  raising 
the  discount  rate  and  throuf^  buying  up  all 
available  supplies  of  gold  bullion  in  the  market, 
the  Bank  of  England^  for  instance,  has  on  nu- 
merous occasions  brought  about  a  condition 
where  the  rate  of  exchange  in  New  York  on 
London  fell  far  below  the  gold  import  point 
without  any  gold  being  shipped  to  tie  United 
States.  Similarly  the  rate  of  exchange  both 
at  Berlin  and  at  Paris  not  infrequently  rises 
far  above  the  point  at  which  gold  can  be  profit- 
ably ei4>ortea  for  the  simple  reason  that, 
through  the  interference  of  the  governmental 
authorities,  no  gold  for  export  can  be  obtained. 


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BANKS  AND  BANKING  — INVBSTMBNT  BANKING  (0) 


Under  such  dirumstanccs  those  who  have  re- 
mittances to  make  can  make  them  only  by  means 
of  bills  of  exchange  and  must  pay  whatever 
prire  is  asked. 

Gold  exports  and  imports,  it  must  be  borne 
ind,  are  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the 
'  '  die  banker  who  has 
1  bullion. 


Upon  the  exchange  rate  rising,  for  instance,  to 
the  gold  export  point,  the  shipments  of  gold 
which  take  place  are  not  made  by  merchants  but 


by  bankers  who  through  thus  replenishing  their 
telances  abroad  keep  themselves  in  a  position 
to  sell  to  merchants  the  needed  bills  of  ex- 
change. The  rate  on  London  at  New  York, 
for  example,  rises  to  $4.88,  at  which  rate 
conditions  at  the  time  happen  to  be 
such  that  a  remittance  made  m  the  form 
of  gold  and  a  remittance  made  by  means 
of  a  bill  of  exchange  cost  the  sender 
exactly  the  same  amxiunt  of  dollars  and  cents. 
At  this  point  bankers  will  begin  to  ship  gold 
knowing  well  that  they  will  be  able  to  sell  latir 
drafts  aeainst  the  balances  thus  created  at  a 
slightly  hi^er  rate  than  $4,88^  for  the  simple 
reason  that  merchants,  having  no  facilities  for 
handling  bullion,  are  willing  to  pay,  say,  a  quar- 
ter of  a  cent  in  the  pound  sterling  in  order  to 
avoid  the  necessity  of  having  to  ship  the  actual 
gold  themselves.  The  rise  m  the  exchatige  to 
Uie  gold  export  point  dius  means  die  shipping  of 
goldon  the  part  of  bankers,  and  the  consequent 
creation  of  a  fresh  supply  of  bills  of  exchange 
out  of  which  mercantile  needs  are  satisfied. 

What  has  been  said  above  applies  only  to 
the  exchange  relationship  between  countriei 
having  the  gold  standard  or  the  gold  exchange 
standard,  i.e.,  where  the  government,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Philippines  or  in  India,  guarantees 
a  gold  value  to  the  silver  medium  of  exchange. 
'W^ere  the  exchange  relationship  is  between  a 
country  on  the  gold  standard  and  a  country 
on  the  silver  standard,  the  dominant  factor  in 
the  rate  of  exchange  is  the  price  of  silver.  A 
rise  in  the  price  of  silver  in  China,  for  instance, 
overshadows  everything  else  as  an  influence 
upon  the  rate  of  exchange  on  London,  and  in- 
variably causes  a  fall  in  the  price  at  which  the 
pound  sterling  will  exchange  for  the  local  silver 
currency.  Conversely  a  fall  in  silver  invariably 
brine^  about  a  rise  in  the  exchange. 

Bibliography,— Barbour,  D.  M.,  'Standard 
of  Value'  (New  York  1912)  ;  Escher,  F., 
'Foreign  Exchange  Explained'  (New  York 
1917)  ;  Goschen,  G.  J.,  'Theory  of  Foreiitn  Ex- 
change' (London  1®4)  ;  Margraff,  A.  W.,  'In- 
temattonal  Exchange>  (ib.  1912) ;  Withers,  H., 
'Money  Changing'  (London  1913), 

Franklin  Escher, 
Lecturer  on  Foreign  Exchanges. 
6.  INVESTMENT  BANKING.  Invest- 
ment linking  is  the  system  by  which  invest- 
ment capital  IS  made  available,  (1)  for  the  uses 
of  industrial  enterprise ;  (2)  for  civil  loans, 
i.e.,  loans  to  municipalities,  states  and  countries. 
An  enterprise  is  in  need  of  capital,  or  a  state 
or  county,  for  instance,  needs  mor^  for  the 
construction  of  roads  or  public  buildings.  It 
is  the  function  of  the  investment  banker  to 
stand  between  his  clients  who  have  money  to 
lend  and  the  corporation  or  municipality  which 
wants  to  borrow,  and  to  see  that  the  needed 
capital  is  providod. 


The  whole  ^stem  of  investment  banking  as 
constituted  to-day  presumwses  the  ability  on 
the  part  of  those  engaged  in  it  to  draw  capital 
from  their  clients  for  whatever  purpose  re- 
quired. The  X  Y  Z  Railroad,  we  will  say, 
which  operates  a  system  of  electric  lines,  de- 
cides to  spend  a  million  dollars  on  certain  im-  . 
provements  which,  it  feels,  will  greatly  increase 
Its  revenue.  The  road  not  having  that  much 
free  cash  on  hand  appeals  to  some  investment 
banking  house  for  the  money,  offering  to  pay 
for  it  such-and-such  a  rate  of  interest  and,  as 
security,  to  give  to  the  lenders  a  mortgage  on 
the  property  to  be  acquired.  This  proposition 
having  been  made,  the  investment  banker  pro- 
ceeds to  make  an  independent  examination,  and, 
his  engineers  having  satisfied  themselves  as 
to  the  safety  and  productivity  of  the  loan,  in- 
forms the  railroad  that  he  stands  ready  to  ad- 
vance the  capital  required  —  in  other  words, 
that  he  will  purchase  from  them  at  a  certain 
price  such-and-such  an  amount  of  bonds  or 
stock  issued  under  such-and-such  conditions. 
It  is  not,  of  course,  his  own  money  which  the 
investment  banker  figures  on  advancing. 
Familiarity  with  the  markets,  the  price  of  cap- 
ital and  the  standing  of  the  concern  which 
wants  to  borrow  enables  him  to  estimate  at 
just  about  what  price  he  will  be  able  to  dig- 
pose  of  the  secunties  to  be  issued.  For  a  cer- 
tain type  of  slock  or  bond  issued  by  a  certain 
type  of  borrower,  he  knows  his  dientage  will 
be  willing  to  pay  just  about  such-and-such  a 
price.  He  figures,  for  instance,  that,  counting 
all  costs  of  retaihng,  he  will  be  able  to  parcel 
out  a  million  dollars  worth  of  high  grade  bonds 
at  a  net  price  to  him  of  98.  A  price  somewhere 
between  90  and  95  would,  therefore,  be  about 
what  he  would  offer  the  railroad  for  the  bonds. 
The  difference  between  what  he  paid  for  the 
bonds  and  what  he  got  for  them  oy  distribut- 
ing them  among  his  clients  would  constitute 
his  net  profit  on  the  transaction. 

In  theory,  a  corporation  wanting  to  borrow 
money  by  selling  new  securities  advertises  in 
the  investment  market  for  bids  and  sells  the 
securities  to  the  highest  bidder.  In  practice, 
nearly  every  large  railroad  or  industrial  con- 
cern has  its  own  bankers  to  whom  the  business 
is  invariably  ^ven.  For  this  there  is  good 
reason.  The  mvestment  house  which  is  going 
to  interest  its  clients  largely  in  the  securities 
of  a  corporation  assiunes  a  certain  moral  obli- 
gation. To  be  safe,  in  other  words,  the  baiUcer 
has  got  to  be  close  to  the  property  he  is  financ- 
ing and  to  remain  close  to  it  and  in  close  touch 
with  its  aifairs.  He  cannot,  therefore,  spread 
his  efforts  in  too  many  directions.  Gradually, 
in  consequence,  each  investment  banking  house 
gathers  around  itself  a  certain  number  of  en- 
terprises with  whose  affairs  it  is  particular^' 
famihar  and  whose  securities  it  becomes  par- 
ticularly fitted  to  handle. 

The  methods  by  which  the  investment  bank- 
ing house,  having  purchased  and  paid  for  a 
block  of  new  secunties,  proceeds  to  distribute 
these  securities  and  thus  reimburse  itself,  vary 
according  to  the  nature  and  size  of  the  issue. 
If  the  issue  is  a  very  lai^e  one,  the  chances 
are  that  the  bonds  will  be  resold  not  to  the 
individual  investment  public  direct,  but  rather 
to  a  syndicate  of  smaller  investment  houses, 
by  whom  the  final  distribution  will  be  effected. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  issue  is  a  modeiate 


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BANKS  AND  BANKING— THE  CLEASINO  HOUSB  (7) 


money  given  can  always  be  made  to  equaliie 
the  value  of  the  goods  taken.  A3  soon  as  nego- 
tiable instnunents  or  substitutes  for  value  are 
emi>Ioyed,  this  inequalttj;  of  exchan^  must 
again  be  provided  for  as  is  the  case  with  origi- 
nal barter,  except  that  monty  instead  of  some 
other  commodi^  is  used  to  make  tite  trade 
equal. 

HistoiT. —  The  clearing  principle  now  in 
operation  between  and  among  banks  must  have 
been  employed  as  early  as  the  general  introduc- 
tion of  Inlb  of  exchange  into  the  commercial 
world.  The  origin  of  the  first  clearing  house  in 
the  modern  sense  Is,  however,  clouded  in  some 
obscuri^.  London  claims  the  distinction  of 
having  the  original  bank  clearing  bouse,  which 
was  organiied  about  the  year  1773.  It  waS'  the 
custom  of  the  early  London  banks  to  send  mes- 
sengers irom  one  to  the  other,  presenting  checks 
and  other  bills  payable  at  their  respective  coun- 
ters for  payment  in  money.  Two  of  these  mes- 
sengers, so  the  legend  goes,  formed  the  habit 
of  meeting  daily  at  a  convenient  coffee-house 
where  they  would  exchange  their  items,  paying 
the  difference  witii  cash  which  they  had  brought 
along  for  tiie  [nirpose.  Although  this  plan  saved 
considerable  time  and  the  tumdltng  of  much 
money,  the  characteristic  dislike  of  the  conserva- 
tive English  banker  for  anything  varying  from 
established  custom  asserted  itself  and  the 
offending  clerks  who  had  thus  violated  prece- 
dent were  property  dtsdplined.  The  merits 
of  the  idea  having  finally  prevailed,  the  London 
Bankers'  Clearing  House  was  established  and  is 
said  to  be  the  first  such  exchange  conducted  in 
a  building  set  aside  exclusively  for  that  purpose. 

Owing  to  the  unsettled  state  of  finance  and 
the  lack  of  a  coherent  bankii^  system,  it  was 
not  until  1853  that  the  first  clearing  house  was 
established  in  the  United  States,  the  New  Yoik 
Clearing  House  having  been  founded  in  that 
year.  Albert  Gallatin,  an  eminent  financier, 
bad  proposed  such  an  organization  many  years 
earlier,  but  without  success.  Following  the  ex- 
ample of  New  York  similar  associations  were 
formed  in  other  large  cities  and  immediately 
after  the  National  Bank  Act  had  taxed  State 
bank  note  issues  out  of  existence  (186^-64). 
the  deposit-and-check  system  of  banking 
brought  into  general  use  so  large  an  increase 
of  personal  checks  that  clearing  bouses  multi- 
plied very  rapidly.  The  so-called  Suffolk  system 
used  by  the  Boston  banks  from  1616  to  1864 
was  a  clearing  plan  adopted  to  facilitate  the 
exchange  and  redemption  of  New  England  State 
bank  notes,  but  its  functions  and  methods  were 
not  those  of  the  true  clearing  house  in  the 
generally  accepted  meaning  of  t£e  term. 

The  Work  of  the  Clearing  Hoiue.— The 
clearing  house  is  a  plan,  rather  than  a  tangible 
entity,  although  in  one  sense  the  term  is  used 
to  designate  the  building  in  which  the  actual 
exchanges  take  i^ace,  and  in  another  the  volun- 
tary association  of  the  batUcs  which  comprise 
the  membership.  As  between  any  two  banks, 
there  will  be  a  simple  offset  of  checks  which 
each  holds  against  the  other,  payment  of  the 
difference  or  balance  being  either  deferred  and 
included  in  the  following  As^s  transactions  or 
else  settled  daily  in  cash.  When  three  or  more 
banks  are  involved,  and  the  offset  is  accom- 
plished throu^  a  clearing  house,  the  operation 


one  in  size,  the  chances  are  against  its  passing 
through  any  other  bankers'  hands.  The  house 
purchasing  the  bonds  in  that  case  is  far  more 
Ukely    to   offer    the    bonds    direct    to   its    own 

There  are  a  number  of  ways  in  which  this 
is  done.  Circularising  and  direct^  personal 
salesmanship  are  the  two  most  important 
Every  investment  banking  house  of  any  ac- 
count has  a  brge  list  of  actual  and  prospecdve 
clients.  To  this  Ust  (which  in  the  case  of 
some  of  the  larger  houses  runs  up  to  20,000  or 
even  30,000  names)  the  new  securities  are 
offered.  By  no  means,  however,  is  the  offer- 
ing necessarily  limited  to  the  existing  list. 
Advertising,  both  in  newspapers  and  ma^- 
zines,  to-day  plays  an  important  part  in  m- 
vestment  banking.  Through  it  countless  new 
names  are  each  year  added  to  investment 
bankers'  lists  and  through  it  vast  amounts  of 
new  securities  are  each  year  being  actually 
sold. 

In  the  investment  banking  business  the  day 
of  large  profits  is  a  thing  of  the  past.  It  used 
to  be  the  case  that,  for  the  banker  bringing 
out  the  securities  even  of  a  corporation  of 
established  credit,  there  was  a  profit  running 
often  in  excess  of  10  per  cent  The  establish- 
ment of  public  service  commissions  all  over 
'  the  greater  degree  of  ! 
ised  by  the  Interstate    _ 

n  over  the  railroads'  finances 

has  put  a  stop  to  that.  Industrial  and  manu- 
facturing concerns,  not  being  subject  to  such 
supervision,  are  in  some  instances  still  being 
made  to  pay  heaviW-  for  their  money,  but  even 
here  the  profits  of  the  investment  banker  are 
nothing  like  what  they  used  to  be. 

Investment  banking  is  by  no  means  to  be 
confused  with  promotion  —  that  is  to  say  the 
providing  of  capital  for  new  and  untried  en- 
terprise. "To  the  investment  banker  of  reputa- 
tion and  who  is  in  the  business  to  stay,  the 
primary  consideration  is  by  no  means  the 
amount  of  the  profit  he  is  going  to  make,  but 
rather  the  safety  and  desirabifity  of  the  in- 
vestment he  is  offering  his  clients.  A  clientele 
financially  strong,  and  which  can  be  relied  up- 
on at  the  banker's  suggestion  to  absorb  any 
bsue  of  securities  offered,  is  an  asset  which 
can  be  acquired  only  hy  years  of  careful,  pa- 
tient and  intelligent  effort.  The  true  invest- 
ment banker,  having  established  such  an  out- 
let for  any  new  securities  he  may  want  to 
handle,  takes  the  greatest  care  that  no_  securi- 
ties reach  clients  which  may  impair  their  opin- 
ion of  his  own  integrity  and  judgment 

BibUography.—  Chamberiain,  L.,  <The 
Work  of  a  Bond  House'  (New  York  1912); 
Eseher,  F.,    'Practical  Investing'    (New  York 


Frankun  Esceer. 
_  7.  THE  CLEARING  HOUSE.  The  prin- 
ciple of  offset  —  the  application  of  credits  to 
debits  and  the  settlement  of  an^  balance 'remain- 
ing—as  applied  to  banking  is  defined  as  the 
clearing  principle.  Economically  it  is  an  evolu- 
tion of  the  ancient  svstem  of  barter  by  which 
goods  were  exchanged  for  goods,  the  trade  being 
made  even  by  giving  something  'to  boot" ;  that 
is,  to  equalize  any  difference  in  the  value  of  the 
goods  exchanged.  In  money  exchanges  this 
principle  is  not  involved  since  the   amount  of 


.lOOQlC 


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BANKS  AND  BANKING  — THE  CLEARING  HOUSE  (7> 


187 


of  exchange  is  identical,  except  that  each  mem- 
ber bank  assumes  in  accountuiK  that  all  checks 
payable  by  its  neighbors  are  orawn  upon  but 
one  fictitious  institution  —  the  clearing  house  — 
and  the  bank  in  turn  receives  all  checks  on  itself 
irom  the  same  source.     This   result  :' 


pUsbed  by  putting  all  checks  on  each  other 
member  of  me  clearing  house  in  separate  pack- 
ages, listing  each  totar  on  the  credit  side  of  a 


sheet  opposite  the  name  or  clearing  house  i 
bcT  of  the  bank  on  which  they  are  drawn.  The 
grand  total  is  then  recorded  on  the  bank's  books 
as  'Exchanges  for  the  Clearing  House,* 

At  a  fixed  time  all  the  banks  meet  at  the 
clearing  house  through  their  representatives, 
who  exchange  the  packages,  one  clerk  moving 
around  the  outside  of  a  scries  of  desks,  each 


.1  a  brass  plate.  This  clerk  records 
debit  column  the  amount  of  each  package  of 
checks  received  from  the  distributing  messen- 
gers. The  result  is  that  while  each  messenger 
has  come  to  the  clearing  house  with  checks  on 
every  other  member,  he  returns  with  checks 
on  his  own  bank  only,  and  this  without  having 
made  a  visit  to  each  mstitution.  The  difference 
between  the  total  amount  brought  to  and  taken 
away  from  the  clearing  house  is  the  balance, 
and  since  ibe  mere  exchange  of  the  items  does 
not  alter  the  sum  of  them,  the  total  debit  bal- 
ances due  to  the  clearing  house  by  the  members 
who  have  brought  less  than  they  have  received 
must  equal  the  sum  of  the  credit  balances  which 
the  clearing  house  owes  the  members  who  have 
brought  more  than  they  have  received.  This 
casting  of  total  debit  and  credit  balances  is 
done  by  the  manager  of  the  clearing  house  and 
is  the  proof  of  the  correctness  of  the  exchange. 
With  the  exception  of  the  manager,  who  mav 
be  an  officer  of  one  of  the  member  banks,  aU 
the  clerical  work  at  the  clearing  house  is  done 
by  the  bank  clerks  who  make  the  exchanges, 
^e  exchange  of  the  packages  and  the  sub- 
sequent accounting  consumes  very  little  time, 
10  to  15  minutes  being  sufficient  to  list  the  totals 
and  strike  the  t>alances. 

A  few  hours  are  allowed  the  banks  after 
the  exchange  has  taken  place  for  the  settlement 
of  balance!.  The  general  hour  for  the  ex- 
change is  10  A.M.  and  at  noon  all  debtor  banks 
tnust  pay  their  balances  in  acceptable  funds  to 
the  manager  of  the  clearing  house.  At  1  o'clock 
all  creditor  banks  send  to  the  clearing  house 
and  receive  payment  for  their  credit  Kilances. 
Unpaid  items  are  accounted  for  directly  be- 
tween the  two  banks  involved  and  are  not  re- 
turned through  the  clearing  house.  The  clearing 
house  acts  merely  as  the  agent  for  the  debtor 
banks  and  is  not  liable  in  any  way  for  the 

Eayment  or  genuineness  of  the  checks  which 
ave  been  exchanged.  Thus  in  a  few  minutes' 
time  vast  numbers  of  checks  representing  mil- 
lions of  dollars  are  presented  and  later  settled 
far  with  very  little  actual  money  being  neces- 
sary. The  ratio  of  balances  to  cleanngs  de- 
pends upon  the  relative  size  of  the  banks 
making  die  exchanges  and  as  a  general  average 
for  aU  clearing  houses  it  may  be  set  down  at 
about  10  per  cent  In  New  York  city,  which 
has  the  most  notable  clearing  house  in  the 
country,  the  average  extending  over  a  period 
of  yean  is  less  Oaa  5  per  cent. 


Various  methods  are  used  in  settling  bal- 
ances, the  object  being  to  avoid  as  far  as  pos- 
sible the  use  of  mon^.  Thus  drafts  may  be 
used  by  the  debtors  which  the  manager  of  the 
clearing  bouse  deposits  with  one  member,  draw- 
ing his  own  drafts  against  this  deposit  in  favor 
of  the  creditor  banks.  In  many  clearing  houses 
actual  currency  is  used,  but  in  others,  gold  and 
other  money  is  deposited  in  the  vaults  of  the 
clearing  house  and  certificates  similar  in  nature 
to  warehouse  receipts  are  issued  in  denomina- 
tions of  $5,000  or  more.  By  using  these  certifi- 
cates, which  cannot  be  negotiated  except  by 
member  banks,  counting  and  recounting  large 
sums  of  money  is  avoided,  nor  is  there  danger 
of   loss   in   carrying   the   money  through   the 

In  acting  as  clearing  houses  for  their  mem- 
bers as  the  Federal  Reserve  banks  are  required 
to  do  under  the  terms  of  the  Federal  Reserve 
Act,  the  same  accounting  principles  are  em- 
ployed, with  due  allowance  for  the  fact  that 
the  member  banks  are  separated  within  their 
own  districts  by  at  least  one  day's  mail  time 
from  their  clearing  house,  in  this  instance  the 
Reserve  Bank.  The  checks  are  sent  by  mail 
instead  of  by  messenger  as  in  the  case  of  a 
local  clearing  house  and  the  balances  are  ad- 
justed by  debits  and  credits  to  accounts  with 
the  Reserve  Bank. 

The  12  Federal  Reserve  banks  also  use  the 
clearing  principle  in  making  settlement  with 
each  other  through  the  operations  of  a  Gold 
Settlement  Fund  held  at  Washington  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Federal  Reserve  Board. 
Each  reserve  bank  keeps  a  portion  of  its  gold 
reserve  in  the  form  of  United  States  gold  cer- 
tificates on  deposit  in  the  Settlement  Fund. 
Once  a  week  each  reserve  bank  telegraphs  the 
amount  owing  by  it  to  every  other  reserve  bank. 
These  totals  are  then  offset  and  the  balances 
are  adjusted  by  debits  and  credits  in  the  fund. 
Settlements  representing  die  exchange  transac- 
tions between  the  different  sections  of  the 
country  are  thus  effected  by  a  change  in  owner- 
ship of  the  gold  which  is  not  in  any  physical 
way  disturbed.  Before  the  establishment  of 
this  National  Gearing  House  it  was  necessary 
to  transfer  lar^e  amounts  of  gold  and  currency 
from  one  section  of  the  country  to  the  other 
as  the  trade  balance  varied  in  accordance  with 
the  seasons. 

GoTemineBt.— In  order  that  the  transac- 
tions of  the  clearing  house  may  be  properly  con- 
ducted, certain  regulations  are  adopted.  Rules 
govern  the  nature  of  items  which  mav  be  passed 
through  the  exchanges,  bow  they  snail  be  en- 
dorsed, the  hour  of  clearing  and  settlement; 
fines  are  imposed  for  lateness  or  errors;  and 
the  kinds  of  money  which  may  be  used  in  paying 
debit  balances  are  agreed  upon.  This  necessity 
for  regulation  has  led  to  further  clearing  house 
development  in  which  the  banks  act  as  an  asso- 
ciation for  imiformity  and  the  common  good. 
Manv  clearing  houses  receive  out  of  town 
checks  from  their  members  and  make  collection. 
In  this  ¥ray  better  terms  and  quicker  returns 
can  be  secured  than  if  each  bank  acted  inde- 
pendently. Country  checks  handled  by  a  clear- 
ing house  are  collected  and  not  cleared.  The 
clearing  house  in  this  case  operates  as  the  agent 
of  all  its  members  and  deals  with  the  out-of- 
town  tnnks  mnch  as  the  member  banks  n^  in 


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toe 


BANKS  AND  BANKING  —  BANKING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  <8) 


coUectioR  checks   tfaroua^  uufividuaJ   arrange- 
ment with  their  country  correspondents. 

Several  of  the  larger  clearing  house  associa- 
tions employ  their  own  examiners  who  woric 
independently  of  State  or  Federal  officials. 
These  local  examiners  rot  only  make  the  usual 
audit  and  examination  of  the  cash  and  books  of 


from  the  viewpoint  of  the  credit  risk.  In  this 
way  each  member  bank  is  assured  that  other 
tanks  in  the  city  are  being  carefully  managed 
and  in  position  to  secure  expert  advice  if  it  is 
needed.  The  records  of  the  clearing  bouse  ex- 
aminer arc  confidential  and  cannot  be  secured 
by  any  of  the  banks.  All  detail  reports  are 
given  to  the  officers  and  directors  of  the  bank 
examined  and  their  attention  is  called  to  any 
assets  which  are  of  questionable  value.  The 
judgment  of  the  clearing  house  examiner  is 
usually  to  be  depended  upon  in  this  connection, 
unce  indirectly  be  represents  the  combined 
credit  skill  of  the  officers  of  all  the  banks  which 
be  investigates.  It  is  a  matter  of  record  that 
no  depositor  has  lost  a  dollar  throng  tbe  fail- 
ure of  a  bank  subject  to  clearing  house  exam- 
inations.  This  system  of  examination  was  £rst 
adopted  by  the  Qiicago  Clearing  House  in  1906. 
It  is  expected  that  many  of  the  activities  of 
clearing  houses  in  the  United  States  will  grad- 
ually give  way  in  favor  of  the  Reserve  banks 
as    these    institutions    develop    in    their    super- 


established,  is  of  sufficient  importance  in  bank- 
ing to  insufe  the  continued  existence  of  bank 
clearing  houses  under  any  present  or  future 
banking  system. 

BibliogFOpby-— Cannon,  James  G.,  'Gear- 
ing Houses'  (New  York  1905)  ;  Hallock,  James 
C  'Clearing  Out-of-Town  Checks'  (Saint 
Louis  1903)  ;  American  Bankers  Association, 
New  York,  General  Reference  Library. 

O,  Howard  Wolfe, 
Cashier  PkUadeipkia  National  Bank;  formerly 
Setretary  Clearing  Home  Section,  American 
Bankers  Association. 

8.  BANKING  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES.  Prior  to  the  adoption  of  die  Con- 
stitution in  1787  there  was  but  little  banking 
done,  because  one  of  the  chief  elements  of  that 
business  —  a  sound  and  stable  monetary  system 
—  was  lacking,  tbe  Continental  currency  having 
depreciated  to  the  point  of  practical  worth- 
lessness.  With  the  enactment  of  the  law  of  2 
April  1792,  establishing  a  mint  and  regulating 
the  coins  of  the  United  States,  a  new  situation 
was  created.  The  Constitution  itself  prohibited 
die  States  from  coining  money,  emitting  bills 
of  credit  and  from  making  anything  but  gold 
and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts. 
Upon  Congress  was  conferred,  by  the  same  io- 
stnunent,  sole  authority  to  coin  inoney  and  to 
regulate  the  value  thereof. 

Barl7  Bankinc  in  the  United  States.— 
The  first  banks  in  the  United  States  owed 
their  origin  to  Robert  Morris  and  Alexander 
Hamilton.  As  early  as  1753  Morris  had  con- 
ceived the  plan  for  establishing  a  bank  to  as- 
sist in  developing  American  trade,  and  in  1779 
Hamilton  had  proposed  the  organ iiation  of 
'The  Company  of  the  Bank  of  the  United 
States.*     Before    their  plans   were    put    into 


execution,  however,  a  bank  -was  organized,  con- 
ceived in  a  patriotic  spirit,  but  destined  to  be 
short-lived. 

In  1780,  moved  by  the  distressing  situation 
in  which  Washington's  army  was  then  placed, 
Thomas  Paine,  wno  was  a  clerii  in  the  assem- 
bly of  Pennsylvania,  wrote  to  Mr.  Blair  Uc-- 
Clenachan,  suggesting  a  subscription  to  support 
the  army  with  necessaries,  and  enclosed  $500. 
At  a  meeting  in  Philadelphia  on  7  June  1780 
sutsscriptions  amotmtiiig  to  f400  m  specie~55a 
i  103,360  in  Continental  money  were  raised. 
On  17  June  another  meeting  was  held,  and  it 
was  resolved  to  increase  tbe  subscription  to 
i300,000  Pennsylvania  currency  and  the  full 
amount  was  soon  subscribed  cw  92  persons, 
Robert  Morris  and  Blair  McClenadian  each 
subscribing  £10,000.  This  association  was  called 
the  Pennsylvania  Bank.  In  the  preamble  to 
the  resolutions  of  Congress  accepting  this 
patriotic  offer  of  assistance  it  was  recited  that 
the  subscribers  had  'established  a  bank  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  obtaining  and  transporting  the 
said  supplies  with  the  greater  facility  and  des- 
patch. And,  whereas,  on  tbe  one  hand,  the 
associators,  animated  to  this  laudable  exertion 
by  a  desire  to  relieve  the  public  necessities, 
mean  not  to  derive  from  it  the  least  pecuniary 
advantage,'  etc. 

*'  The  directors  were  audiorized  to  borrow 
money  on  the  credit  of  the  bank  and  to  issue 
notes  bearing  6  per  cent  interest  All  the 
money  borrowed  or  received  from  Congress 
was  to  be  used  for  purchasing  supplies  for  the 
Continental  army  and  otherwise  aiding  the 
patriots.  Congress,  it  was  expected,  would 
reimburse  the  bank  for  these  expenditures. 
The  bank  commenced  business  17  July  1780  and 
continued  open  for  about  a  vear  and  a  half. 
Its  affairs  were  finally  wound  up  in  the  latter 
part  of  1784.  This  bank  was  of  great  assist- 
ance in  procuring  supplies  for  the  army  that 
could  not  have  been  procured  otherwise  with- 
out the  greatest  difficulty.  It  furnished  the 
army  3,000,000  rations  and  300  barrels  of  rum. 

The  first  bank,  as  we  have  seen,  had  its 
origin  in  patriotic  impulses,  and  its  establish- 
ment appears  to  have  been  due  to  the  sugges- 
tion of  Thomas  Paine. 

Thb  institution  was  not  a  modem  commer- 
cial bank,  however,  and  it  was  reserved  for 
Morris  and  Hamilton  to  become  the  founders 
of  the  bank  whose  career  was  to  be  pci-petuated 
and  that  was  to  live  in  the  history  of  the  coun- 
try as  tbe  first  re^larly  incorporated  commer- 
cial bank.  Like  its  predecessor.  It  was  estab- 
lished to  aid  the  canse  of  American  Independ- 
ence. Years  after  its  president,  writing  to  the 
Comptroller  of  the  Currency,  referred  to   this 


Early  in  1780  Hamilton  wrote  to  Morris 
strongly  urging  the  establishment  of  a  national 
bank  as  one  of  the  steps  necessary  to  put  the 
country  on  a  sound  financial  footing  and  to  aid 
in  carrying  on  the  war.  Hamilton  was  then 
but  23  years  old,  but  his  views  revealed  the 
possession  of  unusual  financial  talents  which 
were  to  win  him  distinction  in  later  years.  His 
purpose  in  forming  the  bank  was  to  unite  the 
moneyed  classes  in  the  support  of  the  govern- 
ment credit.  The  bank  was  to  be  a  great  trad- 
ing and  banking  corporation  in  private  hands, 
but  backed  and  partly  controlled  by  the  gov- 


Google 


1  flat  Ritloa*!  Butk,  ToiuiiniiwD,  O.     (AlbMI  Kako.  AnhL) 

1  Second  Htboail  Biok,  Boitoa,  MM*.     (Rukar,  Thoouu  oad  Rice,  Archts.) 


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I  FIrM  KiUooal  Bulk  ot  Doinr,  DtoTB,  C«k>.     (WnuT  *  AKotd  Co.,  AlchU.) 

1  United  Stain  TniM  Co.,  Wuhtnctoa,  D.  C.     (B.  Stular  Simiiiou,  ArchL)      ^  ~-  i 

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BANKS  AND  BAHKI NO  —  BANKING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  (t) 


160 


,. ..     .  Hamilton's    auggestions    were    re- 

newed in  later  letters  to  James  Duane,  a  metii' 
ber  of  Congress  from  New  York,  and  to  Isaac 
Sears  of  New  York.  To  the  latter  Hamilton 
wrote:  *We  mnst  have  a  bank  on  the  true 
principles  of  a  bank.^  In  the  spring  of  1781 
he  again  wrote  to  Robert  Morris  renewing  his 
suggestions  for  a  national  bank.  Moms  was 
then  Superintendent  of  Finajice,  having  been 
elected  to  that  position  20  Feb,  1781.  Hamilton 
favored  a  bank  with  a  capital  of  not  less  than 
$3J)00;000.  Morris,  while  coinddiiiK  with  his 
views  in  the  main^  thought  a  more  modestly 
capitalized  institution  would  better  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  timea.  He  accordingly 
drew  up  a  plan  which  he  presented  to  Con- 
gress on  17  May  1781.  It  provided  for  the 
ettahlisfament  of  the  Bank  of  North  America,' 
for  which  a  subscription  of  $400,000  was  to  be 
raised,  payable  in  gold  or  silver.  Its  bank 
notes,  i^yable  on  demand,  were  to  be  receivable 
for  duties  and  taxes  in  every  State.  The  plan 
having  been  approved  by  Congress,  the  Super- 
intendent of  Finance  published  it  on  28  May, 
accompanied  by  an  address,  in  which  he  said: 
•A  depredating  paper  currency  has  unhap- 
pily been  the  source  of  infinite  private  mischief, 
numberless  frauds  and  the  greatest  distress. 
The  narional  calamities  have  moved  with  an 
equal  pace,  and  the  public  credit  has  received 
die  deepest  injury.  The  exigencies  of  the 
United  States  require  an  anliupation  of  our 
revenue ;  while  at  the  same  time,  there  is  not 
such  confidence  established  as  will  call  out,  for 
that  purpose,  the  funds  of  individual  citizens. 
The  use,  then,  of  a  bank,  is  to  aid  the  Gov- 
ernment by  their  moneys  and  crediL  for  which 
th^  will  have  every  proper  reward  and  secu- 
rity, to  gain  from  individuals  that  credit  which 
property,  abilities  and  integrity  never  failed  to 
command,  to  supply  the  last  of  that  paper 
money  whidi,  beconung  more  and  more  useless, 
calls  every  day  more  loudly  for  its  final  re- 
demption, and  to  give  a  new  spring  to  com- 
merce, in  the  moment  wheu,  on  the  removal  of 
all  its  restrictions,  the  citizens  of  America  shall 
enjoy  and  possess  that  fre«lom  for  which  they 
contend.*  | 

The  facts  above  reterded  to  in  regard  to 
the  depreciation  of  the  p^r  currency  are  sub- 
stantiated from  the  following  extracts  from  a 
newspaper  of  that  period : 

*The  Congress  b  finally  bankrupt.  Last 
night  a  large  body  of  the  inhabitants,  with 
paper  dollars  in  ibur  bats,  by  way  of  cockades, 
paraded  the  streets  of  Philadelphia,  carrying 
colors  flying,  with  a  dog  tarred,  and  instead 
of  the  usual  amiendage  and  ornaments  of  feath- 
ers. Ids  back  was  covered  with  the  Congress 
eiper  dollars.  This  example  was  directly  fot- 
wed  by  the  jailer,  who  refused  acceptii%  the 
bills  in  purchase  of  a  glass  of  rum,  and  after- 
wards tq'  the  traders  of  the  city,  who  shut  up 
thdr  shop*,  declining  to  sell  any  more  goods 
but  for  ^>ld  and  silver." 

The  purchasing  power  of  government  paper 
was  at  ao  end,  and  Congress  turned  to  a  bank, 
or|(anizcd  on  a  specie  basis,  for  reUef  from  the 
evils  of  a  depreciated  currency. 

On  1  Nov.  1781  the  Bank  of  North  America 
was  organized,  Thomas  Willing  being  chosen 
president,  and  a  (erw  days  later  Tench  Frauds 
was  elected  cashier.    It  began  buuness  7  Jan. 


1782,  and  has  continued  from  that  time  until 
the  present,  a  worthy  memorial  to  the  genius 
and  wisdom  of  its  founders,  an  honor  to  the 
city  of  Philadelphia  and  always  a  strong  sup- 
porter of  the  public  credit. 

The  Bank  of  North  America  had  a  charter 
from  the  Federal  Congress  and  from  the  States 
of  Delaware  and  Pennsylvania.  In  1864  tl 
entered  the  national  banking  system.  In  view 
of  its  age,  and  other  drcumslances  connected 
with  its  history,  it  was  permitted  to  retain  its 
original  title.  All  other  national  banks  are 
required  to  have  the  word  'National*  as  a 
part  of  their  name. 

In  the  early  financial  history  of  the  United 
States  no  two  names  occupy  a  more  dis- 
tinguished place  than  those  of  Morris  and 
Hamilton.  The  contributions  of  the  former  to 
relieve  the  sufferings  of  the  patriots  attest  alike 
his  patriotism  and  humanity,  and  he  also  pos- 
sessed finandal  genius  of  a  hi^  order. 

Alexander  Hamilton^  as  the  first  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  under  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion, laid  the  foundations  of  our  finandal  sys- 
tem and  finnly  established  the  public  credit. 
On  bis  accession  to  this  high  ofEce  it  was  to  be 
expected  that  he  would  soon  attempt  to  carry 
into  effect  his  views  in  regard  to  a  government 

Hamilton's  first  aim  was  to  strengthen  the 
Federal  Union,  and  one  of  his  plans  for  doing 
this  was  to  put  the  public  credit  beyond  ques- 
tion and  ihus  gain  confidence  for  the  new 
SoverrimeuL  He  favored  the  payment  of  the 
oreign  and  domestic  debt  and  the  assumption 
of  the  State  debts  by  the  Federal  government. 
The  first  proposition  was  readily  agreed  to,  the 
latter  was  carried  with  some  difficulty,  and  the 
proposal  to  assume  the  State  debts  was  at  first 
defeated,  but  was  afterward  carried  by  an  - 
alliance  formed  between  Hamilton  and  lefier- 
son,  by  which  Hamilton  agreed  to  use  ois  in- 
fluence to  secure  the  permanent  location  of  the 
capital  on  the  Potomac  in  return  for  Jeffer- 
son's assistance  in  getting  votes  in  Congress 
for  the  debt  assumption  plan.  This  compact 
was  effectual.  Hamilton  did  not  consider  the 
location  of  the  capital  as  a  question  involving 
any  essential  principle,  while  be  regarded  the 
financial  policy  he  had  marked  out  as  being 
necessary  to  Uie  welfare  of  the  country.  Jef- 
ferwm  and  he  were  both  members  of  the  cab- 
inet, and  the  differences  which  were  to  divide 
them  in  bter  years  had  not  yet  developed. 

The  Bank  of  New  York,  located  in  New 
York  dty,  is  another  historic  institution.  It 
commenced  business  on  9  lune  1784,  The  con- 
stitution of  the  bank,  which  was  written  by 
Alexander  Hamilton,  provided  that  the  capital 
stock  should  consist  of  J50O,0OO  gold  or  silver. 
Though  the  bank  commenced  business  in  1784 
it  did  not  get  a  charter  from  the  New  York 
le^lature  until  21  March  1791. 

The  Massachusetts  Bank  was  incorporated 
at  Boston  7  Feb.  1784  and  commenced  business 
on  5  July  of  that  year,  $253,500  of  its  capital 
of  |3O0^OO0  being  paid  In. 

The  incorporaEion  of  these  banks  marks 
the  change  from  the  period  of  depredated 
Continental  and  State  currency  to  a  system  of 
bank  notes  redeemable  in  spede.  This  is  the 
beginning  of  an  important  epoch  in  American 
bankiiig  history. 


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BANKS  AND  BANKING  — BANKING  IN  THS  UNITED  STATES  (8) 


ratST  BANK  OF  THE  UHTTED  STATES 

Hamilton  as  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
proposed  a  national  bank  in  his  report  for 
1790.  Contrasting  the  superiority  of  the  pro- 
posed bank  to  an  emission  of  United  States 
notes,  Hamilton  pointed  out  that  the  right  to 
issue  paper  of  this  character  was  *sa  certain 
of  being  abused  that  die  wisdom  of  the  gov- 
ernment will  be  shown  in  never  trusting  itself 
with  the  use  of  so  seducing  and  dangerous  an 
experiment.  ■ 

The  proposed  plan  was  arranged  under  24 
heads.  The  capital  of  the  proposed  bank  was 
fixed  at  $10,000,000;  one-fourth  of  all  the  pri- 
vate and  corporate  subscriptions  was  to  be  paid 
in  gold  and  silver  and  three-fourths  in  United 
States  stock  bearing  6  per  cent  interest  Two 
million  dollars  were  to  be  subscribed  by  the 
United  States,  a  loan  of  equal  amount  being 
made  in  return  by  the  bank,  which  was  to  m 
reimbursed  in  10  equal  annual  instalments  in 
money  or  in  the  bondj  of  the  government  in 
simitar  to  thai  pursued  b^  the  Brit- 


ish 


of  the 


scribed  the  operation,  by  'borrowing  with 
hand  what  is  lent  with  the  other.*  The  board 
of  directors  of  the  bailk  was  to  consist  of  25 
persons,  not  more  than  three-fourths  of  them 
to  be  eligible  for  re-election  in  the  next  suc- 
ceeding year.  The  bank  had  authority  to  loan 
on  real  estate  security,  but  could  only  hold 
such  real  estate  as  was  requisite  for  the  erec- 
tion of  suitable  banking  houses  or  should  be 
conveyed  to  it  in  satisfaction  of  mor^ages  or 
judgments.  No  stockholder,  unless  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States,  could  be  a  director  and 
the  directors  were  to  give  their  services  with- 
out compensation.  The  bills  and  notes  of  the 
bank  were  made  receivable  in  payment  of  all 
debts  to  the  United  States.  The  total  amount 
of  debts  which  the  corporation  might  at  any 
time  owe  in  any  way,  except  for  moneys  ac- 
tually deposited  in  the  bank  for  safe-keeping, 
was  never  to  exceed  SiaOOO.OOO  and  if  tbts 
limit  was  exceeded  the  directors  under  whose 
administration  the  excess  might  occur  were  to 
be  personally  liable  for  the  amount.  The  COi^ 
poration  was  allowed  to  sell  the  evidences  of 
the  public  debt  subscribed  to  its  stock,  but  was 
not  to  purchase  any  public  debt  whatever. 
Notes  were  allowed  to  be  issued,  payable  to 
any  person  or  persons,  assignable  and  nego- 
tiable, or  to  bearer  assignable  by  delivery. 
The  directors  were  permitted  to  establish  of- 
fices for  discount  and  deposit  only,  wherever 
they  should  think  lit  in  the  United  States.  A 
report  of  the  condition  of  the  bank  was  to  be 
furnished  whenever  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury required  it,  but  not  oftener  than  once  a 
week.  The  charter  was  lo  expire  4  March 
1811. 

Although  the  bill  for  chartering  the  bank 
was  opposed  by  Uadison  and  JeScrson,  as  well 
as  by  Randolph,  the  Allorney-General,  Hamil- 
ton's wishes  prevailed  and  the  bill  for  chartering 
the  bank  became  a  law  25  Feb.  1791. 

Operation  of  the  Bank.— The  bank  went 
into  operation  very  soon  after  the  act  author- 
izing It  became  a  law,  and  before  the  govem- 
incnt  subscription  of  $2,000,000  was  paid;  a 
dividend  of  4  per  cent  was  declared  in  July 
1792.  The  manner  of  paying  the  government 
subscription   was   as   follows:    The   President 


drew  bills  of  exchange  on  Holland,  where 
money  borrowed  in  that  country  under  the  laws 
of  4  and  12  Aug.  1790,  was  lying  available. 
These  were  handed  to  the  bank  and  the  latter 
issued  $2,000,000  in  its  stock.  Immediately  the 
bank  loaned  $2,000,000  in  its  own  bills  to  die 
Treasury  and  received  $2,000,000  of  United 
States  stocks  bearing  6  per  cent  interest,  and 
payable  in  10  equal  annual  instalments  b^in- 
niiw  in  1793.  The  bank  was  very  well  managed 
and  was  of  great  benefit  to  the  government  and 
the  people  at  large.  It  assisted  the  Treasury 
with  loans  whenever  called  on  and  it  forced  the 
State  banks  to  keep  their  issues  within  reason- 
able bounds.  It  received  and  disbursed  more 
than  $100,000,000  of  public  moneys  without  the 
loss  of  a  dollar. 

Under  the  requirement  that  a  report  of  the 
condition  of  the  bank  should  be  furnished  to 
the  Secretary  whenever  required  by  him,  but 
not  oftener  than  once  a  viredc,  the  Treasury 
records  do  not  show  that  any  formal  reports 
were  ever  made  to  the  department.  The  only 
balanced  statements  to  be  found  showing  the 
condition  of  the  bank  are  two,  which  arc  con- 
tained in  letters  of  Albert  Gallatin,  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  communicated  to  Congress 
on  2  Uarch  1809  and  24  Jan.  1811,  respecUve^. 
The   reports  are   as   follows : 


Juuuy.  1809  Junkrv,  IStl 

Louu uiil  dKounti 115,000,000  (U,57S.IM 

United   Suica   6   pa   ant. 

Mock 2,230,000  3, 750.000 

Ochsr  UniMd  Sutc*  indcbt- 

ediMi 57,046 

DusfTom  other  bunks 800,000  SM,I45 

Rfalotaee 480,000  500,655 

Nataolotlietbcnicaonhud     393,341 

Speda S. 000. 000  5,00».M) 

Total 123,510,000        SI4. 183.046 

Liabilitin 

C*pit*I  (tock 110,000,000  110,000,000 

Undivided  lurphu 510,000  509.678 

CtrcuUtina  notes  ouUUndina        4,500,000  5,037,115 

ladividuTdemuU 8,500,000  5.900,423 

United  Sutea  dapDUU 1.929,999 

Due  lo  dUmt  banln 634,348 

Unpuddrafteoutitandios- .      . .  - 171.473 

Total 123.310.000        >24. 183.046 

The  average  dividends  of  the  bank  from  its 
organization  to  March  1809  were  at  the  rale 
of  Syi  per  cent  per  annum.  The  5,000  shares 
of  MOO  each  owned  by  the  United  States  were 
disposed  of  in  the  years  1796  to  1802  at  a  con- 
siderable profit,  2,^0  shares  having  been  sold 
in  the  last-mentioned  year  at  a  premium  of  45 
per  cent.  According  to  the  treasury  records 
the  government  subscription,  with  the  addition 
of  the  interest  which  was  paid  by  the  United 
Slates  on  stock  issued  for  it,  amoimted  to 
$3,200,000,  while  there  was  received  by  the 
treasury  m  dividends  and  from  the  sale  of  the 
bank  stock  at  various  times  $3,773,580,  the 
profit  realized  t^  the  government  being  ^73,- 
580,  or  nearly  &7  per  cent  upon  the  original 
investment 

in  addition  to  the  Act  of  E>ecember  1791, 
chartering  the  bank,  four  supplementary  acts 
were  passed  by  Congress  in  reference 
to  it:  one  on  2  March  1781,  which  varied  the 
manner  in  which  the  capital  stock  was  to  be 
subscribed  for  and  paid  in;  two  pa8sed  in 
1798  and  1807,  respectivdy,  having  merence  to 


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BANKS  AND  BANKING— BANKING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  (8) 


counterfeiting  its  notes  and  I^pers  or  ollierwise 
defnuding  it;  and  one  in  ISM  permitting  the 
establishment  of  offices  of  deposit  and  discount 
in  the  Territories  and  dependencies. 

Application  for  a  renewal  of  the  charter  of 
the  bank  was  made  in  1808-  Secretary  GalUtin, 
in  his  annual  report  for  1809,  favored  the  re- 
newal, with  certain  modificationi,  but  after  a 
protracted  debate  in  both  Houses  of  Coi^^ess 
tbeju>plication  of  the  bank  was  rejected. 

The  banking  house  and  most  of  the  assets 
of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States,  including 
over  $5,000,000  in  specie,  were  purchased  by 
Stephen  Girard,  of  Fhiladelpbia,  who  at  once 
ilarted  the  Girard  Bank,  which,  converted  to 
a  National  bank  in  1865,  continues  to  this  day. 
The  purchase  and  transfer  came  about  in  this 
way.  In  1810  Girard  had  large  balances  with 
the  Barings,  amounting  to  ill<v01.  In  1811  the 
mdebtedness  of  that  firm  to  him  was  nearly 
£200,000.  The  difliculties  in  trade  with  the  Con- 
tinent were  great  and  the  Barings  were  in 
danger.  Mr.  Girard  sent  two  agents  to  London 
to  do  what  they  could  to  withdraw  the  amount 
due  and  transmit  it  to  America.  Part  of  the 
funds  were  invested  in  goods  and  part  in  Amer- 
ican 6  per  cent  stocks  and  United  States  Bank 
shares,  then  at  about  $430W  (^58  10s.)  per 
share.  The  Barings,  it  will  be  remembered,  had 
purchased  a  large  amount  of  the  bank  stock 
from  the  United  States  government  in  1804. 
The  stock  Girard  had  purchased  gave  him  a 
large  interest  in  the  bank;  and,  in  the  spring 
of  1812,  he  found  by  consultation  with  George 
Simpson,  the  cashier  of  the  old  institution,  that 
the  bank  building  and  cashier's  house  could  be 
purchased  for  $130,000,  less  than  one-third  of 
Its  cost  The  purchase  was  madt  the  properW 
was  transferred  to  Girard,  and  his  new  bank 
commenced  operations  on  12  May  1812,  with 
$1,200,000  capital,  which  was  afterward  in- 
creased to  $l,300/>0a 

Much  of  the  businesa  of  the  Bank  of  the 
United  States  was  transferred  to  Girard's  Bank, 
together  with  $5,000,000  in  specie.  The  officers 
and  employees  of  the  old  bank  were  retained 
at  the  same  salaries.  Girard  bought  the  stock 
expecting  the  charter  of  the  Bank  of  the  United 
States  to  be  renewed.  If  this  had  occurred  he 
would  have  made  a  fortune  by  the  rise  in  stock. 
But,  as  it  was,  he  saved  himsuf  by  the  purchase 
of  the  old  bank.  He  did  not  use  the  old  circu- 
lating' notes,  but  paid  out  notes  of  State  banks 
till  his  own  were  printed,  which  bore  the  de-- 
vice  of  a  ship  under  full  sail  and  an  American 
eagle 

The  stockholders  of  the  Bank  of  the  United 
States  received,  on  the  final  winding  up  of  the 
institution,  $434  per  share,  which,  with  divi- 
dends  averaging  about  8  per  cent  per  annum, 
made  it  no  bad  investment.  Many,  however, 
bad  bought  and  sold  at  much  higher  rates  some 
years  previous  to  the  expiration  of  its  charter. 
The  United  States  government  sold  to  the  Bar- 
ings for  a  premium  of  45  per  cent  in  1802,  or 
$580  per  share. 

In  view  of  the  success  of  the  bank,  it  is  in- 
teresting to  quote  SMne  of  the  expressions  in 
regard  to  it,  appearing  in  the  debates  in  Con- 
gress. Mr.  Boyd  considered  the  bank  *a  great 
swindle"  ;  Mr.  Desha  referred  to  the  recharter 
proposed  as  one  to  'foster  a  viper  in  the  bosom 
of  our  country*;  Mr.  Wright  said  the  charter 


was  *a  cancer  upon  the  body  politic."     In  the 

eess  it  was  referred  to  as  "an  hydra,*  'a  cer- 
rus,"  a  'gor^on,'  a  "vulture*  and  a  "viper.* 
These  expressions  typify  the  prejudice  then 
existing,  and  which  still  exists,  m  this  country 
against  concentrated  banking  power,  and  all 
the  denunciations  above  quoted  can  be  matched 
from  debates  and  newspaper  articles  on  banking 
at  the  present  day. 

SECOND  SANK  OF  THE  UNITm  STATES. 

Early  in  1814  proposals  were  made  to  or- 
ganize a  national  bank,  and  on  10  February  of 
that  year  a  bill  was  introduced  in  the  House 
for  die  incorporation  of  such  an  institution 
with  a  capital  of  $30,000,000,  but  the  bill  failed, 
and  other  attempts  were  unsuccessful  also,  until 
finally  a  bill  t»sed  upon  the  suggestions  of 
Mr.  Dallas,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  be- 
came a  law  by  the  signature  of  President  Madi- 
son 10  April  1816. 

Mr.  Dallas  on  6  Dec.  1815,  sent  to  the 
speaker  of  the  House  a  proposition  relating  to 
the  national  circulating  medium.  He  consid- 
ered four  questions:  Whether  it  was  practicable 
to  renew  the  circulation  of  gold  and  silver 
coins ;  whether  the  State  banks  could  be  suc- 
cessfully employed  to  furnish  a  uniform  cur- 
rency; whether  a  national  bank  would  be  more 
advantageously  employed  for  the  purpose;  and, 
last,  whether  the  government  itself  could  sup- 
ply and  maintain  a  paper  medium  of  exchange. 
In  regard  to  the  State  banks,  while  acknowledg- 
ing the  valuable  services  and  liberality  of  some 
of  them,  he  said:  "The  truth  is,  that  the  char- 
ter restrictions  of  some  of  the  banks,  the  mutual 
relation  and  dependence  of  the  banks  of  the 
same  State,  and  even  of  the  banks  of  the  differ- 
ent States,  and  the  duty  which  the  directors  of 
each  bank  conceive  they  owe  to  their  immediate 
constituents  upon  paints  of  security  or  emolu- 
ment, interpose  an  insuperable  obstacle  to  any 
voluntary  arrangement  upon  national  considera- 
tions alone  for  the  establishment  of  a  national 
medium  through  the  agency  of  the  State  banks.* 
He  concluded  against  the  possibility  of  specie 
alone,  against  government  issues,  and  finally 
that  a  national  bank  was  the  best  and  perhaps 
the  only  resource.  At  the  request  of  the  Na- 
tional Currency  Committee  of  the  House,  Mr. 
Dallas,  on  24  Dec.  1815,  enclosed  an  outline  of 
a  plan  for  a  national  bank.  He  proposed  now 
a  bank  for  20  years  with  a  capital  of  $35,000,000, 
$7,000,000  of  which  was  to  be  subscribed  by  the 
government  This  might  be  augmented  to 
$50,000,000  by  Congress,  the  uicrease  to  be  di- 
vided among  the  States,  It  was  to  be  located 
in  Philadelphia,  and  could  establish  branches  or 
employ  State  banks  as  branches.  It  was  to  pay 
specie  at  all  times,  and  not  to  suspend  without 
authority  of  Congress.  In  lieu  of  the  loan,  it 
was  to  pay  the  ^vemtnent  a  bonus  of  $1,500,000. 

A  bill  was  inlrodticed  embodying  Mr.  Dal- 
las' su^estions  on  26  Feb.  1816.  The  debate 
chieflyupon  a  motion  to  reduce  the  capital 


for  changing  his  position  were  that,  in  1811, 
when  he  voted  against  the  recharter  of  the  old 
bank,  he  was  instructed  by  the  legislature  of 
his  State  to  do  so,  and  at  that  time  he  did  not 
deem  a  national  bank  as  necessary  in  a  consti- 
tutional sense.  He  then. relied  upon  the  State 
banks  as  being  able  to  meet  all  the  wants  of 


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BANKS  AND  BANKING  — BANKING  IN  THB  UNITBD  STATES  (8) 


Hie  govennnent  financially;  it  now  appeared 
that  the  general  government  could  no  lonfi[er 
depend  upon  them.  A  national  bank  seemed 
to  him  now  not  only  necessary,  but  indispensable. 
At  one  time  Philadelphia  was  struck  out  and 
New  York  selected  as  the  principal  scat  of  flie 
bank  by  a  vote  of  70  to  64,  but  this  was  re- 
considered and  Philadelphia  replaced.  The  bill 
finally  passed  the  House  without  important 
amendment,  on  14  March  1816,  by  a  vote  of 
80  to  71.  It  was  introduced  in  the  Senate  on 
22  March  and  passed  on  3  April  with  one  or 
two  amendments  that,  when  the  bill  came  to  the 
House  next  day,  Mr.  Calhoun  pronounced  to  be 
slight  Upon  5  April  they  were  concurred  in 
and  on  10  April  the  bill  received  President 
Madison's  signature- 
Provisions  of  the  Charter.— The  charter 
was  limited  to  20  years,  expiring  on  3  March 
1836.  The  capital  was  fixed  at  $35,000,000, 
$7,000,000  of  which  was  to  be  subscribed  by  the 

Evemment,  payable  in  coin  or  in  stock  of  the 
lited  States,  bearing  interest  at  5  per  cent 
and  redeemable  at  the  pleasure  of  the  govern- 
ment. The  remainii^  stock  was  to  be  sub- 
scribed for  b^  individuals  and  corporations, 
one-fourth  being  payable  in  coin  and  three- 
founhs  in  coin  or  in  the  funded  debt  of  the 
United  States.  Five  of  the  directors  were  to 
be  appointed  by  the  President,  and  all  of  them 
were  required  to  be  resident  citizens  of  the 
United  Slates,  and  to  serve  without  compen- 
sation. The  amount  of  the  indebtedness,  ex- 
clusive of  deposits,  was  not  to  exceed  the  cap- 
ital of  the  bank.  The  directors  were  empow- 
ered to  establish  branches,  and  the  notes  of  the 
bank,  payable  on  demand,  were  receivable  in 
all  payments  to  the  United  States.  The  penalty 
for  refusing  to  pay  its  notes  or  deposits  in  coin, 
on  demand,  was   12  per  cent  per  annum  until 


ferring  the  funds  of  the  government  to  differ- 
ent portions  of  the  Union  and  for  negotiating 
public  loans.  The  moneys  of  ihe  government 
were  to  be  deposited  in  the  ba.nk  and  its 
branches,  unless  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
should  otherwise  direct.  No  notes  were  to  be 
issued  of  a  less  denomination  than  $5,  and 
all  notes  smaller  than  $100  were  to  be 
tnade  payable  on  demand.  The  bank  was  not 
directly  or  indirectly  to  deal  in  anything  except 
bills  of  exchai^e,  gold  or  silver  bullion,  goods 
plcc^ed  for  money  lent,  or  in  the  sale  of  goods 
really  and  truly  pledged  for  loans,  or  of  the 
proceeds  of  its  lands.  No  other  bank  was  to 
be  established  by  authority  of  Confess  during 
the  continuance  of  the  corporation,  except 
such  as  might  be  organized  in  the  District  of 
Columbia  with  an  amregate  caiHtal  not  ex- 
ceeding $6,000,000;  antC  in  consideration  of  all 
the  grants  of  the  charter,  the  bank  was  to  pay 
to  the  United  States  a  bonus  of  $1,500,000  in 
three  annual  instalments. 

Mr.  Dallas,  whose  first  plan  for  a  national 
bank  was  so  unceremoniously  rejected,  was  ap- 
|>ointed  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  by  Mr.  Mad- 
ison in  February  1814.  His  predecessor,  Mr. 
Gallatin,  who  had  been  appointed  Commis- 
sioner to  Russia  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  peace 
and  commerce  with  Great  Britain  and  treaty 
of  commerce  with  Russia,  left  the  country  in 
May  1313,  and  the  Treasury  without  a  head. 


regarded  him,  though  absent,  as  head  of  the 
Treasury.  Under  these  circumstances  Mr. 
Mason  moved  a  resolution  in  the  Senate  on  24 
Jan.  1814,  declaring  the  secretaryship  of  flie 
Treasury  vacant,  but  the  subject  was  postponed 
inasmuch  as  it  was  authoritatively  announced 
that  the  President  would  appoint  a  secretary  in 
a  few  days,  which  promise  was  fulfilled. 

The  Bank  Comroences  BtiHneafl.—  Section 
22  of  its  charter  required  the  bank  to  com- 
mence operations  by  the  first  Monday  in  April 
1817.  The  bank  went  into  operation  on  7  Jan. 
1817.  This  was  at  the  worst  stage  of  the 
monetary  troubles,  beginning  with  the  suspen- 
sion of  specie  payments  in  1814  and  continuing 
until  the  general  crash  in  1819  and  1820.  At 
this  time  lands  and  agricultural  products  bad 
fallen  to  one-half  the  prices  which  were  readily 
obtainable  in  1808  and  1810,  and  to  one-third  of 
the  value  they  possessed  when  the  excessive 
indebtedness  of  the  people  was  incurred — 
namely,  during  the  inflation  years  of  the  State 
banks.  The  contraction  of  the  circulation  and 
the  general  failures  of  the  State  banks  began 
in  1818.  The  second  United  States  Bank, 
therefore,  came  into  existence  on  the  veiy 
verge  of  a  gr«t  monetary  crisis.  When  it 
commenced  business  the  first  instalment  of 
capital,  amotmtiiu:  to  $1,400,000  in  specie  and 
$7,000,000  in  United  States  stocks,  had  been 
paid.  The  subscription  had  been  opened  7 
July  1816.  The  payment  of  the  second  instal- 
ment of  capital  became  due  on  7  Jan.  1817. 
The  law  required  this  to  be  paid  $10  in  specie 
and  $25  in   United   States  stock  or  specie.     '' 


outside  sources,  the  l^ik  on  7  January  began 
to  discount  the  notes  of  stockholders  upon  the 
pledge  of  their  stock  to  the  amount  required  to 
pay  the  specie  part,  and  in  some  cases  to  the 
full  amount  of  both  spede  and  United  States 
stock  required  to  make  up  the  whole  instal- 
menL  After  a  time  discounts  were  made  to  Uie 
full  value  of  the  stock,  which  enabled  the 
stockholders  not  only  to  pay  up  in  full,  but 
even  to  draw  out  what  they  had  first  advanced. 
The  discounts  were  made  in  the  bank's  bills, 
which  were  considered  equal  to  specie.  Of  the 
$28,000,000  capital  subscribed  byr  individuals 
$7,000,000  was  to  have  been  psud  in  specie  and 
$21,000,000  in  United  States  stock.  The  bank 
appears  to  have  actually  received  nearly  $2,000,- 
000  in  specie  and  $13,872,610  in  public  stocks. 
The  difference  represents  about  the  amount 
made  up  by  stocks.  The  bank,  therefore,  was 
forced  to  import  the  coin  it  needed,  and  up  to 
November  1818,  had  thus  acquired  $7,311,750 
in  spede  at  an  expense  of  $525,297. 

Specnlation  in  Bsnk'i  Stock.— The  direct- 
ors of  the  new  institution  appear  to  have  made 
every  effort  to  boom  the  stock  in  the  market 
Not  only  did  th^  ■facilitate*  the  paynsents  of 
the  instalments  by  discounting  to  the  full 
amount  of  the  stock,  but  they  also  encouraged 
trading  in  stock  by  authorizing  the  renewal  of 
stock  notes  as  they  fell  due  and  by  permitting 
the  purchaser  to  substitute  his  note,  secured  by 
the  purchased  stock,  for  that  of  die  previous 
holder.  Further  than  this,  they  soon  began  to 
authorize  discounts  on  pledge  of  stock  t 


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BANKS  AND  BAN  KINO  —  BANKING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  (8) 


full  mailcet  value.  One  coold  purchase  bank 
shares  without  the  advance  of  a  cent.  It  was 
only  necessary  to  apply  for  a  loan  upon  the 
security  of  the  shares  to  be  bought,  and  pay  for 
the  stock  with  the  proceeds.  When  the  price 
of  shares  rose  sufficiently  a  sale  could  be  made 
and  the  difference  pocketed.  It  appears  that  the 
president,  William  J  ones,  and  a  number  of 
directors  and  officers,  especially  those  con- 
nected with  the  Baltimore  branch,  had  direct 
personal  interest  in  these  transactions,  which 
they  did  not  pretend  to  conceal,  but  considered 
as  lawful  private  concerns.  The  stock  rose  as 
high  as  $156  per  share  in  August  1818,  but  soon 
after  fell  to  about  SllO.  While  there  were  no 
doubt  gross  irregularities  in  its  management, 
for  which  the  bank  was  soon  to  suffer,  it  did 
much  good  even  under  these  disadvantages.  It 
received  upon  deposit  from  the  United  States 
Treasury  uie  notes  of  State  banks,  and  in  re- 
turn furnished  a  uniform  currency.  It  trans- 
ferred funds  whenever  needed,  and  the  amount 
paid  in  in  United  States  stocks  had  its  eSect  in 
enhancing  the  credit  of  the  government  loans. 
It  exerted  sufficient  influence  upon  the  currency 
to  malce  itself  very  unpopular  with  the  State 
banks  during  the  financial  crisis  of  1818,  al- 
though those  even  who  were  hostile  to  it  ad- 
mitted its  policy  toward  the  State  institutions 
had  been  marked  by  great  consideration  and 
lenity.  In  fact,  on  this  point  its  enemies  were 
obliged  to  fall  back  on  the  charge  that  by  this 
very  lenity  and  consideration  it  had  led  the 
State  bulks  to  unduly  extend  their  business, 
had  drawn  them  into  temptation  and  made 
Qxem  unfit  to  meet  the  financial  storm.  It  did 
not  accustom  the  local  banks  to  pay  specie  soon 
enough,  and  by  nutting  off  the  evil  day  found 
them  unprepared  at  last.  Up  to  August  1813 
the  bank  redeemed  its  notes,  both  of  &e  parent 
bank  or  its  branches,  at  any  of  its  offices  where 
th^  mieht  be  presented,  but  after  that  date 
redeemed  its  bills  only  at  the  office  which  put 
them  in  circulatioo.  This  change  was  made 
because  the  bills  were  largely  used  for  purposes 
o{  remittance,  and  in  the  localities  where  a 
sound  local  currency  was  most  needed  the  bills 
were  gathered  up  and  sent  off,  leaving  the  field 
to  the  inferior  S^tate  bank  circulation.  A  more 
important  reason  was  that  the  change  enabled 
the  bank  to  realize  a  profit  by  the  sale  oC  its 
drafts.  This  change  was  persevered  in  and 
afterward  afforded  the  basis  of  President 
-  Jackson's  assertion  that  the  bank  did  not  fur- 
ni^  a  uniform  currency. 

Althou^  some  losses  were  sustained  by  the 
Baltimore  branch  of  the  bank,  the  institution 
went  along  without  encountering  any  particular 
political  hostility  until  1829,  when  President 
Jackson  in  his  annual  message  to  Congress 
raised  the  question  of  the  cons ti tub onatily  of 
the  bank,  claiming  at  the  same  time  that  'it  has 
failed  in  the  great  end  of  establishing  a  uniform 
and  sound  currency."  He  suggested  that  if  a 
national  bank  was  necessary  one  might  be  de- 
vised founded  upon  the  credit  of  the  govem- 
ment  and  its  revenues,  thus  avoiding  the  ques- 
tion of  constitutionality. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  administration  of 
General  Jadcson,  says  Mr.  Parion,  the  Bank  of 
the  United  States  was  a  truly  imposing 
institutwn.  Its  capital  waa  $35,000,000.  The 
public  money  deposited  in  its  vaults  averaged 


six  or  seven  millions;  its  private  deposits  six 
millions  more;   its  circulation   twelve  miUions; 

its  discounts  more  than  forty  miltions  a  year; 
its  annual  profits  more  than  three  millions.  Its 
capital  was,  therefore,  about  one-quarter,  and 
its  loans,  circulation  and  deposits  about  one- 
fifth  of  the  whole  amount  held  and  issued  by 
all  the  banks  of  the  country.  Besides  the  parent 
bank  at  Philadelphia,  with  its  marble  palace 
and  100  clerks,  there  were  25  branches  in  the 
towns  and  cities  of  the  Union,  each  of  which 
bad  its  president,  cashier  and  board  of  directors.  . 
The  employees  of  the  bank  were  more  than  500 
in  number,  all  men  of  standing  and  influence^ 
all  liberally  salaried.  In  every  State  of  the 
Union  and  in  many  foreign  nations  of  the 
globe  were  stockholders  of  the  Bank  of  the 
United  Sutes.  One-fifth  of  the  stock  was 
owned  by  foreigners.  One-tenth  of  its  stock 
was  held  by  women,  orphans  and  trustees  of 
charity  funds.  Its  bank  notes  were  as  good  as 
gold  in  every  part  of  the  country.  From  Maine 
to  Georgia,  from  Georgia  to  Astoria,  a  man 
could  travel  and  pass  these  notes  at  every  point 
without  discount,  and  it  is  said  that  in  London, 
Paris,  Rome,  Cairo,  Calcutta,  Saint  Petersburg 
and  other  prominent  cities,  the  notes  of  the 
Bank  of  the  United  States  were  within  a  frac- 
tion more  or  a  fraction  less  than  their  value 
at  home,  according  to  &e  current  rate  of  ex- 
change. They  could  actually  be  sold  at  a  pre- 
mium at  the  remotest  commercial  centres.  It 
was  not  uncommon  for  the  stock  of  the  bank 
to  be  sold  at  a  premium  of  40  per  cent.  The 
directors  of  the  bank  were  25  in  number,  of 


received  and  disbursed  the  entire  revenue  of 
the  nation. 

The  first  real  attack  upon  the  second  Bank 
of  the  United  States  originated  in  a  political 
controversy.  Jeremiah  Mason  had  been  elected 
president  of  tiie  branch  of  the  bank  at  Ports- 
mouth, N.  H.  On  his  accession  to  this  position 
he  instituted  some  reforms  in  the  management 
which  rendered  him  unpopular.  This  gave  to 
Levi  Woodbury,  a  political  antagonist,  an  op- 
portunity to  demand  his  removal.  The  charges 
against  Mason  and  others  of  like  nature  aftect- 
ing  the  branches  in  Kentucky  and  Louisiana 
were  transmitted  by  Secretaiv  Ingham  to 
Nicholas  Biddle,  president  of  the  bank.  The 
attacks  upon  Mason  and  the  Portsmouth  branch 
continued  and  grew  more  violent,  and  the 
political  hostility  of  President  Jackson  was 
increasing.  In  his  message  for  1831  he  again 
called  the  attention  of  Congress  to  the  question 
of  recharter.  A  bill  with  this  object  in  view 
passed  both  Houses  of  Congress  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  but  was  vetoed  by  President  Jackson 
on  10  July. 

Jackson's  inconsistency  in  his  message  and 
in  his  veto  are  thus  summed  up.  In  1829,  when 
the  charter  had  yet  seven  years  to  run,  he  calb 
attention  to  the  necessity  of  prompt  action  as 
to  the  recharter  in  order  to  avoid  precipitancy. 
In  1S30  when  the  charter  had  yet  six  years  to 
run,  he  advocates  timely  action.  In  1831,  there 
being  five  years  more,  he  reiterates  his  previous 
advice;  but,  in  his  veto  in  1832,  when  four  years 
only  remain  to  the  bank,  he  says  there  is  no 
need  of  haste. 

But  although  the  veto  was  exceedingly  vul- 


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BANKS  AND  BANKING  —  BANKING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  (8) 


nerable  from  almost  every  standpoint,  it  served 
its  puipose  in  arousing  the  popular  feeling 
against  the  bank  and  in  favor  of  Jackson.  Ben- 
ton, who  in  the  Senate  defended  the  veto 
against  the  attacks  of  Webster,  Clay,  Calhoun 
and  Ewing,  voiced  the  whole  spirit  of  the  party 
he  represented  when  he  said : 

"You  may  continue  to  be  for  a  bank  and  for 
Jackson,  but  you  caiinot  be  for  this  bank  and 
for  Jackson.  The  bank  is  now  the  open,  as  it 
has  long  been  the  secret,  enemy  of  Jackson. 
.  The  war  is  now  upon  Jackson,  and  if  he  is 
defeated  all  the  rest  will  fall  an  easy  prey. 
What  individual  could  stand  in  the  Stales 
against  the  power  of  that  bank,  and  that  bank 
flushed  with  a  victory  over  the  conqueror  of 
the  conquerors  of  Bonaparte?  The  whole  Gov- 
ernment will  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  moneyed 
power.  An  oligarchy  would  be  immediately  es- 
tablished, and  that  oligarchy  in  a  few  genera- 
tions would  ripen  into  a  monarchy.* 

The  bill  for  the  recharter  could  not  secure 
the  necessary  two-thirds  vote  for  the  passage 
over  the  veto.  Nor  did  the  supporters  of  the 
bank  fully  realize,  even  then,  the  effect  of  the 
Presidents  opposition.  They  thought  the 
people  would  be  disgusted  at  Jackson's  un- 
reasonable attitude.  Nicholas  Biddle  wrote  to 
Gay  that  he  was  delighted  with  the  veto.  The 
campaign  of  1832  was  fought  on  the  bank  issue. 
It  was  the  hero  of  New  Orleans  against  the 
'monster  monopoly.*  It  was  Jackson  like  a 
hero  of  romance  fighting  against  *01d  Nick's 
Money*  and  "Oay's  Rags."  The  bank,  having 
foolishly  gone  into  politics,  was  defeated  and 
Jackson   again   elected,     liie   support   of    Ae 

Jeople  was  at  once  claimed  for  all  past  and 
uture  warfare  on  the  bank,  and  the  result  of 
the  election  sealed  its  doom.  The  attack  prom- 
ised on  the  slump  began  at  once. 

In  his  message  in  1&32,  after  his  re-election 
in  November  of  that  year,  the  President  a^n 
fulminates  against  a  recharter  of  the  institution, 
recommending  that  the  seven  millions  of  stock 
of  the  bank  held  by  the  United  States  should 
be  sold,  and  going  further  intimates  that  the 
United  States  deposits  in  the  bank  were  not 
»afe.  He  either  was  or  affected  to  be  im- 
pressed with  the  idea  that  so  long  as  the  bank 
was  the  holder  of  the  public  funds  it  might  use 
them  to  corrupt  Congress  to  secure  an  extension 
of  its  existence.  In  consequence  of  the  message 
bank  stock  fell  from  112  to  104.  A  Treasury 
a^ent  who  made  an  examination  of  the  institu- 
tion reported  it  solvent  and  the  stock  went  back 
to  112.  Congress  did  not  coincide  with  the 
views  expressed  by  the  President,  and  refusing 
to  sell  the  bank  stock,  passed  a  resolution,  by 
a  vote  of  110  to  46,  of  confidence  in  the  safety 
of  the  deposits. 

The  President  had  made  up  his  mind  to 
cripple  the  bank  by  taking  away  from  it  the 
public  deposits,  and  the  then  Secretary  of  the 


Taney,  who  on  26  Sept.  1833,  issued  the 
order  for  the  removal.  In  consequence  of  this 
act,  the  following  resolution  was  introduced  in 
the  Senate  by  Mr.  Clay:  "That  the  President, 
in  the  late  executive  proceedings  in  relation  to 
the  public  revenue,  has  assumed  on  himself 
authority  and  power  not  conferred  by  the  Con- 
stitution and  laws  but  in  derogation  thereof.* 


This,  known  as  the  'censure  resolution,*  was 
passed  by  a  vote  of  26  to  ^.  On  ^  March, 
1834,  this  resolution  was  expunged  from  the 
records  of  the  Senate. 

Jackson's  opposition,  on  one  ground  or  an- 
other, continued,  and  the  bank  gave  up  all  hopes 
of  obtainins  a  new  lease  of  hfe,  but  on  13  Feb. 
1836;  13  days  before  the  expiration  of  its 
charter,  obtained  a  charter  from  the  legislature 
of  Pennsylvania.  The  subsequent  career  of  the 
bank  was  short  and  disastrous.  A  constantly 
increasing  amount  of  loans  on  stocks  gradual^ 
tied  up  its  resources,  so  that  by  1840  it  was 
found  that  the  assets  of  the  institution  con- 
sisted chiefly  of  all  kinds  of  internal  improve- 
ment stocks  and  bonds  as  well  as  of  State 
stocks  and  bonds  and  bank  stocks. 

But  the  United  States  was  not  a  loser  by 
the  bank's  failure. 

The  $7,000,000  of  stock  held  by  the  United 
States,  previous  to  the  change  to  a  State  char- 
ter, was  paid  back  in  full,  and  the  government 
realized  a  handsome  profit  on  its  investment,  as 
will  appear  by  the  following  statement  derived 
from  the  records  of  the  Treasury  Department: 

Baniuiiud  by  tank  to  the  Ucitsd  Suub.  .  tl.SOC.OOO  00 

Dividcodi  received  From  the  bonk 7,IlS,4l<i29 

PmoeeiM  at  Mock  nld  and  otha  mootn 

rOMived  (ram  the  tank 9.4I4,7SI>  IS 

ToUl tIS.IMJ.  167  m 

SutMcriptioa  to  caciiUl  atock  paid  ia  United 

Sum.  5  cent  boadi f7, 000, 000 

InunU  laid  by  Uniled  Sutcs 

onnms 4,930,000 

11,950,000  00 

PruSt  on  invettmeBt (6.093,167  07 


The  history  of  the  United  States  Bank  under 
its  Pennsylvania  charter,  subsequent  to  the  crisis 
of  1837,  was  a  most  disastrous  one.  It  sus- 
pended specie  payments  during  the  tit^lish 
Griod  from  1837  to  1841  as  often  as  other  State 
nks,  and  finally  went  down  under  circum- 
stances that  might,  with  prudent  management 
have  been  turned  to  a  successful  result  It 
made  three  several  assignments  in  1841  to  secure 
various  liabilities,  the  last  and  final  assignment 
being  on  4  September  of  that  year. 

The  final  result  of  the  liquidation  of  the 
bank  was  briefly  stated  in  a  letter  from  Thomas 
Robins,  Esq.,  then  president  of  the  Philadelphia 
National  Bank  who  was  the  last  survivor  of 
its  numerous  assignees : 

'All  the  circulating  notes  of  the  Bank  of  the 
United  States,  together  with  the  deposits,  were 
paid  in  full,  principal  and  interest,  and  the 
accounts  of  the  assignees  were  finally  settled  in 
1856.  There  were  no  funds,  and  no  dividend 
was  paid  to  the  stockholders  of  the  bank;  the 
whole  twenty-eight  millions  of  dollars  were  a. 
total  loss  to  them." 

Nicholas  Biddle  was  president  of  the  bank 
from  January  1823  to  March  1839,  being  presi- 
dent of  the  Bank  of  the  United  Sutes  until  its 
charter  expired  in  1836,  and  for  the  next  three 
years  president  of  the  United  States  Bank  oi 
Pennsylvania.  At  the  time  of  his  reu^nation 
the  shares  were  selling  at  111,  having  in  1837 
sold  at  137;  but,  in  1843,  after  the  failure,  its 
shares  were  quoted  at  ij^  per  cent. 

Both  the  first  and  second  Banks  of  the 
United  States  were  killed  by  the  prejudice 
against  banks,  which  exists  to  an  ercn  greater 


Google 


>,  TmmM,  Caiudii.     (CiUT«>«  *  Haillnn,  Archti.)  /  -^  r 

■nk,  Richownd.  Va.    (CUntm,  Runell  uid  A.  C.  BomfOL.Alfhtl.^ljiQOQ  IC 


*  York.     (Moatifiw  FUa.  Ant|b^,-| 


,  Google 


BANKS  AND  BANKING— BANKING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  <8)         17fi 

$5,000,000  in  1834  to  C4,80a000  in  1836.  These 
later  receipts  were  almost  altogether  in  bills  of 
State  banks;  and  thus  the  consequent  difficulty 
in  securing  specie,  and  the  losses  incurred  from 
bank  failures,  impelled  the  President  (Jack' 
son)  to  cause  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  to 
issue,  on  11  Tuly  1836,  the  celebrated  specie 
circular  forbiading  the  receipt  of  anything  but 
specie  in  payment  of  the  public  lands.  He  also 
pocketed  a  bill  passed  by  Congress  to  compel 


THE  SPEOE  CIRCOLAR. 
The  order  for  the  removal  of  the  public 
deposits  from  the  Bank  of  the  United  States 
was  dated  26  Sept.  1833.  After  this  date  the 
money  collected  from  customs  and  other 
sources  of  revenue  was  no  longer  paid  into 
the  Federal  bank,  but  was  deposited  with 
selected  State  banks,  called  "pet  tonks'  by  the 
opponents  of  the  Administration.  The  payment 
ot  the  public  debt  and  the  great  increase  m  the 
sales  of  public  lands  caused  the  surplus  of  rev- 
enue  over  expenditures  to  increase  in  an  un- 
precedented manner.  The  Bank  of  the  United 
States  in  its  most  prosperous  days  had  never 
had  in  its  vaults  much  over  $8,000,000  of  the 

?ublic  moneys  at  any  one  time ;  but  by  1  Nov. 
836,  88  State  banks  in  24  Sutes  with  a  capital 
of  $77,576,449,  held  public  deposits  amounting 
to  ^9,377,986.  Thdr  ordinary  individual  de- 
posits at  uie  same  time  were  only  a  little  over 
$25,000,000.  That  there  was  any  very  dear 
apprehension  of  the  extent  to  which  this  ac- 
cumulation of  wealth  would  take  place  may  be 
doubted,  but  it  is  certain  that  as  early  as  1829 
there  were  calculations  inade  upon  an  antici- 
pated surplus  of  revenue  as  an  aid  to  party 
advancement,  either  by  means  of  the  bank  ■ 


the  receipt  of  the  n 


s  of  speae-paying  bai^i. 

TBEASURY  SYSTEM. 
Following  experiences  with  the  Bank  of  the 
United  States  and  the  State  banks  as  cus- 
todians of  public  funds,  the  Independent  Treas- 
ury System,  by  which  the  government  mi^ht 
take  cnarge  of  its  own  funds,  came  into  exist- 


ifpin  re-enacted  until  6  Aug.  1846.  The 
operations  of  this  law  were  substantially 
changed  by  the  National  Currency  Act  of  1863, 
and  the  latter  in  turn  by  the  Federal  Reserve 
Act  of  1913. 

The  method  of  handling  the  Treasury  re- 
ceipts has  been  the  subject  of  much  criticism. 
Instead  of  depositing  the  public  funds  in  the 
banks  in  the  ordinary  course  of  business,  to  be 
drawn  against  as  needed,  it  has  long  been  the 


_.i  spite  of  it.  The  financial  stringency  of  1834  practice  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  __ 
indicated  that  the  removal  of  the  public  funds  make  large  withdrawals  and  deposits  in  bulk. 
" )  the  State  banks  had  seriously  disturbed  the      Very  often  the  deposits  have  been  made  tor  thi 


purpose  of  affording  relief  to  the  money  n.__ 
ket  or  for  assisting  in  moving  the  crops  and 
sometimes  in  the  attempt  to  prevent  panic. 
That  the  system  has  worked  badly  is  the  belief 
of  those  most  competent  to  judge.  It  has  been 
remedied  in  part  by  the  Federal  Reserve  Act 
(q.v.),  but  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is  still 


usual  course  of  loans,  and  the  consecjucnt  suf- 
fering started  a  demand  for  the  distribution  ol 
the  accumulating  surplus  among  the  several 
States.  The  State  banks  had  thrown  their  in- 
fluence against  the  Federal  bank  in  aid  of  the 
Administration,  and  they  were  allowed  to  reap 

their  reward  by  the  use  of  the  public  moneys      ,^    .,, ^  „ 

entrusted  to  them  as  a  basis  of  extending  their  clothed    with    targe    discretionary    powers 

loans   and   for   enormous   issues   of   their   own  handling  the  public  funds.     Charges  have  been 

notes.     Banks  were   started  for  the   sole  pur-  made  at  times  that  the  surplus   revenues  were 

pose  of  issuing  notes  that  might  be  turned  in  being  employed  for  the  benefit  of  Wall  street 

at  the  land  offices  for  public  land.     Good  land  speculation,  and  at  others  that  they  were  being 

office  money  was  the  test  of  the  credit  of  a  bank  deposited    ui    banks    in    certain    localities    for 

bill.     Speculators  thus  obtained  vast  tracts  of  political  effect    Whatever  truth  there  may  be 

valuable    land.      The    notes    appeared    to    go  in  these  charges,  it  is  certain  that  the  alternate 

through  the  hands  of  innocent  third  parties,  deposit  and  withdrawal  of  large  amounts  of 

When   the   bank   failed,   ss  it  usually   (fid,  the  puolic    funds   have   exercised   an    artificial    in- 

Treasury  bore  the  loss.     Even  in  less  flagrant  fluence  on  the  money  market.     This  would  be 

cases  the  bank  credit  enabled  immense  territory  obviated  were  the  receipts  of  the  government 

I  be  held  for  speculation,  keeping  out  actual  deposited  in  the  banks  and  withdrawn 


ordinary  course  i 
Banking  power  of  the  United  States,  20  June  1917: 


rdance  with  usual  busi- 


OftKUlb 

as 

■ndpnflU 

DemuU' 

jZ%. 

gSC^b.^ 

■siS 

tl.OS!  R 

'■"it 

tl.IJi, 

R:!|| 

tMO.4 

'^ 

12 

"■'HI 

I2.M9.7 

"1:Si 

»660  4 

•"J-SIJ? 

Gf»na  total 

JO.  765 

K.m., 

11.MS.7 

>"■'•'■' 

(1,160  9 

SM.  473.1 

^  IndudcB  divtdoidi ,_ 

_-r*«  dnonti  with  Padcral _ 

m  thui  3S  per  cent  B^sist  dcpodti. 


ipiid.  pmUl  wvingi  toA  United  Statei  dai 


Statei  dainnU. 


Ill  nwoey  «  KMtrva  of  not 


iizodsi  Google 


BANKS  AND  BANKING  —  BANKING  IN  THX  UNJTBD  STATBS  (8) 


"■'^jts's^rfr'- 

12  Peditn]  mervi!  builci 
,  ,      June  22,  1917 

ToUl.  27.935  binlii 

Rbsoukcbs 

(435.287.000  OO 

S,003,Slt 

'272:608 
486,08] 

ii 

162  83 
629  09 

117.362.000  00 

■  198.387.000  00 

'908;000  00 

ToUlKSoarca 

(37.126.763,138  31 

(1,909,642.000  00 

(39.126.403.158  31 

LIAMUIIBS 

(2.274,200.153  48 

66o;45i:000  00 
3.913,944,423  SI 

(57.171.000  00 

u^iitkd'i^ 

;  943, 790.000  00 

26,    89;708|l59   14 
32.965.000  00 

17:S55|ll]  00 
643.996.728  85 

2;377;6obOO 

(1,999,642,000  00 

■  Indudv  (766,000  Federal  n 


Number  of  savings  banks  in  the  United  States,  number  of  depositors,  amount  of  savings  depodts, 
average  amount  due  each  depodtor  in  the  years  1903  to  1917,  ctnd  average  per  capita  in  the  United 
States  iu  the  years  given — 


Y«AR 

BmalD 

DepwU 

ss 

? 

1903 

1,078 

i;2J7 
1,319 

ii 

21100 

I'l-i 
,11 

10i766!936 
11.109.499 

8:935 :055 

(1.MJ.204.M5 

:482:i37;i98 

.690.078.945 
3.660,553.945 

4: 070:486:246 
4;936:59i:849 

4.997.706,013 

>'9oi:6io:694 

4.422  489  384 
903.332.890 

(*llll 

425    74 
433  79 

II 

444  35 

494  96 
409  35 

'There 


vcly  imall  unounc  of  depoits  reported  for 


I  due  to  tbe  fut  that  the  nrtuml  from  nunr 

J  (47.374.709. 
ning  334.970.  iDchided  with  fisun*  for  Md^ 


Sutei  include  th 

•69  bmnlo.  with  Jepoiiti" aggregsting  J4I. 896.000  »nd*din>(Bito.. 

uvings  bania  in  1916,  are  [ncluded^with  (tatiitici  for  State  &ii^  [or  the  ci 
departmentt  did  not  compile  the  retuma  Mparalely. 

'     "  -mbling  of  data  in  relation  to  lavinfi  basics  the  claauficalion  of  banks  aa  made  by  the  State  banking 

-allowed,  in  coniequenDe  of  whiiJi  a  niunbec  of  to-called  State  lavingi  banin.  formerly  treated  by  Che 

B  a!  the  canvnGV  ofBce  «■  lavingi  buka.  an  now  regarded  aa  commercial  banki.  and  the  retumi  tl)««froin  ere 

BC<liient]y.  include  the  hut -.  , 

.menta,  but  not  the  number  of  »uch 
in  Sum  bank*'  ntunu. 


t,zcd=y  Google 


BANKS  AND  BAHKIHO— THB  NATIONAL  BANKINfi  ST8TB1I  (9)       177 

The  II  Federal  nserve  banks  opsiwd  for  buainessoa  16  Nov.  1914.  Statements  of  their  assets 
sDd  Ui^Mlities  are  issned  wealdy.  The  constrfldated  statements  of  the  banks  (or  the  stated  date  in 
November  1914,  1915,  1916  and  1917  are  at  follows: 


27  Nov.  1914 

16  Nov.  1915 

14  Nov.  1916 

16  Nov.  1917 

Assns 

7,381,000 

•121.068,000 

(459,935,000 

ti:i67;000 
22,166,000 

(1,584,328,000 

27,308,000 
4;63i:000 

iisiooo 

1170.018,000 

(485,342,000 

(735.060.000 

LuBiLum 

1.8,050,000 

154,846.000 
15.000,000 
»7, 952. 000 

"iiiMsiooo 
■■■■«:iJ9,d66 

(53,711,000 

6i7:oTi;ooo 

' "  i*.i96'.boo 
'a*'.ooo 

249,268,000 

ilnolooo 

^30l.«3,000 

gife.1SS?" 

8.000.000 

Tout 

1170,018,000 

(485,342,000 

(735,060,000 

(3.011.406,000 

'  DaiMd  Suto  gavsnuQent  long  and  ihort  (c 


<  In  actoal  ciicuUtion. 


CoMpAKATTVK  Statement  of  Rssourcks  and  LiABtLrrns  of  All  Bakes  1914-1917. 


banks  {Federal  iBServe  banks  not  includwl)  for  the  years  1914  to  1917: 

l™._^S=^ 

Dot  {thd  othsr  bu>k(  ud  bukuL 

Check!  ud  other  ca£  itemi  >.  .  . 

SS.'SiSJ.v.-.;::-.::;:::;::: 

(15,288,357,283  98 
I,6»:219:i62  79 

(15.711,440,177  10 
1,457,201.138  11 

(17,811,605,164  40 

38,110,516  02 

'§§11 

iiilii 

Toil 

(16.971,398,030  96 

(17,804,119,677  56 

(32,271,237,696  93 

(17,126,761,118  31 

<wu.«Jsas^ 

aSpla.fund.rr 

'56l!oil!ll8  81 
711,554.719  00 
10,111,  99  35 
18,517,732,   79  01 
40.145,588  30 
66,651,  82  15 
2,705,075.167  14 
480,409,550  74 

i;7ii;9ia;o47  '9 

619,777,329  68 

723,701.856  SO 

4,241,968  14 

19,115,380.100  45 

iS:J;i:i??  It 

lisMlwSloM  48 
564,117.993   SO 

2h!690|sb8  81 

"■'!i:Ji}:S;S!! 

'«»!ui|l(M  50 

*^'il1j?'a^  1 

Circitlatlaii  (wtnul  btnli^ 

660,411.000  00 

Due  to  other  bwilii  uid  bulwn.. . 

3, 913,944, 411  51 

■Tot^ 

(26.971.398.030  96 

(27,804,119.677  56 

MI.IVl,237.M6  ,3 

(37,116.763.138  31 

'  Indodet  other  real  otaW  owned.        <  Includa  eictisnga 

Elues  H.  YouMCKAJi, 
Edilor  The  Banker/  Magazine. 
9.  THB  NATIONAL  BANKING  SYS- 
TEM. At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  the 
statesmen  of  that  epoch  were  confronted  with 
financial  problems  of  tirst  magnitude.  Should 
they  meet  them  by  the  usual  expedient  of  re- 
sorting to  large  issues  of  paper  money  or 
adopt  some  safer  method?  In  nis  annual  re- 
port for  1861  Secretary  Giase  declared  against 
the  issue  of  legal-tender  paper  and  proposed 
a  banldng  system  whose  principal  features 
would  be  a  circulation  of  notes  bearing  a  com- 
mon impression  and  authenticated  by  a  com- 
mon authority ;  second,  the  redemption  of 
these  notes  by  the  associations  and  institutions 
to  which  they  may  be  delivered  for  issue;  and, 
third,   the  security  of  that  redemption  by  the 


for  clearing  tic 


■Inc 


pledge  of  United  Slates  stocks  and  an  ade- 
quate provision  of  specie.  The  Secretary  de- 
clared that  the  proposed  notes  would,  in  his 
judgment,  ■form  flie  safest  currency  which 
this  country  has  ever  enjoyed;  while  their  rc- 
ceivability  for  all  government  debts,  except 
customs,  would  make  them,  wherever  payable, 
of  equal  value  as  a  currency  in  every  part  of 
the  Union." 

The  statesmen  of  ihe  Civil  War  epoch  in 
fotinuiating  the  financial  policy  that  was  to 
assist  ihe  nation  through  this  perilous  period 
gave  full  weight  to  the  inborn  American  pre- 
dilection against  concentrated  banking  power, 
and  instead  of  establishing  a  powerful  bank  of 


through   the  stormy  witers.   and  whose  i 


Google 


176       BANKS  AND  BANKING— THB  NATIONAL  BANKING  BY8TBM  (9) 

rency  based  upon  commercial  transactions  and 
gold  might  have  stayed  the  ruinous  rise  in 
qrices  and  vastly  reduced  the  war  outlay,  de- 
liberately committed  the  country  to  a  s^tem 
of  small  scattered  banks  and  to  the  shifting 
sands  of  government  paper  currency.  The  pol- 
icy then  decided  upon  has  continued  to  domi- 
nate the  banking  situation  for  the  past  50  years. 
All  attempts  to  substitute  a  bank  currency  for 
government  paper  have  proved  futile. 

No  subject  connected  with  the  Civil  War 
finances  has  been  more  fiercely  debated  than 
the  departure  from  what  many  regarded  as 
sound   financial    policy   in    refusing   to    depend 


policy  was  not  the  one  originally  contemplated 
by  Secretary  Chase  and  others  who  had  the 
shaping  of  the  finances  of  the  war.  Mr.  Chase 
in  his  report  of  1661  had  recommended  a  sys- 
tem of  national  banks  with  note  issues  based 
upon  the  public  stocks,  and  Mr.  Spaalding  had 
been  asked  to  draw  a  bill  to  carry  out  this 
recommendation.  He  fulfilled  this  duty,  but 
before  the  measure  was  introduced  in  the 
House  it  became  evident  that  it  could  not  be 
enacted  in  time  to  be  of  service  to  the  gov- 
ernment in  the  dire  straits  in  which  it  was 
then  placed.  A  section  of  Mr.  Spaulding's 
bank  bill  providing  for  the  incidental  issue  of 
Treasury  notes  was  substituted  for  the  banking 
bill  and,  in  a  form  slightly  altered  from  the 
original  draft,  became  a  law. 

In  bis  introduction  to  the  'Financial  His- 
tory of  the  War,'  p.   1,  Mr.  SpauldJng  says; 

■The  first  matenal  mistake  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  finances  occurred  when  Secretary 
Chase  discarded  the  use  of  the  bank  check  and 
the  clearing-house  in  the  fall  of  1861.  Hiis 
mistake  occurred  under  the  following  drcum- 

'Two  important  loan  acts  were  passed  at 
the  extra  sessions  of  Congress  in  July  and 
August  1861.  The  first  act  was  approved  17 
July  and  the  second  S  August.  By  section  six 
of  the  last- mentioned  act,  the  Sub-Treasury 
Act,  passed  in  1846,  was  so  far  suspended  as 
to  allow  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  'To 
deposit  any  of  the  mon^s  obtained  on  any  of 
the  loans  now  authorized  by  law,  to  the  credit 
of  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States,  in  such 
solvent  specie-paying  banks  as  he  may  select ; 
and  the  said  monevs,  so  deposited,  may  be 
withdrawn  from  sucn  deposit^,  for  deposit  with 
the  regular  authorized  depositories,  or  for  the 
payment  of  public  dues,  or  paid  in  the  redemp- 
tion of  the  notes  authorized  to  be  issued  un- 
der this  act,  or  the  act  to  which  this  is  supple- 
mentary, payable  on  demand,  as  may  seem  ex- 
pedient to  or  be  directed  by  the  Secretary  of 
the   Treasury.' 

'The  primary  object,  which  Mr.  Appleton 
and  myself  had  in  view,  in  preparing  this  sec- 
tion, was  to  relax  the  rigid  requirements  of 
the  Sub-Treasury  Act  in  regard  to  the  receipt 
and  disbursement  of  coin  and  instead  of  pay- 
ing solely  from  coin  deposits  in  the  Treasury, 
to  allow  all  the  money  obtained  on  these  loans 
to  be  deposited  in  solvent  banks;  the  United 
States  Treasurer  to  draw  his  checks  directly 
on  such  deposit  banks  in  payment  of  war  cx- 

Snses,  which  checks  would  be  paid  in  State 
nk    notes    then    redeemable    on    demand   in 
gold,  or  in  the  ordinary  course  of  business,  to 


New  York  Cleariop-House  and  the  clearing- 
houses of  other  cities  and  be  settled  and  can- 
celled by  offset  without  drawing  lai^e  amoimtt 
of  specie.  This  mode  of  payment  would  have 
enabled  the  Secretary  more  easily  to  eflect 
such  loans  and  make  his  lai^e  disbursements 
without  materially  disturbing  the  coin  re- 
serves held  by  the  banks,  whicn  were  then  well 
protected  by  these  reserves  in  their  vaults. 

'This  mode  of  making  the  disbursements 
for  the  large  war  expenses  was  regarded  by 
me  at  that  early  period  of  the  war  as  of  vital 
consequence  to  the  stability  of  the  finances  of 
both  government  and  people;  hence  the  prepa- 
ration and  adoption  of  the  sixth  section  of  the 
Act  of  5  Aug.  1861,  giving  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  discretionary  power  to  suspend 
the  Sub-Treasury  Law  in  respect  to  these  loans. 

■After  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  which  oc- 
curred on  the  twenty-first  day  of  July  of  that 
year,  the  necessities  of  the  government  in 
clothing,  arming  and  feeding  troops  —  in  provid- 
ing munitions  of  war  ana  building  a  navy  — 
became  so  urgent  that  the  banks  in  New  York. 
Boston  and  Philadelphia  most  patriotically  came 
forward  and  made  arrangements  in  several 
negotiations  with  Secretary  Chase  to  loan  the 
government  $150,000,000  under  the  provisions 
of  the  two  loan  acts  passed  at  the  extra  session. 
Of  this  sum  $105,000,000  was  apportioned  to  the 
assc»dated  banks  in  the  City  of  New  York,  pa^ 
able  by  instalments.  The  banks  were  then  in 
good  condition,  transacting  their  business  on 
a  specie  basis,  and  paid  coin  for  all  balances 
at'tne  clearing-house,  and  redeemed  their  circu- 
lating notes  in  coin,  and  the  loan  to  the  gov- 
ernment was  made  with  the  expectation  that 
the  money  would  be  deposited  m  the  banks, 
and  be  checked  out  under  the  direction  of  the 
Secretary,  in  pursuance  of  the  sixth  section 
above  referred  to.  The  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  refused  to  use  the  discretionary  power 
conferred  upon  him  by  that  section,  and  would 
not  check  on  the  bai^s  for  the  expenses  of  the 
war,  so  that  current  bank  notes  could  be  paid 
or  balances  settled  through  the  clearing-house, 
but  insisted  that  the  banks  should  [lay  tbc 
money  loaned  into  the  Sub-Treasury  in  gold 
or  gold  Treasury  notes,  and  from  thence  it 
was  distributed  for  war  purposes  and  scattered 
in  different  parts  of  the  country.  By  far  the 
greater  part  of  this  loan  was  paid  in  gold 
coin,  taken  from  the  reserves  of  the  banks, 
commencing  on  the  nineteenth  of  August  1861. 
This  unnecessary  mode  of  reouiring  the  pay- 
ment of  the  loans  so  weakened  the  banks  that 
it  brought  on  a  general  suspension  of  specie 
payments  during  the  last  days  of  December 
1861.  Notwithstanding  the  banks  commenced 
making  advances  to  the  government  about  19 
Aug.  1861,  yet  none  of  the  securities  to  be 
issued  by  the  government  for  the  loans  was 
turned  over  to  them  until  14  Jan.  1862. 

"The  banks  having  been  committed  to  mak- 
ing the  loans,  and  having  made  partial  ad- 
vances on  account  of  the  same,  were  obliged 
to  complete  the  loan  notwithstanding  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Treasury  deemed  it  incompatible 
with  his  views  of  duty,  and  the  traditions  of 
the  Sub-Treasury  Law,  to  use  such  banks  as 
disbursing  agents  of  the  govenunent  even  under 
the  extraordinary  exigency  under  which  the 
loans  were  made.    The  calf  upon  the  baitks  for 


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BANKS  AND   BANKING— THE  NATIONAL  BANKING  SYSTEM  (9)        ITS 


payment  into  the  government  dMmsttory  of 
the  remaiciing  iastalinenis  of  the  loan,  either 
in  coiD  or  gold  Treatury  notes,  was  persis- 
tently urged  by  the  Secretary  until  the  final 
clnsinf;  of  the  transaction  on  the  third  of 
February,   1862. 

*This  was  the  first  material  mistake  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  and  waa  the  first 
step  in  the  wrong  direction,  which  combined 
widi  other  important  events,  led  to  the  necessity 


the  same  time  broke  the  Sub-Treasury,  and 
both  were  discredited  bwether.' 

Mr.  Sherman  in  his  •Recollections,'  p.  269, 

"The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  had  ample 
and  complete  authority  given  him  by  the  act 
of  July  1861,  to  borrow  money  on  the  credit 
of  ie  government,  but  he  could  not  deal  with' 
the  system  of  State  banks  then  existing  in  the 
several  States.  He  was  forbidden  by  tfie  Sub- 
Treasury  Act  of  1846  to  receive  notes  of  State 
banks,  and  was  required  to  receive  into  and 
pay  from  the  Treasury  only  the  coin  of  the 
United  Stales;  but  by  the  Act  of  S  Aug.  1861, 
he  was  permitted  to  deposit  to  the  credit  of 
Ihe  Treasurer  of  the  United  States,  in  such 
solveni  Epecie>paying  banks  as  he  miKht  select, 
any  of  the  moneys  obtained  from  loans,  the 
money  thus  deposited  to  be  withdrawn  only 
for  transfer  to  the  regularly  authorized  deposi- 
tories, or  for  the  payment  of  public  dues,  in- 
cluding certain  notes  payable  on  demand,  as 
he  might  deem  expedient.  He  had,  however, 
no  authority  to  receive  from  individuals  or 
banks  any  monej;  but  coin. 

•The  only,  coin  received  from  the  Boston, 
New  York  and  Philadelphia  banks,  in  payment 
of  their  subscription  to  the  govemment  loans, 
to  the  amount  of  nearly  $150,000,000  had  to 
be  sent  to  every  point  in  the  United  Stales  to 
meet  public  obligations,  and  when  thus  scattered 
was  not  readily  returnable  to  the  banks,  thus 
exhausting  their  resources  and  their  ability  to 
loan   again.* 

Mr.  Sherman  is  very  positive  regarding  the 
necessi^  of  the  legal  tenders  as  a  war  measure. 
In  his  'Recollections'  (p.  ^1),  lie  makes  this 
statement : 

■The  Legal-Tender  Act,  with  its  provision 
for  coin  receipts  to  pay  interest  on  bonds, 
whatever  may  be  said  to  the  contrary  by 
theorists,  was  the  only  measure  that  could 
have  enabled  the  government  to  carry  on  suc- 
cessfully  the  vast  operations  of  the  war.* 

Hugh  McCulloch,  the  first  Comptroller  of 
the  Currency  and  twice  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury, in  his  'Men  and  Measures  of  Half  a 
Century'  (p.  13S),  has  this  to  say  of  the  failure 
of  Secretary  Chase  to  make  use  of  bank  cheeks 
in  disbursing  government  funds : 

•tor  a  considerable  time,  even  after  the 
war  had  begun,  the  specie  standard  was  main- 
tained, and  hopes  were  Indulged  that  the  war 
might  be  prosecuted  on  a  specie  basis.  These 
hopes  were  dissipated  by  the  action  of  Secre- 
tary Chase  in  Ins  dealings  with  the  New  York. 
Philadelphia  and  Boston  banks,  which  haa 
agreed  to  advance  (o  the  government  on  its 
71  notes  $150,000,000  ($50,000,000  in  August, 
$50,000,000  in  October  and  $50,000,000  in  Novem- 
ber, 1861)  under  the  .expectation  that  the  Treas- 
ury drafts  for  the  money  would  be  presented 


tary  did  not,  however,  feel  at  liberty  to  meet 
their  expectations,  and  the  drain  upon  their 
coin  reserve  soon  became  so  heavy  that  they 
were  forced  to  suspend  specie  payments.  Their 
suspension  was  soon  fallowed  by  the  suspen- 
sion of  nearly  all  the  banks  in  the  country.* 

When  Chase,  as  Spaulding  said,  broke  the 
banks  and  the  tub-Treasury  at  the  same  time 
and  discredited  both,  an  urgent  necessity  arose 
for  strengthening  the  weakened  credit  of  the 
country.  It  soon  became  apparent  that  the 
issue  of  legal-lender  notes  alone  would  not 
sufhc^  as  the  frie^tful  depreciation  of  these 
forced  instruments  of  cretUt  foreshadowed  a 
time  when  they  would  approximate  the  same 
degree  of  worthlessness  reached  by  the  Con- 
tinental currency  in  the  struggle  for  independ- 
ence, and  made  it  incumbent  upon  Mr.  Lin- 
coln s  financial  advisers  to  devise  some  efficient 
means  for  holding  this  depreciation  in  check 
by  a  resort  to  the  borrowing  powers  of  the 
government.  The  j)recarious  situation  in  which 
the  country  was  involved  injuriously  affected 
its  credit  abroad,  and  made  It  desirable,  if 
bonds  were  to  be  sold  in  large  volume  without 
ruinous  depreciation,  to  create  a  home  demand 
for  them.  The  device  of  using  the  public  debt 
as  a  basis  for  currency  issued  through  banks 
was  an  old  one.  It  bad  been  proposed  oy  Ham- 
ilton who  when  asked  by  Washington,  'Wiiat 
is  to  be  done  with  our  terrible  debt?*  answered, 
•Bank  on  it  as  our  only  available  capital,  and 
the  best  in  the  world.'  Many  of  the  States 
had  tried  the  experiment  of  chartering  banks  to 
issue  currency  against  a  pledge  of  State  stocks, 
often  with  disastrous  results.  There  were 
other  States  —  of  which  New  York  was  a  con- 
spicuous example  —  where  the  banking  laws 
were  good  and  the  banking  system  sound  It  is 
well  known  that  the  law  of  the  State  named 
was  relied  on  largely  in  framing  the  act  creat- 
ing the  national  Iranking  system. 

More  than  two  years  before  the  bill  provid- 
ing for  the  organization  of  national  banks  be- 
came a  law,  the  banks  of  the  country  had  sus- 
pended specie  payment,  not  to  be  restored  again 
until  18/9.  The  effect  of  this  suspension  was 
to  link  the  national  bank  notes  to  the  l%al 
tenders,  in  which  Ihey  were  redeemable  rather 
than  to  gold.  Of  course,  the  bank  notes  were 
no  better  and  no  worse  than  the  money  in 
which  they  were  payable.  They  were  not  as 
good  as  gold,  but  neither  were  the  legal-tender- 
notes,  the  latter  and  the  bank  bills  substan- 
tially keeping  together  as  compared  with  gold. 

In  reality,  though  nominally  issued  by  banks 
and  bearing  on  their  face  the  name  of  the 
bank  emitting  them,  the  national  bank  notes  are 
government  paper  money.  They  are  secured 
by  bonds  of  the  United  States,  deposited  with 
the  Treasurer  at  Washington,  in  which  city 
they  are  redeemed  in  lawful  money,  and 
though  the  law  provides  for  redemption  of  the 
notes  at  the  counters  of  the  issuing  banks  this 
is  almost  totally  unknown  in  practice.  They 
are  not  redeemed  through  the  clearings  as  are 
the  notes  of  the  Canadian  banks.  The  govern- 
ment guarantees  the  payment  of  the  notes, 
running  no  risk  whatever  in  so  doing,  since  it 
always  has  in  hand  an  amount  of  its  own  se- 
curities equal  to  the  face  of  the  notes  issued. 

Devised    as    the    national    banlting    system 


system  I 

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180 


BANKS  AND  BANKING—  STATE  BANKING  SYSTEM  (10) 


to  give  the  country  sound  and  uniform  cur- 
rency and  to  aid  in  replenishing  the  Treas- 
ury, it  hardly  succeeded  in  either  of  these  aims. 
The  national  bank  currency  has  been  of  uni- 
form value  and  a  vast  improvement  on  a  great 
deal  of  the  State  bank  circulation  which  it  dis- 
placed, but  it  has  through  its  inelasticity  de- 
veloped serious  defects.  In  so  far  as  the  nevr 
banking  system  was  relied  on  to  furnish  cur- 
rency during  the  Civil  War,  the  result  was  not 
very  satisfactory.  When  the  war  closed  the 
national  bank  notes  were  in  the  neighborhood 
of  $100,000,000  in  amount— only  a  small  frac- 
tion of  the  loans  placed  to  carry  on  the  war. 
Had  the  channels  of  circulation  not  been  so 
well  supplied  by  legal-tender  notes,  the  national 
bank  notes  at  the  close  of  the  war  would  have 
been  much  greater  in  volume.  After  the  war, 
when  the  government  was  still  for  a  long  time  ' 
heavily  in  debt,  the  national  banks  were  of 
immense  help  in  sustaining  the  public  credit 

But  it  is  as  a  system  of  discount  and  deposit 
banks  that  ^e  national  associations  have  won 
their  greatest  success  and  established  them- 
selves firmly  in  the  public  confidence.  It  was, 
of  course,  one  of  the  aims  of  Secretary  Chase 
to  supplement  the  somewhat  inharmonious 
State  banking  systems  then  existing  with  some- 
thing having  at  least  uniform  laws  to  govern 
them  and  all  watched  over  from  Washmgton, 
yet  he  could  hardlj;  have  foreseen  how  surpris- 
mgly  large  proportions  the  national  banks  were 
to  attain  through  discount  and  deposit  opera- 
tions in  the  first  half-century  of  tbcir  existence. 

Marvelous  as  has  been  the  record  of  na- 
tional banking  growth,  it  might  easily  have 
been  much  greater  had  Congress  earlier  en- 
larged the  functions  of  the  banks,  thus  fore- 
stalling the  rapid  rise  of  the  trust  company 
and  the  tremendous  accretions  of  deposits  in 
savings  banks. 

The  history  of  the  national  banking  system 
contains  few  important  dates  —  points  that 
mark  any  striking  groWth.  There  are  two  ex- 
ceptions to  this  statement,  however.  After  the 
original  act  was  passed  in  1863,  the  growth  of 
the  banks  was  slow  until  the  10  per  cent  tax 
was  imposed  on  State  bank  notes  in  1865.  But 
the  real  impetus  to  national  banking  was  eiven 
in  1900,  when  the  minimum  capital  was  reduced 
from  $50,000  to  $25,000,  and  the  issue  of  circu- 
lation placed  upon  a   somewhat  more  liberal 

Another  landmark  in  the  history  of  the  sys- 
tem was  the  passage  of  the  Federal  Reserve 
Act  (q.v.),  23  Dec.  1913.  This  act  changed 
completely  the  method  of  redepositing  reserves, 
provided  for  rediscounting  and  accepting  and 
for  a  system  of  note  bsues  based  on  coin  and 
commercial  jiaper.  It  also  made  other  import- 
ant changes  in  the  Banking  Law,  Perhaps  the 
strongest  feature  of  the  new  law  was  in  link- 
ing all  the  national  banks  together  for  their 
common  defense;  that  is,  a  centralization  of 
the  reserves  whereby  they  become,  in  a  sense, 
the  common  property  of  all  the  banks  so  far  as 
relates  lo  their  use. 

Elements  of  safety  in  the  national  banking 
system  have  been  the  requirement  in  regard  to 
the  actual  paying  in  of  capital,  the  super 


the  double  liability  of  shareholders.    Compared 


to  the  colossal  sums  handled  by  these  banks, 
their  losses  have  been  trifling,  and  they  arc 
growing  proportionally  smaller  year  by  year. 

The  national  banks  have  furnished  a  re- 
markably safe  and  efhdent  system  of  banking 
and  have  been  factors  of  immense  benefit  in 
local  development  and  in  the  augmentation  of 
the  national  wealth  and  prosperity.  If  they 
have  fallen  short,  it  has  been  due  to  the  slow- 
ness of  the  national  legislature  in  adapting  the 
law  to  meet  changing  conditions. 

Elmer  H.  Youngman, 
Editor  The  Banker/  Magazine. 

10.  STATE  BANKING  SYSTEM. 
Banking,  in  the  early  history  of  the  United 
States,  was  the  prerogative  of  the  privileged 
few.  Charters  were  obtained  by  subterfuges 
of  one  kind  or  another,  by  favoritism  or  l>y 
bribeiy.  Familiar  examples  of  the  devices  em- 
ployed to  get  banking  authority  under  some 
other  guise  are  the  Chemical  Bank  of  New 
York,  chartered  as  a  chemical  company;  the 
Uanhattan  Company  Bank,  also  of  New  York, 
chartered  as  a  water  company;  and  the  Wis- 
consin Marine  and  Kire  Insurance  Company 
Bank;  whose  original  business  is  indicated  by 
the  title,  the  word  'bank*  being  an  after- 
thought. 

But  with  the  enactment  of  the  Free  Banking 
Law  of  New  Yoric  in  183S,  banking  by  special 
charter  gradually  disappeared,  for  the  provi- 
sion of  the  New  York  law  conferring  banking 
powers  on  all  associations  of  persons  comply- 
ing with  the  terms  of  the  act  was  generally 
copied  in  the  banking  legislation  of  other 
States,  as  it  was  later  in  the  National  Banking 
Act.  From  being  a  monopoly  enjoyed  by  only 
a  favored  few,  banking  becune  So  free  as  to 
encoura^  the  rapid  multiplication  of  banks 
until  their  number  has  grown  to  larger  propor- 
tions than  in  any  other  country.  The  absolute 
freedom  which  was  long  given  to  any  body  of 

Eersons  complying  with  the  laws  in  organizing 
anks  has  been  somewhat  restricted  in  recent 
years,  and  the  Comptroller  of  the  Currency, 
in  the  case  of  national  banks,  and  the  super- 
vising officers  of  State  banks,  are  generally 
showing  a  disposition  to  discourage  the  or- 
ganization of  banks  where  they  will  tend  to 
cause  undue  competition,  and  to  refuse  alto- 
gether applications  for  authority  to  organize 
banks  hy  the  professional  bank  promoter.- 

While  in  the  early  banking  history  of  the 
country  some  of  the  States  devised  sound  bank- 
ing systems,  a  great  many  did  not.  There  was, 
in  many  localities,  a  lack  of  banking  capital  or 
of  capital  of  any  kind.  Attempts  were  made 
to  remedy  this  lack  of  capital  by  starting  banlcs 
for  issuing  notes,  a  favorite  device  being  to 
decide  on  an  extensive  policy  of  public  im- 
provements, to  issue  bonds  for  this  purpose, 
the  bonds  being  purchased  by  the  banks 'and 
notes  emitted  against  them.  These  efforts 
nearly  all  proved  disastrous,  but  the'  States 
adhering  to  sound  principles  of  banking  and 
to  correct  methods  of  emitting  notes  had  dif- 
ferent experiences.  (See  Bank  Note  Issues, 
article  19).  Indeed^  when  the  national  bank- 
ing system  came  to  oe  established  it  was  based, 
in  important  respects,  on  the  banking  laws  oE 
New  York,  Massachusetts  and  other  States 
whose  legislation  had  been  wisely  planned.  In 
turn,  the  National  Banking  Act  itself  became 


PKIVATB  BANKS  (11)  —  FmDBRAL  REBBRTK  SYSTEM  (U) 


181 


the  model  for  banldnK  legislatioo  in  lasr^  of 
the  Slates,  until  to-day,  with  nre  exccpttons, 
the  standards  of  banldng  as  formulated  by  the 
bankine  acts  of  the  various  States  are  sub- 
Stantislly  identical  with  those  of  the  national 
banking  system.  The  Stale  banks,  in  fact, 
found  It  advantageous  to  maintain  a  position 
of  safety  at  least  apin'oximating  that  of  die 
national  banks,  otherwise  thdr  growth  would 
have  been  checked.  They  could,  on  the  other 
hand,  transact  some  ktnos  of  business  denied 
their  Federal  competitors,  and  thiL  perhaps, 
made  them  better  adapted  to  the  needs  of  rural 
conunnnities.  This  (nffertncc  in  the  functions 
of  the  two  classes  of  banks  was  greatly  modi- 
fied by  the  Federal  Reserve  system  (q.v.),  in- 
augurated in  1913.  The  State  banks  outnumber 
the  notional  tanks  more  than  two  to  one  —  a 
fact  due  partly  to  the  larger  capital  required 
of  the  latter  (before  1900  it  was  fixed  at  a 
minimum  of  (S0,000  and  is  now  $25,000)  and 
to  other  causes. 

Massachusetts  has  no  State  banks  of  dis- 
count asd  deposit ;  New  York  has  such  insti- 
tutioBs;  California  and  Texas  and  some  other 
States,  in  their  banking  laws,  authorize  cor- 
porations to  transact  discount  and  deposit 
banidng,  savings  bank  business  and  trust  com- 
pany nisiness  all  under  one  charter.  Substan- 
lialhr  this  principle  (department-store  banking 
it  is  sometimes  calkd)  has  been  embodied  in 
the  Federal  Reserve  Act.  Prior  to  the  enact- 
ment of  the  law  referred  tO|  relations  between 
National  and  State  banks  were  generally  ami- 
cable, their  lines  of  business  diverging  con- 
siderably. With  the  removal  of  these  differ- 
ences, at  least  to  an  extent,  it  becomes  a 
question  as  to  whether  the  State  banks  may 
not  find  it  less  easy  than  heretofore  to  com- 
pete with  the  National  institutions. 

The  distinguishing  feature  of  the  banking 
system  of  the  United  States,  contrasted  with 
that  of  nearly  all  other  countries  in  the  world, 
is  that  we  have  a  very  large  number  (between 
20,000  and  30000)  of  small  independent  banks, 
locally  owned  and  managed.  In  the  European 
countries,  and  in  Australia  ^nd  Canada,  uiere 
are  a  few  large  banks  with  head  oFHces  and 
numerous  branches.  In  the  United  States  the 
permission  to  establish  branches  of  either  Na- 
tional or  State  banks  is  limited  in  scope,  out 
it  has  shown  a  tendency  to  extension  of  late 

Elues  H,  Youngman, 
Editor  The  Bankers'  Magasine. 
II.  PRIVATE  BANKS.  For  the  ordi- 
nary functions  of  deposit  and  discount  the 
private  banker  in  the  United  Slates  is  bcine 
rapidly  superseded  by  institutions  organized 
under  State  and  Federal  laws.  The  private 
banker  might  engage  in  business  with  httle  or 
no  capital,  and  what  he  had  he  was  at  liberty 
to  invest  as  he  chose,  and  this  freedom  in  the 
manner  of  investing  his  capital  extended  to 
the  investment  of  deposits  entrusted  to  bis 
keeping;  these  he  might  employ  eitlw  in  his 
own  Inisiness  or  embark  them  in^rfiy  enter- 
prise which  appealed  to  his  fancv/ The  incor- 
porated bank,  on  the  other  hand,  enjoys  no 
such  license.  It  must  have  ayprescribed  capi- 
tal, which  must  be  paid  up  ip  money,  and  this 
capital  must  be  maintaine,d  unimpaired;  and, 
in  addition,  the  banldi^  lews  generally  reqture 


that  a  definite  surplus  fund  —  so  much  in  pro- 
portion to  ca^tal  —  shall  be  accumulated  and 
maintained.  These  banks,  unlike  the  private 
banks,  must  submit  to  frequent  official  visita- 
tion and  examination  and  must  make  and  pub- 
lish detailed  reports  of  condition  one  or  mor« 
times  a  year.  Some  of  the  States  have  found 
it  cxnedient  to  prohibit  private  banking 
altogetner. 

As  against  the  objections  to  private  banking 
as  above  set  forth  it  may  be  stated  that  where 
the  Slate  and  national  bank  stockholders  are 
only  liable,  in  case  of  insolvency  of  the  bank, 
for  an  additional  amount  equal  to  their  shares, 
the  private  banker  is  liable  for  the  debts  of  his 
bank  without  limitation,  (The  adoption  of 
the  principle  of  limited  liability  in  England 
grew  out  of  some  disastrous  bank  failures 
where  the  stockholders  were  heavily  assessed, 
lositw  in  some  instances  their  entire  fortunes). 
Furthermore,  the  restrictions  on  the  invest- 
ments and  operations  of  incorporated  banks, 
while  tending  to  greater  safety,  yet  restrain 
the  banks  from  opportunities  of  making  profits 
which  may  be  taken  advantage  of  ay  the 
shrewd  private  banker. 

Now,  as  in  the  earliest  days  of  banking  in 
Europ^  some  of  the  neatest  transactions  of 
domestic  and  foreign  finance  are  carried  on 
by  private  bankers ;  but  they  are  not.  in  (he 
ordinary  sense,  doing  a  discount  and  deposit 
banking  business.  They  are  rather  the  slnlled 
intermediates  of  governments  and  ot  great 
corporations,  representing  their  interests 
among  the  banks  and  the  investing  public,  and 
as  such  perform  a  highly  useful  service.  In 
integrity  they  compare  mo.st  favorably  with 
the  largest  of  the  incorporated  banks,  while 
their  operations  are  not  infrequently  greater 
than  even  the  largest  of  such  institutions  taken 
singly.  The  private  banker,  in  arranging  loans 
for  governments  and  corporations,  does  not  use 
his  own  fiinds,  but  by  his  standing  and  skill 
is  able  to  mass  together  .  the  resources  of 
various  banks,  often  in  numerous  and  widely 
separated  localities.  He  has  to,  do  with  for- 
eign exchange,  the  handling  of  specie  on  in- 
ternational account  and  provides  the  capital  for 
the  immense  industrial  and  transportation  en- 
terprises which  constitute  such  an  important 
part  of  the  country's  business  life. 

The  private  banker  of  to-day  is  a  financial 
expert  without  whose  service  the  operations 
of  trade  and  finance  could  hardly  be  carried 
on,  but  in  performing  this  service  he  uses  his 
reputation  and  skill  rather  than  his  own  funds 
or  even  the  funds  of  others  accumulated  in  his 
own  particular  office.  He  selects,  analyzes  and 
classifies  the  various  lines  of  sound  invest- 
ments and  brings  to  their  support,  not  his  own 
funds  alone  nor  yet  those  of  individuals  com- 
mitted to  his  care,  but  the  funds  of  many 
groups  of  investors  and  of  banks  that  have 
confidence  in  his  integrity  and  judgment. 

Elmer  H.  Youngman, 
Editor  The  Banker^  Magasine. 

12.  FEDERAL  RESERVE  SYSTEM,' 
The.  The  Federal  Reserve  Act,  passed  23 
Dec,  1913,  is  the  underlying  measure  upon  which 
the  Federal  Reserve  system  depends.  The 
system  itself  consists  of  (a)  the  12  Federal 
Reserve  banks  and  their  branches,  situated  in 
districts  defined  as  in  the  accompanying  map; 


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BANKS  AND  BANKING  —  FBEnRAL  KKSSKVX  SY8TSH  (12) 


(b)  the  national  banks  which,  by  the  terms  of 
Uie  law,  are  required  to  be  stockholders  in  the 
Federal  Reserve  banks;  and  (c)  such  State- 
chartered  banking  institutions  as  may  comply 
with    the    requirements    for    membership    and 


may  apply  for  and  be  granted  such  membership. 
The   banking   system   of   the   United   States 
at  the  time  o£   the  adoption   of  the   Federal 


Reserve  Act  included  three  distinct  elements 
(a)  the  national  b&nks  created  under  charters 
eranted  by  the  Federal  BOvemment  and  nunv- 
bcring  some  7,600;  (b)  3ie  State  banks,  exist- 
ing under  special  or  general  charters  granted 
by  the  States  and  rather  more  numerous  than 
the  national  banks;  and  (c)  the  trust  com- 
panies and  savings  banks  also  created  by  the 
States  but  doing  a  broader  business  than  the 
State  banks  so-called.  Only  loose  restrictions 
as  to  capitalization  controlled  any  of  these 
banks,  while  their  reserves  might  be  kept  at 
home  in  their  own  vaults,  or  partly  there  and 


of  qaltA  it  wms  unable  to  exert  any  control 
over  the  development  of  credit  or  to  regulate 
the  country's  gold  supply,  in  relation  to  that 
of  other  nations. 

Althou^  there  had  been  much  discussion 
of  the  banking  question,  no  definite  legislation 
designed  to  improve  c<mditions  had  been 
adopted  since  the  Civil  War,  except  only  the 
so-called  Aid  rich- Vreeland  Act  of  19(8.  The 
■Gold  Standard  Act  of  1900*  had  dealt  almost 
entirely  with  the  monetary,  and  only  inci- 
dental^ with  the  bonking,  problem.  In  the 
Aldrich-Vreeland  Act,  provision  was  made  for 
informal  unions  or  associations  of  banks  to  be 
known  as  *Dational  currency  associations' 
whose  function  it  w«s  to  issue  notes  secured 
by  specified  collateral  on  request  of  their  mem- 
bers. Practically  no  such  associaticMis  had, 
however,  been  organised  under  the  law  imtil 
after  the  adoption  of  die  Federal  Reserve  Act, 
so  that  when  the  latter  measure  became  law 


partly  with  other  banks.  Under  the  National 
Bank  Act,  three  classes  of  banks  had  been 
created — country,  reserve  city,  and  central  re- 
serve city;  their  reserves  varying  from  15 
to  25  per  cent  Only  central  reserve  city  banks 
were  required  to  l^eep  all  of  their  reserves  in 
their  own  vaults.  Particular  complaint  had 
long  been  made  of  the  bank  currency  furnished 
by  National  institutions.  The  banks  bought 
government  bonds,  deposited  them  in  trust 
with  the  Treasurer  of  the  United  States,  and 
received  from  the  Comptroller  of  the  Cur- 
rency notes  for  circulation.  These  notes  were 
•inelastic*  —  i.t,  could  not  be  expanded  or 
contracted  at  will  in  response  to  business  re- 
quirements, because  they  depended  upon  the 
volume  and  price  ot  bonds  as  determining  fac- 
tors governing  their  own  amount.  Due  to  lack 
of  elastic  currency  and  to  wide  diffusion  of 
reserves  the  banking  system  was  liable  to  dis- 
order in  times  of  financial  pressure.    In  times 


the  nation  was  still  on  the  old  basis  of  bank- 
ing. 

The  Federal  Reserve  Act,  however,  sought 
not  only  to  provide  the  improved  and  respon- 
sive currency  which  had  been  called  for  in  the 
older  measures  of  banking  reform,  but  went 
much  deeper.  It  recognized  that  the  essential 
difficulty  in  American  banking  lay  in  its  undue 
decentralization  and  consequent  dissipation  of 
strength.  Fundamentally,  therefore,  it  sought 
to  Rive  relief  by  changing  the  organization  of 
banking  so  as  to_  provide  for  combination  of 
reserves  and  for  joint  control  of  and  oversight 
over  banking.  To  this  end  it  provided  for  dis- 
trict orginizations,  which  were  essentially  to 
be  bankers'  banks,  dealing  chiefly  with  their 
own  members^die  commercial  banks  ot  the 
district. 

The  number  of  such  districts  to  be  created 
was  the  subject  of  ranch  difference  of  opinion, 
but  ulttmalely  Congress  set  the  number  at  not 


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less  than  eight  nor  more  than .  12,  while  it 
placed  in  the  hands  of  an  organization  com- 
mitiee,  consisting  of  Ae  Secretary  of  the 
Tressury,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  and  the 
Comptroller  of  the  Currencv  the  duty  of  de- 
tennining  how  tnany  should  first  be  estab- 
lished and  of  drawing  their  outlines.  This 
organization  committee  was,  under  the  act,  to 
establish   in   each   district  a    Federal    Reserve 


not  less  than  6  per  cent  of  dieir  own  capital 
(3  per  cent  to  be  raid  in  and  3  per  cent  to  be 
subject  to  call).  Every  such  Federal  Reserve 
bank  was  to  have  a  minimum  capitalization  of 
$4,000,000  of  which  one-half  was  to  be  paid  up. 

The  central  feature  of  the  act  was  found 
in  the  plan  it  presented  ior  changing  the  re- 
serve organization  of  the  country.  The  old 
reserve  retjuirements  were  to  be  abolished, 
reserves  being  transferred,  durintj;  a  period  of 
three  vears,  to  the  new  institutions.  Event- 
uallv  tney  were  to  be  held  only  in  the  member 
banks'  own  vaults  or  in  the  reserve  banks. 
By  ttie  Act  of  21  June  1917  all  reserves  were 
transferred  to  the  reserve  banks  and  cash  on 
hand  with  members  was  left  to  Jhe  latter's 
discretion.  It  was  provided  that  reserve  cred- 
its with  reserve  banks  could  be  obtained  not 
merely  by  depositing  money,  but  by  discount- 
ing paper  of  specified  kinds  with  the  new  in- 
stitutions. The  act  made  full  provision  for 
foreign  exchange  business,  clearance  of  checks, 
r^niution  of  commercial  paper  and  other  es- 
sentials. 

It  was  provided  that  the  governing  body  of 
the  new  system  be  entitled  the  Federal  Re- 
serve Board  and  consist  of  five  members  (Iwo 
of  diem  bankers)  to  be  named  by  the  Presi- 
dent and  confirmed  by  the  Senate,  together 
with  the  Comptroller  of  the  Currency  and  the 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  ex  officio.  This 
body  was  duly  appointed  and  took  office  on  10 
Aug,  1914.  The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  had 
been  authorized  by  the  act  to  name  the  date 
for  the  opening  of  the  banks  and  after  pre- 
liminaries of  organization  had  been  com- 
pleted by  the  Board  the  Secretary  accordingly 
ojwned  the  banks  on  16  Nov.  1914.  Prior  to 
this  date  the  capital  t)f  the  banks  had  been 
duly  paid  in,  largely  in  gold,  and  die  transfer 
of  a  first  instalment  of  reserves  quickly  fol- 
lowed.    The  act  had  offered  lo   State  baiJcs 


movement  then  became  mlich  more  rapid  and 
by  the  end  of  1917  between  $4,000,000,000  and 
$5,000,000,000  of  banking  assets  belonging  to 
State   institutions  had  been  brought  into  the 

In  each  Federal  Reserve  bank  the  control 
and  operation  of  the  institution  is  entrusted 
to  a  board  of  directors  consisting  of  nine 
members.  Of  these  nme,  three  ('Class  A») 
are  representative  of  the  member  banks  and 
three  ('Class  B»J  are  business  men  (non- 
bankers),  althougti  chosen  by  the  member 
banks.  In  voting  for  these  directors  the  banks 
are  divided  according  to  capitalization  into 
three  groups,  so  that  each  group  is  represented 
on  the  Board  by  one  Class  A  and  one  Class 
B  director.    The  remaming  directors,  three  in 


number  ('(^lass  O,  are  chosen  by  the  Fed- 
eral Reserve  Board  Each  director  is  chosen 
for  three  years  and  their  tenns  are  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  have  three  such  terms  expire  at 
the  close  of  each  year. 

Of  the  three  government  directors  one, 
under  the  law,  is  designated  by  the  Federal 
Reserve  Board  as  ■Federal  Reserve  Agent* 
and  as  chairman  of  his  local  board  of  direc- 
tors. As  chdrman,  he  presides  over  meet- 
ings and  as  Federal  Reserve  Agent  he  dis- 
charges all  local  duties  assigned  him  by  the 
Board  in  the  operation  of  the  bank.  The  ac- 
tual management  and  conduct  of  the  institu- 
tion  is  left  to  the  Board  of  Directors  which 
names  such  executive  officers  as  it  sees  fit 
Of  these  the  chief,  corresponding  to  the  pres- 
ident of  a  commercial  bank,  is  called  'gov- 
ernor.* Under  his  direction  there  is  developed 
at  each  bank  the  usual  staff,  including  admin- 
istrative, accounting  and  credit  officers.  The 
Federal  Reserve  Agent  has  a  separate  depart- 
ment under  his  own  jurisdiction,  including  one 
or  more  assistants  and  a  clerical  force.  He 
takes  charge  of  the  function  of  note  issue  and 
is  entrusted  with  the  custody  of  commercial 
paper  and  gold  held  to  protect  notes. 

Regulations  issued  from  time  to  lime  by 
the  Federal  Reserve  Board,  and  binding  upon 
all  reserve  banks,  constitute  the  operating  ba- 
sis of  the  system  and  ensure  harmony  of  prac- 
tice. Under  the  terms  of  the  act  each  local 
board  proposes  rates  of  discount  which  are 
passed  upon  by  the  Federal  Reserve  Board  and 
go  into  effect  only  after  being  approved  by- 
it.  Full  reports  are  transmitted  daily  by  eacn 
bank  and  the  Board  issues  a  weekly  condition 
report 

Every  Federal  Reserve  bAik  has  its  own 
office  arranged  much  like  that  of  an  ordinary 
bank;  and  several  have  purchased  or  are 
erecdng  buildings  of  their  own.  Six  Fed- 
eral Reserve  banks  have  established  branches  . 
equipped  Kke  a  Federal  Reserve  bank. 
Some  of  these  are  assigned  a  sub-district  or 
part  of  the  Federal  Reserve  district,  while 
others  have  np  diAnite  assignment  of  territory, 
but  are  merely  offices  for  the  convenience  of 
member  banks.  The  accompanying  tabulation 
shows  the  location,  capital  and  chief  items  of 
resources  of  the  several  banks  at  a  recent  date. 

The  outlines  of  the  12  districts  into  which 
the  system  is  divided  are  presented  in  the 
fore^ing  map  which  shows  the  condition  at 
the  close  of  the  year  1917.  During  1915-16 
several  changes  in  boundaries  were  made  by 
the  Board  upon  petition  of  member  banks  and 
the  lines  at  first  drawn  by  die  Organization 
Committee  were  accordingly  altered ;  but  none 
of  these  changes  was  of  much  importance  to 
the  general  structure  of  the  system. 

The  earliest  work  of  the  Federal  Reserve 
system,  like  so  much  of  its  later  opera- 
tions, was  of  an  unexpected  nature.  The 
system  had  not  yet  been  organized  when 
the  breaking  out  of  the  European  War 
brought  unexpected  demands  to  bear  upon  the 
country.  There  was  a  heavy  drain  of  gold  to 
Eutope  and  Congress  hastily  revised  the  Aid- 
rich- Vreeland  Act  in  an  effort  to  pr*vent  panic. 
Many  currency  associations  were  organized 
and  about  $400,000,000  of  notes  were  issued 
during  ihe  autumn.  When  the  reserve  banks 
came  into  format  existence  in  November  .^ey 


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BANKS  AND  BANKING—  FEDERAL  R^BKVE  SYSTRU  (12) 


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BANKS  AND  BAHKIHG^  FEDWJO,  RBSBRVE  BYSTKH  (U) 


186 


{ound  themselves  called  upon  to  assist  in  the 
operatioD  of  retiring  these  notes  —  an  import- 
ant  (unction,  but  one  that  brought  little  actual 
profit  to  them. 

Moreover,  the  abnonnal  movemait  of  gOld 
out  of  the  country  which  had  occurred  during 
the  first  days  o(  the  European  War  was  fol< 
lowed  by  an  equally  abnormal  movement  of 
gold  into  this  country.  Vety  great  sales  of 
our  raw  materials  and  manufactured  goods 
abroad  were  paid  for  largely  in  gold  and  banJc 
reserves  were  thus  mudi  raised.  The  change 
in  reserve  re«iuirem«nts  made  by  the  Federal 
Reserve  Act  had  also  set  free  a  lai^e  balance 
of  lending  power.  Due  to  those  two  factors, 
the  demand  for  ■.  accommodation  at  Federal 
Reserve  banks  was  not  greaL  It  was  only  af- 
ter the  cntn  of  the  United  States  into  the 
European  War  that  they  really  became  active 
in  their  rediscount  operations.  Earnings  for 
the  first  two  years,  1914-15,  were  only  27 
per  cent  above  expenses;  for  1916  about  5 
per  cent;  but  in  1917  they  reached  about  18 
per  cent 

The  law  requires  that  the  Federal  Reserve 
banks,  after  paying  all  necessary  expenses,  to- 
gether with  6  per  cent  cumulative  dividends  to 
tfaeir  stocldiolaers,  shall  carry  one-half  of  ex- 
cess  profits   remaining  to   their  surplus    fund 

''    ''-        Lirplus  . amounts   to  40  per   cent   of 


as  a  trancfaise  tax,  the  entire  excess  profit) 
be  paid  to  the  government  after  die  surplus 
of  a  Federal  Reserve  bank  reaches  40  per  cent 
of  its  capital.  The  Federal  Reserve  b«nks  of 
Boston,  New  York,  Chicago.  Atlanta,  Richi;,^ 
mond  and  Minneapolis  have  paid  their  dT>a- 
dends  to  stockholders  to  31  Dec  1917 
and  at  the  same  time  paid  into  the  treasury  of 
the  United  States  as  a  franchise  tax  the  sum 
of  $1,134,234,48,  the  amounts  being  paid  by 
tfic  banks  as  follows : 

Boitoa (75,100  00     AtUnta (40,000  00 

Now  York  64»,}63  S7     Richmond 116,471  73 

Chicaca,.. 21S,7M  IS     Minnnpob* —     37. MOOD 

These  banks  have  also  established  on  their 
books  a  surplus  fund  in  amounts  C^ual  to  the 
sums   paid   the  governmenL 

It  IS  to  be  noted,  howeveir,  that  practically 
since  their  opening  the  banks  have  been  sub- 
ject to  very  abnormal  conditions, —  first,  in 
consequence  of  lack  of  demand  and  later  be- 
cause of  the  existence  of  unusual  and  excep- 
tional demand  for  accommodation  based  on  a 
very  special  kind  of  paper  —  that  secured  by 
government  obligations.  The  banks  have  not, 
therefore,  had  full  opportunity  to  exert  their 
influence  upon  the  commercial  paper  of  the 
country  or  to  do  more  than  Lake  the  preltm- 
inaiy  steps  toward  the  creation  of  an  open 
discount   market 

It  was  with  a  view  to  the  creation  of  this 
discount  market  that  the  act  gave  to  the  Fed- 
eral Reserve  Board  power  to  regulate  the 
conditions  under  which  commercial  paper 
should  be  made  and  discounted  at  reserve 
banks.  Pursuant  to  the  permission  thus  given, 
the  Board  early  defined  the  chief  types  of 
commercial  paper,  including  the  bill  of  ex- 
change accepted  and  unaccepted,  the  promis- 
sory single-name  note  and  the  commodity  note 
—  with  warehouse  receipts  as  collateral.    In  all 


cases  the  paper  was  required  to  be  the  result 
of  genuine  commercial  non-speculative  irans- 
actions  and  to  hav«  a  specified  short  maturity. 
Acting  further  in  accordance  with  the  temu 
of  the  law,  the  Board  authorized  the  Reserve 
hanks  to  buy  discountaUc  paper  in  tixe  *open 
market*  —  that  is,  without  member  bank  en* 
dorsemeat,  should  they  desire: 

This  open  market  power  was  availed  of 
by  the  Reserve  banks  during  their  first  two 
years  of  slack  earnings.  They  bought  widely 
of  acceptances  and  also  of  govenmient  aod 
municipal  obligations  and  at  one  time  had  thus 
invested  more  dian  $200,000,000  as  a  means  of 
earning  needed  revenue.  ■ 

The  first  two  years'  development  in  com- 
mercial paper  was,  however,  notaUe  for  the 
introduction  of  the  acceptance  or  accepted  bill 
of  exchan^  into  Amencao  buddng  practice. 
Unusual  stimulus  to  our  foreign  trade  gave  to 
the  foreign  bill  or  b«nkers'  acceptance  m  such 
trade  a  degree  of  recognition  it  could  not 
otherwise  hnve  attained.  Altiiou^  only  a 
moderate  amount  of  this  paper  was  obtained 
by  reserve  banks,  the  (act  that  it  had  entered 
the  maiket  as  a  distinct  type  of  paper  for  gan- 
ecal  investment  was  rendered  possible  by  the 

The  bankers'  acceptance  may  be  drawn 
either  as  a  foreign  or  as  a  domestic  bill.  No 
satisfactory  data  are  as  yet  available  concern- 
ing the  development  of  the  domestic  accept- 
ance, and,  whatever  the  volume  in  existence 
may  be,  it  is  probably  small.  The  foreign 
bankers'  acceptance  has  had  about  two  ^ears 
for  development,  and  we  may  rou^ly  estimate 
that  at  the  present  time  the  acceptances  of  aU 
American  banks,  whether  members  of  the  Fed- 
eral Reserve  system  or  not,  are  about  %Z50,~ 
000,000  ^$300,0D(^00a  Every  member  bank  has 
the  right  to  accept  such  paper  up  to  50  per  cent 
of  iiB  capital  stock,  and  the  Federal  Reserve 
Board  haj  granted  to  banks  the  power  to  ac- 
cept up  to  100  per  cent.  While  the  Federal 
Reserve  Act  as  originally  passed  gave  to  the 
Federal  Reserve  Board  authority  to  define  com- 
mercial paper  eligible  for  rediscount  at  Federal 
Reserve  banks,  and  the  Board  in  its  initial 
stages  desired  to  discriminate  in  favor  of  the 
two- name  paper,  it  never  went  so  far  as  to 
commit  itself  definitely  in  that  way.  Single- 
name  paper  has  always  formed  the  bulk  of  that 
discounted  by  the  Federal  Reserve  banks,  and 
this  has  been  amiarently  the  result  of  necessiw. 
The  Federal  Reserve  Act,  however,  clearfy 
intended  to  stimulate  the  "bill  of  exchange* 
whether  that  of  the  commercial  enterprise  or 
of  the  banker,  and  the  Board  has,  therefore^ 
very  properly  endeavored  by  favoring  rates 
and  by  special  regulations  to  encourage  the 
development  both  o(  the  commercial  bill  of 
exchange  (designated  by  it  as  the  "trade  ac- 
ceptance') and  of  the  bankers'  accepted  'bill 
of  exchange.*  The  quantity  of  trade  accept- 
ances or  commercial  bills  oftering  in  the  New 
York  market  has  been  lately  described  .by  a 
practical  banking  authority  very  friendly  to 
the  acceptance  as  'negligible,* 

A  novel  elemuit  in  the  Federal  Reserve 
Act  not   found  in   any  of  the  various  banking 


in  the  past,  small  banks,  the  country  c 
carried    balances    with    city    "correspondents,* 


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186 


BANKS  AND  BANKIHG—  PBDBRAL  HBSSRTB  EY8TBH  (13) 


usually  of  considerable  amount  These  city 
correspondents  were  frequently  members  of  a 
local  clearing  house  and  here  and  there  conn' 
try  clearing  nouses  had  tteen  established,  but 
there  was  no  nation-wide  system  of  clearance. 
The  country  bsnks  sent  such  checks  on  distant 
points  as  uiey  mi^t  receive  to  their  corre- 
spondents and  the  latter  collected  them,  cred- 
iting die  proceeds  to  the  remitting  banks. 
This  was  a  -wasteful  and  slow  method,  llie 
Federal  Reserve  Act  sought  to  substitute  the 
idea  of  district  clearance  on  the  books  of  each 


„    .     iDtral  clearance  system  for  llie 
reserve  banks  at  Washington. 

The  national  system  was  first  established, 
each  bank  depositing  $1,000,000  in  gold  with 
the  Board,  which  at  once  placed  it  with  the 
Treasury  for  laffr-keeping.  A  set  of  books 
was  opened  in  the  oEces  of  the  Board  and  on 
Wednesday  night  of  each  week  every  Federal 
Reserve  bank  telegraphs  to  Washin^n  the 
amount  of  its  balance  in  dealings  with  otber 
reserve  banks,  A  correspondmg  entry  is 
made  in  the  books  and  each  bank  notified  on 
Thursday  of  the  balance  remaining  to  its 
credit.  Billions  of  dollars  of  transfers  are 
made  in   this   way  without  gold  shipment  and 


practically   without   expen 
The   mtroduction   of   t 


The  introduction  of  the  cTistrict  clearance 
plan  was  not  so  easy,  but  by  the  middle  of 
1916  every  reserve  bank  under  orders  from 
the  Board  had  established  a  system  of  prac- 
tically uniform  character.  Under  this  plan  as 
modified  by  the  Act  of  21  June  1917,  banks 
not  members  of  the  Reserve  System  as  well  as 
die  regular  members  may  deposit  with  reserve 
banks  checks  on  other  banks  (or  collection. 
Such  checks  are  not  credited  at  once,  but  only 
after  the  lapse  of  a  period  usually  two  to  four 
days,  estimated  to  be  long  enot^h  to  permit 
collection.  After  that  period  the  proceeds  are 
credited  and  may  be  drawn  upon.  Banks 
which  receive  such  checks  for  payment  must 
remit  without  deduction  (at  par)  or  else  send 
actual  money,  but  in  the  latter  case  the  Reserve 


which  deposits  the  checks  for  collection  is 
charged  a  small  fee  (lJ^-2  cents)  per  item 
and  may  in.  turn  make  a  moderate  chaTYc  to 
its  deposntor  if  he  desires  immediate  payment 
without  waiting  for  the  collection  of  the  check 
to  be  completed.  The  district  collection  sys- 
tem now  includes  some  16,000  banks,  State  and 
National,  and  is  slowly  increasing  in  numbers 
though  it  can  probably  never  become  complete 
until  the  banking  system  of  the  country  has 
been  entirely  unified.  Some  banks  continue 
to  collect  through  correspondents  as  heretofore, 
although  the  fact  that  balances  with  corre- 
spondents no  longer  (Act  of  21  June  1917) 
coimt  as  reserve,  has  discouraged  the  practice. 
The  new  district  system  has  tended  strongly 
to  unify  exchange  charges  and  to  reduce 
those  that  were  formerly  unduly  high,  though 


such'char^s  will  persist  where  competition  is 
absent  owins  to  the  fact  that  given  localities 
contain    no    hanks    that    are    members    of    the 


Federal  Reserve  system.  Taken  with  the  gold 
clearing  system  at  Washington,  the  dislrict 
system  has,  however,  immensely  improved  and 
simplified  exchange  conditions  the  country 
over. 


...  lasliaty.*     By  this  ^ 

meant  that  there  was  no  way  of  enlarging  the 
circulation  except  through  the  purchase  and 
deposit  of  bonds,  or  the  importation  of  actual 
money.  Prior  to  1906,  the  national  bank  notes 
had  so  greatly  increased  in  amount  as  to  re- 
quire almost  all  of  the  floating  or  "free'  supply 
of  bonds  for  their  protection,  except  those  held 
by  investors  and  trustees,  so  that  the  limit  im- 
posed upon  their  issue  was  almost  absolute, 
it  was  currently  proposed  to  relieve  the  situa- 
tion by  extendmg  the  kinds  of  bonds  receiv- 
able as  deposits  to  protect  note  issues  and  the 
Aldrich-Vreeland  Act  had  taken  steps  in  that 
direction.  As  against  this  plan  or  proposal  it 
was  pointed  out  that  both  the  practice  of  other 
countries  and  the  general  theory  of  bankii^ 
indicated  that  the  protection  properly  to  be 
accorded  to  notes  was  identical  with  that  to 
be  given  to  deposits.  The  abstraa  theory  of 
banking,  moreover,  indicates  the  liquid  short- 
term  assets  of  banks  as  the  safest  and  best 
protection  for  bank  liabilities. 

This  point  of  view  — the  so-called  Hsset 
currency"  theory  —  was  accepted  as  the  basis  of 
the  original  draft  of  the  Federal  Reaerve  Act 
Provision  was  accordingly  made  for  the  issue 
of  notes  based  on  the  general  assets  of  the 
reserve  banks;  while  it  was  sought  to  protect 
the  old  note-issuing  banks  (the  owners  of  the 
bonds  held  to  seciuv  the  notes)  by  audiorizing 
the  gradual  retirement  and  redemption  of  the 
bonds  they  had  purchased-  These  bonds  for 
the  most  part  bore  2  per  cent  interest,  and 
as  government  obligations  were  then  selbng 
on  a  3  per  cent  basis  it  was  ordered  that 
the  new  refunding  bonds  should  bear  3  per 

So-called  asset  currency  has  always  been 
the  subject  of  criticism  from  a  certain  school 
of  thinlcers  who  have  contended  that  there 
was  serious  danger  in  the  use  of  such  paper 
because  of  its  possible  unsoundness.  In  order 
to  guard  against  any  such  danger  the  Act 
therefore  4sfined  'eligible"  paper  with  great 
care,  placftig  stress  upon  the  requirements  of 
short  maturity  and  relation,  to  genuine  com- 
mercial transactions.  Inasmuch  as  it  had  been 
urged  by  some  that  the  supply  of  two-name 
paper  available  would  be  too  small  to  serve 
as  a  basis  for  notes  it  was  left  to  the  Federal 
Reserve  Board  to  determine  eligibility  of  form 
within  the  general  limits  laid  down  by  the 
Act   itself. 

The  view  or  thcorj'  of  currency  issue  which 
had  been  embodied  in  the  origmal  draft  of 
the  act  was  maintained  throughout  Its  various 
changes  of  form  and  appears  in  the  (inal 
statute.  The  chief  note  changes  introduced 
in  the  course  of  discussion  were  as  follows : 
fl)  The  Federal  Reserve  notes  were  made 
eventual  obligations  of  the  government  and 
it  was  proviaed  that  they  could  be  obtained 
only  from  the  government  throuffh  the  Federal 
Reserve  agent  of  the  bank  desiring  to  issue 
them ;  (2)  provision  was  made  for  a  new 
type  of  note  to  be  called  a  'Federal  Reserve 
Bank  note'  secured  by  bonds  on  the  same 
basis  as  the  old  national  bank  notes;  (3)  the 
redemption  of  the  bonds  held  by  the  national 
banks  was  fixed  at  $25,000,000  a  jrear  and  the 


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BANKS  AND  BAHKIMO—  FEDBRAL  RBSKtVB  SY91^H  <12) 


Federal  Reserve  Board  was  authorixed  to  dis- 
tribute this  amount  of  old  bonds  among  the 
reserve  banks.  At  that  rate  it  would  hare 
required  about  30  years  to  retire  the  national 
bank  notes  and  issue  eitiier  Federal  Reerve 
notes  or  Federal  Reserve  bank  notes  in  tbeir 
place.  During  the  first  diree  years'  life  ol  the 
system,  redemptions  proceeded  at  about  this 
rate,  but  after  the  entry  of  the  United  States 
into  die  European  War,  Z  per  cent  bonds  fell 
to  a  low  level  and  the  Reserve  Board  ceased 
to  call  upMi  reserve  banks  to  take  tlwm  over 
at  gar  as  before.  In  &t  original  act  of  1913, 
the  outstanding  notes  had  to  be  covered  by 

fold  and  paper  to  140  per  cent  of  their  face 
ut  by  the  act  of  21  June  1917,  this  figure 
was  cut  U>  100  per  cent  Due  to  tiiis  and  other 
causes  the  issue  of  Federal  Reserve  notes 
rapidly  increased  during  1917  and  at  the  dose 
of  the  year  was  near  a  billion  and  a  quarter 
of  doUars. 

As  things  stand  to-day,  therefore,  the  Fed- 
eral Reserve  Act  provides  an  elastic  cttrrcDcy, 
based  on  business  paper,  and  sus<;BPtible  of 
increase  as  business  operations  increase  and 
require  a  larger  note  issue.  Reserve  banks 
discount  the  paper  presented  to  thein_  by 
ber  banks  which  have  themseli 
it  for  business  m^  Such  paper  -nay  be 
turned  over  to  the  local  Federal  Reserve  agent 
who  will  issue  an  equa^  amount  of  notes  in 
exchange.  The  Federal  ^Reserve  back  must, 
however,  carry  a  gold  reserve  amounting  to 
40  per  cent  oi  the  notes  it  issues,  and  of  this 
40  per  cent  5  per  cent  is  deposited  with  the 
Treasuiy  as  a  redemption  fund,  the  other 
35  per  cent  is  retained  in  the  Reserve  bank's 
own  vaults.  The  expansive  fiower  of  the  cur- 
rency thus  depends  on,  and  is  limited  by,  the 
gold  holdings  in  the  Reserve  banks. 

Granting  the  presence  of  the  necessary  gold 
there  is  no  limit  to  the  volume  of  notes  that 
may  be  issued  except  ihe  limit  set  by  die  needs 
of  business  and  the  dictates  of  sound  banking. 
The  question  whether  to  call  for  notes  or  to 
take  the  proceeds  of  rediscounts  in  the  form 
of  book  credit  depends  on  the  decision  of  the 
member  banks.  Federal  Reserve  banks  could, 
however,  if  diey  desired  issue  their  notes  in 
exchange  for  paper  bought  in  (he  open  market 
with  bonk  endorsements. 

The  question  of  fore^  tiankina  facilities 
k  dealt  with  in  several  ways  in  the  Federal 
Reserve  Act:  (1)  Federal  Reserve  banks  may 
established  agencies  abroad  or  naaie  agents  and 
correqKmdents.  They  have  thus  designated  the 
Banks  of  England,  France  and  Italy  and  others, 
but  thus  far  operations  have  been  small  owing 
to  Oie  War  and  its  effects.  (2>  Member 
national  banks  possessing  capitals  of  $1,000^- 
OOO  or  more  may  apply  for,  and  under  spccv 
fied  conditions  receive,  permission  to  estab- 
lish foreign  branches  of  their  own.  In  this 
way,  a  considerable  number  of  branches  have 
been  develoMd  in  South  America,  (3)  By 
the  act  of  7  Sept  1916,  member  banks  are 
allowed  to  subscribe  to  the  capital  of  bai^ 
formed  to  engage  on  their  behalf  in  the  for- 
eign trade.  Several  such  banks  have  been  in- 
corporated and  have  begun  business. 

The  more  important  step  taken  to  the  direc- 
tion of  sound  foreign  trade  finance  was  not 
however,  one  that  Gad  to  do  with  the  mere 
establishment  of  banking  machinery  but  with 


the  introduction  of  approved  banking  methods. 
Foreign  practice  had  long  since  recognJEed  the 
banker's  acceptance  as  the  staple  method  of 
financing  movements  of  goods.  This  teaching 
was  embodied  in  the  Reserve  Act  which  pro- 
vided that  paper  resulting  from  commercial 
transactions  in  foreign  trade  and  of  proper 
maturities  m^ht  be  accepted  by  national  banks 
to  100  per  cent  of  capital  and  surplus,  Federal 
Reserve  banks  were  empowered  to  rediscount 
or  buy  such  acceptances ;  while  by  later  legis- 
lation domestic  acceptance  paper  was  given 
similar  privileges  up  to  50  per  cent  of  capiul 
and  EUTplus.  Finally  Congress  adopted  a  pro- 
vision permitting  national  banks  to  accept 
drafts,  drawn  in  countries  needing  a  means 
of   remittance  to  the  United  States,  intended 


of  recent  years  for  banking  reform  has  been 
tlie  reorganization  of  relations  betWeen  the 
Treasury  of  the  United  States  andithe  banks 
of  die  nation.  As  is  well  known,  the  sub- 
Treasury  system  (dating  from  1846  in  its 
present  form)  and,  requiting  the  acrtual  hold- 
ing of  public  funds  in  cash,  is  obsolete,  being 
employed  by  no  other  country.  Deposits  of 
public  funds  in  national  banks  protected  by 
special  security  have  been  made  since  the  Civil 
War  but  were  only  a  partial  remedy  for  the 
evils  of  the  sub-Treasury  system.  The  Federal 
Reserve  Act  sought  to  change  the  older  sys- 
tem Iqr  constituting  the  reserve  banks  'fiscal 
agents,*  and  making  them  also  depositorieSi 
thus  permitting  the  government  to  do  business 
at  and  through  the  reserve  banks  just  as  thdr 
banking  members  may. 

When  the  act  was  passed  the  bahuices  of 
the  government  were  small  and  there  was^io 
haste  in  carrying  into  effect  this  phase  of  \he 
law.  Early  m  1916,  however,  the  banks  were 
made  depositories  of  all  Treasury  balances  then 
on  deposit  with  national  banks  in  the  cities 
where  the  reserve  banks  were  located,  other 
fimdi  outside  these  cities  being  kept  as  before. 
During  1916  and  the  beginning  of  1917,  the 
Reserve  banks  thus  became  habituated  to 
methods  of  transacting  Treasury  business,  and 
so  made  themselves  ready  for  the  great  and 
unexpected  expansion  of^  their  functions  in 
this  field  whicn  was  to  follow,  when,  at  the 
entry  of  the  United  States  into  the  £urapeaD 
Wot  in  1917,  this  small  business  suddenly  as- 
sumed new  and  important  proportions.  The 
Secretaty  of  the  "treasuTy  had  determined 
to  esiploy  each  Federal  Reserve  bank  as  the 
head  of  a  district  organization  designed  for 
the  distribution  of  the  bonds  whose  sale  in 
unprecedented  amounts  was  necessary  to  the 
conduct  of  the  war,  and  in  each  Federal  Re- 
serve district  such  an  organization  ¥fas  quickly 
developed  about  the  local  reserve  bank  as  » 


of  the  work,  and  in  each  case  the  Federal  Re- 
serve bank  proved  an  elRcient  basis  of  organi- 
zation. The  several  banks,  under  instructions 
issued  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  re- 
ceived subscriptions  to  the  loan  and  carried 
on  the  immense  work  of  detail  resulting  there- 
from, besides  lakinff  charge  of  the  deposits  in 
banks  and  general  banking  relationships  grow- 
ing out  of  the  operation. 


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BANKS  AND  BANKING  — SAVINGS  BANKS  (13) 


The  Federal  Reserve  Board  itself,  besides 
co-operating  closely  with  the  authorities  of  the 
Treasury  Department  in  efficiently  conducting 
the  loan  operations  of  the  Federsl  Reserve 
banks,  further  sought  to  develop  a  gen- 
eral policy  that  would  support  and  aid  the 
banldng  community  at  large  in  taking  and  dis- 
tributing the  new  issue  of  bonds.  For  this 
purpose  it  first  established  a  special  rate  of  3 
per  cent  per  annum  for  the  discount  at  Federal 
Reserve  banks  of  the  direct  15-day  obligations 
of  member  banks  secured  by  the  temporary 
certificates  of  indebtedness  which  were  issued 
in  order  to  anticipate  the  proceeds  of  the  sale 
of  the  new  bonds. 

Carrying  fnrth« 

established  a  SVi  per 

Federal  Reserve  l»nks  intended  for  the  90-dBy 
paper  of  ordinary  bank  borrowers,  thereby  en- 
abling the  member  banks  of  the  system  lo  ex- 
tend accommodation  to  bond  buyers  in  the 
assurance  that  they  would  be  able  to  obtain 
accommodation  from  the  Federal  Reserve  banks 
by  discounting  these  notes.  In  order  to  aid 
the  customers  of  banks  not  members  of  the 
Federal  Reserve  system,  it  further  authorized 
the  member  banks  to  act  as  agents  for  non- 
member  institutions  by  rediscounting  the  notes 
of  bond  buyers  who  desired  to  obtain  assist- 
ance from  their  own  banks  without  being 
obliged  to  transfer  their  business  to  member 
banks.  Savings  banks  and  trust  companies 
were  assured  that  the  Board  would  in  every 
way  co-operate  with  them  in  avoiding  shock 
or  disturbance  to  existing  conditions,  and  that 
the  Federal  Reserve  system  stood  ready  to  ex- 
tend to  them  reasonable  accommodation  in  the 
event  of  necessity  resulting  from  withdrawals 
made  by  depositors  in  order  to  purchase  or 
invest  in  government  bonds. 

On  the  night  of  2  May  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  issued  to  the  press  a  statement  giv- 
ing such  details  of  the  first  'Liberty  loan*  as 
had  been  agreed  upon  up  to  that  time.  At  the 
same  time  he  advised  the  Federal  Reserve 
banks  that  he  had  decided  to  use  them  as  die 
central  agencies  for  handling  the  issue.  On 
10  May  the  full  prospectus  was  telegraphed  the 
banks  to  be  made  public  on  Monday,  14  May. 
The  subscriptions  were  to  close  on  tS  Jane, 
so  that  the  Federal  Reserve  banks  had 
but  one  month  in  which  to  perfect  an 
organization  for  die  sale  of  the  propor- 
tion of  $2,000,000,000  of  bonds  allotted  to 
the  respective  districts,  and  for  the  handling 
of  details  of  the  subscriptions.  The  work- 
ing out  in  20  days  -of  a  prospectus  cover- 
ing so  large  an  issue,  without  a  precedent  in 
this  country  to  guide,  and  the  placing  of  $2,000,- 
000,000  of  bonds  oversubscribed  approximately 
a  billion  in  a  month's  time,  was  a  remarkable 
achievement,  but  ihe  second  loan  operation, 
carried  through  in  October,  resulted  in  the  sale 
of  nearly  four  billions  of  bonds,  the  amount 
offered  being  three  billions,  and  the  total  sub- 
scriptions nearly  five  billions. 

Not  only  was  there  no  disturbance  to  inter- 
est rates  during  either  loan  operadon  beyond 
the  necessarily  gradual  increase  which  follows 
upon  the  withdrawal  of  such  great  quantities 
of  funds  from  the  market,  but  the  process 
was  accomplished  with  great  technical  ease. 
In  former  times  under  tne  old  sub-Treasury 
system,  the  withdrawal  of  subscribed  funds  in 


various  parts  of  the  country,  or  even  the  op- 
erations incident  to  the  transgiission  of  thoe 
fimds  from  one  Hut  of  the  county  to  another, 
created  unavoidable  and  serious  difficuldes,  due 
to  shortase  or  plethora  of  money  at  various 
points,  while  exchange  rates  and  condidons 
were  seriously  disturbed.  All  this  has  been 
avoided  through  the  operatioa  of  the  central 
gold  settlement  fund,  conducted  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Federal  Reserve  Board  at 
Washington.  B^  the  use  of  this  fund,  the 
thousands  of  millions  of  dollars  involved  in 
current  government  operations  have  been  re- 
ceived in  the  form  of  local  bank  credits,  and 
the  proceeds  have  been  transferred  to  the  point 
where  government  payments  had  to  be  made. 
As  these  payments  have  been  effected,  local 
banks  at  those  places  have  increased  their  de- 
posits and  the  proceeds  have  again  been  grad- 
ually shifted  to  different  parts  of  the  countiy 
where  production  and  manufacture  were  in 
progress  and  where  payments  for  material  and 
labor  had  eventually  to  be  liquidated. 

The  Federal  Reserve  system  has  thus  suc- 
ceeded in  its  first  and  most  immediate  objects 
—  the  establishment  of  a  co-operative  or  cen- 
tralized system  of  united  bank  reserves  with 
rediscount  arrangements  designed  for  the  relief 
of  hard-pressed  banks  ai|d  for  the  furnishing 
of  an  elastic  currency.  It  has  further  supplied 
the  demand  for  an  efficient  and  nation-wide 
system  of  check  collection.  The  estabUslunent 
of  a  genuine  discount,  market  is  necessarily  a 
much  slower  process  and  time  will  be  required  , 
for  its  complete  success.  The  advent  of  the  ' 
European  War  and  the  entry  of  the  United 
Stales  into  it  as  a  parricipant  have  natnrally 
tended  to  retard  the  normal  development  of 
the  system  and  in  some  ways  to  divert  it  into 
unexpected  channels.  The  growth  and  experi- 
ence it  is  obtaining  in  the  financing  of  the  war 
will,  however,  serve  it  in  good  stead  when  the 
time  comes  for  a  more  normal  development  of 
its  powers.  Meantime,  it  has  proved  itself 
the  cotmtry's  banking  mainstay  and  support 
in  the  necessary  operations  incident  to  the 
financing  of  the  struggle. 

H.  Parker  Wmus, 
Secretary  Federal  Reserve  Board,  Washington. 

13.  SAVINGS  BANKS.  Savings  banks 
are  of  two  kinds,  stock  and  mutual. 

Stock  tHUtka.— The  stock  savings  bank  is 
to  all  intents  and  purposes  quite  luce  a  bank 
of  discount,  having  capital  stock,  and  is,  there- 
fore,  owned  and  controlled  by  the  stockholders, 
to  whom  the  profits  belong  after  paying  the 
agreed  rate  of  interest  to  the  depo^tors.  Such 
banks  are  to  be  found  lai^ely  in  the  West 
and  South,  diere  being  no  such  institutions  in 
the  Eastern  States.  They  are  essentially  banks 
of  discount  with  the  word  'savings*  in  their 
title.  They  transact  chiefly  a  commercial  busi- 
ness and  carry  comparatively  few  savings  ac- 
counts. According  to  the  report  of  the  Comp- 
troller of  the  Currency,  there  were  1,529  of 
these  institutions  reportingas  of  23  June  1915, 
with  capital  stock  of  $92,^,798,  loans  amount- 
ing to  ^0,304,207,  deposits  of  $1,047,039,650.93, 
of  which  $754,443,330  were  savings  deposits. 
The  depositors  numbered  2j977,968,  of  which 
2,380,496  were  savings  depositors. 

Mutual  bonks.— The  mutual  savings  bank, 
with  which  this  article  has  mainly  to  do,  is  of 


BANKS  AND   BANKING  —  8A VI NOB  BANKS  (13) 


180 


an  entirely  different  type.  It  is,  &s  the  above 
term  indicates,  -a  mutual  institutibn,  without 
stock  and  therefore  without  Stockholders,  being 
owned  by  the  depositors  collectively  and  con- 
trolled lo'  a  body  of  trustees  who  in  law  rep- 
resent them,  but  are  not  elected  or  appointed 
by  them.  The  depositors  are,  in  a  sense,  part- 
ners, in  that  the  profits  belongs  to  them  and  Ae 
losses,  if  any,  are  legally  assessable  upon  them, 
the    ^tter    process    being,    however,    a    rare 

I  best  obtain  a  clear  ides  of  the  s 


We  c 


organised  to  receive  funds  on  deposit,  which 
it  may  treat  as  its  own  upon  the  imphed  agree- 
ment to  return  tlie  same  upon  demand.  It 
loans  (Ml  promissory  notes,  buys  commercial 
paper,  bonds  and  other  securities,  issues  bank 
notes  and  operates  quite  largely  througli  die 
checking  system,  by  which  the  bulk  of  its  funds 
are  dispersed.  All  the  profits  belong  to  the 
stockholders,  upon  whodi  losses  fall,  should 
there  be  »ay.    It  is  the  business  man's  bank. 

The  savings  bank  caters  to  the  small  saver. 
It  receives  funds  on  deposit  as  trustee  for  the 
depositor,  to  invest  for  his  account.  It  does 
not,  as  a  rule,  make  any  discounts;  buys  no 
commercial  paper;  issues  no  bank  notes,  and 
honors  checks  onW  when  accompanied  by  the 
passbook  of  the  depositor.  It  is  permitted  to 
ask  notice  of  withdrawal  as  a  protective  meas- 
ure in  times  of  stress,  while  the  bank  of  dis- 
count must  pay  on  demand  or  suspend.  The 
contract  of  the  savings  bank  with  the  depositor 
is  in  essence  this :  That  it  will  accept  the  funds 
offered  for  deposit,  invest  them  according  to 
law  in  certain  prescribed  securities,  repay^  the 
same  upon  notice  (which  is,  as  a  rule,  waived, 
although  in  some  instance!  is  enforced  in  very 
large  baulks  as  a  daily  procedure),  apportion 
the  earnings  aoiong  the  dei>ositors  after  pay- 
ing expenses  and  establishing  a  surplus  or 
guaran^  fund  for  their  protection  against 
losses.  Out  of  the  foregoing  comparisons  we 
may  evolve  the  follawtng  as  a  fair  definition 
of  a  mutual  saving  bat^:  *A  savings  bank 
is  a  mutual  institution  conducted  for  the  bene^ 
fit  of  the  depositors,  without  profit  to  the 
managers  or  trustees,  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
ceiving on  deposit,  for  safe-keeping'  and  invest- 
ment, such  sums  as  shall  be  offered  by  the 
depositors,  repaying  the  principal  on  demand 
or  upon  legal  notice,  and  distributing  the  earn- 
ings aiDong  the  depositors  as  interest- dividends, 
after  paying  expenses  and  setting  the  remain- 
der aside  as  a  sunilus  fund  for  the  protection 
of  all.» 

The  saving  bank  has  welt  been  likened 
to  a  reservoir  mto  which  pour  the  little  streams' 
for  the  purpose  of  combining  them  into  a 
larger  stream  for  mutual  investment  purposes. 
The  savings  bank  makes  capitalists  by  the  weld- 
ing power  it  possesses,  making  the  small  sums 
effective  by  working  them  together. 

Orisin  of  Savinca  Banka.^ — The  origin  of 
savings  hanks  is  in  doubt,  there  bein^  various 
claimants  for  the  honor  of  first  conceiving  the 
savings  bank  idea.  Daniel  Defoe,  of  'Robin- 
son Crusoe*  fame,  is  mentioned  aa  the  first 
to  conceive  the  savings  bank,  in  a  plan  whereby 
the  government  was  to  receive  the  deposits  of 
the  people.    A  French  writer  has  asserted  that 


the  idea  dates  back  to  one  Hugues  Delettre 
in  1610.  Such  institutions  were  also  formed  in 
Brunswick  in  1765;  Hamburg  in  1778;  Berne, 
Switzerland  in  1787;  Basel  in  1792;  Geneva 
in  1794.  But  so  far  as  is  known,  the  savings 
bank  as  we  know  it  to-day  was  the  outgrowth 
of  none  of  these.  The  movement  in  England 
had  its  inception  in  the  schemes  of  the  Rev. 
Joseph  Smith  and  Prisdlla  Wakefield.  The 
former  in  1798  conducted  a  plan  whereby  it 
was  agreed  to  receive  sums  for  safe  keeping, 
repaying  the  same  at  Christmas-time  with  a 
bounty  subscribed  by  hi^  rich  paridiioners. 
The  deposits  could  be  withdrawn  at  any  time. 

Urs.  Wakefield's  plan  (1799)  was  a  sick  and 
aid  society  rather  than  a  bank.  The  members 
paid  a  certain  sum  per  month,  according  to 
age,  and  received  a  pension  after  60  years  of 
agt.  Sick  and  funeral  benefits  were  also  paid 
There  was  the  "Sunday  Bank»  (1808)  at 
Hereford,  which  was  also  in  the  nature  of  a 
charity  and  open  Sunday  mornings  only.  Jer- 
emy Bentham  established  his  ^Frugality 
Bank*  in  1797. 

It  is  obvious  that  none  of  these  nlans  had 
in  them  the  true  savings  bank  idea.  They  were 
all  essentially  charities,  which  the  savings  bank 
is  not.  The  first  man  to  conceive  the  proper 
idea  and  work  it  out  to  a  practical  conclusion 
was  the  Rev.  Henry  Duncan,  a  Scottish  clergy- 
man, who  in  1810,  at  Ruthwell,  Scotland,  estab- 
lished the  first  savings  bank  that  operated 
along  business-like  lines  and  depended  upon 
the  earning  power  of  the  money  received  on 
deposit  to  carry  on  the  bank.  It  was  this  con- 
clusion that  from  the  earnings  of  the  bank 
the  depofiittM-s  should  receive  their  intereU  and 
the  bank  should  pay  its  expenses,  the  correct 
savings  bank  plan.  The  result  of  Duncan's 
practical  plan  was  the  Edinbut^  Savings  Bank, 
organized  in  1814,  which  is  still  a  prosperous 
institution.  Following  Duncan's  plan,  savings 
banks  soon  sprang  up  all  over  Europe. 

The  savings  bat^  movement  in  this  country 
natnrally  followed  the  movement  in  England 
and  Scotland.  It  is  admitted  that  during  the 
early  part  of  1816,  almost  simultaneously,  the 
movement  began  in  New  York,  Boston  and 
FhiUde^hia.  Sometime  during  that  year  a 
letter  reached  Thomas  Eddy  of  New  York 
from  a  Ivmdon  magistrate  named  Patrick  Col- 
quboun  in  which  he  outlined  the  English  plan 
of  savings  banks.  The  idea  also  came  to  the 
attention  of  James  Savage  of  Boston  and 
Condy  Raguet  of  Philadelphia.  The  result  of 
this  simultaneous  information  was  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Philadelphia  Saving  Fund  So- 
ciety, which  opened  for  business  2  Dec  1816, 
being  the  first  bank  of  its  kind  to  receive 
deposits  in  this  country;  the  Provident  Insti- 
tution for  Savings  in  the  Town  of  Boston, 
which  incorporated  13  Dec  1816,  being  the 
first  to  receive  legislative  sanction;  and  the 
Bank  for  Savings  in  New  York,  being,  it  is 
highly  probable,  the  first  to  be  conceived  but 
the  last  to  open  for  business  owing  to  die 
andpathy  of  toe  New  York  Ic^slature  toward 
banks  in  general.  It  was  chartered  26  March 
1819  and  opened  for  business  3  July  1819,  The 
historical  sequence  is,  therefore :  New  York 
the  first  to  conceive,  Philadelphia  the  first  to 
on  de^sit,  and  Boston  the  first 


e  money  on 
ome  a  letsd 


entity. 


digitized  byGoOgle 


190 


BANKS  AND  BANKING— SAVINGS  BANKS  (I» 


Orgaiiuation.^  The  organuation  of  a  mu- 
tual savings  bank  consists  of  a  body  of  trus- 
tees, nameo  in  the  original  articles  of  incorpo- 
ration, the  charter  being  in  former  days 
issued  by  specta]  act  of  the  State  legislatures; 
but  under  ihe  free  banking  idea,  the  statutes 
now  prescribe  the  process  necessary  to  organize 
a  savings  bank,  and  any  body  of  men  wbo  may 
care  to  do  so  may  form  a  savings  bank  t^ 
complying  with  tbe  statutory  requirements  and 
obtaining  the  sanction  of  the  State  ofiidal  in 
charge  of  banks,  usually  termed  ^Banking  Su- 
perintendent," "Banking^  Commissioner,"  "State 
Auditor,*  'State  Dank  Examiner,*  etc.,  the  dis- 
tinction being  in  the  title  and  not  in  the  official 

TnwtMfc— The  trustees  arc  a  self-perpet- 
uating body,  vacancies  being  filled  by  their  own 
votes,  and  the  quaUfications  arc  moral  rather 
than  financial.  Unlike  a  bank  of  discount, 
where  Stock  ownership  carries  voting  power, 
money  power  carries  no  weight  with  savings 
bank  elections,  the  trustee  being  elected  for  life, 
the  vacancy  caused  by  his  death  being  filled  by 
vote  of  the  survivors. 

As  a  rule  these  trustees  serve  without  com- 
pensation, even  the  attendance  at  board  meet- 
mga  being  without  remuneration^  except  in  a 
few  Stales  where  the  fee  is  limited  to  about 
three  dollars.  They  are  permitted  to  receive 
fees  as  am)raisers  of  real  estate  in  maldng 
mortgage  loans,  and  as  examining  members  of 
the  board  and  for  other  special  services,  but 
■  these  fees  arc  in  lieu  of  service  and  not  in 
payment  of  their  trusteeship. 

The  duty  of  the  trustee  consists  in  attend- 
ance at  board  meetings,  service  on  committees, 
such,  as  real  estate  valuation  committees,  ex- 
amining conuntttees,  and  finance  committees, 
the  latter  having  charge  of  the  investments  of 
the  bank.  In  the  early  days  of  the  savings 
bank  the  trustees  also  acted  as  tellers,  clerks, 

The  relation  of  the  trustee  to  the  depositor 
is  that  of  a  cesim  gtte  trust — one  acting  for 
the  benefit  of  another.  The  relation  of  the  cor- 
poration to  the  depositor,  however,  is  one  of 


AcconntB. —  On  the  opening  of  an  account, 
the  depositor  receives  a  passbo<4c  which  not 
only  is  evidence  of  his  deposit  but  the  terms 
under  which  it  is  received,  and  constitutes  the 
contract  between  him  and  the  banlc  This  con- 
tract, briefly  stated,  is,  that  the  bank  will  invest 
the  funds  lawfully,  manage  wisely,  repay  the 
same  on  demand  or  on  a  stated  notice  and  use 
n  making  payments.    The  contract  of 


its  loss,  for  its  protection  against  wrongful  pay- 
ment, and  abide  by  the  bylaws,  copy,  or  part, 
of  which  is  always  embodied  in  the  passbook, 
and  the  mere  acceptance  of  the  book  evi- 
dences  his   compliance   with   this   contract. 

Savings  bank  accounts  are  of  three  kinds: 
(1)  single-name  accounts,  payable  to  the  indi- 
vidual named  in  the  book  and  at  death  to  his 
legal  representative ;  (2)  the  joint  account, 
payable  to  either  of  the  parties  during  life,  and 
at  death  to  the  survivor;  (3)  the  trust  ac- 
count, payable  to  the  trustee  during  life  and  at 
death  to  the  party  named  as  benefician'. 

Bookkeei^g.— -  The  bookkeeping  of  a  sav- 


ings bank  is  simple.  A  »nglc  transaction  will 
indicate  its  character.  Upon  making  a  deposit 
the  depositor  signs  bis  name  and  gives  informa- 
tion concerning  his  age,  birtfaplace,  parents, 
etc.,  for  the  purpose  of  identifying  aim  in 
future  payments.  The  book  is  then  issued  to 
him  and  a  deposit  ticket  made  out,  the  name  in- 
dexed, and  the  signature  card  filed  numerically 
for  reference  in  maldng  payments.  Books  are 
always  numbered  and  for  every  book  there  is 
a  corresponding  ledger  account  or  card.  The 
accounts  are  kept  in  groups  of  one  or  two 
thousand  or  by  ledgen  for  proving  purposes. 
The  deposit  tickets  of  the  day  are  sorted  ac- 
cording to  groups,  and  entered  on  a  distribution 
sheet  by  number  and  name,  with  the  amount 
carried'  to  a  perforated  column  at  the  side. 
The  postings  are  made  directly  from  the 
tickets  to  the  card  or  ledger  space.  When  ^1 
postings  have  been  made  the  proving  clerk 
checks  the  distribution  sheet,  from  which  the 
stub  has  been  detached,  leaving  only  the  num- 
ber and  name  as  a  guide.  Turning  to  the  num- 
ber he  verifies  the  name  and  inserts  the  amount 
posted  for  that  day.  The  total  amount  must 
agree  with  the  detached  stub,  thus  showing 
that  the  right  amount  has  been  posted  to  the 
right  account  Drafts  are  put  through  the 
same  process,  but  in  paying,  the  signature  is 
compared  with  the  one  on  file  and  as  a  rule 
the  test  questions  are  asked,  the  purpose  of  this 
process  being  to  show  in  a  court  of  law,  if 
necessary,  that  due  care  has  been  used'  to  iden- 
tify the  depositor.  The  savings  b^ik  is  ab- 
solved, in  a  measure,  from  the  general  rule  of 
forgery.  If  the  baiik  can  show  that  the  de- 
positor has  written  a  signature  comparing 
favorably  with  the  original  and  answered  the 
test  questions  properly,  it  is  protected  against 
wrongful  p^-ment.  It  is  obviously  impossible 
for  a  savings  bank  to  know  personally  all. its 
depositors,  who,  being  infrequent  patrons,  arc 
liable  to  cnange  handwriting,  and  rae  test  ques- 
tions act  as  a  measure  of  protection  both  to  the 
bank  and  the  depositor. 

The  big  events  of  the  saving  bank  year 
are:  First,  the  trial  balance,  which  is  a  total 
of  all  the  accounts,  which  must  agree  with  the 
general  books  and  in  well-organized  banks  are 
kept  absolutely  in  agreement  by  these  periodic 
tests,  made  as  a  rule  quarterly  or  scmi-annially- 
In  a  bank  where  the  transactions  run  into  the 
millions  this  is  no  light  task.  Second,  the  in- 
terest computations,  which  involves  the  labor 
of  ascertaining  the  periods  for  which  the  vari- 
ous deposits  are  entitled  to  interest,  computing 
and  posting  the  same  to  the  various  accounts 
within  a  period  of  a  few  weeks. 

lutercBt. —  Savings  banks  as  a  rule  pay  in- 
terest from  quarterl>^  periods,  or  from  the  first 
of  the  mondl  following  the  deposit,  allowing  a 
certain  number  of  days'  grace ;  thus,  money  de- 
posited on  or  tiefore  10  July  and  remaining 
in  the  bank  until  1  January,  will  draw  six 
months'  interest;  between  10  July  and  3  Octo- 
ber—  three  months*  interest  Some  banks  pay 
from  the  first  of  each  calendar  month  if  the 
money  is  on  deposit  at  the  close  of  the  interest 

Investmenta. —  Savings  banks  are  large  in- 
vestors in  mortgage  loans  and  iminicipal  and 
railroad  bonds.  The  law  as  a  rule  prescribes 
the  character  of  bonds  which  may  be  purchased. 


BANKS  AND  BAKKINO  —  POSTAL  SAVINaS  BAMKS  (14) 


191 


but  in  all  States,  Kovemment,  State,  city,  town, 
village  and  school  district  bonds  are  legal  in- 
vestments. Railroad  securities  ate  legal  if  they 
cooiotvn  to  the  statutory  requirements,  whicn 
tor  instance  in  New  York  are,  that  the  bonds 
shall  be  a  first  mortgage  on  the  proper^  and 
that  the  corporation  shall  have  paid  at  least  4 
per  ceql  dividend  on  all  classes  of  stock  for  10 
years  preceding  the  investment.  The  State 
laws  differ  as  to  the  detailed  requirements,  a 
review  of  which  would  be  impossible  withiQ  the 
limiiations  of  this  article.  As  a  rule  the  bond 
and  mortgage  loan  is  limited  to  60  per  cent  of 
the  appraised  value  of  the  property  and  must 
be  a  first  mortgage.  The  proportioa  of  mort- 
gage loanB  to  the  total  asKts  is  generally 
stipulated  in  the  law,  as  for  instauce  in  New 
York,  not  over  65  per  cent  of  the  dcpoiits  may 
be  loaned  on  such  security. 

Postal  SavrngB  Bralu. —  The  postal  savings 
bank  is  in  operation  in  all  lai^  countries  ex- 
cepting  Germany.  The  system  in  this  country 
dates  from  25  June  1910.  The  fundamenta! 
idea  of  the  postal  savings  bank  is  the  receipt 
by  the  govemment  through  the  post-ojGces  of 
deposits,  the  payment  of  which  is  guaranteed 
by  the  government  For  detailed  description 
see  Postal  Savings  Bakkb,  article  14. 

School  Saviagi  BankB.— The  school  sav- 
ings bank  in  this  country  is  the  result  of  the 
work  of  the  l&te  John  H.  Thiry,  a  Belgian,  who 
in  connection  with  his  work  as  trustee  of  the 
public  schools  of  Long  Island  City  became  im< 
pressed  with  the  ImproTidence  of  the  American 
children  and  desired  in  some  way  to  combat  the 
tendency  to  spend  As  a  result  the  first  school 
savings  bank  was  opened  in  connection  with 
the  public  schools  of  tlte  above  named  place  in 
the  late  eighties.  Mr.  Thiry  wrote  and  traveled 
extensively  in  cotmection  with  his  pet  schema 
with  tlie  result  that  other  banks  were  formet^  in 
various  parts  of  the  countiy  after  his  oiigmal 
plan.  For  many  years,  he  wa»  the  only 
statistician  in  the  movement,  and  annually  is- 
sued a  report  giving  the  growth  of  the  system. 
It  was  not  until  the  matter  was  taken  up  by  the 
savings  bank  section  of  the  American  Bankers 
Association  in  the  year  1911  that  the  movement 
reached  the  a^resaive  stage,  and  under  the  en- 
couragc^ait  of  the  bankers  has  grown  to  large 

T^  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union. 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association  and 
kindred,  organizations  have  loaned  their  support 
also,  the  first-mentioned  organization  being 
particularly  active  in  ^reading  the  idea.  Mrs. 
S.  L.  Oberholtier  (q.v.),  of  Philadelphia,  has 
given  much  time  in  promoting  Che  school  sav- 
ings bank  and  has  published  periodic  statistical 
matter  in  connection  therewith.  The  school 
savings  bank  is  as  a  rule  conducted  along  one 
of  two  lines:  (1)  Deposits  are  made  through 
the  medium  of  the  teacher  who  acts  as  receiv- 


stamps  are  issued  for  penny  deposits  until  10 
cents  has_  been  accumulated  on  a  card.  The 
pupil  is  given  a  pass  card  as  a  receipt  for  the 
defwsit.  The  deposits  from  each  class  are 
turned  in  to  the  principal  and  by  him  deposited 
io  St  savings  bank  to  the  credit  of  the  school 
savings  bank^  or  himself  as  trustee.    The  laws 


of  several  States,  notably  New  York  and 
Massachusetts,  have  legalized  this  method  of 
procedure,  it  being  deemed  unwise  to  allow  the 
movement  to  spread  without  adequate  safe- 
guards as  to  the  disposition  of  the  money  re- 
ceived on  deposit.  When  the  deposits  on  the 
pupil's  card  reach  one  dollar  or  mor^  the 
amount  is  transferred  to  a  regular  savings  bank 
account  in  the  depository  bank,  in  the  puini's 
name.  Withdrawals  from  the  general  fund 
and  from  the  pupil's  individual  accounts  are 
permitted,  but  not  encouraged,  the  signature  of 
the  principal  and  parent  bemg  required  for 
statistical  and  restrictive  reasons. 

(2)  The  second  method  contemplates  nsing 
the  pupils  of  the  higher  grades  as  the  active 
managers  of  the  bank.  Some  schools  have  a 
regularly  organized  bank,  with  president, 
cashier,  clerks,  etc.,  who  manage  the  school 
bank,  receive  all  deposits,  keep  all  records  and 
render  proper  reports  to  a  supervising  head, 
usually  one  of  the  teachers.  One  of  the  most 
popnlar  plans  consists  of  a  duplicate  card  with 
amounts  printed  in  multiples  of  five  cents.  As 
deposits  are  made  the  cards  are  placed  together 
and  the  amount  punched  out,  thus  making  the 
two  records  simultaneously.  This  plan  was  de- 
vised b^  a  school  principal  in  Brooklyn  and  has 
met  with  great  favor  wherever  instituted. 
Large  cities  like  New  York  and  Chicago  have 
takeq  up  the  school  savings  bank  plan,  the  banks 
co-operating  with  the  school  authorities  in  pro- 
moling  the  spread  of  the  movement. 

According  to  recent  statistics  gathered  by 
the  savings  bank  section  of  the  American  Bank- 
ers Association,  for  the  Comptroller  of  the 
Currency,  there. were  280  cities  operating  the 
school  savings  bank  in  one  form  or  another 
represented  ^  banks  in  1,925  schools,  having 
928,784  pupiU  enroUed,  of  which  39^*^  were 
depositors,  having  to  their  credit  $1,792,640.10. 

Biblioaraphyv-^  Fisk.  'The  Modem  Bank' 
(Chap.  Xjua,  New  Yoilc  1910) ;  Koyes,  <Hia- 
tory  of  Savings  Banks'  (New  York  1874) : 
Kniffin,  W.  H,  Jr.,  'The  Savings  Bank  and  lu 
Practical  Work>    (New  York  1912). 

WiLLiAU  H.  Kniffin,  Jr.. 
Vice-President    Batik     of    Rockville    Centre, 

Formerly  Secretary  Savingt  Bank  Section 

American  Bankerf  Atiociation. 

14.  POSTAL  SAVINGS  BANKS.  Defi- 
nition.—  A  governmental  agency,  operating 
througli  the  post-offices,  for  the  encouragement 
of  thrift  among  the  masses  of  the  people  by 
providing  widely  distributed  and  convenient  de- 
positories wherein  small  sums  may  be  placed 
at  a  comparatively  low  rate  of  interest,  with 
the  faith  and  credit  of  the  government  pledged 
to  the  repayment  of  principal  and  interest  on 
demand. 

History., —  'The  proposition  to  use  post- 
offices  as  depositories  for  savings  was  first 
made  in  England  as  long  a^o  as  1807.  Mr. 
Whitbread,  a  member  of  Parliament,  introduced 
during  chat  year  in  the  House  of  Commons  a 
bill  for  the  benefit  of  the  working  classes,  the 
guiding  principle  of  which  was  that  of  self- 
help.  Mr.  Wtiitbread  considered  it  wiser  to 
assist  people  to  advance  their  own  interests 
than  to  extend  help  by  the  giving  of  alms.  His 
meritorious  scheme,  however,  was  received  with 
almost   universal  disfavor.    The  press  ol-jbe 

Ciooglc 


102 


BANKS  AND  BANKING  — POSTAL  SAVINGS  BANK8  <14> 


time  ridiculed  his  ideas  and  treated  them  as 
altogether  impracticable  and  visioTiary.  There 
were  then  very  few  savings  banks,  only  eleven 
being    in    existence    throughout    the    civilized 

■In  December,  1838,  the  practice  of 


Ued.  By  that  time  tiie  advocates  of  postal  sav- 
ings banks  had  become  quite  numerous,  and 
Uiey  found  in  the  successful  workings  of  the 
money-order  system  one  of  their  most  telling 
arguments. 

*It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  plan  of 
postal  savings  banks  which  finally  was  adopted 
was  proposed  by  one  engaged  in  commercial 
banking  —  Charles  W.  Sikes,  a  bookkeeper  of 
the  'joint-slock'  bank  o£  Huddersfield,  York- 
^ire.  He  presented  his  composition  on  the 
subject  to  that  eminent  statesman,  W.  E.  Glad- 
stone, then  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer.  He 
cited  many  pertinent  facts  tending  to  show  the 
need  of  postal  banks,  atiiong  them  being  that. 


come  within  the  reach  of  the  __ 

numerous  classes  of  the  people.  This,  he 
stated,  could  be  done  only  ty  the  post-offices, 
which  were  accessible  to  every  workman.  Mr. 
Sikes  was  encouraged,  and  seconded  in  his 
eUarts  by  Mr.  Rowland  Hill,  who  had  been  ap- 

fiointed  general  secretary  of  the  post-office  for 
ife  in  recognition  of  his  valtiable  services  as  a 
postal  reformer.  Mr.  Gladstone  also  eloquently 
supported  the  bill,  which  became  a  law  in  May, 
1861.  and  on  1  September  of  the  same  year  the 
British   Post-Office   Savings   Bank    came     into 

'It  is  well  known  that   Mr.  Gladstone  was 
before  the  English  public  prominently  as  a  con- 
His 


savings  banks  is  best  given  in  his  own  words, 
uttered  in  the  House  of  Commons  in  the  year 
1888  amid  universal  applause.     He  said: 


be  paopls  >nd  tbe  Suu 

. — ™lSd  the  inatitation  in 

UMful  uid  fruitfal  oi  my  long  caner  ' 

■Charles  Sikes,  actively  concemed  in  the 
adoption  by  Great  Britain  of  the  postal  savings 
bank,  was  not  unrewarded.  He  was  knic^ted 
in  1881  upon  the  recommendation  of  Mr.  Glad- 
stone, then  Premier.  He  was  appointed  to  an 
important  office  under  the  government,  and 
public  subcriptions  even  were  made  and  a  valu- 
able gift  tendered  him  in  appreciation  of  his 
good  work."  (United  States  Senate  Report  No. 
125,  61st  Congress,  2d  Session). 

The  Movement  for  Postal  Sivingg  Banks 
in  the  United  States,—  Following  the  lead  of 
England  almost  every  considerable  nation,  with 
the  exception  of  Germany,  which  has  a  splendid 
system  of  municipal  savings  banks,  established 
postal  savings  depositories.  The  movement  for 
the  establishment  of  postal  savings  banks  in  the 
United  States  extended  over  a  period  of  nearly 
40  years.  The  subject  was  first  brought  for- 
ward officially  in  this  country  by  Postmaster- 
General  Creswell  in  1871,  and  met  with  the  im- 
mediate approval  of  the  press  and  the  people. 
Eight  succeeding  Postmasters-General  recom- 


mended the  establishment  of  such  banks  and  80 
bills  were  introduced  in  Congress  between  1873 
and  1910  to  effect  the  purpose.  The  bill  which 
eventually  became  the  law  was  introduced  on  26 
Jan.  1910,  by  Senator  Thomas  H.  Carter,  of 
Montana,  and  was  referred  to  tlie  Comnuttec 
on  Post-Ofiices  and  Post  Roads,  of  which  Sena- 
tor Carter  was  a  member.  It  was  reported 
back  by  tiie  committee  on  the  following  day. 
Tbe  bill  with  various  amendments  passed  the 
Senate  on  5  March.  It  was  referred  to  the 
House  of  Representatives  on  7  March,  where  it 
was  extensively  Unended,  and  was  finally 
passed  on  9  June.  The  Senate  concurred  in 
the  House  amendments  on  22  June,  and  the  bill 
was  signed  by  die  President  on  25  June. 

Principal  P<«tar«B  of  the  Postal  Saving! 
Law  aod  Regnlatlotta.-' The  organic  Postal 
Savings  Act  of  25  June  1910  created  a  board 
of  trustees  for  the  control,  supervision  and 
administration  of  the  postal  savings  depository 
offices  designated  and  established  under  the 
provisions  of  the  act,  and  of  the  funds  received 
on  deposit,  consisting  of  the  Postmaster-Gen- 
eral, Uie  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  .and  tbe 
Attorney-General,  acting  as  ex  officio.  The 
board  was  empowered  to  make  all  necessary 
and  proper  regulations  for  the  receipt,  transmit- 
tal, custody,  deposit,  investment  and  repayment 
of  the  funds  deposited  at  postal  savmgs  de- 
pository offices.  This  provision  of  the  original 
act  was  somewhat  modified  by  the  Act  of  4 
March  1911.  As  the  matter  now  stands  the 
Postmaster-General  is  charged  with  the  desifj;- 
nadon  of  post-offices  as  postal  savings  deposi- 
tories, the  supervision  of  postal  savings  busi- 
ness transacted  at  depository  post-ofHces  and 
the  conduct  of  the  central  administrative  ofEce 
at  Washington.  The  board  of  trustees  is 
charged  with  the  management  and  investment 
of  postal  savings  funds  after  they  leave  the 
custody  of  postmasters.  The  Treasurer  of 
the  United  States  is  treasurer  of  the  board  of 
trustees. 

Any  person  10  years  old  or  over  may  open  a 
postal  savings  account  in  his  or  her  own  name 
by  depositing  one  or  more  dollars  in  any  post- 
office  authorized  to  accept  deposits.  No  per- 
son may  at  the  same  time  have  more  than  one 
account  either  at  the  same  office  or  at  different 
offices.  The  account  of  a  married  woman  is 
free  from  any  control  or  interference  by  her 
husband.  Post-ofHce  employees  are  forbidden 
tn  disclose  to  any  person  except  the  depositor 
the  amount  of  any  deposits. 

A  person  may  deposit  any  number  of  dol- 
lars, and  at  any  time,  until  the  balance  to  bis 
credit  amounts  to  $1,000,  exclusive  of  accumu- 
lated interest. 

Accounts  may  be  opened  by  the  intending 
depositor  in  person,  or  througji  a  represenla- 
live.  A  person  residing  at  a  post-office  not  au- 
thorized to  accept  postal  savings  deposits  may 
open  an  account  at  a  depository  c^ce  by  mail 
through  his  local  postmaster. 

After  an  account  has  been  opened  deposits 
may  be  made  either  in  person,  through  a  repre- 
sentative, or  by  mail.  Deposits  are  acknowl- 
edge by  certificates,  issued  in  fixed  denomina- 
tions which  are  made  out  in  Ae  name  of  the 
depositor  and  serve  as  receipts.  These  certifi- 
cates are  not  negotiable  or  transferable. 


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BANKS  AHS  BAtHCIHG  —  POSTAL  6AVIN0S  BANKS  (14) 


m 


the  post-office  where"  the  deposits  were 
Withdrawals  may  be  made  in  person,  through  a 
rrortsentatiye,  or  by  mail  Postal  savingfs  cer- 
tif^ates  bear  simple  interest  at  the  rate  of  2 
per  cent  a  year.  Interest  begins  on  the  first 
day  of  the  month  followfaig  the  month  in  which 
the  certificate  is  issued  and  becomes  due  and 
payable  at  the  expiration  of  each  full  year  from 
the  day  interest  Hgins  as  long  as  the  principal 
remains  on  deposit.  No  interest  is  paid  for  a 
fraction  of  a'  year. 

Amounts  less  than  $1  may  be  saved  by  pur- 
chasing postal  savings  cards  and  stamps  at 
10  cents  each.  A  savings  card  with  nine  stamps 
affixed  will  be  accepted  as  a  deposit  of  |l 
either  in  opening  an  account  or  in  adding  to 
an  existing  account,  or  it  may  be  redeemed  In 

A  depositor  may  exchanj^  the  whole  or  a 

Girt  of  his  deposits  for  registered  or  cou^n 
nited  States  postal  savings^  bonds,  bearing 
2'/i  per  cent  interest,  issuea  in  denominations 
of  $20,  $100  and  $500.  When  bonds  are  issued 
in  exchange  for  postal  savings  deposits  the  bal- 
ance to  the  credit  of  the  depositor  is  reduced 
accordingly,  and  he  may  make  further  deposits 
until  his  account  reaches  $1,000. 

Postal  savings  bank  funds  in  most  countries 
are  invested  in  the  public  debt  In  establisb- 
ing  postal  savings  depositories  in  the  United 
States  a  radical  departure  was  made  in  this 
respect-  The  organic  law,  as  amended  by  the 
Act  of  18  May  191(i  prescribes  that  the  funds 
received  at  postal  savings  depository  offices  in 
each  city,  town,  village  or  other  locality  shall 
be  deposited,  in  the  order  of  precedence  here- 
inafter specified,  in  solvent  banks  located 
therein,  whether  organised  under  National  or 
State  laws,  and  subject  to  National  or  State 
supervision  and  examination,  willing  to  receive 
such  deposits  under  the  terms  of  the  act  and 
the  regulations  made  by  authority  thereof,  and 
the  sums  deposited  shall  bear  interest  at  the 
rate  of  2^  per  cent  The  law  requires  that  5 
per  cent  of  the  postal  savings  funds  shall  be. 
withdrawn  by  the  board  of  trustees  and  kept 
with  the  treasurer  in  lawful  money  as  a  re- 
serve. The  word  "bank"  as  nsed  in  the  law 
includes  savings  banks  and  trust  companies 
doing  a  banking  business. 

if  one  or  more  member  banks  of  die^ederal 
Reserve  System  exist  in  any  city,  town,  vil- 
lage or  locality  where  postal  savings  deposits 
are  made,  such  deposits  are  required  to  be 
placed  in  the  member  banks,  provided  they 
qualify  to  receive  them,  substantially  in  propor- 
tion to  the  capital  and  surplus  of  each  bank, 
but  if  the  member  banks  fail  to  qualify,  then 
other  eligible  banks  located  therein  may  qual- 
ify. If  nobank  eligible  to  qualify  exists  in 
any  city,  town,  village  or  locality,  or  if  none 
where  such  deposits  are  made  will  receive  them 
on  the  terms  prescribed,  then  the  funds  arc 
deposited  under  the  terms  of  the  act  in  the 
banic  most  convenient  to  the  locality.  If  no 
bank  in  any  State  or  Territory  is  willing  to  re- 
ceive the  deposits  on  the  terms  prescribed,  then 
they  are  required  to  he  deposited  with .  the 
treasurer  of  the  board  of  trustees,  and  counted 
as  a  part  of  the  reserve. 


The  board  of  trustees  is  required  to  take 
from  the  banks  such  security  in  public  bonds, 
or  other  securities,  authorized  by  act  of  Con- 
gress or  supported  by  the  taxing  power,  as  the 
board  may  prescribe,  approve  and  deem  suf- 
ficient and  necessary  to  insure  the  safety  and 
prompt  payment  of  such  deposits  on  demand.  ■ 
if  at  any  time  the  postal  savings  deposits  in 
any  State  or  Territory  exceed  the  amount  which 
the  qualified  banks  therein  are  willing  to  re- 
ceive under  the  terms  of  the  act,  and  such  ex- 
cess amount  is  not  required  to  make  up  the  re- 
serve fund  of  5  per  cent,  the  board  of  trus- 
tees is  authorixed  to  invest  all  or  any  part 
of  the  excess  in  bonds  or  other  securities  of 
the  United  States.  When,  in  the  judgment  of 
the  President  the  general  welfare  and  interest 
of  the  United  States  so  require,  the  board  of 
trustees  is  authorized  to  invest  all  or  any  part 
of  the  postal  savings  funds,  except  the  reserve 
fund  of  5  per  cent,  in  bonds  or  other  securi- 
ties of  the  United  States.  The  board  of  trus- 
tees is  authorized  to  purchase  from  the  holders 
thereof  bonds  which  have  been  issued  to  postal 
savings  depositors  in  exchange  for  Oieir  de- 
posits. The  board  of  trustees  is  authorized  at 
any  time  to  dispose  of  bonds  held  as  postal 
savings  investments  and  use  the  proceeds  to 
meet  withdrawals  by  depositors. 

Interest  and  proi&t  accruing  from  the  de- 
posit or  investment  of  postal  savings  funds  is 
required  to  be  ajKilted  to  the  payment  of  inter- 
est due  to  postd  savings  depositors,  ^nd  Ute' 
excess  thereof,  if  any,  is  required  to  be  covered 
into  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States  as  a  part 
of  the  postal  revenues. 

SUtittlca  for  Ututed  States  STstem.— The 
postal  savings  banks  were  opened  in  the  United 
States  on  3  Jan.  1911,  at  48  second-class  post- 
ofBces,  one  in  each  State  of  the  Union.  Fol- 
lowing is  a  statement  showing  the  growth  of 
the  system  and  giving  a  summary  of  its 
transactions  at  the  end  of  each  six  months' 
period: 


. 

Nomber 

Dtdepou- 

tQr{<a.in- 

Biluia 

Num- 

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Pnn»En>itRi 

dudios 

to  the 

ber  ol 

SuS^ 

bnDCbM 

awlitof 

Absx»- 

ikfx*- 

■ml 

iton 

iW 

ttMim* 

tS^tariVii: 

too 

t«T7.H5 

11   918 

156  81 

S,132 

10. tt  «,aT6 

10.170 

20.«7,OM 

MS,  801 

ssloi 

ij.sis 

M.O  T.OSS 

Ml.lSI 

92.84 

timber  1913. 

11, BIO 

331.006 

tO.BTl 

36*. 116 

109  ill 

10.  MT 

*3'.***'.17i 

388 .Bl 

Itl  81 

10,346 

S9.1  S.JM 

49«,0D 

119.14 

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9.SM 

9.S3i 

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564!m 

131 :  SI 

8.  Ill 

86,0I«.8SS 

Ml, 93 

141.67 

a. 402 

lII.iSfl.lBl 

Ja«191J....; 

T.lfil 

iji,.e54.e»6 

*"'" 

m.sj 

Stattsdca  for  Foreign  Countries.—  Follow- 
ing is  a  statement  giving  the  principal  numerical 
facts  in  connection  with  postal  savings  bank 
^sterns  of  countries  other  than  the  United 
States,  as  shown  by  Statistical  Abstract  of  the 
Uoited  States  for  1916,  based  on  the  official 
reports  of  the  respective  countries. 


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;M     banks  ANt>  BANKIMG  —  OSeAMtlATIOtl  ANI>  UAHA^SltKNT  (15) 


c_. 

Dauafnpott 

Kambemf 

Deponiu 

S 

Autriti 

Dec  3t.l9  4 
Dee!  3!;  1914 

IXd.  3  ,      13 

g|  ii 

iStS 

Dec  31.1915 

1.300.401 

3.013,196 

311, 4«1 

«.SSS;992 

'Ill 

11,913.000 

13.5I«:SI4 

1,««0,4M 

509,083 

aS! 

9T.40S 
169.486 
54.434 

S!:ftJ:S? 
S:S3'I:SgS 

346,658.018 

1,564.066 
11.332.521 

1   ,CK0.007 
91  .119,637 

■£«■!!? 

is! 613 ! 428 

fiS£^^--::::;::;::::;:::::::::::;;:: 

44.39 

DSS:ffi»8d«k'.-.-.':;:;:::::::::::::::::::::::::: 

66.61 

™«?Sn"?i^&r-"*' •'■■■■■■■■- 

Sit 

<  Bicliuive  ol  check  deputmeot. 
'  Coven  gavcnunent  uvingi  tsala. 
■  State,  indudniB  penal  UTtDE*  bi    ' 

•  Include!  4.017,650  ■gcobdU.  iva^~. 

*  Coven  goverament  and  poM-offic*  u 

A.    S.    BURLEEON, 
Poitmasttr-Gtnerat,   Umted  States. 

IS.  BANK  ORGANTZATION  AND 
HANAGBMBNT.  There  are  three  classes  ol 
banks  in  the  United  States — National,  Slate  and 
privftte.  The  National  banks  were  orgsntied 
to  be  strictly  commercial  banks,  but  some  of 
them  acquired  larg;e  lines  of  saving  deposits, 
even  thoURb  the  law  did  not  aulhonze  them  to 
do  so.  The  act  of  December  1913,  however, 
confirmed  their  action.  By  the  same  act  the 
banks  tascy  obtain  permission  to  conduct  a  trust 
department.  The  State  banks  include  fonr 
kinds  of  banks  —  commercial,  savings,  trust 
companies,  and  the  three  functions  combined  in 
one  institution.  Private  banks,  in  some  of  the 
States  where  they  are  allowed  to  operate,  con- 
duct their  business  apart  from  legal  restriction 
and  protection. 

By  the  average  person  the  National  banks 
are  Considered  the  safest  and  most  important. 
The  State  banks,  as  a  class,  are  by  many  not 
considered  so  safe  nor  so  important.  The 
private  banks  are  frequently  considered  as 
questionable.  Such  conclusions,  however,  are 
not  in  accordance  with  the  facts.  Whether  a 
bank  be  a  National,  a  State  or  private  bank  is 
not  the  vital  point;  but  the  character  and 
quality  of  its  management  is  vital. 

NktiooBl  Buiki.—  The  national  banking 
system  was  organiied  under  the  Act  of  Con- 
cress  of  25  Feb.  1863,  since  which  time  there 
nave  been  many  amendments  to  the  original  act. 

A  National  bank  (legally  known  as  a  na- 
tional banking  association)  may  be  organized 
by  five  or  more  persons.  Application  must  be 
made  to  the  Comptroller  of  the  Currency  for 
permission  and  charter,  and  the  application 
must  stale  specifically  concerning  these  five 
points:  (t)  The  name  of  the  association.  (2) 
The  place  where  it  is  to  conduct  the  banking 
business,  giving  names  of  State,  county  and  city 
(or  town  or  village).     (3)  The  amount  of  the 


:h  have  bma  donoaot  for  five  raan  or  more. 

capital  and  the  number  of  shares.  (4)  The 
names  and  residences  of  the  stockholders,  and 
the  number  of  shares  for  which  each  bss  sub- 
scribed. (S)  Thai  application  is  being  made  to 
enable  the  bank  to  operate  under  the  Natiofwl 
Banking  Law  with  its  privileges  uid  ad- 
vantages. 

The  National  Banking  Law  was  originally 
enacted  to  make  a  market  for  the  bonds  of  the 
United  States  government,  and  though  appar- 
ently selfish  its  provitioas  accomplished  a  great 
benefit  for  the  business  public  by  placing  the 
bank  notes  oo  a  safe  basis,  and  by  driving  from 
the  market  the  "wild  cat*  notca.  The  Act  of 
30  June  1864  first  imposed  taxes  on  circulsting 
notes  of  State  and  private  banks;  and  the  laws 
were  changed  at  various  tiroes  until  3  March 
1865,  when  the  tax  was  made  10  per  cent — 
and  it  is  stiU  the  same. 

The  law  could  not  properly  prohibit  the  issue 
of  circulating  notes  by  State  and  private  banks, 
because  note-issue  is  an  absoltite  function  of  a 
bank,  but  it  could  make  the  issue  prohitutive 
by  high-taxation — and  it  did  that 

Bank  notes  are  now  issued  only  by  National 
banks,  and  as  security  for  these  the  banks  must 
deposit  United  States  govemmoit  bonds  with 
the  Secretary  of  the  TreasuQ'  at  Washington, 
D.  C,  and  a  cash  deposit  of  S  per  cent  of  the 
outstanding  notes  to  provide  for  their  redemp- 
tion. The  Federal  Reserve  notes  are  issued  ay 
the   Federal  Reserve  banks. 

National 

men  who  i _   _.    „ 

organiiations.  For  this  service  they  t^arge  the 
stock  purchasers,  or  the  or^aniialion,  a  commis- 
sion or  percentage.  This  is  equivalent  to  pay- 
ing a  premium  on  the  slock.  The  organization 
can,  however,  be  perfected  without  the  aid  of 
a  professional  organizer,  but  can  seldom  be  ac- 
complished without  involving  some  legal  or 
organization  expenses. 

The  capital  required  depends  on  the  sire  of 


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BANKS  AND  BANKING  —  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT  (IS)      »i 


the  pbce  where  the  bank  is  to  operate,  and 
ranges  from  $25,000  to  $200,000  or  more.  If 
the  population  of  the  town  is  less  thati  3,000 
the  capital  must  be  $25,000;  if  between  3,000 
and  6,000  then  $50,000  capital  will  be  required; 
if  more  than  6,000  and  less  than  5(^000  the 
capital  must  be  $100,000  and  in  eveiy  place  witb 
a  population  above  50,000  the  bank's  capital  is 
to  be  $200^000  or  more. 

At  least  50  per  cent  of  the  cE^tal  must  be 
paid  in  before  the  bank  is  authorized  to  open 
lor  business,  and  this  must  be  in  cash  or  its 
immediate  equivalent,  not  by  promissory  notes. 
The  balance  may  be  paid  in  monthly  instal- 
ments durinc  the  next  five  months;  but  it  is 
advisable  to  nave  all  paid  in  before  opening  for 
business.  No  surplus  is  required  by  law  to  be 
paid  in  by  the  subscribers,  but  it  has  become 
the  custom  for  new  banks  to  start  vrith  a  paid- 
in  surplus  and  by  doing  so  the  new  bank  re- 
ceives the  confidence  of  the  pubhc  more 
quickly.  Ten  or  25  per  cent  of  the  cattital 
should  be  sufTictent,  although  100  per  cent  is 

Each  stodcbolder  of  a  National  bank  is 
liable  to  an  assessment  of  100  per  cent  of  the 
par  value  of  his  stock  for  the  haWHties  of  die 
bank.  The  law  reads:  'The  shareholder  of 
eveiy  national  banking  association  shall  be 
held  individually  responsible,  equally  and  rat- 
ably, and  not  one  for  another,  for  the  contracts, 
debts,  and  engagements  of  such  asSodation,  to 
the  extent  of  the  amount  of  their  stock  therein, 
at  ihe  par  value  thereof,  in  addition  to  the 
amount  invested  in  such  shares."  The  shares 
of  certain  State  banks  entering  the  National 
system  are  exempt  from  this  liability. 

State  banks  can  be  converted  into  National 
banks,  and  many  banks  now  in  the  National  sys- 
tem were  originally  organized  under  State  laws. 
To  enter  the  National  system  the  State  bank 
must  comply  with  practically  the  same  require- 
ments that  are  imposed  on  a  new  organization. 
There  are,  however,  certain  advantages  offered 
to  the  State  banks,  but  not  so  many  now  as  in 
the  early  days  of  the  operation  of  the  law. 
These  are  the  advantages.:  if  the  bank  has 
branches  it  may  retain  tnem;  the  stockholders 
of  such  a  bank  are  exempt  from  the  100  per 
cent  liability  on  their  stock  if  the  capital  of 
the  bank  is  not  less  than  $5,000,000,  actually 
paid  in,  and  if  the  bank  at  the  time  of  conver- 

n  has  a  surplus  of  20  per  cent  of  the  capital, 


the  laws  of  the  States  where  thej-  are  to  oper 
ate,  and  as  the  laws  of  each  Slate  differ  in 
some  respects  it  would  be  impossible  in  this 
article  to  give  specific  statements  regarding 
the  organization  requirements  of  the  various 
States.  Forms  for  application  to  organize  such 
banks  and  copies  of  the  laws  governing  the 
banks  can  be  obtained  from  the  Banking  De- 
partment of  any  State,  or  from  the  Secretary 
of  Sute,  in  such  States  where  there  is  not  a 
banking  department. 

In  many  States  the  laws  have  been  modeled 
after  the  National  Bank  Law  and  in  some 
States  the  laws  have  been  made  more  advan- 
tageous to  the  bankers  than  the  national  law, 
and  thus  give  the  banks  a  greater  scope  in  lines 
of  business  tliat  rightfully  belong  to  them.  If 
a  bank  is  restricted  in  the  lines  of  business  in 


which  it  caa  operate  it  is  limited  in  its  earn- 
ing power  as  well  as  in  its  utility  to  the  com- 
munity. 

As  the  National  banks  were  organized  orig- 
inally, to  serve  the  Federal  government  and 
mercantile  interests,  so  the  State  banks  in  many 
States  have  laws  that  were  formed  witb  the 
purpose  of  allowing  the  banks  to  serve  the 
general  public,  and  because  of  these  laws  they 
are  better  public  utility  institutions  than  the 
National  banks.  If  a  bank  is  not  a  public  utility 
institution  in  its  practice,  it  becomes  narrow 
in  its  views  and  unaccommodating  to  its  cus- 
tomers, and  so  limits  its  usefulness. 

Private  Banks  are  usually  organized  by  one 
man,  but  sometimes  by  several  men  as  a  firm. 
In  many  Stales  laws  have  been  passed  pro- 
hituCing  any  one  doing  the  business  of  banking 
without  the  Federal  or  State  authority.  Such 
laws  were  enacted  because  of  men  who  opened 
banking  offices  with  the  apparent  purpose  to 
defraud  the  public  Their  success  in  their  evi- 
dent purpose  led  the  authorities  to  try  topro- 
tect  the  innocent  public  agMnst  such  men.  These 
laws,  however,  are  a  restriction  against  private 
business  and  prevent  honest  men  from  going 
into  the  banking  business  privately,  as  they  can 
do  in  any  other  business.  In  this  respect  the 
laws  are  unjust.  Some  of  the  very  best  bank' 
ing  institutions  in  the  country  are  private  banks, 
and  some  of  them  have  for  many  years  been 
conducting  thdr  business  in  a  manner  above 
reproach  and  criticism.  See  Private  Banks, 
article  11. 

The  Management  of  Bsnke  is  divided  into 
two  main  departments  ^  supervisory  and  active. 
The  supervisory  is  that  of  the  governments, 
whicb  consists  mainly  of  periodic  examina- 
tions and  requests  for  statements  of  condition 
with  more  or  less  explanation  of  the  items  in- 
cluded in  the  statements. 

Each  National  bank,  according:  to  the  law, 
is  required  to  be  examined  "at  Feast  twice  in 
each  calendar  year,*  but  this  law  is  not  (ally 
complied  with  by  the  examiners.  The  Comp- 
troller of  the  Currency  and  his  assistants  are 
responsible  for  these  examinations.  In  some 
cases  it  is  known  that  more  than  12  months 
have  elapsed  between  the  examinations  of  cer- 
tain banks. 

In  some  Stales  the  laws  require  two  exaai- 
nations  a  year,  but  the  makers  of  the  laws,  in" 
many  States,  do  not  provide  sufficient  funds 
fur  the  department  bavuig  oversight  of  the 
work  to  make  the  examinations.  Both  the  Na- 
tional and  State  laws  are  therefore  not  com- 


ic t  it  be  sl 

in  charge  of  the  various  departments,  that  a.— 
with  their  handicaps  they  have,  in  quite  a  few 
cases,  prevented  dangerous  and  questionable 
practices  from  arising  and  continuing  in  banks 
that  othem^ise  would  almost  certainly  have 
resulted  in  heavy  losses  to  or  complete  failure! 
of  the  banks. 

The  active  management  of  a  bank  is  lodged 
in  its  board  of  directors.  The  National  Bank- 
ing Law  requires  five  or  more  directors  for 
each  bank.  The  position  of  director  is  not 
simply  an  honor,  or  a  reco^ition  of  snccess 
as  a  business  man'  neither  is  it  for  the  sole 
purpose  o£  giving  the  bank  prestige  by  the  us« 
of  the  director's  name.    The  directors  are-io-  i 

tjOOgIC 


196 


BANKS  AND   BANKING  — BANK  SUPERVISION  (IS) 


tended  to  b«  the  real  and  actaal  managers  of 
the  banks.  But  here  also  is  failure  to  compty 
with  legal  requirements.  Probably  not  one 
bank  in  10  is  really^  managed  by  the  directors. 
Experience  with  failed  banks  \ai  proved  that 
if  the  directors  had  done  their  legal  duty  the 
banks  would  not  have  failed. 

The  directors  delegate  certain  duties  to  the 
president,  vice-president,  cashier,  assistant 
cashier,  treasurer  and  assistant  treasurer,  or 
other  officers,  and  then  in  too  many  cases  pay 
no  more  attention  to  the  details.  The  men  so 
appointed  must  be  trusted  but  the  trust  reposed 
in  them  should  not  lead  the  directors  to  allow 
them  to  perform  their  duties  without  the  active 
supervision  of  the  board  or  special  committees 
of  members  of  the  board. 

The  president  is  the  hpad  of  the  bank,  rep- 
resenting the  directors  to  the  other  officers,  em- 
ployees and  customers  of  the  bank,  and  on  the 
other  hand  is  their  representative  to  the  board. 

The  vice-president  is  the  assistant  of  the 
president,  if  he  has  any  active  duties  in  the 
bank,  and  usually  has  a  certain  part  of  the 
executive  work  under  his  supervision. 

The  cashier  or  treasurer  has  special  over- 
si^t  of  the  cash  resources  of  the  bank  and  of 
its  records,  as  well  as  its  staff  of  employees. 

The  assistant  cashiers  and  assistant  treas- 
urers are  to  assist  in  the  care  of  the  details 
of  the  daily  work. 

In  addition  to  the  different  kinds  of  bank- 
ing institutions  mentioned  above,  as  being  in 
the  United  States,  there  are  two  other  kinds, 
the  Federal  Reserve  banks  (see  Fedebal 
Reserve  System,  article  12)  and  the  Farm 
Land  banks.  These  have  not  been  dealt 
with  because  they  are  government  institu- 
tions and  the  public  has  practically  no  voice  in 
.  the  organization  and  management  of  such 
banks.  There  are  12  Federal  Reserve  banks 
and  their  purpose  is  to  serve  the  Kovemment 
and  the  National  banks,  and  the  State  banks 
that  join  the  Federal  Reserve  system.  All 
member  banks  must  be  stockholders  and  de- 
positors in  these  banks  —  they  have  no  choice 
in  the  matter.  These  Federal  Reserve  banks 
are  to  furnish  aid  in  the  way  of  loans  of 
currency  to  member  banks  when  they  need  it. 

There  are  to  be  12  Farm  Land  banks.  Their 
.purpose  is  to  loan  money  secured  by  mortgages 
on  farm  lands,  and  the  banks  are  to  issue  bonds 
secured  by  the  mortgages.  The  interest  rate 
on  the  bonds  is  not  to  exceed  5  per  cent. 
In  addition  to  these  banks  there  are  to  be 
National  Farm  Loan  Associations  formed  by 
men  who  will  borrow  from  the  banks.  These 
associations  are  stock  companies  and  each  appli- 
cant for  a  loan  must  subscribe  for  stock  equal 
to  5  per  cent  of  the  amount  of  the  loan.  The 
par  value  of  the  stock  is  to  be  five  dollars  a 

The  Federal  Reserve  banks  are  managed 
by  the  Federal  Reserve  Board  and  the  local 
officers  of  each  bank.  The  Farm  Loan  banks 
are  to  be  managed  by  the  Farm  Loan  Board  and 
by  the  registrars  and  other  officers  at  the  local 

The  value  and  utility  of  these  banks  have 
not    been     demonstrated,     and     some    bankers 

Siestion  both  the  value  and  utility  of  both  of 
esc    government    institutions,     while    other 
bankers  consider  them  of  great  value. 


'Literaiy  Remittances  by  a  Banker'  (New  York 
1910)  ;  Banking  Laws  of  New  Yorl^  Ohio  and 
Other  States;  'National  Bank  Organization* 
INational  City  Bank.  New  York);  <U.  S. 
Treasury  Department,  National  Bank  Act' 
(Washington,  D.  C.   1915), 

Charles  W,  Reihl, 
Former  Bank  and  Clearing  House  Examiner. 

16.  BANK  SUPERVISION.  About  1860 
it  became  evident  that  some  means  mnst  be 
adopted  for  repressing  the  mixed  banking  sys- 
tem then  in  vogue  and  to  provide  a  umEorm 
and  safe  system  in  its  stead.  Federal  enact- 
ment soon  provided  for  a  uniform  system,  and 
the  provisions  subjectin^^  National  banks  to  ex- 
amination by  representatives  of  the  Comptroller 
of  [he  Currency  increased  the  safety  of  die 
system.  In  many  States  the  State  banks  are 
examined  by  officials  of  the  State  Supervisor 
of  Banking.  National  banks  are  examined 
every  six  months.  The  examiner  comes  un- 
announced and  the  bank  is  for  the  time  being 
under  his  control.  He  is  obliged  to  examine 
the  books,  verify  the  cash  and  examine  the 
investments  and  securities.  The  difficulty  of 
passing  judgment  on  the  quali^  of  all  loans 
is  the  loophole  through  which  many  impru- 
dent, or  worse,  operations  are  carried  on  desrnte 
the  vigilance  of  the  examiners.  Private  banks 
are  now,  in  many  States,  subjected  to  special 
State  supervision. 

Benefits  of  Banking  InatitntioiM.— These 
institutions  afford  a  permanently  safe  place 
where  the  individual  may  deposit  his  moneys. 
And  this  is  much  more  of  a  privilege  than  may 
appear  on  the  surface.  For  not  only  is  the 
secure  place  of  dei>osit  supplied,  which  other- 
wise would  be  wanting,  but  the  bank  practically 
insures  the  safety  of  the  funds  committed  to 
it:  if  in  any  way  loss  is  sustained  by  robbery 
or  fire  or  by  some  other  cause,  the  bank  is 
bound  lo  make  good  the  loss,  and  this  regard- 
less of  the  fact  that  the  depositor  may  not  be  a 
frofitable  customer,  as  many  dealers  are  not. 
n  fatt,  the  numbc^  of  depositors  who  umply 
use  a  bank  as  a  convenience,  whose  deposits  are 
not  large  and  whose  multiplicity  of  small  checks 
are  a  trouble,  as  they  are  the  despair  of  tbe 
individual  bookkeeper,  is  legion.  Nevertheless 
the  bank  takes  such  accounts,  holds  the  mono- 


id thus  Uie  active  little  account 
is  maintained  from  year  to  year,  often  only  a 
source  of  trouble  and  expense  to  the  haak, 
which  actually  receives  no  adequate  return  for 
its  services  as  warden  and  agent.  It  is  to  be 
noted,  too,  that  in  this  country  the  services 
rendered  the  individual  by  the  banks  differ 
greatly  frora  those  afforded  by  like  corporations 
in  some  other  countries,  notably  in  France. 
To  cite  one  instance:  In  that  country  every 
note  when  due  must  be  paid  to  the  bank  officer 
in  hard  cash;  a  check  on  that  or  some  other 
hank,  duly  certified,  would  not  be  received.  In 
fact,  the  bank's  messenger  visits  the  payer  of 
the  note  and  demands  the  payments  of  the 
exact  amount  in  cash,  or  protest  and  legal 
proceedings  follow. 

Relation  of  Banks  to  the  Comimuiity. — 
But  leaving  (his  phase  of  the  subject,  a  glance 


BANKS  AND  BANKING  — BANK  SUPERVISION  (lA) 


will  thav  how  vital  is  the  reUtion  of  a  bank 
to  the  community  doing  business  with  it  In 
a  word,  it  may  be  said  to  receive  all  the  money 
that  comes  to  that  community  and  to  disburse 
it  as  desired  by  the  customer.  Not  only  so, 
but  when  he  cantiot  command  the  money  re- 
quired to  transact  his  business,  the  bank  may 
supply  the  desired  amount  Thus  it  is,  estates 
are  cared  for,  income  in  the  shape  of  interest 
is  paid,  vast  sums  are  committed  to  its  keeiwng, 
while  by  its  loans  made  at  times  of  emergeiicy 
tile  bank  enables  the  business  of  the  community 
to  be  transacted;  and  this  principle  extended 
stands  for  the  business  of  the  world.  It  is 
easy  to  see  that  a  misfortune  to  such  an  insd' 
tution  means  a  calamity  to  a  community,  and  a 
series  of  them  means  panic,  with  its  conse- 
quences of  impoverishment  and  distress,  and 
sometimes  ruin  to  couniless  thousands.  How 
di^ster  in  this  direction  has  been  wrought  in 
tbe  past  those  familiar  with  the  histoiy  of 
bankins;  in  the  earlier  days,  when  banks  were 
not  subject  to  the  restrictions  of  the  present 
time,  and  when  the  failure  of  a  bank  often 
meant  irr«)arable  loss  to  innocent  holders  of 
their  circulating  notes,  are  fully  aware.  But 
when  we  go  farther  and  take  the  most  super- 
fidal  glance  at  the  great  industries  of  the 
country,  we  obtain  some  conception  of  what 
banks  and  banking  mean.  Is  it  too  much  to  say 
that  without  credit  and  banking  facilities  the 
unparalleled  facilities  of  our  gigantic  railway 
systems,  stretching  from  ocean  to  ocean  and 
conveying  the  enormous  crops  of  the  coimtry 
by  which  we  are  enabled  to  feed  the  world 
would  be  in  vain?  In  the  last  analysis  we  shall 
&id  that  it  is  sot  car  wheels,  but  it  is  money, 
that  moves  the  great  harvests  of  a  continent  — 
as  for  that  matter,  of  the  world.  And  die 
money  would  be  lacking  but  for  the  banks; 
these,  and  not  steam  or  electricity,  stand  be- 
'      s  and  starvation. 


required  to  establish  not  only  the  necessity  for 
adequate  safeguards  in  the  shape  of  stringent 
statutes,  but  that  measures  should  be  provided 
to  insure  strict  conformity  on  the  part  of  the 
tenk  officers  and  directors  to  the  requirements 
of  [he  banking  laws,  thus  safeguarding  the 
depositor  against  abuse  of  privilege  or  cnminal 
carelessness.  The  attainment  of  this  object  is 
sought  by  the  provision  in  national  and  State 
legislation,  as  the  case  may  be,  requiring  official 
examination  and  the  publishing  of  a  statement 
oi  a  bank's  condition  from  time  to  time  as  the 
authorities  may  deem  expedieai.  There  is  but 
one  proper  bai^  supervision,  and  this  includes 
mental  alertness  to  discover  the  very  best 
methods  for  despatdiing  business  with  celerity, 
for  insuring  correctness,  for  guarding  most  ef- 
fectually a«ainst  errors,  and  to  render  tamper- 
ing with  the  books  most  difBcult  and  detection 
most  easy.  It  means,  too,  ectmoray  in  the  use 
of  time  —  the  article  which  so  many  squander 
lavishlv  as  if,  like  the  waters  that  pass  out 
from  Between  the  mule  ficm  lips  of  the  Nile 
fountains,  it  was  to  flow  on  forever.  Super- 
vision means,  also,  such  oversight  as  makes  the 
manager  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  business 
of  the  bank,  so  that  he  can  upon  occasion  com- 
mand the  fullest  information  regarding  a  new 
department  of  the  business  at  a  moment's  no- 
tice.   The  years  of  a  banker's  work  in  the  dis- 


the  direction  of  the  affairs  of  a  bank  to  the  time 
when  bis  own  ledger  must  be  closed,  a  very  few 
decades  intervene.  When  that  time  has  come 
and  he  dther  passes  from  all  work  or  puts 
down  his  pen  and  vacates  his  chair  for  a 
younger  man,  it  becomes  evident  that  the  super- 
vising banker  —  be  he  president  "i"  cashier  — 
whoever  he  may  be  and  whatever  his  official 
desigrnation  —  should  be  able  to  hand  over 
to  bis  successor  not  only  the  assets  of  the 
bank  unimpaired,  but  an  intelligible  working 
system  such  as  will  enable  the  new  manager  to 
familiarize  himself  with  the  details  of  the  buu- 
ness  and  discover  the  exact  situation  with  the 
least  delay.  But  this  can  only  be  accomplished 
by  the  inauguration  of  a  system  as  nearly 
perfect  as  may  be,  which,  with  its  comprehen- 
sive method  of  saf^uardii^  checks,  will  re- 
<iuire  of  him  less  devotion  to  such  details  as  it 
is  the  province  of  his  subordinates  to  super- 
vise. That  is  to  say,  the  more  perfect  the 
system  in  practice  me  more  time  will  the 
manager  have  for  the  exercise  of  his  judgment 
upon  the  most  important  questions  coming  be- 
fore him.  It  is  here  that  the  test  of  the  most 
efficient  bank  official  lies.  Take,  for  an  illu»- 
tratioD,  the  work  of  supervisitig  the  loans  made 
on  real  estate. 

Expert  Examinttioni.—  It  has  been  held, 
and  is  indeed  held  by  many  knowing  no  other 
method,  that  to  ascertain  the  value  of  prop- 
erties submitted  as  collateral  for  loans  recourse 
must  be  had  to  some  qualified  expert,  generally 
some  one  eng^ed  in  buying  and  selling  reu 
estate.  The  judgment  of  sudh  an  authority  has 
been,  and  is,  accepted  as  conclusive  on  the 
securi^  offered,  and  determinative  as  to 
whether  the  report  shall  be  favorable  or  adverse 
to  the  loan.  But  here  the  question  arises.  Who 
shall  guarantee  the  expert?  —  for  experience 
lUE  too  often  shown  that  his  judgment  may 
fail,  or  it  mav  be  discovered  that  the  expert 
was  conscious^  or  unconsciously  interested  in 
advising  the  loan;  the  applicant  may  have  been 
a  friend  of  his,  or  —  and  such  cases  have  been 
—  it  may^  be  his  own  device  for  getting  a  loan 
by  applyit^  through  the  concealed  interest  of 
another  party.  But  suppose  a  more  excellent 
way  is  to  be  found  by  which  the  bank  can  be 
rendered  reasonably  certain  as  to  the  value  of 
the  property,  that  a  clear  title  can  be  given,  that 
it  has  real  existence  as  described,  ^th  as  to 
environment  and  prospective  value;  if  he  be  a 
wise  banker,  will  he  not  take  advantage  of 
that  safer  and  saner  method?    And  let  us  su^ 

Eose,  further,  that  in  this  way  our  banker  u 
ept  informed  regarding  specific  localities,  as  to 
whether  they  are  advancing  or  retrograding  in 
value,  whether  the  interest  is  kept  up  — is  it  not 
clear  that  a  banker  who  has  such  expert  advice 
is  not  only  freed  from  duties  that  would  other- 
wise needlessly  weigh  upon  him,  but  that  his 
services  are  to  just  this  extent  made  more 
valuable  in  that  with  less  time  ex^tended  in 
searching  for  details  and  technicalities  he  has 
more  time  to  devote  to  other  important  duties? 
Needless  to  say,  we  are  not  pleading  for  a  title 
guarantee  company  or  other  corporation ;  we 
only  say  this  —  that  where  the  services  of 
these  or  kindred  institutions  are  warranted  by 
the  business  of  the  bank  —  and  it  must  be  small 
institutions  where  the  volume  of  business  does 


,  Google 


BAHC8  AND  BAH  KINO —  BANK  SUPERVISION  (16) 


not  warrant  dtem  — sucb  facilities  carryine 
guaiantee  of  perfect  safety  should  be  utiliiea 
Of  the  prudent  banker. 


Sjretematic  Bxaminatioai  EuwtituL— But 
be  supervision  ever  so  thorough,  it  unnot  serve 
its  proper  purpose  without  a  system  of  rislit  ex- 
amination—  rather  of  examinations.  Unceas- 
ing  watchfulness  can  only  be  maintained  throu^ 
proper  investigations,  not  only  to  detect  fraud 
but  errors  of  judgment.  The  usual  examina- 
tions of  books  are  of  but  two  kinds,  those  of 
the  directors,  and  those  of  the  official  examiners 
of  the  National  or  State  government  as  the  case 
may  be.  Of  these  two  method*,  that  of  the 
directors,  when  rightly  conducted,  is  most  im- 
portant, and  for  the  obvious  reason  that  the 
directors  are  better  informed  as  to  the  value 
of  paper  and  local  securities  than  the  official 
bank  examiner,  as  a  nile,  can  be.  That  the 
examinations  made  by  directors  are  too  often 
superficial  and  perfunctory  goes  without  saying. 
Of  course,  in  the  examinations  by  the  directors, 
the  revision  of  loans  is  most  important,  enabling 
the  board  as  it  does,  when  conducted  to  a 
business  spirit,  to  detect  imprcmer  advances  on 
an  insuJIictcnt  collateral  or  made^uat^  endorse- 
ment It  is  here  the  examination  should  be 
most  thorough,  so  that  the  presence  of  "weak* 
paper,  which  often  becomes  sudi  after  the  loan 
has  been  made,  may  be  discovered  and  rem- 
edied. Obviously  in  such  an  examination  every 
piece  of  paper  must  be  gone  over  as  to  time 
of  maturity  and  collateral  which  latter  should 
invariably  be  produced  Collaterals  should  all 
be  carefully  examined  with  reference  to  their 
proper  assignments  to  the  bank,  so  that  there 
may  be  no  question  about  its  abili^  to  exercise 
a  legal  ownership,  if  necessary.  The  ticklers, 
the  discount  book,  and  all  books  penaininK  to 
this  most  important  branch  of  baiik,  should  be 
carefully  investigated,  and  the  precise  facts 
ascertained.  The  liabilities  of  Uie  banlq  its 
deposits  and  cash  on  hand,  the  character  of  the 
depositors  and  borrowers  the  condition  of  the 
individual  and  general  ledj^rs,  the  bad  debts  of 
the  bank,  including  espostally  notes  past  du& 
over-drafts  when  permitted —  all  these  and 
more  should  be  investigated  by  the  board,  and 
this  without  bias  to  any  officer  or  emplosree  of 
the  bank ;  all  of  them  who  dischar^  their 
daties  faithfully  will  be  glad  of  an  examination 
which  will  result  in  enhancing  the  appreciation 
and  increasing  the  confidence  of  the  board  as 
to  the  value  of  their  services.  

To  insure  the  correctness  of  balances  on  the 
individual  ledgers  it  would  be  well  to  render 
a  monthly  statement  to  depositors  having  active 
accounts,  and  to  others  at  short  intervals.  A 
reconcilement  blank,  staling  that  the  balance  is 
correct,  should  accompany  the  same,  to  be 
rigned  by  the  depositor,  and  an  envelope  ad- 
dressed to  the  cashier.  If  there  are  errors,  the 
depositor  may  note  them,  to  the  end  that  they 
may  receive  official  attention  immediately;  these 
reconcilements  to  be  filed  by  the  anditor  and 
checked  back  by  the  examining  committee. 

Snrplna  Nominal  and  Real. —  In  some  in- 
itances  it  would  be  advisabli?  for  the  directors, 
when  making  an  examination,  to  employ  a 
trustworthy  exj>ert  accountant  to  aid  them  in 
their  invest! gatitms,  because  such  an  expert  may 
be  able  to  make  a  more  complete  analysis  of  the 
condition  of  the  bank  than  can  the  directors. 
Here  we  venture,  in  the  interests  of  justice  to 


all,  to  express  the  conviction  that  white  banks 
may  continue  to  fail,  shortly  after  they  have 
secured  a  certificate  of  soundness  from  the 
National  or  State  bank  examiner — as  they 
have  failed  in  the  past  — no  such  failure  should 
take  place  following  a  like  verdict  of  a  board 
of  directors  of  a  banl^  thotirfi  there  have  been 
such  cases.  The  official  examiner  of  the  Na- 
tional or  State  government  may  not  be  pre- 
sumed to  know  the  standing  of  many  of  the 
promisors  or  endorsers  of  notes.  It  may  be 
impossible  for  him  to  detect  worthless  paper, 
though  it  is  supposed  to  represent  thousands 
upon  thousands  in  value.  But  no  such  plea  can 
be  accepted  for  the  directors  of  a  ban^  som& 
if  not  sill,  of  whom  should  have  knowledge  of 
the  value  of  the  paper  upon  which  they  lend 
their  depositors'  money.  And  what  are  the 
directors  but  trustees  of  the  moneys  of  others, 
committed  to  them  in  perfect  confidence,  ana 
to  whom  no  language  can  too  severely  be  ap- 
plied, who  fail  to  direct?  Here  it  seems  proper 
to  emphasize  a  practice  which  is  becoming  far 
too  common  in  the  management  of  banking 
institutions,  namely,  the  practice  of  canring 
on  the  general  ledger  a  large  surplus  fund,  or 
undivid^  profits,  through  the  failure  to  char^ 
off  bad  paper  which  is  (mown  to  be  such.  This 
is  a  matter  to  which,  in  their  examination, 
directors  should  give  their  attention,  thai  their 
bank  statement  may  represent  the  exact  con- 
dition of  the  institution;  just  such  a  statement 
in  fact,  as  every  right-minded  director  wouM 
furnish  were  the  bank  his  own  property.  But 
let  us  be  just  to  the  directors,  many  of  whom 
are  promment  business  men,  some  of  them 
directors  in  several  other  institutions  and  othef- 
wise  engaged  in  business  occupations  whidi 
take  all  their  time,  and  which  make  it  im- 
possible always  for  the  director  to  direct  and 
examine,  as  he  would  be  glad  to  do.  This 
fact  has  obtained  recognition  among  leading 
bankers,  who  have  inaugurated  another  sys- 
tem of  examination,  namet^,  the  practice  of 
having  the  books  of  the  Dank  examined  as 
often  as  may  be  deemed  expedient  by  a  com- 
mittee appointed  by  the  president  from  the 
competent  clerks,  including  a  chairman  of  con- 
siderable experience.  Tne  comnuttee  being 
notified  assemble  immediately.  Without  a 
moment's  wamina;  all  the  affairs  of  the  batdt 
are  put  in  their  hands.  They  count  the  cash 
on  hand,  examine  balances,  count  all  securities, 
examine  and  compare  the  sum  total  of  all  dis- 
counted bills  and  their  collaterals,  verify  all 
accounts  in  the  ledf^rs  —  in  short,  they  rigidly 
scrutinize  the  condition  of  the  bank.    No  one 

—  no  ofRcer  even  —  is  alkvwed  to  make  any 
transaction  without  the  knowledge  of  the  com- 
mittee, who  take  due  account  of  it.  Where, 
as  in  the  large  cities,  branch  banks  exist,  the 
affairs  of  each  branch  are  also  examined  in  the 
same  manner  and  at  the  same  moment,  that 
there  may  be  no  collusion  by  shifting  of  bal- 
laiKes,  borrowing  money  or  securities  to  make 
good  a  deficiency. 

How  Some  Banki  Snunine  Thenudves. 

—  The  following  from  a  circular  letter,  con- 
vening_  a  committee  of  examination,  will  give 
some  idea  of  the  character  of  the  work  per- 
formed. The  first  line  of  the  mstructions  to 
the  committee  may  read  as  follows : 


Google 


BANKS  AND  BAHKINQ— BANS  etrt>SRVISION  (M) 


any  officer  or  clerk  to  do  anything  without  your 
Imowledge. 

Th*n  foHow  apeclfic  instructions  lo  the 
committee:  Count  the  cash  in  detail 
Examine  the  cash  items,  and  all  items  com- 
posing  exchanges,  and  »ee  if  any  are  irr^ular, 
and  make  full  returns  to  the  president.  Test 
all  discounted  bills,  their  endorsements  and  col- 
laterals, and  prove  the  amounts  and  accom- 
panying securities.  Check  up  all  the  loans. 
Verify  all  extensions  and  balances  of  led^en. 
Prove  all  certificates  of  deposit  and  certified 
diecks  as  well  as  all  outstanding  Touchers. 
Prove  the  cashier's  account:  make  a  record  of 
all  outstanding  vouchers  and  see  that  all  checks 
drawn  on  the  benk  have  tWQsigiwtureA.  Verify 
the  expense  accaunt.  Ascertain  whether  all 
charges  are  initialed  by  an  officer.  Prove  the 
tellers  difference  and  submit  all  items  to  the 
president.  List  all  amounts  due  frotai  banks 
and  verify  them,  noting  any  irregularity.  Re- 
I>ort  on  amount  due  from  ^cfa  concern.  Scru- 
tinize and  report  upon  clearing-house  accounts 
and  margin  accounts  of  the  Consolidated,  Prod- 
uce and  Cotton  exchanges.  List  all  dividend 
^checks  unpaid.  Check  ofi  all  stocks,  bonds  and 
'mortgages.  Describe  all  overdrafts,  and  see 
whether  the  books  are  properly  kept  Re- 
port all  suspended  debts  and  balances  due. 
Check  ofi,  a  month  back,  the  discount  book  and 
sec  if  all  amoimts  are  duly  entered.  Examine 
exchange  account;  see  if  the  entries  appe»: 
suspiciously  low  and  if  there  are  any  d«tits. 
Investi^te  interest  account;  see  if  all  charges 
arc  initialed  by  an  o6Scer.  All  insurance 
policies  and  bonds  diouM  be  scrutinized  and  a 
complete  record  made  of  the  same.  Report  on 
all  differences  called  for  on  general  ledger  and 
whether  they  are  all  known  to  the  oocers. 
State  at  length  your  views  as  to  the  condition 
of  ihe  bank;,  report  any  departure  from  the 
method  of  our  system  as  you  understand  it. 
Report  any  suKgestions  that  may  occur  in  con- 
nection with  die  method  of  bookkeeping  look- 
ing toward  their  improvement.  Finally  state 
errors  made  in  the  methods  pursued  in  the 
handling  of  bills  discounted,  loans  or  any  other 
detail  of  ihe  business. 

The  fact  that  the  bank's  investi^ting  com- 
mittee enter  into  possession  and  assume  entire 
control  of  the  bank's  affairs,  which  they  retain 
without  interference  or  interruptioa  until  they 
have  thoroughly  satisfied  themselves  that  the 
books  of  the  bank  are  correct  and  its  affairs 
precisely  as  represented,  affords  assurance 
against  fraud  and  clerical  errors.  It  would 
9cem  wise  that  all  banks  should  cause  such 
eitaniinations  to  be  held;  where  this  is  not 
expedient  the  same  methods  sholild  be  pur- 
sued by  the  directors.  It  anv  illustration  were 
desired  showing  the  necessity  for  rigid  super- 
vision and  thorough  examination  it  may  be 
found  in  the  astonishing  stoTy  which  has  ap- 
peared in  the  public  journals  The  fact  b  dis- 
closed that  a  woman  not  engaj^d  in  business 
and  not  known  to  possess  tangible  assets  was 
able  to  obtain  from  at  least  one  bank,  with  a 
reputation  for  conservatism,  loans  of  four 
times  the  capital  stock  of  the  institution. 

It  is  a  good  plan,  when  an  investigation  is 
being  made  by  National  or  State  bank  exam- 
iners, to  appoint  a  committee  of  the  clerks  to 
co-operate  with  such  officials  for  the  purpose 
of  verifying  the  investigation. 


A  theft  which  had  wide  newspaper  publicity, 
both  because  of  the  very  lai^e  sum  stolen  and 
die  prominence  of  the  bank  in  the  city  of  New 
Yorl^  was  where  a  receiving  teller  was  found 
to  be  the  thief,  although  the  directors  had  abso- 
lute confidence  in  his  integrity.  He  used  part 
of  the  receipts  of  one  day  to  cover  the  short- 
age of  the  day  preceditig. 

In  one  bank  two  mdtvidual  bookkeepers 
were  in  conspiracy  with  a  dealer.  They  al- 
lowed the  depositors  to  draw  out  more  money 
than  they  had  deposited  by  covering  up  dw 
defalcations  t^   faise  entries. 

The  officer  in  charge  of  the  exchange  de- 
partment in  one  case  entered  drafts  issued  by 
him  for  a  less  amount  than  the  face.  To  i^ 
lustrate:  A  $5,000  draft  was  entered  by  htm 
as  $1,000,  and,  as  he  had  charge  of  the  •rec6nr 
cilement,»  (he  difference  was-  transferred  from 
one  account  to  another.  If  a  ledger  is  tnata^ 
ulated,  or  a  certificate  of  deposit  register  faf- 
sified,  It  is  difficult  to  discover  the  Fraud.      ' 

It  is  a  wise  proceeding  to  compel  all  ein- 
ployees  to  take  a  vacation  without  notice  each 
year,  so  that  others  may  become  acquaiiited 
with  their  duties.  In  this  way,  sometimes,  dcr 
falcations  have  been  <£scovered. 

In  past  experience  there  has  been  found  no 
more  satisfactory  preventive  against  fraud 
than  the  changing  of  emjtloyees,  without  pre- 
vious notice,  for  a  short  time,  from  one  dei«rt- 
ment  to  another,  at  least  once  a  year.  A  con- 
stant inquiry  should  be  made  as  to  the  conduct 
and  habits  of  all  persons  employed  by  die 
bank.  Such  inquiry  may  not  make  a  weak 
man  strong  but  good  resolutions  may  be 
strengthened  by  the  knowledge  that  the  penalty 
of  wrong-doing  will  be  surely  and  promptly 
inflicted. 

It  is  only  ri  truism  to  -sa^  that  good  bank 
management  and  thorouih' "examination  are 
wholly  impossible  in  the  absence  of  a  definite 
wstem,  whi^  enters  into  every  tihasd  6f  in,- 
dustty.  We  find  it  everywhere.  The  ttiarttf- 
facturcr  who  does  not  know  in  detail  Ids'  itotk 
on  hand  at  any  time  is  in  as  dangerous  a  por- 
tion as  an  engineer  without  a  sicam  gluge. 
His  steam  may  be  low —  the  machinery  of  his 
business  will  suddenly  stop.  His  pressure  p^ 
haps  is  high  —  all  his  capital  tied  up  in'  stocks 
means  an  explosion — and  the  receiver  gets  the 

NeccMity  of  Methods  To  a  right  ^nd 
safe  banking  system  method  is  a  necessary  pro- 
tection. Unsystematic  banking  is  not  oaiy  s 
paradox,  it  is  a  contradiction  in  terms.  Sys- 
tem economizes  lime,  excites  invention,  ex- 
pands energy,  concentrates  power  and  accel- 
erates results.  Without  system,  determination 
weakens,  purpose  crumbles;  failure  is  sure. 
Subtract  system  from  barking  and  chaos  is 
left  In  banking  there  is  no  middle  ground 
between  order  and  confusion,  between  cosmos 
and  chaos.  System,  applied  to  banking,  should 
make  it  easy  tor  the  manager  to  have  its  con- 
dition constantly'  before  him.  Emphasis  has 
been  placed  upon  the  value  of  examinations 
conducted  by  bank  clerks.  But  in  view  of  the 
close  relationship  of  these  insritulions  to  the 
public  welfare  and  die  further  fact  that  they 
ar«  virtually  the  creation  of  the  Federal  and 
State  laws,  it  is  evident,  not  only  that  banks 
should  be  examined  by  officials  of  (he  respective 
governments,  but  that  the  Examinations  should 


Google 


BAKKS  AND  BANKINO— COHUBRCUL  PAPBR  (17) 


be  of  tbe  most  searciiing  character.  A  ^<x>d 
bank  will  court  inves ligation.  Whether  it  is 
true  or  not,  as  a  recent  writer  has  said,  that 
'bank  examiners  are  not  called  upon  to  play 
the  detectives,"  it  is  assuredly  tnie  that  they 
thoutd  discharge  their  duties  with  thorough- 
ness and  with  a  realizing  sense  of  their  duty 
to  the  public.  So  far  as  practicable  they  must 
see  to  It  that  collusion  at  the  time  of  examina- 
tion, between  teller  and  discount  clerk  or  other 
otBcers,  is  made  impossible,  and  that  neither 
cash  nor  vouchers  are  made  to  do  double  duty 
in  the  hands  of  the  dishonest,  as  has  been 
done.  It  may  not  be  assured  that  either  Na- 
tional or  State  or  directors'  examinations  will 
form  an  infallible  guarantee  against  dishonest 
practices.  But  what  may  justly  be  expected  of 
these  examinations,  together  with  such  as  the 
bank  officials  may  themseives  institute,  is  that 
they  will  reduce  losses  through  error  or  fraud 
to  a  minimum.  No  known  system  affords  any 
guarantee  of  faultless  management;  but  the 
best  system  rigidly  applied  will  produce  the 
best  results  possible;  and  for  this  the  public 
have  a  right  to  look. 

Kinds  of  Bank  Examination.— Official 
bank  examination  includes  that  furnished  by 
the  Comptroller  of  the  Currency,  the  Federal 
Reserve  Board  in  the  case  of  national  banks 
and. the  supervising  officers  of  State  banks  i~ 
the  case  of  State  banks;  there  is  also  examina- 
tion in  many  cities  by  a  clearing-house  exam- 
iner, for  banks  members  of  the  c  Lea  ring-house 
association.  Besides,  special  examinations  are 
provided  for,  as  already  stated,  by  committees 
of  directors,  these  examinations  being  made 
in  some  case&  by  accountants  selected  from 
die  bank's  stafE  and  in  others  special  experts. 
A  few  banks  have  thought  it  wise  to  have  ex- 
aminations made  on  beluilf  of  the  stockholders 
generally,  in  addition  to  the  examinations  made 
by  the  directors. 

Importance  of  Ezaminatioti.— What  can 
be  of  greater  importance  than  the  thorough 
systematic,  exhaustive  and  regular  examina- 
tion of  our  great  financial  institutions  -^  our 
National  and  Slate  banks,  trust  companies  and 
institutions   for  savings  whose  capital  and  de- 

E&its    are    expressed   by   billions?     What   can 
more  essential  to  the  welfare  of 


tions  with  which  are  lodged  the  means  for  con- 
dutiting  the  vast  enterprises  of  the  country 
and  the  earnings  which  nave  been  won  by  hard 
labor  are  conducted  in  an  honest,  businesslike 
way,  prepared  to  meet  the  demands  that  may 
at  any  time  be  made  upon  them?  And  the 
key  to  such  a  situation  —  what  is  it  but  such 
thorough  supervision,  with  rigid  examinations, 
as  shall  inspire  confidence  and  dissipate  alarm 
in  hours  of  financial  stringency  and  tendency 
to  distrust?  A  mercantile  house  may  fall  and 
the  adverse  results  mav  be  partial  and  reme- 
dial ;  but  when  a  great  banking  institution  goes 
down,  credit  goes,  fortunes  disappear,  the  poor 
arc  left  helpless  and  the  tale  of  suffering  is 
lone  and  grievous. 

No  banking  institution  to-day  is  the  right 
kind  which  is  conducted  as  such  institutions 
were  65  years  ago.  In  like  manner  we  may 
believe  that  in  future  years  new  methods,  new 
safeguards,  enforced  by  an  impartial,  effective 
system    of    promotion    of    the    personnel,    will 


give  increased  efficiency  in  bs..._    „_. ^ 

resulting  in  a  greater  volume  of  business,  fewer 
bank  failures  and  heavier  balances  on  the 
right  side  of  the  ledger. 

No  inititution  can  run  itself  — exc^  to 
ruin  — least  of  all  a  bank.  Eternal  vigilance 
is  no  less  the  price  of  liberty  than  of  safe 
banking;  and  only  those  institutions  can  gain 
and  deserve  the  public  confidence  and  justify 
the  powers  conferred  upon  them  which  are 
managed  under  a  supervision  that  is  searching 
and  thorough,  including  examinations  which 
are  rigid  and  relentless. 

WiLus  S,  Pain^ 
Author  Pome's  'Bankiitg  Laws.^ 

17.  COHMBRCIAL  PAPER.  The  ele- 
ment of  credit  in  the  business  world  arises 
from  two  fundamental  causes:  (a)  The  fact 
that  the  merchant  and  the  manufacturer  can 
profitably  use  more  capital  than  he  possesses 
and  can  make  money  by  borrowing  money; 
and  (b)  if  the  time  of  payment  is  postpone^ 
the  buyer  can  turn  goods  into  money  before  die 
agreed  time  of  pajmient  arrives.  Therefore, 
business  men  must  either  borrow  money  to  buy 
goods  or  postpone  the  date  of  payment  foe 
goods.  Out  of  the  first  process  arises  commer- 
cial paper,  and  out  of  the  second  the  *book 
account,*  now  the  principal  form  of  credit  in 
this   country. 

The  usual  methods  of  borrowing  are:  (1) 
Private  loans  from  relatives  and  friends;  (2) 
loans  made  directly  to  the  borrower  by  the 
home  bank,  either  in  the  form  of  loans  on  his 
promissory  note,  or  indirectly  in  the  form  of 
bills  receivable  discounted;  (2)  loans  in  the 
form  of  commercial  paper,  which  is  a  floating 
debt  —  borrowings  in  the  open  market 

The  term  commercial  paper  is,  therefore, 
used  to  designate  those  instruments  of  indebted- 
ness—  promissory  notes  — which  are  issued  by 
business  men  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
funds  in  the  open  market  or  which  are  given 
in  settlement  of  business  obligations  and  sold 
in  the  open  market.  They  are  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  ordinary  promissory  notes 
given  to  settle  debts  or  to  obtain  money  on 
a  deferred  payment,  in  that  the  transaction  is 
impersonal,  and  an  intermediary  is  employed  to 
effect  the  sale.  Legally  there  is  no  distinction, 
both  being  the  same  obligation  in  law. 

There  are  two  forms  of  commercial  paper: 
(1)  Single-name  paper;  (2)  double  or  two- 
name  paper,  commonly  called  "receivables.* 

Single-name  paper  is  the  sole  obligation  of 
the    issuer,    put    out    in    large    denominations 

i usually  $2,500  and  $5,000)  and  sold  through 
le  medium  of  a  commercial  paper  broker  to 
banks  and  bankers.  The  proceeds  of  single- 
name  paper  arc,  or  are  presumed  to  be,  used 
for  die  purpose  of  paying  bills  promptljr  in  or- 
der to  obtun  the  cash  discounts,  which  arc 
quite  generally  given  for  quick  setdemcnts. 

The  two-name  paper  or  the  receivable  is  the 
note  given  by  the  buyer  to  the  seller  and  by  the 
latter  sold  in  the  open  market  for  cash.  The 
payee   thus   anticipates  its   due  date. 

The  advantage  of  single-name  paper  to  the 
banker  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  comes  in  large 
and  uniform  denominations,  is  of  short  matu- 
rity and  the  lender  is  under  no  obligation  to 
renew,  for  he  purchases  the  paper  strictly  on 
an  impartial  and  impersonal  basis. 


Google 


BANKS  AND  BAHKIHO— COHMBRCIAL  PAPBR  (U) 


The  Tciy  favorable  experience  that  banlu 
the  country  over  have  had  with  commercial 
paper  and  its  intrinsic  soundness  have  made 
these  instruments  a  favored  investment  in  bank- 
ing circles.  Inasmuch  as  a  bank  must  keep  its 
funds  invested  in  order  to  make  money,  and 
yet  have  them  in  such  form  as  to  be  readily 
convertible  into  cash  to  meet  the  demaDds  of 
its  depositors,  a  body  of  liquid  assets  must  be 
maintained,  which  will  both  produce  an  income 
and  promptly  tiauidate  itself.  Comroercial 
paper  conforms  ideally  to  thu  test  in  that  its 
life  is  short,  and  its  payment  tmder  ordinary 
conditions  certain.  Bankers  are  therefore  com- 
ing to  look  upon  their  commercial  paper  as 
next  to  cash  as  a  quick  asset,  treating  it  as  a 
secondary  reserve^ 

In  order  to  purchase  paper  of  firms  in  all 

Erts  of  the  country  intelliKently.  as  well  as  to 
ve  cre<Ut  information  about  tbeir  own  cus- 
tomers, banks  are  now  operating  well-organized 
credit  departments  whose  function  is  to  gather 
and  classify  credit  information  bearing  on  the 
Bnns  with  which  they  deal  and  whose  paper 
they  buy. 

This  information  consists  of  the  credit 
statements,  usually  digested  on  the  bank's  own 
forms,  v/iih  provision  for  setting  in  apposition 
the  various  items  from  year  to  year  lor  the 
purpose  of  indicating  the  progress  of  the  firm. 
In  addition  there -are  the  reports  of  the  great 
mercantile  agencies,  Dun  and  Brads treet, 
which  give  the  history  and  credit  standing  oi 
the  firm,  and  reports  of  judgments,  liens,  trans- 
fers of  property,  etc.,  that  would  affect  the 
credit  risk. 

To  the  issuer,  the  bene&t  of  commercial 
paper  as  a  borrowing  medium  lies  in  the  v/iit 
and  steady  market,  which  the  banks  of  the 
country  afford,  the  lesser  rates  of  interest 
obtainable  in  money  centres  and  the  cash  dis- 
counts  explained  below. 

The  great  advantage  of  single-name  paper 
is  due,  as  above  stated,  to  the  fact  that  the  pro- 
ceeds are  applied  to  the  payment  of  bills,  which 
when  met  within  the  cash  discount  period  are 
allowed  a  deduction.  A  simple  illustration  will 
show  the  profitableness  of  such  a  transaction. 

Let  us  suppose  a  merchant  owes  $1,000  for 
an  invoice  of^ goods;  the  terms  are  *2  per  cent, 
10  days,*  which  means  that  if  the  bill  is  paid 
within  10  days  of  the  date  of  the  invoice  he 
can  settle  for  $980.  He  has  no  funds,  but  good 
credit.  He,  therefore,  makes  a  promissory  note, 
due  let  us  say  in  three  months,  for  $1,000,  and 
through  the  process  subsequently  described 
sells  the  instrument  to  a  bank  or  banker  at  the 
prevailing  rate  of  discount,  which  would  not 
ordinarily  be  as  high  as  6  per  cent;  but  assum- 
ing the  fatter  rate,  the  discount  would  be  $15. 
plus  the  broker's  commission,  which  would  still 
allow  a  fair  margin  of  profit  for  him.  He  has 
in  addition  the  three  months'  time  in  which  to 
turn  the  stock  into  money  to  meet  his  notCL 
Ordinarily  the  *best  names'  as  they  are  called, 
meaning  the  firms  in  the  highest  credit  stand- 
ing, are  able  to  borrow  at  from  3  to  4  per 
cent  making  the  single-name  paper  a  hi^ly 
profitable  method  of  Dorrowing. 

■The  "2  per  cent  10  days*  discount  is  equiva- 
lent to  72  per  cent  a  year.  The  merchant  by 
settlingdie  bill  within  the  discount  period  has 
sared  $20.    If  be  were  to  make  money  as  fast 


an 

as  this  process  indicates  within,  that  period  of 
time,  be  would  have  to  employ  the  fund  at  tbe 
rate  of  7Z  per  cent  a  year;  for  2  per  cent  in  10 
days  is  equivalent  to  6  per  cent  a  month. 

Single  and  Two-Nune  Paper. —  Single- 
name  paper  is  an  outgrowth  of  uie  Civil  War 
and  the  Greenback  aisturbances.  Before  the 
war  merchants  made  infrequent  trips  to  tbe 
trading  centres  and  slocked  up  (or  months 
ahead,  giving  notes  for  their  bills  with  long 
maturity.  Owing  to  tbe  uncertainty  of  the 
amount  that  would  be  received  for  the  bill  at 
maturity,  due  to  a  depreciating  currency,  a  cus- 
tom soon  arose  of  allowing  the  buyer  a  cash 
concession  for  prompt  payment.  '  But  this 
necessitated  borrowing  facilities.  The  home 
banks  beii^  unable  to  loan  in  such  large 
amounts,  the  merchant  conceived  the  idea  of 
making  out  a  statement  of  bis  affairs,  and  sub- 
mitting to  bankers  in  the  large  cities,  with  his 
notes  m  large  and  uniform  amounts,  and  pav- 
able  at  a  time  when  he  would  be  in  funos. 
From  tbe  funds  so  secured  be  was  able  to  take 
advantage  of  these  concessions  and  therefore 
buy  at  a  reduced  price.  The  plan  worked  so 
well  tbat  intermediaries  sprang  up  as  a  natural 
sequence,  to  find  buyers  (or  such  paper  and 
borrowers   (or  batiks  having  funds  to  invest. 

Tbe  sole  advantage  of  two-name  paper  lies 
in  the  fact  tbat  it  carries  the  strength  of  an 
additional  name  by  endorsement,  and  is  prima 
facie  evidence  of  a  business  transaction.  This 
form  of  paper  is  not  a  factor  in  American 
business  metnods,  it  being  the  common  custom 
to  buy  and  sell  on  open  book  credit,  settling 
the  obligations  in  cash  as  above  stated  In  a 
few  lines,  such  as  lumber,  musical  instruments, 
agricultural  machinery,  etc.,  notes  are  given  In 
settlement;  but  this  form  of  paper  is  greatly  in 
the  minority.  Tbe  cash  discount  system  is  so 
widely  adopted  and  so  largely  used  tbat  it  m»^ 
be  said  to  be  the  prevailing  custom  in  this 
country  and  is  the  reason  for  the  prevalence  of 
single-name  paper. 

Selling  and  Baying.—  Both  single  and  two- 
name  paper  is  sold  through  tbe  medium  of  the 
commercial  paper  broker,  who  acts  as  tbe  go- 
between  between  the-  borrower  and  the  banker. 
"The  broker  maintains  a  well-organized  credit 
department,  which  investigates  each  concern 
for  whom  the  broker  sells,  obtains  full  infor- 
mation as  to  its  affairs  and  classifies  and  ar- 
ranges same  for  submission  to  the  lender. 

The  commercial  paper  broker  acts  as  selling 
agent  only  and  never  guarantees  the  paper, 
except  as  to  its  authenticity.  He  is  usually  a 
man  of  hi^  standing,  with  strong  banking  con- 
nections, a  laree  ana  valuable  clientele,  a  name 
to  protect,  ana  therefore  uses  due  care  in  put- 
ting out  paper  so  that  only  the  risks  that  are  in 
bis  judgment  strong  are  offered. 

The  information  submitted  consists  of  a 
condensed  statement  showinn'  the  various 
items  which  constitute  the  firm  s  assets  and  lia- 
bibties  in  uniform  arrangement,  as  follows; 
Assets  —  Cash;  merchandise:  accounts  receiv- 
able; bills  receivable.  These  four  items  con- 
stitute the  'quick  assets.*  Then  follows  tbe 
fixed  assets,  such  as  real  estate,  furniture  and 
fixtures,  patents,  investments,  good  will  and 
other  assets.  Tbe  quick  liabilities  consists  of : 
Accounts  payable  and  bills  payable,  tbe  latter 
term   including   both   the   smgle   and   double- 


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SANK8  AND  BANKINO  — COMHKSCrAL  PAPBR-(l7) 


name  paper;  then  follows  the  other  liabilities 
of  the  concern,  such  as  mortgages,  stock  issues 
and  other  obligations. 

The  puipose  of  the  above  arrangement  is  to 
enable  the  banker  to  readily  ascertain  the  ratio 
between  the  quick  assets  and  the  quick  liabili- 
ties, the  purpose  being  to  determine  the  rela- 
tive safety  of  the  credit  risk.  It  is  well  settled 
in  all  credit  circles  that  a'  firm  should  have 
quickly  available  at  least  $2  for  every  $1  of 
quick  debts,  thus  allowing  for  a  shrinkage  of 
SO  per  cent  before  the  other  assets  would  need 
to  be  drawn  upon  to  settle  the  firm's  obliga- 
tions: In  some  lines  such  as  meats,  erocenes, 
«tc.,  where  the  shrinkage  is  li^ht  and  a  quick 
sale  possible,  a  narrower  margin  is  permissible 
—  as  low  as  one  and  6ne-half-to  one;  but  in  a 
seasonal  or  specialty  line,  such  as  millinery  or 
ladies'  wear,  subject  to  fashion  and  change  of 
seasons,  a  large  margin  is  generallv  desired. 

Having  the  information  classified,  the  broker 
submits  the  same  to  his  clients,  who,  if  in  the 
maricet  and  satisfied  with  the  rates,  will  pur- 
chase the  paper  on  option ;  that  is  to  say,  with 
the  right  to  return  within  a  certain  time,  if 
upon  further  investigation  it  is  not  desired.  The 
investi^tion  is  made  through  bankers,  who 
have  either  purchased  the  paper  before  and  are 
acquainted  with  its  value,  or  the  home  banks, 
which  are  fully  conversant  with  the  borrower's 
affairs  from  close  observation.  Such  refer- 
ences, together  with  mercantile  firms  with 
which  the  borrower  has  had  business  dealings, 
are  furnished  on  the  credit  statement.  This 
process  is  called  'checking*  the  paper. 

In  Durchasing  commercial  paper  the  banker 
is  usually  concerned  about  the  following  points: 
First,  the  statement  should  be  recent,  not  over 
six  months  past  Second,  it  should  be  an 
audited  statement  made  by  a  firm  of  pubHc 
accountants,  whose  sole  object  is  to  present  a 
correct  statement  of  fact.  Third,  the  ratio  of 
quick  assets  to  quick  liabilities  should,  as  a 
rule,  be  at  least  two  to  one.  Fourth,  the  char- 
acter of  the  business.  Most  bankers  prefer 
staple  articles  to  businesses  which  cater  to 
fashion  or  seasonal  demands.  Fifth,  to  scatter 
the  risks  territorially  as  *ell  as  to  the  various 
lines  of  merchandising  Being  satisfied  on 
each  of  these  points,  he  is  in  a  position  to  pui^ 
chase  with  intelligence. 

It  is  a  rule  of  banking  that  a  firm  should 
not  issue  both  single  and  two-name  paper,  and 
one  of  the  surest  tests  is  die  presence  or  ab- 
sence of  odd  cents  in  the  item  'bills  payable." 
If  the  item  is  in  an  even  amount  it  is  good 
evidence  that  only  single-name  paper  is  issued. 
If  there  arc  odd  cents  it  indicates  that  the 
firms'  bills  receivable  have  been  sold,  thus  part- 
ing with  one  of  its  quickest  and  best  assets,  and 
is  a  practice  that  is  frowned  upon  by  bankers 
who  know  the  science  of  commercial  paper. 

Under  the  Federal  Reserve  Act,  commercial 
paper  has  been  given  a  new  dignity  and  stand* 
11^  in  the  financial  world.  The  Federal  Re- 
serve banks  are  permitted  to  rediscount  paper 
that  conforms  to  certain  qualifications,  the 
essence  of  these  conditions  being  that  the 
paper  shall  arise  from  a  business  transaction 
and  be  of  short  maturity.  This  process  enables 
a  bank  to  cash  in  its  holdings  on  a  few  hours' 
notice,  a  very  marked  advantage  in  periods  of 
unrest     The   Federal  Reserve  banks  may  &i 


turn  use  sudi  paper  as  (he  basis  of  note  issues, 
for  as  long  as  the  Federal  Reserve  bank  has 
$40  in  gola  for  every  $100  in  paper,  it  may  put 
out  $100  in  bank  notes,  thus  making  commercial 
paper  the  fomidation  of  our  circulating  cur- 

Instraments  of  Credit— The  instruments 

of  credit  in  this  country  are  as  follows : 

1.  Negotiable  bills  of  exchange,  which  are 
unconditional  orders  in  writing  addressed  by 
on^  person  to  another,  signed  by  the  person 
giving  them,  requiring  the  person  to  whom  the 
order  is  addressed  to  pay  on  demand  or  at  a 
fiied_  ot  determinable  future  time  a  sura  cer- 
tain in  money  to  order  or  to  bearer. 

2.  Negotiable  promissory  notes,  which  are 
unconditional  promises  in  writing,  made  by  one 
person  to  another,  signed  by  tne  maker,  en- 
gaging to  pay  on  demand  or  at  a  fixed  or 
determinable  future  time,  a  sum  certain  in 
money  to  order  or  to  bearer. 

3.  Bank  checks,  which  are  bills  of  exchange, 


are  subject  to  the  same  rules  of  law  as  bills  o_ 
exchange.  An  able  writer  has  characterized 
drafts  as  follows:  *A  draft  is  an  order  in 
writing  for  money,  drawn  upon  the  custodian 
of  funds  belonging  to  the  drawer,  or  subject  to 
his  order.  It  does  not  presuppose  any  other 
commercial  transaction,  A  bill  of  exchange  is 
a  similar  instrument  based  usually  on  a  sale  or 
purchase  of  goods.*  In  this  counti^  the  word 
•draft'  is  commonly  applied  to  all  instruments 
of  this  sort  that  are  payable  within  the  United 
States,  apd  the  term  'bill  of  exchange*  to  those 
payable  in  foreign  countries. 

Acceptances."  The  term  'acceptance'  is 
defined  t)y  the  Federal  Reserve  Board  as  'a 
draft  or  bill  of  exchange  drawn  to  order,  hav- 
ing a  definite  maturity  and  payable  in  dollars, 
in  the  United  States,  the  obligation  to  pay 
which  has  been  accepted  by  an  acknowledgment 
written  or  stamped  and  signed  across  the  face 
of  the  instrument  by  the  party  on  whom  it  is 
xlrawn;  such  agreement  to  be  to  the  effect  that 
the  acceptor  will  pay  at  maturity  according  to 
the  tenor  of  such  draft  or  bill  of  exchange 
without  qualifying  con<Utions.* 

A  bill  of  exchange  is  defined  by  the  English 
Bills  of  Exchange  Act  as  'an  unc<»iditiona1 
order  in  writing  addressed  by  one  person  to 
another,  signed  oy  the  person  giving  it,  requir- 
ing the  person  to  whom  it  is  addressed  to  pay 
on  demand  or  at  a  fixed  or  determinable  future 
time,  a  sum  certain  in  money  to  or  to  order  of 
a  specified  person  or  to  bearer.*  An  'accept- 
ance* is^  therefore,  where  A  commands  B  to 
pay  to  C,  or  to  his  order  or  to  bearer,  a  sum 
of  mone^  absolutely  on  demand  or  at  a  certain 
future  time.    A  is  the  drawer,  B  the  drawee 


the  face  of  the  instrument  and  signs  his  nam^ 
together  with  the  date  of  the  acceptance,  the 
date  that  it  is  payable  and  the  place  where  it  is 
to  be  paid.  Upon  so  signing,  B  becomes  the  ac- 
ceptor, and  the  document  is  an  'acceptance,' 
The  acceptance  makes  it  essentially  the  prom- 
issoiy  note  of  the  acceptor. 

"nie  time  bill  of  exchange,  or  acceptance, 
has  a  fundamental  purpose  which  neither  the 
promissory  note  nor  the  comtnerdal  draft  pos- 


vGooglc 


BANKS  AMD'fiAtfKtKO  — SaMK  AHD  tRlKtCO.  At)VBliTIBING  (18)     906 


sesses.  TUat  parpoBcis  to  facilitate  tht  mutual 
□fisettitv  of  debts  betwMn  indJvidaals,  as  we4I 
as  nations.  Acceptances,  or  time  bills  of  ex- 
change, pass  from  hand  to  hand  the  same  as 
moner.  Their  serve  the  same  purpose  as  the 
transfer  of  gold  itself  in  the '  cancellation  of 
deltts.  Abroad  they  have  king  been  considered 
at  ibe  easiest   a«d   eheai>est   form   of    credit 


Econondsts  regard  acceptances  as  a  sort  oi 
special  currency.  Sudt  leally  has  been  their 
use  for  the  last  two  centaries  m  the  Old  World, 
where  acceptances  have  been  employed  betweeta 
business  houses. tn  the  settlement  of  accounts. 
Tbey  circulate  among  banks  which  buy  and 
resell  tliem  acc(»diiiH  to  their  needs  until  they 
are  negotiated  to  the  central  or  goremment 
bank  of  the  country. 

Briefly  stated,  the  nse  of  the  acceptance  Is 
as  follows:  The  seller  of  the  goods  draws  a 
biH  of  exchange  on  the  buyer,  die  buyer  ac- 
cepts the  instmment  and  returns  it  to  the  seller; 
he  negotiates  it  to  a  bank  or  sells  it  in  the 
open  market,  thereby  receiving  payinent  for  his 
'  goods  soon  after  they  are  delivered.  The  buyer 
has  the  time  between  hts  acceptance  and  the 
date  of  pSiytneni  to  turn  the  ^oods  Into  money 
to  meet  the  obligation  when  it  is  due,  and  the 
seller  has  his  funds  as  soon  as  the  goods  are 
accepted. 

Acceptances  are  a  new  form  of  credit  in- 
strument in  American  banking  and  business 
circles.  Prior  to  the  inav^uration  of  the  Fed- 
eral Reserve  system  tbcy  were  quite  unknown, 
but  the  Federal  Reserve  Act  has  raade  specific 
provision  for  such  instruments,  and  the  Federal 
Reserve  Board  has  issued  detailed  regulations 
concerning  the  issuance  and  tibc  purdiase  of 
such  paper.  Th^  are  fast  coming  mto  popular 
favor,  bci:^  a  form-  of  instrument  which  li 
readily  discounted  at  the  Federal  Reserve 
banks.  In  January  1916  acceptances  constituted 
25.9  per  cent  o{  the  total  earning  assets  of  the 
Federal  Reserve  Banks. 

The  parties  to  such  instnuaeots  are: 
Drawer. —  The  party  who  signs  or  executes 
the  biU  of  cxchangei  check  or  draft 

Dramoge. —  The  party  to  whom  the  bill  of 
excbanRe  or  draft  i*  addressed,  and  who  is 
ordered  to  pay  it. 

Acceptor. —  The  drawee  after  he  has  signi- 
fied or  protniwd  to  pay  the  bill  of  ezdiange  or 
draft.  The  promise  shouU  be  in  writing  and  is 
usually  wTitten  across  the  face  of  the  bill  or 
draft. 

Payee. —  The  partv  to  whom  the  bill,  note, 
check,  draft  or  other  instrument  is  made 
payable. 

Endorser. —  The  payee,  bearer  or  other  party 
who  writes  his  name  on  the  back  of  the  instru- 
ment for  the  purpose  of  transferring  it 

The  terms  used  in  connection  with  commer- 
cial paper  are : 

Endorsement. —  A  technical  act  of  the  law 
merchant,    whereby    a    party 
upon 

according  to  the  law  merchant. 

Endorsee. —  The  party  to  whom  the  endorser 
transfers  the  instrument. 

Holder.—  The  party  who  holds  or  pos- 
sesses the  legal  title  of  the  instrument.  He 
may    ar    not  be  the   true    (eqnitaUe)    owner. 


Dishonor. —  By  refurfnp  to  promise  to  pay 
(accept)  or  to  pay  flie  bill  or  note  it  is  ^d 
to  be  dishonored. 

Proiwi.— The  evidence  of  dishonor,  usu- 
ally made  by  a  notary  public,  in  the  shape  of  a 
CNlUcate  setting  forth  presentinent,  refusal 
and  it*  reason. 

Bibliopi^ibv,— Babson  and  May  <C(Hn- 
mevcial  Paper'  (Boston  1912) ;  Haggerty, 
•MercantUe  Credits*  (New  York  1914)  ;^Mf- 


'The  Practical  Work  of  a  Bank'  (Chap.  XIII, 
New  York  1916);  Prendergast,  'Credit  and  Its 
Uses'  (New  York  1910). 

WiLLiAu  H.  Kniffik,  Jr., 
Vice-President    Bank    of    RockvilU    Centre; 

Formerly    Secretary    Savings   Bank    Section 

American  Bankers'  Association. 
18.  BANK  AND  TRUST  COMPANY 
ADVERTISING.  Endeavoring,  by  forceful, 
well-planned  advertising,  to  secure  new  depos- 
itors uid  customers  for  a  banlcing  institution, 
■or  to  increase  the  deaUngs  of  present  customers 
with  it,  is  a  comparatively  recent  development 
of  the  business,  both  in  the  United  States  and 
abroad. 

Formerly,  about  the  only  advertising  con- 
sidered proper  for  a  bonk  and  trust  company 
iras  the  puhlication  of  its  financial  statement 
and  a  "card"  with  the  names  of  the  manage- 
ment, together  with  the  barest  statement  of  me 
services  rendered  by  the  institution.  But  of 
late  years,  partly  on  account  of  the  great  ad- 
vances made  in  genera!  advertising  and  partly 
because  of  increased  competition  in  the  banldng 
business,  many  institutions  have  gone  into  the 
matter    of    advertising    more     fundamentally, 


agencies  specializiDg  in  that 
kind  of  work,  or  employing  a  publicity  or  adi- 
vertising  manager  to  devote  his  entire  time  to 
the  advertising  of  the  institution. 

Naturally,  it  is  only  the  larger  banks  that 
can  afford  such  an  arrangetnent  Smaller  in- 
stitutions must  either  turn  the  work  over  to 
one  of  the ir_  officers  or  employees  or  make  use 
of  the  services  of  some  agency  supplying  a 
ready-made  or  specially  prepared  advertising 
service  for  financial  institutions, 

Banks  and  trust  companies  which  are  most 
successful  in  their  advertising  usually  make  an 
annual  appropriation  in  advance  to  cover  all 
advertising  expense,  and  this  item  of  the  budget 
is  subdivided  to  meet  the  cost  of  these  various 

Management. —  Salary  of  advertising  man- 
ager, if  one  is  employed. 

.^acf.— Newspapers,  street  cars,  billboards, 
moving  picture  theatre,  etc. 

Copy. —  To  pay  for  the  services  of  an  ad- 
vertising writer  or  for  the  work  of  advertising 
agencies  in  the  preparation  of  the  subject  mat- 
ter of  the  advertising. 

Mechanical.—  Under  this  head  are  included 
the  printing,  engraving,  lithogranhinB.  art  worl^ 
etc.,  required  in  producing  the  Banlcs  advertis- 
ing mailer. 

It  is  difficult  to  lay  down  any  hard-and-fast 
rule  concerning  how  much  a  bank  or  trust 
company  can  legitimately  spend  for  advertis- 
ing. The  trustees  of  mutual  savings  institu- 
tions feel  that  they  have  no  right  to  spend  any 


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BAHK8  AND  BAMKIHO  — BANK  NOTB  [SSUB8  (»> 


money  in  advertising, 
ing  to  the  amount  of  competition,  the  site  of 
the  bank  and  other  local  conditioDS.  Investi- 
gation has  brought  out  the  fact  that  the  average 
advertising  expenditure  probably  is  about  in 
the  proportion  of  $1  for  every  $2IX)  of  deposits, 
that  is,  a  bank  with  $2,000,000  deposits  will 
spend  $10,000  a  year  in  advertising. 

The  facts  concerning  a  banking  or  fiduciary 
faistitution  and  the  services  it  render*  the  put- 
lie  that  may  properly  be  advertised  include 
capital  and  surplus,  g'overnmental  super- 
vision, personnel  of  directorate  and  manage- 
ment, physical  protection,  age  and  experience, 
interest  on  deposits,  business  or  investment 
counsel,  care  of  property,  trusteeships,  execu- 
tion of  wills,  loans,  discounts,  certificates  of 
deposits,  banking  by  mail,  foreign  and  domestic 
exchange  business  information,  business  refer- 
ences, letters  of  credit,  travelers'  checks,  col- 
lections, courteous  service,  the  necessitv  and 
rewards  of  thrift,  the  use  of  safe  depoat 
boxes,  co-operation  with  the  goverrunent  in 
war  hnancing,   etc. 

The  tried  and  approved  media  of  bank 
advertising  include  daily  and  weekly  news- 
papers, financial  journals  and  magadnes,  bank 
directories,  street  cars,  billboards,  moving  tric- 
ture  theatre  advcrtiiing,  personal  letters,  fac- 
simile letters,  booklets,  *houM  organs*  ([i.e, 
little  regularly  issued  papers  or  magazines, 
either  'syndicated'  or  especially  prepared  by 
the  bank  for  free  distribution),  financial  state- 
ment folders,  calendars,  bank  window  cards, 
and  a  ^^eat  variety  of  specialties,  novelties  or 


Of  late^  a  movement  has  been  started 
toward  die  co-operative  advertising  of  banks. 
That  is,  the  banks  of  a  city  or  county  will  get 
together  and  pool  a  certain  proportion  of  their 
advertising  appropriations  and  use  the  moni^ 
for  a  campaign  of  popular  education  in  thrift 
or  banking  functions.  Space  is  dsed  in  local 
newspapers  or  other  media.  In  some  cases  the 
names  of  all  ttie  banks  co-operating  in  the 
movement  appear  in  connection  with  the  ad- 
vertising. In  others,  the  articles  are  not  signed 
but  appear  as  editorial   matter. 

Banks  in  some  communities  have,  formed 
banking  publicity  associations  for  mutual  ben- 
efit, and  a  Financial  Advertisers'  Association 
was  established  in  191S  as  a  department  of  the 
powerful  organization  known  as  the  Associated 
Advertising  Oubs  of  the  World. 

BihUocrmphy. —  Holderness,  M.  E.,  'Guide 
Posts  to  National  Bank  Publicity  and  Business 
Building';  LewiSj  E.  St.  Elmo,  'Financial  Ad- 
vertising' ;  MacGregor,  T.  D„  'Pushing  Your 
Business,'  '2,000  Points  for  Financial  Adver- 
tising,' 'Bank  Advertising  Plans,'  'The  Book 
of  Thrift'  and  'The  New  Bu^ess  Depart- 
ment' ;  Morehouse,  W.  R.,  'Bank  Letters' ; 
Morison,  F.  R.,  'Banking  Publicity';  Rice, 
August  E.,  'Practical  Bank  Advertising' ;  'How 
to  Increase  a  Bank's  Deposiis,^  in  System 
Magazine. 

T.  D.  MacGbecor, 
Vice-Presidtnt    Edwin  Bird    Wilson,   Inc.,    14 

Wall  Sirtet,  New  Yorji. 


19.  BANK  NOT£  ISSUES.  In  principle 
a  true  bank  note  does  not  differ  from  a  buik 
check.  The  purpose  of  either  is  to  transfer 
credit.  The  granting  of  credit  on  the  books 
of  the  bank  precedes  the  issuing  of  notes  by 
the  bank  or  the  drawing  of  cnecks  by  the 


and  this  is  the  usual  way  in  which  a  dqK>sitor 
.employs  a  check.  He  may.  of  course,  use  it 
as  a  means  of  obtaining  currency  from  the 
bank  for  his  own  needs;  but  here,  again,  there 
has  been  only  a  transfer  of  credit  from  the 
bank  to  the  depositor  in  circulating  fonn.  If 
checks  were  certified,  issued  in  convenient  de- 
nominations and  so  engraved  and  printed  as 
not  to  be  easilv  counterfeited  or  raised^  they 
would  be  substantially  the  same  as  a  bank  note, 
for  a  certified  check  becomes  an  obligation  of 
the  certifying  bank.  But  a  bank  note  oi^t  to 
be  somewhat  better  secured  than  a  check,  and 
for  this  reason:  a  chedc  is  accepted  or  not 
as  the  person  receiving  elects ;  but  a  bank 
note,  though  not  a  legal  tender,  must  be  taken 
in  the  oroinary  course  of  trade  by  merchants 
and  other  business  men,  who  cannot  discrim- 
inate between  different  kinds  of  money  in  cir- 
culation. Therefore,  the  notes  Should  be  given 
some  extra  security,  as  a  first  lien  on  assets  or 
by  a  guaranty  fund 

EJiperience  in  the  banking  Jtistory  of  the 
United  States  and  other  countries  has  shown 
that  by  employing  either  of  these  expedients 
barjc  notes  can  be  made  safe  beyond  question. 
The  best  provision  for  current  safety,  and  the 
best  check  a^nst  inflation,  is  the  test  of  daily 
redemption,  in  the  standard  metal,  applied 
throu^  the  clearings. 

If  banks  In  the  issue  of  their  no^  ftre  left 
unrestricted  beyond  the  simple  safeguards 
above  mentioned,  the  amount  of  circolariog 
medium  in  the  shape  of  htmk  notes  will  b« 
determined  by  the  wants  of  trade  —  that  is,  by 
the  requirements  of  those  who  deal  witlTthc 
banks.  In  the  larger  cities  deposit  credits  to 
be  checked  against  will  best  serve;  in  the 
farming  communities  more  curroicy  will  be 
called  for.  How  much  current^  is'  needed  in 
any  one  locality,  or  whether  bank  i^otes  or 
checks  are  most  serviceable,  must  be  left,  not 
to  the  bank  nor  to  the  government,  for  only 
the  person  desiring  to  use  the  credit  can  cor- 
rectly gauge   either  its  degree  or  kind. 

The  early  banks  in  the  United  States  wer« 
of  diverse  kinds,  but  there  were  two  general 
systems  of  note  issues,  oat  where  the  notes 
were  based  on  bonds,  the  other  where  Ae 
notes  were  emitted  on  the  general  cr«dit  of 
the  issuing  banks.  The  latter —  as  in  Indiana, 
Iowa,  Missouri,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Virginia, 
and  especially  in  New  England — were  good. 


and  stocks  were  pledged  as  security,  the  notes 
proved  unsatisfactoiv.  Generally,  in  those 
days,  die  notes  exceeded  the  dt^osits  in  volume: 
Where,  as  in  New  England,  under  the  Suffolk 
system  of  redenqition,  which  was  a  plan 
whereby  the  notes  were  redeemed  at  Boston 
through  the  Suffolk  Bank,  the  notes  showed 
a  close  correspondence  in  volume  to  the  de- 
mands of  trade.  It  was  found,  also,  in  practice 
that  redemption  was  an  efiecttial  dieck  against 


.Google 


QUAKANTY  OP  BANK  DEPOSITS  (20)  — TRUST  COMPANY  (21) 


ovcr-iMue,  and  that  the  banks  did  not  keep 
the  volume  of  notes  up  to  anywhere  near  the 
pennissible  limit  The  experience  In  New 
feigland,  as  in  other  sections  of  the  country, 
established  the  fact  that  only  simple  provisions 
were  necessary  to  ensure  the  safety  of  the 
notes.  Inflation  of  bank  credit  — that  is,  the 
(ranting  of  more  credit  than  prudence  sanc- 
tions —  is  possible  where  the  com  reserves  are 
inadequate  or  the  bank  management  reckless, 
but  inflation  of  bank  notes,  under  a  proper 
system  of  redemption,  is  not  easy.  Banks  can- 
not keep  their  notes  m  circulation  any  longer 
than  they  are  needed.  Every  issuing  bank 
receiving  the  notes  of  another  bank  wilt  want 
to  have  tl^t  note  redeemed  to  make  place  in 
the  circulation  for  one  of  its  own  notes  on 
which  it  will  make  a  profit;  moreover,  it  will 
want  to  have  the  notes  of  other  banks  re- 
deemed to  replenish  its  own  reserves  upon 
which  its  credit  structure  is  based  Private 
holders  of  the  notes  will  deposit  them  as  re- 
ceived in  the  course  of  trade. 

Bank  notes  save  the  abrasion  incident  to 
circulation  of  coin,  and  they  arc  more  econom- 
ical than  gold  certificates,  for  while  the  Utter 
are  issued  only  against  a  like  equivalent  of 
the  standard  metal,  bank  notes  mav  be  issued 
with  safety  against  a  much  smaller  reserve. 
Credit  bank  notes  also  have  one  immense  ad- 
vantage over  notes  issued  against  United  States 
bonds,  for  while  the  latter  represent  an  In^ 
vestment  of  an  equivalent  amount  of  capital, 
and  are  therefore  a  source  of  expense  even 
when  lying  idle  in  the  bank's  tills,  a  true  bank 
note  while  in  the  possession  of  the  issuing  bank 
represents  no  more  than  the  cost  of  the  paper 


against  checks  of  depositors,  and  a  reserve  set 
aside  against  it  in  the  vaults  of  the  issuing 
banj^  it  then  becomes  of'value. 

llie  Canadian  and  Scottish  banking  systems 
afford  familiar  examples  of  the  issue  of  bank 
credit  notes.  From  the  imposition  of  the  10 
ner  cent  tax  on  State  bank  notes  in  1865  bank 
credit  currency  has  been  prohibited  in  the 
United  States.  Prior  to  the  adoption  of  the 
Federal  Reserve  system  ( q.v. )  notes  of  Na- 
tional banks'  were  issued  against  a  deposit 
of  a  like  amount  of  United  States  bonds.  The 
Federal  Reserve  Act  provides  for  the  issue  of 
notes  to  member  banks  aKainst  specified  com- 
mercial papers,  the  Federal  Reserve  banks  emit- 
ting the  notes  to  hold  a  reserve  of  40  per  cent 
against  them,  'These  notes,  however,  are  not 
true  bank  notes,  issued' by  the  banks  themselves, 
but  obligations  of  the  government,  issued  only 
through  Special  institutions  under  govenunent 
control. 

Elheb  H.  Youncmak, 
Editor  The  Banier/  Magaeine. 

20.  GUAHANTY  OP  BANK  DE- 
POSITS. This  has  been  effected  by  legisla- 
tion in  some  States  (Oklahoma,  Kansas,  Ne- 
braska, Mississippi.  South  Dakota  and  Wash- 
ington), and  individual  banks  in  some  cases 
have  taken  out  policies  of  insurance  to  protect 
their  depositors.  (The  Attorney-General  of 
the  United  Slates  has  ruled  that  this  is  a  legal 

'   of    the   funds  of  a  National  bank).     The 


homa  and  Nebraska,  decided  that  the  bank 
deposit  guaranty  laws  of  those  States  were  not 
in  conflict  with  any  provisions  of  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  and  the  court  fur- 
ther laid  down  the  principle  that  the  legislature 
may  not  only  regulate  banking  but  may  prohibit 
it  except  under  such  conditions  as  it  may 
prescribe. 

In  principle,  the  guaranty  or  insurance  of 
bank  (leposits  rests  upon  mutual  responsibility. 
It  is  objected  to  on  the  ground  that  it  tends 
to  place  new  and  perhaps  recklessly  managed 
baiuu  on  a  par,  as  regards  safety,  with  old- 
established  and  carefully  managed  hanks.  To 
this  objection  the  reply  is  made  that  there 
ought  to  be  no  degrees  of  safety  in  banking, 
but  that  all  deposits  in  banks  should  be  made 
sa£e  beyond  question,  and  that  in  point  o[ 
service  the  old  bank  will  tend  to  have  the 
advantage  anyway  through  the  friendships  and 
connections  created  by  its  long  existence. 

Experience  with  the  laws  now  in  force 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  results  depend 
upon  the  character  and  administration  of  these 
laws.  Some  of  them  have  recognized  that 
where  joint  responsibility  is  assumed,  greater 
stringency  in  the  regulation  of  banks  is  essen- 
tial to  prevent  sotmd  and  well-managed  baokj 
from  being  called  on  to  pay  the  losses  of  those 
imprudently    managed.     In    Texas,    after    six 

S:ars'  trial,  the  Commissioner  of  Insurance  and 
anking  found  that  each  share  of  stock  of  the 
par  value  of  $100  had  paid  on!^  three  and  one- 
half  cents  annually  for  deposit  insurance,  and 
he  states  diat  among  depositors  in  guaranty 
fund  banks  the  closing  of  one  of  these  institu- 
tions creates  no  more  panic  than  the  closing 
of  a  grocery  store.  Same  of  the  other  States 
have  had  less  satisfactory  experiences,  and  the 
fact  that  after  long  a^tation  but  few  States 
have  adopted  the  law,  and  that  it  has  not  yet 
been  applied  to  the  National  banks,  warrants 
the  conclusion  that  the  experiences  thus  far 
have  not  justified  the  general  extension  of  the 

A  safety  fund,  originally  designed  to  pro- 
tect the  noteholders  of  the  State  banks  of  New 
York,  was  later  made  applicable  to  the  de- 
posits of  banks,  and  the  system  broke  down, 
chiefly  because  the  fund  provided  was  not 
large  enough  to  protect  both  noteholders  and 
depositors. 

Through  clearmg-house  examinations  of 
member   banks,    a   qualified    form  .of    deposit 


Careful  oversight,  to  detect  banking  weakness 
at  its  inception,  renders  a  bad  bank  failure 
almost  impossible.  A  desire  to  preserve  local 
banking  reputatign  has  sometimes  led  bankers 
to  unite  in  the  protection  of  depositors  in  failed 
banks  — the  case  of  the  Walsh  bank  failures 
in  Chicago  being  the  most  familiar  example. 
Elmeu  H.  Younguan, 
Editor  The  Bankers'  Magasint. 
21.  TRUST  COMPANY.  Definition.— 
A  corporation  authoriied  by  law  to  act  as  trus- 
tee, or  to  accept  and  execute  trusts  of  variaut 
descriptions;  a  corporation  empowered  to  act 
in  a  fiduciary  capacity.  This  is  the  primary 
meaning  of  the  term  'trust  eranpany,*  and  u 
expressed  in  the  name  given  to  such  a  compaoj 
In  Australia, —  a  'trustee  company,"        '"~-    -,,-.,-t[--. 


BANKS  AND  BANKING— TRUST  COMPANY  (21) 


In  current  usa^e,  the  lenn  is  applied  to  any 
corporation  organized  under  the  trust  company 
laws  of  the  several  States,  whether  such  cor- 
poration actually  undertakes  any  trust  business 
or  not.  While  these  laws  invariably  grant 
certain  powers  to  accept  and  execute  trusts, 
including  always  the  power  to  act  as  trustee, 
they  also  grant  other  powers,  of  considerable 
variety  in  the  different  States,  of  which  more 
or  less  limited  banking  powers  are  always  a 
part  Except  with  the  oldest  companies,  the 
volume  of  banking  business  usuaUy  exceeds 
that  of  trust  business;  and  it  results  that  to 
the  average  person  the  trust  company  presents 
itself  as  a  peculiar  kind  of  bank.  In  fact  many 
of  the  smaller  and  newer  trust  companies  do 
practically  no  trust  business,  and  their  actual 
functions  are  those  of  ordinary  banks  of  de- 
posit and  discount,  or  of  savings  banks,  or  of 
a  combination  of  the  two.  On  the  basis  of 
the  business  actually  transacted,  therefore,  the 
trust  company  ma^  be  defined  as  a  financial 
corporation  authorized  to  exercise  both  banking 
and  trust  functions. 

Punctlonfl.  1.  Trutt  Functions. —  The  func- 
tion which  gives  the  trust  company  its  name 
is  that  of  accepting  and  executing'  trusts.  In  the 
exercise  of  this  function  the  trust  company 
performs  the  same  acts  and  assumes  the  same 
responsitulities  as  an  individual  acting  in  like 
capacity.  Trusts  are  received  from  natural 
persons  or  individuals,  from  corporations,  both 
public  and  private,  ana  through  appointment  or 
approval  of  courts  of  law.  It  is  convenient  to 
consider  the  trust  functions  under  thcseheads; 

(a)  Trusts  performed  for  individuals  under 
private  agreement.  Most  of  these  trusts  in- 
volve actmg  as  trustee  or  agent,  but  they  are 
of  great  variety  as  to  purpose  and  as  to  dutiei 
required.  The  most  common  is  that  of  actins 
as  trustee  or  agent  for  the  management  ot 
property,  teal  or  personal.  In  this  capacity 
the  trust  company  takes  entire  charge  of  the 
property,  collects  Income,  collects  principal  of 
securities  when  due,  reinvests  capital  funds  if 
desired.  If  the  property  be  real  it  looks  after 
repairs  and  improvements,  keeps  the  property 
rented  and  insured,  pays  taxes,  collects  rents. 
It  remits  or  accumulates  income,  according  to 
the   contract. 

It  handles  the  separate  estates  of  married 
women ;  looks  after  the  investment  and  care 
of  funds  of  educational  or  benevolent  institu- 
tions I  acts  as  custodian  of  valuable  papers  and 
securities ;  handles  escrows ;  collects  income 
which  is  receivable  at  long  intervals  or  at  un- 
certain periods  and  distributes  it  per  contract 
in  montnly  instalments ;   acts  as  agent   for  the 

Eayment  of  such  regularly  recurring  items  as 
isurance  premiums,  rents,  taxes,  etc.;  looks 
after  property  inierests  of  'professional  men, 
absentee  property  owners,  women,  invalids,  the 
ajfcd  and  others  who,  from  choice  or  neces- 
sity,' wish  to  avoid  the  care  of  their  property 
eidier  temporarily  or  permanently.  These  illus- 
trate some  of  the  many  kinds  of  'individual 

(b)  Trusts  received  through  appointment  or 
approval  of  the  courts.  In  most  States  trust 
companies  have  a  large  volume  of  •probate 
business,^  consisting  of  the  execution  of  trusts 
received  by  appointment  of  court  or  by  wills 
of  deceased  persons,— acting  as  administrator. 


executor,  trustee  tmdei  will,  guardian  of  the 
property  (and  in  rare  instances  of  the  person) 
of  minors,  curator  or  committee  for  persons 
of  unsound  mind,  etc.  As  a  rule  trust  com- 
panies are  legal  de^sitarics  for  court  funds 
and  for  persons  acting  in  fiduciary  capacities. 
Trust  companies  handle  a  large  amount  of 
"insolvency  business,*  acting  as  assignees,  re- 
ceivers and  trustees  in  bankruptcy. 

,  (c)  Trusts  performed  for  corporations, 
private  and  public.  The  trust  company  is  prac- 
tically indispensable  to  the  large  corporations 
of  to-day,  as  well  as  to  many  of  the  smaller 
ones.  It  acts  as  trustee  under  mortgages  or 
deeds  of  trust  securing  bond  issues,  as  transfer 
ageni  for  stock,  as  registrar  for  stock  or  bonds, 
as  custodian  or  manager  of  sinking  funds,  as 
fiscal  or  financial  agent  for  various  purposes, 
for  States,  municipalitiesj  railroad  and  indus- 
trial and  other  corporations.  It  pays  bonds, 
coupons,  interest.  It  may  take  charge  of  the 
disbursement  of  dividends  and  interest,  attend- 
ing to  the  publication  and  mailing  of  notices, 
etc.  _  For  syndicate  managers,  voting  trusts, 
etc.,  it  issues  and  collects  calls  for  instalment 
payments  and  computes  and  distributes  to  the 
proper  parties  the  amounts  of  dieir  participa- 
tions in  the  proceeds.  It  acts  as  depositary 
of  cash  and  securities  under  varying  condi- 
tions; as  depositary  and  trustee  for  under- 
writing syndicates;  as  agent  to  receive  sub- 
scriptions for  securities  and  to  deliver  same 
when  issued.  Its  services  are  often  used  in 
corporate  financing  and  reorganiiaiion.  It  may 
of  course  perform  for  corporations  trusts  of 
the  kinds  already  described  as  undertaken  for 
individuals  under  private  agreement. 

2.  Banking  Functions, —  Trust  companies 
have  alwa^-s  transacted  a  large  amount  of  sav- 
ings banking  business,  and  years  ago  became 
formidable  rivals  of  the  savings  banks  in  this 
field.  In  more  receijt  years  they  have  invaded 
the  field  of  commercial  banking.  While  the 
laws  of  many  States  formerly  limited  their 
functions  in  the  field  of  commercial  banking, 
in  particular  forbidding  them  to  discount  com- 
mercial paper,  and  although  they  are  still  so 
resiricteo  m  some  Slates,  the  tendency  in  re- 
cent ^ears  has  been  to  remove  these  rcstrictioiu 
and  in  many  States  at  present  they  have  all 
the  banking  powers  ot  ordina^  National  or 
State  banks,  except  the  right  of  note-issue. 

3.  Safe  Diposit  Business. —  Trust  com- 
panies very  generally  maintain  safe  deposit  de- 
partments, in  which  they  rent  private  boxes 
for  the  safe-keeping  ot  securities,  valuable 
papers,  jewelry,  etc,  and  space  itx  the  storage 
of  more  bulky  valuables. 

4.  Other  rtined'onj.— The  three  classes  of 
functions  above  described  are  those  most  com- 
monly exercised,  in  varying  proportions,  by 
the_  average  trust  company.  Some  companies 
maintain  bond  or  investment  departments,  for 
the  purchase  and  sale  of  high-grade  securities. 
Trust  companies  in  some  States  formerly 
transacted  fidelity  or  title  insurance  business, 
and  a  few  companies  still  transact  such  bu^- 
ness;  but  the  tendency,  both  in  legislation  and 
in  business  practice,  is  to  leave  this  field  to 
companies  of^nized  for  this  special  purpose. 
In  a  number  of  States  trust  companies  transact 
a  real  estate  agency  business.  Other  functions 
are   sometimes    found,   the   extent    of    powers 


9AHKa  AND  BAHKINP  — TKU8T  COMPANY  (21) 


being  deternuDed  by  the  lawi  of  die  difiereot 
Statu. 

It  should  be  noted  that  not  all  tnist  com- 
panies undertake  all  of  the  functions  above 
enumerated.  The  functions  actually  performed 
try  coTXirations  bearing  the  word  'trust'  in 
their  titles  vary  widely.  There  are  some  trust 
companies  which  devote  themselves  exclusively 
to  trust  business;  there  are  many  which  do 
no  trust  business,  and  are  in  fact  commercial 
banks,  or  savings  banks,  or  both  comniercial 
and  savings  banks.  Others  transact  trust  and 
savings  business,  but  no  commercial  bankinK 
business.  In  leveral  of  the  Southern  States 
there  are  •trust  companies'  whose  business 
consists  solely  of  dealing  in  real  estate  or  in- 
surance or  of  a  combination  of  ^e  two.  There 
are  also  some  such  companies  whose  business 
is  that  of  dealers  in  reaJ  estate  mortgages  or 
mortgag:e  bonds. 

OrEanization,  Regnlatloii  and  Hanage- 
ment. —  Trust  companies  are  'creatures  of 
State  legislation,  and  are  organized  under  the 
taws  of  the  State  in  whtcfa  they  are  to  be  lo- 
cated. Formerly  thev  were  chartered  in  many 
States  on^  by  special  act  of  the  legislature  and 
in  tome  States  under  the  general  incorporation 
laws.  Most  of  the  States  now  have  general 
trust  company  laws,  which  provide  specially  for 
the  incorporation,  powers,  government  and 
regulation  of  sudi  companies.  The  general 
trust  company  taws  in  most  States  contain  a 
Dumber  oi  provisions  intended  to  safeguard 
the  bnsmess.  The  capital  stock  required  is 
usually  much  larger  uan  that  specified  for 
banks  in  the  same  locality,  and  it  is  generally 
required  that  trust  companies  apply  a  portion 
of  earnings  each  year  to  the  buildmg  up'  of  a 
tUTplus  until  it  reaches  a  certain  proportion 
(frequently  20  per  cent)    of  the  capital.      In 


placed  on  the  making  of  loans  and  investments 
and  the  investments  of  the  trust  department 
are  specially  restricted.  Adequate  reserves  arc 
required.  Practically  all  of  the  States  stipu- 
late that  tnist  funds  must  be  kept  absolutely 
separa.te  from  those  of  the  company  and  of 
other  departments,  and  also  that  securities  t)e- 
longine  to  specific  estates  be  so  marked  and 
recorded  as  to  clearly  designate  the  owner; 
so  that  in  case  of  failure  of  the  company  the 
trust  funds  would  not  be  affected.  Many  States 
forbid  the  transaction  of  any  trust  business 
until  the  company  has  made  with  State  author- 
ities a  deposit  of  cash  or  securities  in  certain 
specified  amounts  as  special  security  for  the 
faithful  performance  of  its  fiduciary  obliga- 
tions, practically  all  of  the  States  reqture 
trust  companies  to  make  regular  reports  to 
State  officials,  varying  in  different  States  from 
once  to  five  times  each  year;  and  to  submit 
to  examination  Iiy  State  officials,  usually  once 
or   twice  ■  each  vear. 

The    intemal    organization    of    trust    com- 

enies  is  quite  similar  to  that  of  ordinary 
nks,  except  ttiat  the  variety  of  duties  under- 
taken necessitates  the  maintenance  of  separate 
departments  (retjaired  by  law  in  many  States) 
for  llie  transaction  of  trust,  savings,  general 
bankinK]  safe  deposit  and  other  lines  of  busi- 
ness- Subject  to  the  State  laws,  a  trust  corn- 
party  is  governed  by  by-laws  adopted  by  the 
stoiiholders ;  is  under  die  general  direction  of 


OK 

a  board  of  directors;  and  is  administered  by  a 

5 roup  of  officers  whose  numt>er  and  duties  are 
etermined  by  the  needs  of  the  business. 

In  addition  to  the  character  of  its  business 
in  the  trust  department,  the  typical  trust  com- 
pany  differs  from  an  ordinary  commercial 
bank  in  the  character  of  the  deposits  which  it 
attracts  and  in  the  resulting  methods  in  which 
it  invests  the  funds  received  in  such  deposits. 
The  typical  commercial  bank  handles  demand 
deposit  accounts  of  active  business  concerns 
whose  funds  are  in  constant  use  and  whose 
balances  fluctuate  radically  from  day  to  day  or 
week  to  we«k  Such  a  bank  must  therefore 
invest  its  funds  in  short-titne  loans  so  maturing 
that  it  will  always  have  ample  funds  available 
with  which  to  _  meet  the  demands  of  its  de- 
positors, and  will  be  able  to  reduce  the  amount 
of  its  outstandins  loans  on  short  notice.  On 
the  other  hand,  me  ^ical  trust  company  does 
not  handle  deposits  of  active  business  concerns. 
Its  deposits  are  composed  of  inactive  funds, 
of  gradually  accumulating  savings  or  of  funds 
set  aside  for  a  consideraole  period  for  special 
purposes,  the  lialances  of  wnicli,  as  a  whole, 
do  not  fluctuate  greatly,  and  normally  tend  to 
steady  increase.  These  are  'time  deposits" 
rather  than  'demand  deposits.*  The  trust  com- 
pany, therefore,  need  not  confine  its  invest- 
ments to  short-time  loans,  but  may  place  its 
funds  in  long-time  loans  and  in  certain  ap- 
proved classes  of  securities, —  in  bonds  and  in 
real  estate  mortgages.  Trust  funds,  as  already 
stated,  are  kept  entirely  separate  from  other 
funds  of  the  company.  Their  investment  is 
hedged  about  with  many  safeguards  required 
by  law,  by  the  by-laws  of  the  company  and 
sometimes  by  the  provisions  of  the  trust. 

Hlatorical  and  Statistical.—  The  first  com- 
pany in  the  United  States  granted  the  power  to 
do  a  trust  business  was  The  Farmers'  Fire  In- 
surance and  Loan  Company  (now  The  Farmers' 
Loan  and  Trust  Company)  of  New  York  city,  to 
which  extensive  trust  powers  were  granted  in 
1822.  Similar  powers  were  granted  to  The 
New  York  Life  Insurance  and  Trust  Company 
in  1830.  Two  companies  in  Philadelphia,— The 
Pennsylvania  Company  for  Insurance  on  Lives 
and  Granting  Annuities,  and  The  Girard  Life 
Insurance,  Annuity  and  Trust  Company  (now 
The  Girard  Trust  Company), —  were  granted 
trust  powers  in  1836.  All  four  are  still  in  ex- 
istence. 

As  is  indicated  by  the  names  of  these  early 
companies,  the  trust  business  was  at  first  closely 
associated  with  the  insurance  business,  and  - 
was  not  regarded  as  of  sufficient  importance  to 
require  separate  organizations,  A  few  other 
companies  of  the  same  kind  flourished  for  a 
time  during  the  next  20  years,  but  went  out  of 
business  for  various  reasons.  The  first  com- 
patqr  in  the  country  organised  to  transact  ex- 
clusively a  trust  business  was  The  United 
States  Trust  Company  of  New  York  city,  in- 
coiporated  in  1853.    The  number  of  companies 


Ecd  to  exercise  trust  functions  increased 
slowly  down  to  the  time  of  the  Civil  War, 
immediately  following  which  anumtier  of  such 
companies  were  organized.  By  1875  perhaps 
50  trust  companies  were  doin^  business,  located 
in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey, 
Maryland,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Geor^a,  all  the  New 
Eng^nd  States  except  Maine,  and  possibly  a 
few  other  States.  '^ 


Cioogle 


BANKS  AND  BANKING— TRUST  COMPANY  (2t> 


Tnnr  Coktanv  Statistics  1S7S~191J  n 


■  SsrOKTi  oa  THB  COMPTSOLLnt  or  -ram  CituuMCV 


pnfita 

JM.aoi 

1.330,11 


1915.. 


S.UT.OU 

0.ISS.U1 

i,J3S.17I 

g.97«,9n 

O.Z64,SH 
S.1M,1« 

t1oso!459 


Prior  to  1875  no  statistics  regarding  trust 
companies  are  available,  but  in  that  year  the 
Comptroller  of  the  Currency  began  the  publica- 
tion of  such  statistics  in  his  annual  reports.  As 
the  trust  companies  are  State  institutions  and 
not  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  comptroller 
-  he  had  no  authority  to  compel  the  rendering  of 
reports  by  them,  and  as'  a  consequence  his 
fibres  represent  only  such  compaiites  as  were 
willing  to  report  to  him.  Nevertheless  they 
reveal  the  relative  growth  of  trust  companies 
from  year  to  year,  and  in  recent  years  repre- 
sent the  great  majority  of  such  companies.  For 
the  year  187S  he  reports  35  trust  companies, 
with  total  resources  of  $122,890,175.  During 
the  eighties  there  was  a  considerable  increase 
in  number  of  companies,  and  the  trust  company 
as  an  institution  began  to  attract  some  atten- 
tion, particularly  from  the  banks,  which  saw 
danger  of  competition.  In  1890  the  comptrol- 
ler's reports  showed  149  companies  with  total 
resources  of  $503^01,336.  The  real  develop- 
ment of  the  trust  compani^  began  along  in  the 
nineties,  diougji  die  period  of  most  rapid 
growth  did  not  begin  until  the  first  decade  of 
the  20th  century.     In  1900  the  comptroller  rc- 

r3rted  290  companies  with  total  resources  of 
l.330,160,3«,  an  increase  in  resources  in  10 
years  of  164  per  cent.  At  the  end  of  the  next 
decade,  in  1910,  the  comptroller's  report  showed 
1,091  companies  with  total  resources  of  $4,216,- 
850,062,  an  increase  during  the  decade  in  num- 
ber of  companies  of  801,  or  276  per  cent,  And 
in  resourx:es  of  $3386,689,719.  or  217  per  cent. 
The  1915  report  shows  a  furtner  great  increase, 
to  1,664  companies  with  total  resources  of  $5,- 
873,120,341,  The  table  at  top  of  page  shows 
leading  figures  of  the  comptroller's  reports 
from  1875  to  1915  inclusive. 

Beginniiw;  in  1903.  The  United  States  Mort- 
gage and  Trust  Company  of  New  York  has 

RBSOUIcas   UtD   LlABIUnSS   OF  TttUST   COHPAXm  or  THE 

Uhitcd  Statcs.  30  Juhb  IQIT. 
(A»  nported  by  The  tTnit^  9tMa  MortH«ge  md  Trott 
Compuiy.  N>w  Ynrk.  1000  Doinpuie*  raportroa). 

StMta  and  bonib K.OJl.OST.IT?  90 

LouH,  nota  and  mortgun 4. T». 179. 424  30 

Cuh  nn  hwid  and  in  buk I,«06, 136.907  S9 

R«at  estate.  banJdns  houaa,  funuturv 

indfiictur«.BndufcdeiHwitnitK«.         250.134. 1RI  II 
Other naounn Z9t .003.843  37 

Toud ta.9sa,su,837  5a 

U*bi1itla: 

CapiUl...    ...   ;.,,,              »5«T,»gS,S47  B3 

Surpliu  ud  nndivided  profit (U3.S1V,IM  29 

DepoWi 7.3*2.830,9*1  36 

CMher  UabililiB 341,l?a,l90  10 

Total tB.VU.SIl.UT  5S 


published  each  year  a  compilation  of  trust  com- 
pany statistics  which  include  a  great  majority 
of  the  trust  companies  of  the  country.  For  the 
year  1915  its  figures  cover  reports  from  1^77 
companies,  besides  which  it  lists  over  250  com- 
panies from  which  reports  were  not  received. 
This  indicates  that  the  total  number  of  tnist 
companies  in  the  United  State:s  30  June  1915 
was  in  excess  of  2,000.  The  accompanying 
tables  show  the  total  figures  for  the  1,777  re- 
porting companies,  and  the  distribution  of 
companies  by  States. 

DisntiKinoH  or  TKirn-  Comvahiis  bt  Statu 
30  Jum  1911  • 
Ncol 

9tATS  rtpoitiiiB        Total  anct* 

AJabnna il  t2«,9Ol,0T4« 

ArixHia 10  11.504,031  54 

ArkanMa 40  2V.OI9.a55  15 

CalifoTou 31  4IO,I94,270M 

Colorado 20  47,167,271  16 

Cenuctkut «  136. IM. SOI  31 

Delawan IR  34.79I.IlSa 

Diitrict  of  Cotmnbia 6  34.3*0,10515 

Florida t4  13.331,59569 

OiBiB>> U  3S,748.M9  32 

Idaho II  10.05S.774  II 

ininoii 67  S48,19S.*99  11 

Indiana Ill  150. 140, 4M  6J 

Iowa U  39.1M.S57  96 

Kaniaa 10  S.4S1.135  44 

Kentucky 56  4B.1B3,403  U 

Loninaoa 34  121.984,757  OJ 

Mama 47  101 ,  136 ,  13S  SI 

Maryland 23  113,720,735  11 

MaciachnietU 92  601,809,945  06 

Mkhigu 9  3,<(,335.673  09 

Minnaapla 15  I8.50S.I30U 

MiMKian. .'.''.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  09  lSlla06!734  40 

Montm* IS  33,150.3S5» 

NsbnAa 16  4,944.301  «t 

Nevada 3  4.106.54381 

NewHampdiin 1)  17,411.377  8( 

NawJentr 114  399.905.186  91 

NewMeaioo II  4.864,818  11 

NevYoik 93  3.009.970.109  98 

North  CanUaa 61  49. 02S, 13501 

NorthCMcota 4  1.167,11157 

Ohio ai  ,351,696.005  79 

Oklaboma 0  1,413.747  80 

Oltgoa 6  5.4ZS.601  74 

PgnoiylvaBia 193  1,119,841.405  I* 

RhodaUand 13  174,069.037  34 

South  Carolina 19  7,433,874  97 

SnrthDakota 11  5.113.74940 

TenoaMM 70  U.48S,23I  60 

Teiai 68  73.177.49011 

Utah 9  19.989.195  90 

Vennant 36  57.314.127  39 

Virgiiiia 15  19.100.107  40 

WBahingtos 29  49.647  ,»0  94 

W«tVu»ini» 23  36.270.717  5] 

Wjaconan 14  14,098,65199 

Wyomhw.,.,' t  1. 675. 40061 

HawaU 5  3,69«.9gl  86 

Totah 1009    18.958.511.837  58 

*  Cnmpfled  from  "  Trnat  Companica  of  Uw  Doitad  StaM. 
.a,-,  ■■  putiii,]^  by  tba  Daited  Sutaa  Morts>sa  and  Tiwt 
-  NewYoik. 


BANKS  AND  BANKIHG-'BANKBR8'  ASSOCIATION5  IN  THE  U.  S.  (22)     900 


Tlie  Federal  RcsA^w  Att.— "Hie  Federal 
Reserve  Act,  as  conatntcd  by  the  Feder&l  Re- 
serve Board,  directly  affects  trust  companies  in 
two  ways :  it  makes  trust  co^nouiies  eliKible 
to  membership  in  the  Federal  Reserve  banks, 
and  it  permits  National  bank  members  of  the 
Federal  Reserve  system, —  if  in  conformity  with 
local  State  laws  —  to  undertake  certain  trust 
ftmctions.  Up  lo  the  present  time  few  trust 
companies  have  joined  the  Federal  Reserve 
system,  largely  because  that  system  is  desig;ned 
wholly  for  commercial  banks.  Aulhoriw  to 
National  bank  members  to  exercise  trust  func- 
tions applies  only  to  those  members  which  are 
located  m  States  whose  laws  permit  them  to 
exercise  such  functions-  Some  of  the  States 
^nt  that  permission,  white  others  have  dis- 
tinctly refused  to  do  so.  If  the  exercise  of 
trust  functions  by  member  banks  of  the  Fed- 
eral Reserve  system  becomes  general,  the  fact 
will  doubtless  have  a  marked  effect  upon  the 
growth  of  trtist  companicB  as  separate  insti- 
tatioos. 

Clay  Hermck, 
Author  of  'Tnul  Comfames.* 

22.  BANKERS'  ASSOCIATIONS  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES.  American  Bank- 
ers' Association.— Prior  to  1875  there  was  no 
national  organization  of  American  bankers.  In 
that  year  the  American  Bankers'  Association 
was  organited  at  a  convention  held  in  Saratoga 
on  20.  21  and  22  JuTy.  By  1916  the  Association 
bad  become  the  largest  organization  of  bank- 
ers in  the  world,  with  headquarters  at  S  Nas- 
sau street.  New  York.  Its  membership  of 
16,000  includes  half  the  total  number  of  banks 
in  the  country,  and  comprises  National,  State 
and  private  banks,  trust  companies  and  clearing 
bouses.  Annual  dues  range  from  $10  to  $?S 
tor  banks  and  trust  companies  according  to 
capital  and  surplus  invested. 

The  governing  Ixidy  of  the  Association  is 
the  convention,  which  meets  annually.  Admin- 
istrative details  arc  in  charge  of  a  general  sec- 
retaiy  and  an  e^tecutive  council  composed  of 
members  appointed  from  State  hankers'  asso- 
ciations on  the  basis  of  Slate  representation. 

In  1894  the  Association  began  the  protection 
of  members  against  crime  and  frauo,  and  de- 
veloped a  protective  department  which  works 
with  the  W.  J.  Bums  International  Detective 
Agency  in  the  pursuit  of  offenders  against 
banks.  Through  its  general  counsel  and  a 
Federal  legislative  committee,  the  Association 
faas  initiated  and  promoted  laws  relating  to 
uniform  bills  of  lading,  negotiable  instruments, 
credit  practice,  currency  reform,  taxation,  the 
safe^arding  of  bank  dejiositors  and  the  im- 
proving of  banking  practice. 

The  interests  of  special  classes  of  member 


tional  Bank  Section  and  a  Clearing  House  Sec- 
tion. Throiwh  these  sections  the  Association 
has  made  etiorts  to  standardize  banking  prac- 
tice and  check  collection ;  has  conducted  a 
national  thrift  campaign ;  given  publicity  to  the 
functions  of  trust  companies;  collected  statis- 
tics of  bank  transactions;  developed  country 
clearing-house  organizations ;  improved  clear- 
infs-honse  examinations,  and  effected  closer  re- 
lations between  the  banks  and  the  public.  It 
has  also  complied  ft  dpher  code;  copyrighted 


standard  forms  of  fideKty  and  bank  burglatv 
bonds;  devised  a  numerical  system  to  facilitate 
check  collection,  and  perfected  the  A  B.  A 
travelers'  check. 

Affiliated  with  the  American  Bankers'  Asso- 
ciation is  the  American  Institute  of  Banldng, 
an  educational  section  which,  since  1890,  has 
given  instruction  to  bank  employees.  Course* 
of  study  in  banldng  law  and  practice  and  in 
elementary  economics  are  given  by  correspond- 
ence as  well  as  in  local  chapters.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  Institute  number  more  than  16.000 
and  its  ceKificate  has  become  the  recognized 
standard  of  American  banking  education. 

The  Association  maintains  a  reference  and 
traveling  library  service  for  its  members,  and 
kems  records  of  American  experience  in  money 
and  banking.  A  monthly  publication  called  the 
Journal-Bulletin  is  issued  by  a  department  of 
public  relations,  which  also  acts  as  a  bureau  of 
publicity  and  edits  the  printed  proceedings  of 
the  Association's  annual  convention. 

The  Association  has  always  been  active  in 
urf^ng  currency  reform.  Since  1906  its  efforts 
in  that  direction  have  been  expressed  througb 
a  currency  commission,  which  has  worked 
with  other  agencies  in  bringing  about  and  de- 
veloping the  Federal  Reserve  system.  The  As- 
sociation has  also  done  much  for  the  national 
development  of  agriculture  through  its  cur- 
rency commission,  which  publishes  a  monthly 
magazine  called  the  Bankrr-Farmer.  Points  of 
contact  with  State  bankers'  associations  are 
maintained  through  a  section  known  as  the 
Organization  of  State  Secretaries,  and  through 
joint  efforts  in  agricultural  extension,  die  re- 
vision of  banking  legislation,  the  apprehension 
of  bank  criminals,  and  through  co-operation  be- 

State  Bankers'  AuociatioiM.— There  are 
"49  State  bankers'  association,  including  the 
District  of  Columbia.  The  first  to  organize 
was  Texas,  in  18B5;  while  Illinois,  with  a  mem- 
bershin  of  1,755,  is  the  largest.  These  State 
organizalions  have  more  than  21^000  members, 
and  most  of  them  muntain  paid  secretariei  to 
further  the  interests  of  members  di rough  cor^ 
respondcttce,  protective  features,  bond  and 
burglary  insurance,  group  meetmgs,  Stat«  con- 
ventions, legislation  and  the  publication .  of 
monthly  bulletins.  Many  associations  also  have 
paid  attorneys,  and  most  of  them  are  active  in 
agricultural  and  good  roads'  developraent. 

The  Inveetmcnt  BBnk«ni'  Asaociatioa. — 
The  Investment  Bankers'  Association  of  Amer^ 
jca  was  organized  in  New  York  in  1912,  *' 


wise   banking   institutions    operating   bond    de- 

Krtments,  and  to  secure  uniformity  of  action, 
th  in  legislation  and  methods  of  handling 
securities,"  'Any  national  or  state  bank,  trust 
company  or  private  banker,  banking  firm  or 
corporation,  in  good  standing,  having  a  paid-in 
capital  of  $50,000  or  more,  wlicU  makes  a  prac- 
tice of  liuying  bonds  or  investment  slocks,  and 
publicly  offers  the  same,  as  dealers  therein'  is 
eli^ble  to  membership,  but  "those  who  are  ex- 
clusively brokers*  are  not  admitted. 

The  Association  has  headquarters  at  111 
West  Monroe  street,  Chicago.  A  Bulletin  of 
in  formation  is  published  frequently  and '  -  the 
proceedings    of    the    annual    convention    are 


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810 


BANNATYNB  CLUB  — BANQUETS 


printed.  The  associated  activities  of  nearly  500 
members  are  carried  on  through  a  board  of 
governors  which  meets  quarterly,  through  a 
secretary,  a  legal  counsel  and  committees.  The 
Association  is  prominent  in  legislation  relating 
to  the  issuance,  standardization  and  safeguard- 
ing of  securities  and  the  improvement  of  the 
ethics  of  sloclt  and  bond  trading.  It  has  given 
special  attention  to  raising  the  status  of  munic- 
ipal and  other  bonds,  and  to  reforms  in 
methods  of  taxation. 


sociation  of  America  was  organized.  It  has  a 
membership  of  more  than  150  farm  mortgage 
firms  operating  in  25  agricultural  States,  rep- 
resenting outstanding  farm  mortgages  of  more 
than  $6a),000,000.  The  offices  of  its  secretar:;- 
treasurer  are  at  112  West  Adams  street,  Chi- 
cago, where  a  quarterly  Bultetin  is  published. 
Its  convention  is  held  annually.  Through  a 
board  of  governors,  committees  _and_  the 
secretary- treasurer,  the  organiialion  is  direct- 
ing special  efforts  toward  the  standardization 
of  mortgage  forms  and  uniformity  of  practice 
among  farm  mortgage  dealers. 

OUier  Bankers  AsBOciationB,— New  Yort 
State  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  have  sav- 
ings bank  associations,  while  New  York,  New 
Jersey  and  Massachusetts  have  State-wide  trust 
company  associations.  In  Oklahoma  and  Kan' 
sas  tiie  State  banks  have  separate  organizations. 
Bank  examiners  are  organized  into  what  is 
known  as  the  National  Association  of  the  Su- 
pervisors of  State  Banks;  there  is  an  Associa- 
tion of  Reserve  City  Bankers;  bank  credit  men 
are  organized  into  a  Robert  Morris  Club;  and 
there  are  niunerous  local  associations  of  related 
banking  interests,  as  well  as  clubs  of  city  bank- 
ers, "nie  Bankers'  Qub  of  America  has  head- 
quarters in  the  Eijuitable  building  in  New  York 
city    and    limits    its    resident    membership    to 

i,Soa 

Makian  R.  Glenn. 
"  BANNATYNE   CLUB,   initituted  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott  in  1823.    Us  object  was  to  print 
and  publish  iii  a  uniform  manner  rare  works 
of  Scottish  history,  topography,  poetry,  etc. 

BANNBKER,  Benjamin,  American  negro 
mathematician:  b.  Maryland,  9  Nov.  1731;  d. 
1806.  At  the  age  of  50  he  began  the  study  of 
mathematics  for  astronomical  purposes.  He 
published  annually  after  1?92  an  almanac  de- 
vised by  himself,  and  aided  in  determining  the 
boundaries  of  the  District  of  Columbia. 

BANNERET,  an  abbrenation  of  knight 
banneret ;  a  member  of  an  ancient  order  of 
knighthood  which  had  the  privilege  of  leading 
their  retainers  to  battle  under  their  own  flag. 
A  banneret  was  entitled  to  display  a  banner 
instead  of  a  pennon.  They  ranked  as  the  next 
order  below  the  Knights  of  the  Garter,  only  a 
few  official  dignitaries  intervening.  This  was 
not,  however,  unless  they  were  created  by  the 
King  on  the  field  of  battle,  else  they  ranked 
after  baronets.  The  order  is  now  extinct,  the 
last  banneret  (John  Smith)  created  having 
been  at  the  battle  of  Edgehill,  in  1642,  for  gal- 
lantry in  rescuing  the  standard  of  Charles  I. 

BANNOCK,  a  cake  once  much  eaten  in 
Scotland  It  was  made  of  oatmeal,  barley-meal 
or  peascmeal  baked  on  an  iron  plate  or  griddle 


over  the  fire.  From  a  supposed  reseiDUance 
the  turbot  is  sometimes  called  in  Scotland  the 
bannock-fluk& 

BANNOCK.     See  Banak. 

BANNOCKBURN,  Scotland,  village  about 
two  and  one-half  miles  southeast  of  Stirling, on 
Bannock  Rivulet.  Here  on  24  June  1314  Roben 
Bruce,  with  40,000  Scotch,  inflicted  a  great  de- 
feat on  Edward  II  at  the  head  of  60,000  Eng- 
lish troops.  The  victotj"  was  in  large  measure 
due  to  the  clever  device  of  Bruce  who  had 
caused  the  ground  in  front  of  hisposition  to 
be  undermined  in  all  directions.  The  English 
cavalry  stumbled  onto  the  hidden  pits,  were 
rendered  helpless  and  the  army  was  thrown 
into  confusion.  The  English  are  said  by  his- 
torians to  have  lost  10,000  to  4000  of  the 
Scotch.  By  this  victory  Bruce  made  his  throne 
secure  and  also  assured  the  independence  of 
Scotland.     See  Scotland — History. 

BANNS,  the  announcement  of  intended 
marriage,  requiring  the  hearers  to  make  known 
any  cause  why  the  parties  should  not  be  united 
in  matrimony.  By  the  publication  of  these 
banns  is  meant  the  legal  proclamation  or  notifi- 
cation within  the  parish,  district  or  chapeliy,  of 
the  names  and  descriptions  of  the  persons  who 
intend  to  be  there  married ;  the  object  being  to 
secure  public  knowledge  of  intended  marriages, 
and  that  all  who  have  objections  to  the  marriage 
may  be  enabled  to  state  them  in  time.  If  the 
bridegroom  live  in  a  different  parish  from  the 
bride,  the  banns  must  be  proclaimed  also  in 
that  parish,  and  a  certificate  of  such  proclama- 
tion must  be  produced  before  the  celebration  of 
the  marriage.  According  to  the  old  English 
canon  law,  the  publication  of  banns  might  be 
made  on  holidays-  but  a  change  was  made  to 
Sundays  by  Lord  Ha rdwicke's  Marriage  Act  in 
1753,  and  although  that  act  was  afterward  su- 
perseded by  the  4  Geo.  IV  chap.  76.  the  regu- 
lation as  to  Sundays  has  been  since  continued 
Seven  days'  notice  at  least  must  be  given  to  the 
clergyman  before  publication  of  banns.  Banns 
were  customary  in  various  places  before 
they  were  prescribed  by  the  entire  Churdi 
in  the  Fourth  Council  of  Late  ran.  The 
Council  of  Trent  ordered  pastors  to  pub- 
lish them  at  the  principal  mass  in  the  parish 
church,  or  churches,  of  the  parlies,  on  three 
successive  Sundays  or  festivals.  This  publica- 
tion should  be  made  within  two  months 
preceding  the  marriage.  For  grave  reasons  the 
bishop  can  dispense  from  this  obligation.  By 
the  English  Prayer  Book  the  announcement  is 
required  to  be  made  in  the  words  of  the  rubric 
on  each  of  the  three  Sundays  preceding  the 
ceremony.  If  objections  are  offered  by  anyone 
present,  the  clergyman  cannot  proceed  further. 
Except  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  the  cus- 
tom of  thus  publishing  the  banns  of  marriage  is 
practically  obsolete  in  the  United  States. 

BANQUETS.  It  was  the  famous  Mr 
Boswell  who  first  defined  man  as  a  cooUng  ani- 
mal, and  yet,  appropriaie  as  the  definition  still 
is,  neither  mythology  nor  tradition  offer  any 
clue  to  aid  the  student  in  discovering  when  ii 
was  that  the  human  animal  first  learned  to 
cook.  Of  course,  it  is  highly  improbable  that 
this  secret  was  known  to  prehistoric  man.  In- 
stead of  knowing  how  to  cook  be  undoubtedly 
ate  his  food  raw,  washing  it  down  with  pure 


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cold  ivater  from  th«  vrinca  *aA  brooks,  aad 
many  years  must  have  elapsed  before  he  made 
the  BUTpriainK  ducoveiy  that  the  foods  that 
satisfied  his  huBgci'  could  be  vastly  inproved 
in  taste  if  subjected  to  the  influence  oi  heat 
All  this,  however,  is  little  more  than  mere  sur- 
mise for  our  ooly  knowledKc  regarding  the 
customs  of  eating  in  vogue  during  the  remote 
past  has  been  obtained  from  the  relics  on- 
earthed  by  archaeology.  On  walls  now  ruined 
and  decayed  the  hand  of  the  ancient  painter 
and  sculptor  left  a  record  of  the  customs  of  his 
time  and  from  this  source  the  student  has  been 
able  to  gather  some  little  information  regarding 
the  gastTonomic  progress  oE  the  human  race. 

Such  records,  however  valuable  they  may  be 
in  the  absence  of  other  facts,  are  vague  and 
unsatisfactory  at  best,  and  so,  tumiug  to  ancient 
literature,  one  finds  uiat  the  earliest  references 
to  food  preparation  are  contained  in  the  Bible. 
In  Genesis,  when  Abraham  bade  Sarah  make 
ready  three  measures  of  fine  meal  that  he  might 
be  prci^ed  to  entertain  the  angel,  the  student 
finds  his  first  direct  reference  to  breadstuffs, 
and,  from  that  time,  the  Scriptures  often  make 
mention  of  some  foods  by  means  of  which  the 
reader  may  obtain  a  more  or  less  correct  idea 
of  the  slow  stages  by  which  this  branch  of  the 
human  race  progressed  from  its  habits  of  prim- 
itive simplicity  to  the  stately  banquets  of  King 
Solomon   and   the   extravagant   feasts   of   Bel- 

As  our  meagre  records  show  the  art  of 
feasting  was  practically  contemporaneous  with 
the  E^ptians  and  the  Hebrews  it  is  not  im- 
probable that  the  latter  race  mav  have  learned 
the  secrets  of  good  living  from  the  former  dur- 
ing the  time  of  the  captivity,  for  at  the  period 
when  both  Greek  and  Roman  were  still  content 
with  the  simplest  fare  the  Hebrews  had  been 
initiated  into  the  pleasures  of  the  table,  a  fact 
which  explains  the  many  quaint  Biblical  warn- 
ings against  the  sin  of  gluttony,  as  in  Esdras, 
where  it  is  said  that  'the  faces  of  them  that 
have    used   abstinence    shall   shine   above    the 

AmonK  the  ancient  Jews  all  festive  repasts 
were  held  toward  the  close  of  the  day,  after 
all  matters  of  business  had  been  concluded.  If 
the  feast  was  to  be  one  of  great  ceremony 
guests  were  not  only  invited  long  before  the 
occasion,  but  again,  on  the  day  and  as  near  as 
possible  to  the  hour  appointed,  servants  were 
sent  to  their  houses  to  deliver  orally  the  second, 
or  "express*  invitation,  which  atinotmced  that 
the  host  was  now  prepared  to  receive  his  guests. 
As  this  "eicpress*  invitation  was  sent  to  none 
but  those  who  had  already  declared  their  ac- 
ceptance, honor  and  propriety  required  that  they 
answer  the  summons  at  once  and  in  person,  a 
fact  which  explains  and  justifies  the  feelings  of 
resentment  which  were  entertained  by  the  mas- 
ter of  the  house  in  the  parable  of  the  great 
supper,  on  which  occasion,  as  will  be  remem- 
bered, each  person  invited  met  the  bearer  of  the 
"express*  with  a  frivolous  apology  for  his  in- 
ability 10  be  present  at  the  feast  to  which  he  had 
already  accepted  an  invitation. 

Guests  at  Hebrew  banijuets  were  required 
to  bring  their  cards  »f  invitation  and  these 
were  presented  to  servants  stationed  at  the 
entrance  door.  Upon  bdng  admitted  the  guests 
were  conducted  to  the  receiving- room  where 
water,  oils  and  perfimet  awaited  them.    If  the 


host  desired  to  exhibit  a  great  mark  of  courtesr 
he  provided  each  ^est  with  a  richly  em- 
broidered garment,  light  and  showy  and  cut  in 
a  flowing  fashion,  which  all  were  required  to 
wear  during  the  feast. 

If  the  banquet  was  of  a  private  character 
the  master  of  the  house  presided,  but  on  oc- 
casions of  public  festivity  a  governor  of  the 
feast  was  selected  and  it  was  his  duty  to  see 
that  the  banquet  was  not  only  properly  con- 
ducted but  that  the  company  present  preserved 
at  least  a  semblance,  to  order.  Appointment  to 
this  oBice  was  always  regarded  as  a  great 
honor,  and,  among  the  Greeks  and  Ramans,  the 
position  was  priied  so  lUghly  that  the  choice  of 
the  individual  to  fill  it  was  often  decided  by 
chance,  as  bjr  the  throw  of  the  dice. 

The  positions  of  the  guests  at  the  tables 
were  not  fixed  by  inviolable  rule.  Sometimes 
they  selected  their  own  places,  while,  at  other 
times,  they  were  arranged  by  seniority  of 
family,  or  even  according  10  the  whim  of  the 
host  who  might  desire  to  assign  the  most  dis- 
tinguished ^ests  to  places  near  his  own  person. 
In  the  earliest  days,  as  is  shown  by  (he  habits 
of  the  ancient  Israelites,  guests  sat  cross-leg^ed 
around  a  low  table  and  the  custom  of  reclining 
while   eating   was   not   introduced   until   about 


this  custom,  as  well  as  the  habit  of  having  but 
two-thirds  of  the  table  spread  with  a  cloth,  the 

Krtion  where  the  food  was  to  stand  being  left 
m  In  ancient  Egypt  and  Persia  the  tables 
were  arranged  along  the  sides  of  the  room  and 
guests  faced  the  wall. 

At  this  time  such  articles  as  spoons,  knives 
and  forks  were  unknown  and  those  who  ate  . 
obtained  the  morsel  ihey  desired  by  dipping 
thar  slices  of  bread  in  the  dish  before  them, 
folding  the  piece  of  meat  or  other  food  sub- 
stance within  it  by  the  use  of  the  thumb  and 
two  fingers.  Later  centuries  saw  the  invention 
of  the  spoon  but  many  hundred  years  elapsed 
before  any  other  substitute  for  the  fingers  was 
suggested.  Naturally  the  hands  became  be- 
smeared with  grease  but  they  were  cleaned  by 
being  rubbed  on  slices  of  bread,  kept  for  that 
purpose.  This  bread  was  then  thrown  to  the 
dogs  who  waited  beneath  the  tables  for  just 
such  morsels  from  the  feast  If  the  fingers 
became  too  badly  soiled  however,  servants  ap- 
peared with  water  and  assisted  the  guests  to 
wash  by  pouring  a  stream  over  the  hands  into 

When  the  party  was  a  large  one  it  was  the 
custom  for  two  persons  to  eat  from  one  dish 
and  the  host  often  showed  the  height  of  hos- 
jiitality  by  dipping  his  hand  into  his  own  dish, 
lifting  a  portion  of  Ihe  food,  and  offering  sop 
to  his  guest  To  decline  such  an  attention  was 
a  bread!  of  etiquette  that  stamped  one  as  being 
extremely  ill-bred.  In  order  that  the  hands 
should  be  always  clean  from  dirt,  however  the 
rabbb  enjoined  the  'first  water*  and  the  "last 
water,*  or  the  washing  before  and  after  eating, 
and,  in  the  case  of  travelers  at  least,  the  'first 
water*  included  the  washing  of  the  feet.  Afjer 
the  adoption  of  the  reclining  postnre  guests 
lay  with  their  faces  toward  the  table,  the  left 
arm  resting  upon  a  cushion  and  the  feet 
stretched  out  behind,  while  during  the  progress 
of  die  banquet  both  head  and  feet  were  fre- 
qoentty  spnnkled  with  perfnme  to  overcoma 


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any  nnpleaBani  odor  that  might  arise  from  too 
copioui  perspiration. 

The  foods  served  at  these  ancient  banquets 
ranastcd  of  flesh,  fish,  fowl,  melted  butter, 
bread,  honey  and  fruit,  all  of  which  were 
brouglit  to  the  table  at  one  time,  the  service 
beine  accomplished  by  the  use  of  trays,  the 
number  and  quality  of  the  dishes  varying  under 
different  circumstances.  In  ordinaiy  cases  the 
portion  of  each  guest  consisted  of  tour  or  five 
dishes,  but  if  the  guest  was  a  person  of  gnat 
distinction  this  portion  was  increased  until  die 
dishes  became  so  numerous  that  they  were  piled 
one  upon  another,  completely  covering  the 
table.  All  this  food,  which  was  usually  pre- 
pared in  Uquid  or  with  a  sauce,  as  In  a  stew, 
had  been  cut  into  conveniently  small  pieces 
before  it  was  served. 

From  the  earliest  days  within  the  recollec- 
tion  of  history  sacrificial  occasions  have  always 
included  a  banquet,  however  crude  a  festival  it 
may  have  been,  and  it  was  the  adoption  of  this 
custom  that  gave  a  religious  as  well  as  a  sodal 
significance  to  so  many  of  the  Hebrew  feasts. 
As  the  Lard's  Supper  of  the  Christians  was  d^ 
rived  from  the  Passover,  so  all  the  great  reli- 

S'ous  festivals  had,  as  tneir  accompaniment,  a 
imestic  feast.  On  [be  occasion  of  the  religious 
banquets,  however,  the  wine  was  mixed  accord- 
ing to  rabbinical  regulation,  or  with  three  parts 


four    brief    benedictions    being    pro 
er  the  cup  before  it  was  passed  b; 

of  the  feast 


nounced 

the  mast__ 

The  GTeeks,  like  the  Persians,  be^an  aud 
elided  their  feasts  with  Kbations  of  win&  and 
some  idea  of  the  nature  of  an  ancient  Greek 
baiii]uet  may  be  obtained  from  the  following 
curious  account  of  a  dinner  given  by  Achilles 
in  honor  of  Ulysses: 

He  cut  dowa  k  irut  llMbioa  block  in  tbr  bvUriit. 
■nd  laid  thereon  m  ihDcp'i  bade  uia  a  fet  ooat'i  and  e  b 
b(«'t  chine,  rict       ■■    '"       -    ■   ■  i-      .    ..  .. 


Then 


jd  laid  the  uriti  there-, 

thna  with  holy  mK.     Then  wbm  be  lud  routed  tlis  mat 
and  ■pportimed  it  ai  |^tt«»,  FatroUoe  took    biead   end 


good,  cheer  lying  ' 

Later,  of  course,  the  Gredis  became  more 
delicate  eaters  and  vied  with  the  Romans  ns  to 
the  elaborate 'character  of  their  feasts.  Like 
the  Egyptians  and  Hebrews  they  reclined  at- 
table  and  their  sumptuous  repasts  were  divided 
into  two  courses:  the  first  consisting  of  fish 
and  meat,  accompanied  by  the  vegetables  and 
several  hors  d'ceuvres  or  entrees,  while  the 
second  course  comprised  the  pastry,  fruits  and 
other  kinds  of  dessert. 

As  soon  as  the  regular  meal  was  finished  the 
taUes  were  removed  and  the  floor  was  cleaned 
of  all  frasraents.  Other  tables  were  then 
brought  in  by  the  servants,  tables  covered  with 
salted  cakes,  cheeses  and  other  foods  provoca- 
tive of  thirst,  as  well  as  the  great  mixing  bowls, 
the  pitchers  of  water  cooled  in  snow,  and  the 
jugs  of  unmixed  wine,  for  the  Greeks  loved  to 
dnnk  heavily  after  eating,  and  as  they  drank, 
to  an  accompaniment  of  music,  song  and 
dances,  young  and  handsome  slaves  garlanded 
their  heads  and  breasts  with  twining  vines  and 
flowers,  not,  as  has  sometimes  been  said,  as  a 
sign  of  festivity,  but  because  the  garlands  were 


supposed  to  ood  the  forehead  and  counteract 
the  heady  effect  of  the  winet. 

Like  the  Hebrews  the  Greeks  obtained  their 
first  lesioas  in  cookery  from  the  Egyptians  and 
they  soon  put  them  to  good  account  The 
Atheniatis  were  particularly  apt  pnpils  in  the 
kitchen  science  and  they  finally  came  to  excel 
the  rest  of  Greece  in  gastronomic  achievements 

i'ust  as  the  modem  French  excel  the  rest  of 
luropc  in  this  day.  An  excellent  proof  of  this 
assertion  is  to  be  found  in  the  circumstance  that 
what  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  valuable 
of  the  lost  works  of  antiquity  is  a  didactic  poem 
on  gastronomy,  written  by  Arcfaestratus,  the 
intimate  friend  of  one  of  me  sons  of  Pericles, 
■niis  great  writer,*  says  Athenseus,  *has  trav- 
ersed earth  and  sea  to  render  himself  ac- 
auainted  with  the  best  thuags  which  they  pro- 
uced.     He  did  not,  during  his  travels,  inquire 


of  a 


<  ^ch 


i>  la  useless  to  inform  ourselves,  smtc  ii  is  mt- 

Bissible  to  change  them ;  but  he  entered  the 
boratories  where  the  delicacies  of  the  table 
were  prepared,  and  he  held  intercourse  with 
none  but  those  who  could  advance  his  pleasure. 
His  poem  is  a  treasure  of  science,  every  verse 
is  a  precept.* 

Among  the  great  nations  of  andent  times 
the  Romans  were  the  last  to  learn  the  art  of 
cookery.  As  late  as  the  year  174  b.c  there 
were  neither  cooks  nor  public  bakers  in  Rome, 
and  the  people  were  satisfied  with  and   asked 


._.    leguminous  fruits  formed  their 

Erincipal  articles  of  diet.  The  Asiatic  wars, 
owever,  introduced  the  Romans  to  the  luxuries 
of  the  table  and,  in  a  day  as  it  were,  Rome, 
discovering  that  it  had  a  palate,  went  mad  on 
the  subject  of  gastronomy.  Slaves  who  could 
cook,  bake  or  make  sweets  were  brought  to 
Rome  in  large  numbers  but,  as  every  man  of 
wealth  was  eager  to  purchase  them,  they 
brought  the  hi^st  of  prices. 

As  this  was  the  dawning  of  the  day  of 
Rome's  expansion  it  was  not  long  before  her 
agents  began  to  supply  her  capital  with  dainties 
from  an  parts  of  the  world.  From  the  Ear  East 
to  the  far  West  whatever  seemed  delicate  of 
taste  or  that  might  help  to  tempt  a  nation  of 
palates  already  craving  a  new  Qavor  was 
brought  to  the  cooks  in  the  Roman  kitchens. 
To  improve  the  quality  of  his  cuisine  the  Em- 
peror Vitellius,  one  of  the  most  enonnous  eat- 
ers the  world  has  ever  knowi\  sent  his  legitMis 
to  every  part  of  the  empire  to  shoot  gune 
for  him,  while  entire  fleets  were  emnloyM  in 
doing  nothing  but  catching  the  fish  mat  were 
to  grace  his  table.  In  fact  it  seemed  as  if 
Rome,  so  long  satisfied  with  the  humblest  of 
fare,  could  not  find  a  suflicient  variety  of  foods 
to  gratify  its  desire  for  novelty. 

Even  as  early  as  Cesar's  time,  bowevcr,  the 
Roman  table  was  liberally  provided  with  a 
variety  of  foods  sufficient  to  satisfy  almost  any 
appetite.  As  an  example  of  a  feast  given  m 
those  days  one  may  take  the  following  memi 
which  was  served  at  a  pontifical  banquet  long 
before  the  advent  of  the  golden  days  of  Im- 
perial Rome : 

The  first  course,  vrtiich  was  intended  to 
merely  whet  the  ametite,  consisted  of  conger 
eels,  oysters,  two  kinds  of  mttssels,  thrushes 


e.r 


Ills 


Mrved  on  aspangus.  fat  fowls,  a  ragott  of 
oysters  and  other  BBell  fish,  with  black  and 
wMte  narraiiK.  The  second  course  included  a 
variety  of  shell  fish  and  other  roarine  animals. 
becaficos,  haunches  of  venison,  a  wild  boat  atM 
a  pas^  o{  becaficos  and  other  biids.  The  third, 
and  principal  coiirse,  c<»npns«d  th6  udder  of 
swine,  boar's  head  a  fricassee  of  fiah,  a  fricas- 
see of  sow's  udder,  ducks  of  various  IdndB, 
coast  fowl,  with  pastry  and  Picentine  bread. 

As  the  years  passed  Rome  experienced  no 
deterioration  in  its  love  for  the  good  things 
of  the  taUe.     In  fact,  on  the  other  hand  tUs 
pontifical  menu  was  really  a  meaere  bill  of  fare 
as  compared  to  those  which  were  afterwanl 
prepared  by  the  Roman  codIoi  for  the  delecta- 
tion of  the  later  Ouars.   Aa  an  illustratioii  the 
following  description  of  a  banquet  in  the  time 
of  Nero,  which  U  taken  from  Dean  Farrar's 
'Darkness  and  Dawn,'  ia  admitted  by  students 
to  be  a  vivid  but  not  exagKcrated  picture  of  a 
feast  in  the  days  of   Imperial  Rome.     At  this 
banquet,  which  was  prepared  under  the  direc- 
tions of  Otho.  Nero  entertained  eight  guests. 
The  walls  of  the  room  "were  inlaid  with  moth- 
er-of-pearl and  slabs  of  ivory.  .  .   ,  lihe  table 
was  of  cedar-wood,  and  it  sparkled  with  gob- 
lets   of    gold    and    silver  .  .  .  among   which 
were   scattered  amber  cups.  .  .  .  Althougfa  it 
was  winter,  garlands  of  exotic  roses  were  pn>- 
vided  for  every  ^est,  aad  none  bttt  the  Most 
youthful  and  beautiful  of  Otho's  slaves  were 
permitted  to  wait  upon  them.    The  sappex  was 
no  supper  of  Trimakhio^  with  its  co«r*e  and 
iteavT  gluttonies.  .  .  .  Ine  oysters  were  from 
Richborougb;  du  lampreys  were  from  the  fish' 
ponds  of  a  senator  who  was  said  to  have  flwiK 
into   them  more  than  one  slave  who  had  of- 
fended   him ;    the   mullet    came    from   Tauro- 
Dienos;  the  milk  cheese  from  Carsina.    There 
were  two  liny  dishes  which  represented  the  last 
and  most  extravagant  devices  of  Roman  gonr- 
mets,    the  one   composed   of   the   tongues   of 
nightingales,  the  other  of  the  brains  of  Samian 
peacocks  and  African  flamingoes,  of  which  the 
iridescent   and   crimson    feathers   adorned  the 
silver  plates  an  which  they  lay.     Sea  and  land 
had  been  swept  with  mad  prodigalitv  to  furnish 
every  luxury.    The  wines  were  oi  the  rarest 
vintages,   and  whereas  four  kinds  of  wine  were 
tbou^t     extravagant    in    the    days    of    Julius 
Caesar,    Otho  set  80  different  sorts  before  Us 
guests.    .    .    .  Hot   mushrooms   alternated   with 
bits  of   ice.*    Perfumes  were  sprinkled  on  the 
tiair  and  feet  of  the  guests,  and  the  amusements 
that  «rere  provided  were  dancing  by  Andalusian 
girls,  dice  and  gambling.    Offerings  to  the  gods 
were   not    forgotten,  however,  and  these  were 
throtvri  into  the  hearth. 

If  tfais  was  a  dainty  repast,  however,  Rome 
was  not  always  so  dainW  for  die  wealthy  gour- 
'mands  were  not  satisfied  with  eating  well.  They 
wanted  to  gluttonize,  to  eat  of  everjrthing  imr 
moderately  until  they  found  it  impossible  to  eat 
any  more,  when,  by  resorting  to  the  ever-con- 
venient feather,  th^  were  able  to  return  to  the 
feast  and  stuff  themselves  once  more  to  reple- 
tion. On  such  occasions  die  more  diatinguisned 
the  company,  the  earlier  began  the  banquet  and 
the  later  it  lasted. 

tJoT  did.  the  Roman  t^le  ever  go  dry  for 
the  virant  of  rare  and  choice  wines.  In  Greece 
the   juice   of  the  gnpK  was  almost  mvariably 


mixed  witii  water,  but  Rome  wanted  no  Ela- 
tion of  its  revelling.  Wildly  extravagant  and 
prodi^l  in  everything,  the  Romans  made  no 
exception  in  the  case  of  their  drink.  The  wines 
that  they  used  were  preserved  in  jars  or  bot- 
tles of  baked  cla:^,  and,  as  they  were  prized  in 
proportion  to  their  age,  each  receptacle  bore  a 
label  on  which  it  was  distinctly  stated  in  what 
consulship  the  beverage  had  been  made.  Many 
of  these  wines  came  from  Italy,  the  Campania 
b«ing  considered  the  best,  but  the  wines  of 
Greece  were  also  there,  side  by  side  with  all  the 
drinks  that  time  or  money  could  gather  from 
every  part  of  the  world. 

The  fact  that  civilization  and  cookery  go 
hand  in  hand  was  never  more  strildnghr  illui- 
trated  than  in  the  case  of  the  ancient  Britons, 
for,  in  the  earlier  days  of  their  history  their 
cuisine  was  maiked   by   all   the   limitations  of 

frimitive  simplicity.  The  Roman  conquest, 
owever,  appears  to  have  applied  to  the  kitchens 
of  the  country  as  thoroughly  as  to  the  govern- 
ment, for  as  the  Roman  conquerors  were  un- 
willing- to  eat  the  crude  culinary  preparations 
of  the  native  Briton  they  proceeded  to  teach 
the  conquered  how  to  cook  for  them.  Then 
too,  at  about  the  same  time,  the  appearance  of 
the  German  immigrants,  with  their  own  more 
vdiolesome  cookery,  was  not  without  its  good 
effect,  and  the  transformation  in  Mme.  Bntan- 
nica's  methods  of  cookii^  may  be  said  to  have 
been  almost  as  wise  as  it  was  radical. 

The  centuries  which  succeeded  the  fall  of 
the  Roman  empire,  and  which  comprised  the 
greater  part  of  the  Middle  Ages,  was  as  dark 
a  period  for  gastronomy  as  it  was  for  all  other 
arts.  For  a  time  it  seemed  as  if  man  had 
forgotten  how  to  cook;  as  if  he  had  lost  his 
taste  for  the  well-seasoned  dishes  which  had 
once  been  his  chief  delight,  and  that  he  had  no 
desire  to  get  it  back  a^n.  Even  Charlemagne, 
who,  according  to  his  Capitularies,  took  a  warm 
personal  interest  in  his  table,  was  a  novice  both 
m  the  art  of  cooking  and  in  that  of  service, 
tor  his  banquets  were  barbaric  affairs  composed 
of  huge  roasts  of  meat  dripping  from  the  spit, 
and  other  crude  features  that  would  have  put 
the  ancient  Roman  gourmets  to  the  blush.  Per- 
sonally, too,  the  great  Emperor  of  the  West 
was  extremely  abstemious  and  seldom,  even  at 
dinner,  permitted  himself  to  be  served  with 
more  than  four  dishes. 

The  reading  of  the  desciiption  of  Prince 
John's  banquet  in  Sir  Walter  Scolt's  'Ivanhoe' 
certainly  gives  the  impression  that  the  Nor- 
mans, who  appeared  two  or  three  centuries 
later,  were  justified  in  priding  themselves  upon 
their  superior  taste  and  discrimination  in  mat^ 
ters  of  eating,  hut  even  such  flashes  of  light 
were  but  faint  illuminations  for  so  black  a 
night  for  art  as.  that  of  the  dark  ages. 

Highly  as  the  cuisine  is  esteemed  to-day: 
idolized  as  it  was  before  the  fall  of  Rome  and 
Greece  called  a  halt  upon  civilisation  and  placed 
a  check  upon  progress,  it  seems  somewhat 
strange  that  there  was  no  one  chronicler  of 
affairs  briglit  enough  to  detect  the  fact  (hat  the 
revival  in  the  lost  art  of  cookery  had  com- 
menced. As  the  historians  of  those  days  dealt 
in  facts,  not  in  manners,  however.  It  is  impos- 
siUe  to  state  at  just  what  period  gastronomy 
began  to  be  cultivated  asain,  although,  of 
oourM,  it  is  wcU  known  uat  itt  rcvii   '    '"" 


Coogle 


S14  BANC 

the  revival  in  leamine,  was  faroui^t  about  in 
Italy.  According  to  t&e  best  authorities,  bovr- 
ever,  it  was  the  merchant-princes  of  Florence 
who  made  the  first  attempt  to  improve  the  cui- 
sine of  the  country  and  their  experiments  met 
with  such  success  inat  their  efforts  were  greeted 
with  the  most  heartfelt  encouragement  by  trav- 
ders  from  foreign  countries  who  were  invited 
to  sit  at  their  tables.  It  was  to  the  Italian 
cuisine,  in  fact,  that  the  French  owed  their  in- 
structions in  the  ^stronomic  art,  for  when 
Catherine   de   Medici s   returned 


__     .1   Paris  she 

carried  several  professors  of  the  new  cookery 
in  her  train.  The  effect  of  their  importation 
was  almost  immediately  noticeable.  They  im- 
proved the  pot-au-feu;  tiiey  expounded  a  new- 
theory  of  taste ;  they  expatiated  upon  the  value 
of  sauces,  but,  and  this  was  more  to  the  pur- 
pose so  far  as  the  progress  of  civiUiation  was 
concerned,  they  introduced  the  art  of  making 
icei.  Even  the  16th  century  Montaigne,  whose 
life  was  certainly  cast  in  pleasant  places,  among 
the  people  who  composed  the  best  French  so- 
ciety, was  unable  to  appreciate  the  estimate 
that  the  Italian  cooks  of  that  day  had  so  pro^ 
crly  put  upon  their  vocation.  In  one  of  his 
contemporaneous,  if  not  somewhat  reminiscent 
studies,  he  says : 

1  hAve  Ken  amoiicat  u«  iw  d  thoa*  aitajta  who  had  beoi 
m  Iha  iiTVk*  ti  C»rdiMi_Cmf!B.^Jfa^«»un^- ' 

u  it  ha  ■ , -        ., 

H*  Hpoondad  to  ma  K  diaerence  ol 
ona  hu  fustiog;  that  which  « 
oiune;  tba  mctbodi  now  of  ' 
■ad  ti>t{iuae  it;  tha  Dohae  of 
in  paruculaiiaiiig  tba  qualtt 
aflecta;  Iha  OiBaasa      ' 
that  which  ihouU  be 
''h  the  mode 


tboae 

the  eovrniniBii  Ol  mn  BUjpm.-'  i  wi 

The  period  which  intervened  between  the 
arrival  of  Catherine  de  Medicis  from  Italy  and 
the  accession  of  Louis  XIV  is  one  concern- 
ing which  there  is  practically  no  authentic  cul- 
inary record,  although  there  is  not  the  slightest 
reason  to  doubt  that  prodigious  advances  were 
made  by  the  gastronomic  art  during  that  time. 
In  fact,  one  has  but  to  refer  to  one  of  the  menus 
from  the  table  of  Louis  XIV  to  realize  that 
cookery  had  ceased  to  be  an  experiment,  and 
it  is  necessary  to  go  but  a  step  further  and 
compare  the  foods  of  Paris  in  Louis'  time  with 
those  in  use  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  to 
realize  the  progress  that  had  been  made  by 
the  French  cooks  by  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century.  In  Paris  for  example,  the  foods  were 
not  dissimilar  to  those  of  our  own  day;  to  which 
the  following  menu  of  a  dinner  which  was 
served  to  Emperor  Charles  V,  by  the  city  of 
Halle,  would  certainly  be  a  contrast : 

(1)  Railini  in  malt  flour;  (2)  Ir'lrA  egn;  (3)  DBrKallca;  (4) 


_i:  (fl)  yellow  cod 
Ttied  fith.  wHh  bi 


lidaa;  U)  ■  hi^  iJ"»ty;  ( 
ricEywith    "    — 

(ime«ni.. ' _- 

aij  (west  pilm;  .(^5 J«J« 
colcei:  llTI  p. 

And   durinR   this   time    England,   I 


of  the  first  monarchs  who  eidiibhed  atty  libenl- 
ity  in  rewarding  originality  in  cookery.  Henry, 
however,  seemed  unable  to  do  enough  for  those 
who  ministered  to  the  gratification  of  his  ap- 
petite, and  on  one  occasion,  he  was  so  much 
delighted  with  the  flavor  of  a  new  pudding 
that  he  presented  a  manor  to  its  inventor. 

From  the  early  days  when  the  housewives  of 
Briton  had  adopted  a  cuisine  which  ma^  quite 
properly  be  termed  an  amalgamation  of  German 
and  Roman  cookery  England  had  maintained  a 

S3sition  of  her  own  in  the  world  of  gastronomy. 
y  no  means  as  oslentatioui  as  the  ancient 
disciples  of  the  art;  less  dainty,  perhaps,  than 
the  more  modem  disciples  in  the  various  Euro- 
pean countries,  their  school  of  the  kitchen  was 
so  largely  their  own  that  it  is  not  strange  that 
Cardinal  Campeggio,  one  of  the  legates  charged 
to  treat  with  Henr^  VIII  concerning  his  di- 
vorce from  Catherine,  should  have  been  re- 
quested to  draw  up  a  report  on  the  state  of 
finglish  cookery  as  compared  with  that  of  Italy 
and  France,  by  the  express  desire  and  for  the 
especial  use  of  his  Holiness  the  Pope. 

There  are  certain  historical  documents  con- 
nected with  the  Seymour  family  still  on  file  in 
London,  which  throw  a  most  interesting  light 
upon  the  culinary  customs  in  vogue  in  Enghnd 
during  the  reign  of  the  EiglMh  Henry.  They 
show,  for  example,  the  manner  in  which  he  was 
entertained  at  Wulfhall  on  the  occasion  of  his 
marriage  to  Jane  Seymour.  The  facts,  pre- 
sented in  a  paper  prepared  by  the  Dudiess  of 
Somerset,  arc  as  follows: 

b  hL 

Satunlav,   9  Aug-    IU9.    Thar 
aunoay.AioDcuruidTueaday.     Howor  whara  ' 
lodced  doct  pot  appen:  but  "covert." 

thiTm.  "  moKi,"  as  the  book  caOi  theto, 

hundred  the  firvt  day.     Thara  are  only  two  ' 
Accounted  for,  and  it  appean  that  on  Saturday 


not  only  J 


w  hoalth  and  diicipLiaa, 
alth  and  the  snfit  o 
'      rrival.  there! 


It  for  tlMb 


Coantry  plana  in  Wihahirc 
with  liih  tfiaji  thay  an 
pikei.  eilla. 


IK^Uh 


uaday.  then  w 


therefore,  o ^ 

'  b*v*  been  better  aupiifcd 
.  „.  tin  bin  ol  fan  mdoiM 

11,  wut,i».  lobatcn.  bream,  plaice,  troata. 

. ch.  sela.  potted  aea-Bih  todaabnon  paatiai. 

a  lack  at  oyatsa,  laK  faabcrdhte  (whkh  waa  cod-fiah  aahcd 
at  Aberdeco),  aolia.  and  i '  ' 
The  next  day  beinR  Si 

II  maab.  S  cygnata,  21  gnai  oapoaa.  i  gooa  tmpata,  lu 
Kwitii^  ApDHa,  3  doxen  and  ti  ooafva  capona,  70  paBctl. 
41  chickeni,  3i  qiuiili.  9  mewa.  6  grata.  1  ahieUa  ol  btaws, 
1  swmn*,  2  crane*.  2  atorki,  3  pheaauita.  40  paitiidgea.  1 
peachidB.  21   aiupe,   boidia  larki  and  bnwa  —  wfaatam 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  trace  the  history 
of  the  banquet  — which  is,  of  course,  but  an- 
other name  for  the  history  of  eating  —  with 
more  close  attention  to  detail.  In  contrasting 
the  banquets  of  other  days  with  those  of  to-day, 
however,  one  is  struck  by  the  fact  that  ihe 
modem  peoples  have  also  made  some  consider- 
able improvement  in  the  manner  of  eating  and 
drinking,  for  one  has  but  to  turn  to  the  menus 
of  meals  served  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century  to  find  that  dinners  were  not  infre- 
quently burdened  by  20  or  more  entrees. 

In  the  last  centnry  before  the  Christian  era 
a  stoic,  Poudonius  of  Rhodes,  in  discussing  the 
methods  of  cookery  took  advantage  of  the  op- 
portunity to  preach  simplicity.  He  insisted 
that  man,  who  had  been  blessed  with  good 
teeth,  glands  and  secretions,  a  tongue  and  the 
usual  apparatus  for  diffeation  mt  Independent 


rioogic 


BANQUETTE — B  ANTAU 


8iB 


of  the  cuisine,  and  this  ancient  pagan  idea  that 
the  object  of  all  repasts  should  be  to  take  away 
the  desire  of  eating  and  to  maintain  health  and 
vigor  has  became  more  acceptable  to  thought- 
[d1  people  during  the  past  century.  To-day  our 
private  banquets  at  least  are  simplicity  itself 
when  compared  with  those  of  even  a  century 
ago,  and  while  their  somewhat  monotonous 
dearth  of  any  entertainment  except  that  of  eat- 
ing and  drinking,  with  occasional  music,  has 
recently  resulted  in  a  sort  of  mania  for  the  odd 
and  eccentric,  it  is  so  obvious  that  these  t»n- 
i^oents  are  based  upon  the  old  desire  for  noto- 
riety, the  wish  to  dazzle  which  has  inspired  so 
many  of  the  world's  great  feasts  since  the  days 
of  Kins  Solomon's  entertainment  of  the  Queen 
of  Shena,  that  no  particular  attention  is  paid 
to  such  puerile  attempts  to  provide  a  novel^. 

To  obtain  a  correct  idea  of  the  modern  ban- 
quet, however,  the  public  banquet  conceived  and 
executed  in  die  most  perfect  taste,  it  is  only 
necessary   to   recall   the  dinner   given   at   Con: 


t  magnificent  and  perfectly  appointed 
affairs  of  modern  times,  its  SOD  covers  were 
served  at  a  cost  to  the  French  government  of 
something  more  than  $15,000,  exclusive  of  the 
wines.  And  as  these  were  the  choicest  brands 
and  of  the  most  ancient  lineage  their  cost  must 
have  been  fully  as  great  as  that  of  the  dinner 
itself. 

A  story  is  told  that  upon  this  occasion  the 
correspondent  of  one  of  the  great  foreign 
joamals  interviewed  the  chef  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  some  authentic  details  concerning 
the  dinner.  Among  other  questions  he  asked : 
'And  what  was  the  chief  novelty  of  the  menu?' 
Instantly  the  great  man  stood  upon  his  dignity 
and  his  voice  was  strong  in  its  wrath  as  he 
replied:  *NoveItiesI  1  would  have  you  Imow 
tluit  on  the  table  of  the  guests  of  our  cguntry 


sible. 

In  the  various  descriptions  of  President 
Loubet's  baniiuet  to  the  ragning  sovereigns  of 
Russia  little  is  said  in  regard  to  the  decorations 
or  service,  the  writers  confining  themselves  lo 
the  mcriij,  that  being  the  most  impo  riant 
feature  of  the  feast.  Mention  is  mad&  how- 
ever, that  the  flags,  flowers,  ribbons  and  spun- 
sugar  ornaments  united  in  a  decorative  scheme 
with  effectively  beautiful  results. 

In  regard  to  the  menu,  however,  it  is  ap- 
parent that  it  left  nothing  to  be  desired.  The 
soups  were  clear  turtle  and  Crcme  du  Bariy, 
which  'gave  the  guests  a  choice,  after  which 
■came  a  wonderful  dish  of  soft  roes  called  on 
the  bill  of  fare  'Caisses  de  laitanccs  Dicp- 
poise.'  and  another,  'Barbues  dorees  a  la 
Vatel,'  served  with  a  remarkable  sauce  in 
which  a  bundred  elements  harmonized  in  a 
perfect  whole.  Venison  with  an  acid  dressing 
and  braised  quail,  the  most  delicate  bird  of  the 
species,  a  native  of  the  vineyards  of  central 
France,  followed  the  entrees.  Afterward,  in 
turn  came  sherbets,  granites,  etc.,  succeeded 
by  truffled  pheasants  with  champagne  sauce 
salad  Potel,  named  for  the  chef  who  invented 
it  and  similar  delicacies.'  The  triumphal 
achievement,  however,  was  a  savory  entremet 


which  is  described  as  a  'small  pudding  of  as- 
paragus heads  served  with  a  cream  sauce.* 
Hot-house  fruits,  ices,  cheese  and  cofFee  com- 
prised the  final  courses  of  the  feast. 

One  of  the  exhibits  which  attracted  the 
most  attention  at  the  last  Paris  Exposition  was 
a  service  of  Sevres  which  was  admittedly  the 
most  beautiful  and  costly  production  that  the 
famous  potteries  had  ever  attempted.  Upon 
each  piece  of  china  was  pictured  a  danscuse, 
but  no  two  were  the  same  in  either  pose  or 
M>e  of  loveliness.  Realizing  that  the  one 
•Tlobby"  of  the  Tzarina  was  her  love  for  beau- 
tiful china,  of  which  she  already  had  a  famous 
collection,  including  the  best  specimens  of  the 
work  of  all  the  great  potteries  of  the  world, 
it  was  decided  to  copy  this  magnificent  service 
in  every  detail.  It  was  thus  used  at  the  bah- 
quet  and  was  afterward  presented  to  the  first 
lady  of  Russia  in  the  name  of  President  Loubet. 

The  occasion  upon  which  one  nation  enter- 
tains the  rulers  of  another  nation  is  an  event 
when,  if  at  any  time,  even  the  most  ostenta- 
tious display  mi^ht  be  regarded  as  permissible. 
If  coutrasted  with  the  seemly  manner  of  liv- 
ing in  vogue  among  modern  diners  at  ordinary 
times  this  banquet  of  the  French  President 
may,  in  some  respects  perhaps,  have  bordered 
upon  ostentation.  When  compared  to  the  ex- 
travagant feasts  of  other  days,  however,  it 
seems  striking  in  its  simplicity,  for  nothing 
could  have  been  in  greater  contrast  to  the  ex- 
travagant luxury  of  the  banquets  of  the  an- 
cients, to  say  nothing  of  that  of  many  more 
modem  rulers,  that  luxury  which  precedes,  if 
it  does  not  lead  to,  decadence. 

BANQUETTE,  b&n-kiEt',  in  fortificitioa 
the  elevation  of  earth  behind  a  parapet,  on 
which  the  garrison  of  a  fortress  may  stand,  on 
the  approach  of  an  enemy,  in  order  to  fire 
upon  them.  Its  dimenuons  vary  and  it  is  fre- 
quently made  double;  that  is,  a  second  is  made 
still  lower. 

BANQUO,  binlcwo,  a  famous  Scottish 
thane  of  me  Ilth  century.  In  conjunction  with 
Macbeth,  cousin  of  Duncan,  the  king,  be  ob- 
tained a  victory  over  the  Danes,  who  had 
landed  on  the  Scottish  coast  Macbeth,  shortly 
afterward,  violently  dethroned  Duncan  and 
caused  him  to  be  secretly  assassinated.  Banquo. 
though  not  an  accomplice,  was  a  witness  of 
the  crime;  and  being  subsequently  regarded  by 
Macbeth  with  fear  and  suspicion,  the  latter 
invited  him  and  his  son,  Fleance,  to  supper,  and 
hired  assassins  to  attack  them  on  their  return 
home  during  the  darkness  of  night.  Banquo 
was  slain,  but  the  youth  made  his  escape. 
Shakespeare  has  interwoven  this  occurrence 
with  the  theme  of  his  tragedy  of  'Macbeth,' 

BANSHEE,  an  imaginary  female  being 
supposed  by  some  of  the  peasantr}/  in  Ireland 
and  the  Scottish  Highlands  to  wail  or  shriek 
near  a  house  when  one  of  the  inmates  is  about 
to  die. 

BANTAM,  any  one  of  various  breeds  of 
diminutive  fowls  kept  for  pleasure,  and  par- 
taking of  the  characteristics  of  Ae  several 
breeds  which  they  imitate  in  miniature.  Thus 
the  game-bantams  are  miniatures  of  exhibition 
game-cocks,  and  weigh  about  22  ounces.  The 
p^ldcn  and  silver  Sebright  bantams  originated 
iR   America    from  a   cross  between   a   Poli^ 


a   Polish 

Lioogle 


BANTAM  — BANTU 


fowl  and  z  buitain,  and  are  exceedingly  beanti- 
ful  in  plumage.  The  rose-comb  bantams  are 
Uttte  co[Hes  ot  Hamburg  (owls,  and  should  be 
eiihcr  lustrous  black  or  pure  white;  and  the 
cocks  have  a  rose  comb  square  in  front,  evenly 
corrugated,  and  ending  in  a  spike  with  a  slight 
upward  curve.  Booted  white  bantams  are  those 
which  have  iheir  shanks  heavilj;  feathered.  The 
Cochin  Fowl  is  imitated  in  all  its  varieties  by  a 
bantam  the  cock  of  which  weighs  about  28 
ounces.  Most  beautiful  of  all  are  the  Japanese 
bantams^  of  which  there  are  several  varieties. 
The  typical  one  is  white  with  the  tail  black, 
and  composed  of  long,  sickle-like,  white  feath- 
ers held  erect  and  edged  with  white.  The 
wing  quills  are  dark  slate  color  edged  with 
white,  so  that  when  the  wing  is  folded  it  shows 
only  white, 

BANTAM,  ban-tam',  or  bin'tam,  a  province 
occupying  the  whole  of  ihc  west  end  of  the 
island  of  Java,  and  containing  a  population  of 
about  520,000.  Jt  long  formed  an  independent 
kingdom  governed  by  its  own  sultan,  but  at 
the  oeginuflg  of  the  19th  century  was  formally 
incorporated  bj;  the  Dutch  with  their  other 
possessions.  FUce  is  now  the  staple  product. 
Its  capital,  which  bears  the  same  name,  was 
once  the  principal  mart  of  the  Dutch,  and  was 
surpassed  by  few  towns  of  die  East  in  antiqui^ 
and  celebrity.  It  is  now  very  much  decayed. 
Bantam  is  believed  to  give  name  to  the  well- 
known  small  but  spirited  breed  of  domestic 
fowl. 

BANTAYAN,  Philipiunes,  a  town  on  the 
island  of  the  same  name  in  the  province  of 
Cebu,  62  miles  north  of  the  town  of  Cebu. 
Numerous  shoals  make  navigation  difficult  A 
leper  colony  inhabits  a  small  island  just  oti 
shore.     Pop.  about  14,000. 

BANTENG,  a  wild  ox  iBos  sondaUus)  of 
'he  mountain  forests  of  the  Malay  Peninsula 
ind     Archipelago     (except     Sumatra),     which 


These  cattle  are  exceedingly  fierce,  and  are 
regarded  by  sportsmen  as  among  the  most 
dangerous  of  game.  Nevertheless  they  have 
been  tamed,  and  when  crossed  with  the  domes- 
tic cattle  of  the  region  yield  a  serviceable  hy- 
brid. 

BANTOCK,  Granville,  English  composer: 
b.  London,  7  Aug.  1868.  He  was  educated  in 
London  for  the  Indian  civil  service.  His  love 
of  music  caused  a  change  in  his  plans  and  he 
took  a  preparatory  course  under  Dr.  Saunders. 
In  1R89  he  entered  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Music,  where  he  was  first  holder  of  the  Mac- 
farren  scholarship.  He  toured  the  world  in 
1894-95  as  conductor  of  the  Gaiety  Company, 
conducting  in  the  principal  cities  of  America 
and  Australia,  and  editing  meanwhile  The  New 
Quarterlv  Musical  Review.  In  1896  he  joined 
the  G.  Edwardes'  opera  company.  His  London 
concerts  of  1897  attracted  witle  attention  be- 
cause he  confined  himself  exclusive^  to.  Eng- 
lish compositions  of  recent  date.  He  was  ap- 
pointed municipal  director  of  music  at  New 
Brighton,  in  1896,  where  he  established  a  choral 
society  and  orchestra.  He  was  principal  of 
the  Birmm^am  Music  School  from  1900  to 
1907,  and  conductor  of  the  Liverpool  Orchestral 
Association    after    1903.      He    was    appointed 


<The  Witch  of  Atlas'  (19tO)  ;  'Lalla  Rookh' 
(1903);  'Dante  and  Beatrice'  (1911);  vocal 
works  with  orchestra,  'Wulstan'  (1892);  *The 
Spirit  of  the  Times'  (1904);  "Sea- Wanderers' 
(190S);  'Omar  Khayyam'  (1907);  the  choral 
symphony,  'Atalanta  in  Calydon'  (1912)  ;  a 
string  qi^rtet  in  C  minor;  serenade  for  four 
horns;  dano  works  and  songs;  and  the  over- 
tures, 'The  Fire  Worshippers'  (1892);  'Eu- 
gene Aram'  (1895);  'Saul'  (1907);  and 
'Overture  to  a  Greek  Tragedy'    (1911). 

BANTRY,  Ireland,  a  seaport  town  in 
county  Cork,  56  miles  west-southwest  of  Cork. 
It  consists  of  four  principal  streets  and  a 
spacious  square,  but  the  town  generally  has  a 
mean  appearance.  It  is  a  famous  summer  re- 
sort It  is  at  the  head  of  Bantry  Bay,  where 
in  1796  a  French  fleet  anchored  and  an  abortive 
attempt  was  made  to  land  It  has  a  erowing 
trade  in  agricultural  produce,  and  fishing  is 
carried  on  to  some  extent.     Pop.  about  3,000, 

BANTRY  BAY,  a  deep  inlet  of  Cork 
County,  Ireland,  remarkable  both  for  its 
beauties  and  for  its  natural  advanti«cs,  al- 
though the  latter  are  turned  to  but  little  ac- 
coimt  It  is  about  25  miles  long  and  from 
three  to  five  miles  wide,  and  is  safe  and  com- 
modious for  vessels  of  any  size,  the  water  being 
de^  dose  to  both  shores,  with  a  few  rocks  or 
shoals.  A  French  force  tried  to  land  here  in 
17%  The  entrance  is  guarded  by  Crow  Head 
on  the  northwest  and  by  Sheep's  Head  on  the 
southeast 

BANTU,  ban'too.  or  ba-ntoo,  the  ethnologi- 
cal name  of  a  virile  and  prolific  group  of  Af- 
rican races  dwelling  below  lat,  6'  N.,  and  in- 
cluding the  Kaffirs,  Zulus,  Bechuanas,  the  tribes 
of  the  Loan^,  Kongo,  etc.,  but  not  the  Hot- 
tentots. Their  birthplace  has  not  been  deter- 
mined;, but  they  moved  south  from  central 
Africa  by  way  of  the  east  coast.  The  tribal 
organization  is  by  means  of  paramount  and 
lesser  chiefs,  the  one  mititan-  and  the  other 
industrial.  In  the  one  case  the  chief  ts  abso- 
lute ruler;  in  the  other  his  power  is  limited 
and  he  governs  through  a  council  of  lesser 
chiefs  and  a  general  assembly  of  the  tribes- 
men. The  system  of  land  tenure  is  on  a  com- 
munal basis.  The  tribes  occupy  settled  dwell- 
ings; certain  articles  of  dress  are  worn;  and 
polygamy  is  recopiized.  The  women  perform 
most  of  the  agricultural  labor  and  the  men 
are  hunters  and  herdsmen.  Iney  arc  skilful 
in  wood  and  metal  working,  weave  a  coarse 
cloth  from  cotton  and  are  capable  workers  in 
pottery.  Maize  is  the  staple  food.  The  term 
is  also  used  to  denote  the  homogeneous  fam- 
ily of  languages  spoken  in  Africa  throughout 
the  vast  region  lying  between  Kamerun,  Zanzi* 
bar  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Hottentot.  Bushmen  and  Pigmy 
enclaves.  Ba-ntu,  in  almost  all  of  these  lan- 
guages, signifies  "the  people,"  and  hence  is  ap- 
plied to  the  whole  fingiiislic  family.  The 
Bantu  family,  although  divided  into  hundreds 
of    dialects,    is    evidently    derived     from 


Google 


SAHU  — BAOBAB 


S17 


mother  tongue.  Consult  Denftv,  ^Raccs  of 
M^>   (Lonaon  1900). 

BANU,  bi'noo^  or  b&n'noo,  or  BANNU, 
British  India,  a  district  in  the  Punjab;  area 
3,868  square  miles ;  pop.  over  330,000.  It  is 
watered  by  the  Indus,  which  here,  during  in- 
imdations,  becomes  a  vast  body  of  water  many 
miks  wide.  Nearly  all  the  inhabitants  are 
Uohammedans.  Agriculture  thrives,  especially 
in  the  cultivation  of  the  ordinary  cereals, 
strgar-cane,  cotton  and  various  oil  seeds. 

BANVILLB.  bBc-v«l,  Th£odore  Fuillain 
de,  French  poet  and  oovelisi :  .b.  Moulins,  14 
March  1823;  d.  Paris,  13  March  1891.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  naval  officer  and  went  early  in 
life  to  Paris,  where  he  devoted  himself  exclu- 
sively to  literature,  contributed  to  many  jour- 
nals and  reviews  and  lived  in  dose  friendship 
with  some  of  the  foremost  artists  and  men  oi 
letters  oi  the  day.  First  known  as  a  poet 
through  two  volumes  entitled  'The  Cariatides' 


bulesques'     (1857),    a    R«rt    of    great    lyrical 

Sirody      published      under      the      pseudonym 
RACQUEUOND,  which  immediately  found  great 
favor  and  was  followed  by  'New  Odes  Funam- 


"Thirty-six  Merry  Ballads>  (1875), 
poet  he  was  one  of  the  most  amusing  of 
lyrists,  and  from  his  acrobatic  feats  in  differ- 
ent forms  of  metre  has  been  called  "the  king 
of  rimes.'  He  has  also  another  side.  His 
swint^ng  metres  are  reminiscent  of  the  anac- 
reontics of  Ronsard.  His  inspiration,  how- 
ever, is  purely  verbal.  His  adoption  of  old 
forms  of  verse,  such  as  the  ballads,  rondeau 
and  rondel,  was  followed  by  Austin  Dobson 
and  Andrew  Lang.  As  a  prose  writer  he  is 
iavorably  known  by  a  number  of  humorous 
and  highly  finished  talcs  and  sketches  like  'The 
Poor  Mountebanks'  (1853);  <The  Parisians 
of  Paris'  (1866) ;  'Tales  for  Women'  (1881) ; 
<The  Soul  of  Paris'  (1890),  etc.  Of  consid- 
erable literary  interest  is  'My  Recollections' 
(1883).  His  *Works»  were  published  (8  vols.) 
1873-78,  and  a  posthumous  volume,  'Diemiires 
ponies.' 

BANYAN,  bin'yin,  or  bSn-yan',  or  BAN- 
lANTREE  (Ficut  Benghalenas),  an  East 
Indian  tree  of  the  natural  order  Urticacta, 
noted  for  the  roots  which  descend  from  the 
branches  and  become  accessory  trunks,  thus 
permitting  the  original  tree  to  extend  over  a 
wide  area-  In  the  Calcutta  botanical  garden 
one  specimen  known  to  be  upward  of  IQOyears 
old  has  more  than  3,000  small  trunks,  230  that 
vary  from  two  to  three  and  one-half  feet  in  di- 
ameter, and  a  main  trunk  13  feet  in  diameter. 
Among  these  trunks  7,000  people  could  stand. 
The  trees  often  attain  a  height  of  more  than 
70  feet.  The  leaves  arc  ovate  heart-shaped, 
five  to  six  inches  long;  the  inconspicuous  axil- 


seeds  seldom  germinate  on  the  ground,  but 
usually  among  the  leaf  base^  of  palms,  the 
roots  descending  the  palm  tmnks,  embracing 
and  finally  killing  them.  As  the  banyan  ages 
its  ori^nal  trunk  dies  and  decays,  leaving  the 
younger  trunks  to  support  the  life  of  the  tree. 


The  Hindus  ascribe  various  medicinal  virtue* 
to  this  tree,  which  the)^  rc^rd  as  sacred.  Its 
light  porous  wood,  its  juice  and  its  fruit  have 
no  imftortant  economic  uses.  Its  close  rela- 
tive, Ficuf  indica,  which  does  not  root  from 
the  branches,  is  sometimes  erroneously  called 
the  banyan- tree. 

BANYUMAS,  ban-yoo-mas'  (Javanese* 
*golden  water*),  Java,  a  residency  and  town 
situated  on  the  south  coast  of  the  island.  The 
area  of  the  residency  is  2,100  square  miles 
and  its  po^uhtion  about  1,300,000.  The  chief 
Cidture  is  rice;  but  coffee,  tea,  sugar,  indigo, 
cinnamon  and  other  exotics  are  produced  t^ 
corvit  labor,  as  enforced  by  the  Dutch  in  other 
parts  of  Java.  The  town  and  seat  of  the  resi- 
dent is  on  the  river  Seraio,  22  miles  inland 
It  has  a  considerable  trade  and  contains  » 
population  of  about  6,500. 

BANYUWANGY,  ban'  yoo-wafl'ge,  Java, 
the  extreme  eastern  district  of  the  island,  noted 
f(W  its  extensive  coffee  gardens  and  for  the 
remarkably  pure  sulphur  obtained  from  the 
Goonong-Matapi  voldanic  mountain.  This  is 
also  the  name  of  the  capital  of  the  district,  an 
important  seaport  and  Dutch  military  post,  on 
the  Strait  of  Bali,  about  550  English  miles 
east-southeast  from  Batavia.  It  has  an  exten- 
sive trade  and  an  estimated  population  of 
9,000. 

BANZ,  bants,  once  one  of  the  richest  and 
most  famous  of  the  Benedictine  monasteries, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Main,  three  miles 
below  Lichtenfels,  Bavaria.  Founded  in  1071, 
and  destroyed  in  the  Peasants'  War  in  1S25,  it 
was  rebuilt  and  although  plundered  again  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  it  gradually  became 
famed  for  the  scientific  attainments  of  its 
mouks.  In  1803  it  was  broken  up  and  its  li- 
brary and  collection!  were  divided  between  the 
Munich  museimi  and  other  institutions. 

BAOBAB,  bfi'6-bab  iAdansonia  digitata), 
a  tree  belonging  to  the  family  Bomhacacex, 
which  was  named  after  the  naturalist  Adan- 
Bon.  It  is  also  called  the  monkey-bread  tree. 
The  leaves  are  deep  green  and  are  divided 
into  five  unequal  digitate  lanceolate  leaflets. 
This  tree  is  a  native  of  western  and  northern 
Africa;  it  is  cultivated  in  many  of  the  warmer 

Erts  of  the  world.  It  is  one  of  the  largest 
own  trees,  its  tnmk  being  sometimes  not 
less  than  30  feet  in  diameter.  In  Adanson's 
accoimt  of  Senegal  some  calculations  are  made 
regarding  the  growth  of  this  tree,  founded  on 
theevidcnce  of  the  annular  layers.  The  height 
of  its  trunk  by  no  means  corresponds  with  the 
thickness  which  it  attains.  Thus,  according  to 
his  calculations,  at  one  year  old  its  diameter  is 
one  inch;  and  its  height  five  inches;  at  32 
yeacs  old  it  has  attained  a  diameter  of  two 
feet,  while  its  height  is  only  22  feet,  and  so 
on;  till  at  1,000  years  old  the  baobab  is  14  feet 
broad  and  58  feet  high ;  and  at  5,000  years  the 
growth  literally  has  so  outstripped  its  perpen- 
dicular height  that  the  trunk  will  be  30  feet  in 
diameter  and  only  73  feet  high.  The  roots, 
again,  are  of  a  most  extraordinary  length,  so 
that  in  a  tree  with  a  stem  77  feet  in  girth  the 
main  branch  or  tap-root  measures  110  feet  in 
length.  It  often  happens  that  the  profusion  of 
leaves  and  of  droopmg  boughs  almost  bide  the 
stem,    and   the  whole    forms   a  hemispherical 


(Google 


BAOUR-LORHIAN  —  BAPTISM 


mass  of  verdure  140  to  150  feet  in  diameter 
and  60  to  70  feet  high.  The  wood  is  pale-col- 
ored, light  and  sof^  so  that  in  Abyssinia  the 
wild  bees  perforaie  it  and  lodge  their  honey  in 
the  hollow,  which  honey  is  considered  the  best 
in  the  country.  The  negroes  on  the  western 
coast  apply  the  trunks  to  a  very  extraordinary 
purpose.  The  tree  is  liable  to  be  attacked  by 
a  fungus  which,  vegetating  in  the  woody  part 
without  changing  the  color  or  appearance,  de- 
stroys life  and  renders  the  part  so  attacked  as 
soft  as  the  pith  of  trees  in  general.  Such 
trunks  are  then  hollowed  into  chambers,  and 
within  these  are  suspended  the  dead  bodies  of 
those  to  whom  arc  refused  the  honor  of  burial. 
There  they  become  mummies,  perfectly  dry 
and  well  preserved,  without  further  prep- 
aration  or  embalming,  and  are  known  by  the 
name  of  quiriols.  The  baobab  is  emollient  and 
mucilaginous;  the  pulverized  leaves  constitute 
lalo,  a  favonte  article  with  the  natives,  which 
they  mix  with  their  daily  food  to  dimini^  ex- 
cessive perspiration,  and  which  is  even  used  by 
Europeans  in  fevers  and  diarrbccas.  The  flow- 
ers are  large,  white  and  handsome;  and  in 
their  first  expansion  bear  some  resemblance  to 
the  white  poppy,  having  snow-white  petals  and 
violet- Colo  red  stamens.  Both  flowers  and  fruit 
are  pendent,  and  the  leaves  drop  off  before  the 
periodical  rains  come  on.  The  fruit  is  of  an 
oblong  shape,  of  considerable  size,  and  tastes 
like  gingerbread,  with  a  pleasant  acid  flavor. 
The  expressed  juice,  when  mixed  with  sugar, 
forms  a  cooling  drink  much  used  in  putrid 
fevers;  this  juice  is  generally  used  as  a  sea- 
soniiw  for  com  gruel  and  other  food.  The 
bark  lumishes  a  strong  fibre. 

BAOUR-LORUIAN,  bi-oor-lor-myiA, 
Louis  Pierr«  Harie  Pransois,  French  poet 
and  dramatist:  b.  Toulouse  1772;  d.  I8S4.  He 
first  attracted  wide  notice  through  his  'Poems 
of  Ossian>  (1801),  an  extremely  clever  imita- 
tion of  Caledonian  verse;  and  afterward  won 
success  with  a  tragedy,  'Omasis,  or  Joseph  in 
E5ypt>  (1807).  Other  works  oi  his  are  'Po- 
litical and  Moral  Viols'  (1811),  in  the  manner 
of  Young;  'Duranti  or  The  League  in  the 
Province'  (1828),  a  historical  novel;  and 
'Legends,  Ballads  and  Fabliaux]  (1829).  But 
his  best  work  is  probably  a  poetical  translation 
of  the  book  of  Job,  completed  after  he  had 
lost  his  eyesight, 

BAPAUHE,  b3-p6m.  France,  a  town  in 
the  department  of  Pas- de-Calais,  12  miles 
south  of  Arras.  Here,  on  2  and  3  Jan.  1871, 
took  place  two  fierce  struggles  between  the 
French  army  of  the  north  and  the  Prussian 
army  of  observation ;  the  French  being  de- 
feated with  a  loss  of  over  2,000.  Bapaiime  fell 
into  German  hands  early  in  the  European  War, 
but  was  reconquered  by  the  British  on  17  March 
1917,  an  event  that  marked  the  close  of  the 
great  battle  of  the  Somme,  begun  in  June  1916. 
The  first  lo  enter  the  recaptured  town  were  the 
Australian  troops,  who  cleared  the  streets  and 
houses  of  the  retreating  enemies.  The  town 
had  suffered  severely;  hardily  any  of  the  houses 
were  inhabitable.  The  civilians  had  left  their 
homes  over  a  year  before.  In  the  great  offen- 
sive_,  which  began  on  21  March  1918,  the  town 
again  fell  to  the  Germans  after  very  sanguinary 


BAPHOHST,  the  name  of  a  mysterious 
image  which  the  Knights  Templars  were 
cha^d  with  worshipping  whea  the  order  was 
suppressed  by  Philip  IV  of  France.  It  is  prob- 
ably a  corruption  of  Mahomet,  and  the  charge 
may  have  arisen  from  the  circumstance  tl^t 
some  of  the  Templars  had  gone  over  to  the 
Moslem  faith.  According  to  Von  Hammer,  the 
word  signifies  the  baptism  of  Metis,  or  fire, 
and  is  connected  with  Gnostic  rites.  Consult 
Hallam's  'Middle  Agcs.> 

BAPTANODON,  an  extinct  ichthyosaur 
or  fish-lizard  of  the  Jurassic  period.  Its  re- 
mains have  been  found  in  the  marine  Jurassic 
shales  of  Wyoming  and  other  Western  States, 
which  have  hence  been  called  "Baptanodon 
Beds.°  It  is  distinguished  from  the  true  ich- 
thyosaurus (q.v.)  (found  only  in  the  Old 
World)  by  the  form  of  the  paddle-bones, 
which  are  rounded  instead  of  polygonal,  and 
was  incorrectly  supposed  to  be  toothless,  as 
its  name  indicates.  The  skulls  are  two  to  three 
feet  long,  so  that  the  entire  animal  probably 
measured  10  to  15  feet  and  resembled  the  ich- 
thyosaurus in  proportions  and  habits. 

BAPTISM  (from  the  Greek  baptisO^  from 
haptizein,  to  immerse  or  dip),  the  application 
of  water  to  a  person  as  a  sacrament  or  reli- 
gious rite.  It  is  generally  thought  to  have  b«en 
usual  with  the  Jews  even  before  Christ,  being 
administered  to  proselytes,  but  was  probably 
nothing  more  than  a  ceremony  of  punfication. 
From  this  baptism,  however,  that  of  John  the 
Baptist  differed,  because  he  baptized  Jews  also 
as  a  symbol  of  the  necessity  of  perfect  purifi- 
cation from  sin.  Christ  himself  never  baptized, 
but  directed  his  disciples  tu  administer  this  rite 
to  converts  (Matt  xxviii,  19) ;  and  baptism, 
therefore,  became  a  religious  ceremony  among 
Christians,  taking  rank  as  a  sacrament  with  all 
sects  which  acknowledge  sacraments. 

In  the  primitive  Church  the  person  lo  be 
baptized  was  immersed  in  a  river  or  in  a  vesseL 
with  the  words  which  Christ  had  ordered,  and 
a  new  name  was  generally  bestbwed  at  this 
time  further  to. express  the  change.  Sprinkling, 
or,  as  it  was  termed,  clinic  baptism,  was  used 
only  in  the  case  of  the  sick  who  could  not 
leave  their  beds.  The  Greek  Church  and  vari- 
ous Eastern  sects  retained  the  custom  of  im- 
mersion ;  but  the  Western  Church  adopted  or 
allowed  the  mode  of  baptism  by  pouring  or 
sprinkling,  since  continued  bv  most  Protestants. 
This  practice  can  be  traced  back  certainly  to 
the  3d  century,  before  which  its  existence  is 
disputed.  Since  the  Reformation  there  have 
been  various  Protestant  sects,  called  Baptists, 
holding  that  baptism  should  be  administered 
only  by  immersion  and  to  those  who  can  make 
a  personal  profession  of  faith. 

The  Montanists  in  Africa  baptized  even  the 
dead,  and  in  Roman  Catholic  countries  the 
practice  of  baptizing  church  bells  —  a  custom 
of  lOih  century  origin  —  continues  to  this  day. 
Being  an  initiatory  rite,  baptism  is,  therefore, 
administered  only  once  to  the  same  person.  The 
Roman  and  Greek  Catholics  consecrate  the 
water  of  baptism^  but  Protestants  do  not.  The 
act  of  baptism  js  accompanied  only  with  the 
formula  that  the  person  is  baptized  in  the  name 
of  the  Father,  Son  and  Holy  Ghost;  but  among 
most  Christians  it  is  preceded  by  a  confession 


Google 


BAPTISM  FOR  THE  DXAD— BAPTISTS 


file 


of  fsiA  made  by  tlM  person  to  be  baptized,  if 
an  adult,  and  by  his  parents  or  sponsors  if  he 
be  a  child 

The  Roman  Catholic  form  of  baptism  is  far 
more  elaborate  than  the  Protestant.  This 
Church  holds  that  baptism  is  a  sacrament  which 
has  the  effect  to  remove  in  the  individual  the 
penal  consequences  of  the  sin  of  Adam,  to  re- 
store him  to  a  slate  of  supernatural  grace,  and 
to  give  him  a  right  to  the  beatific  vision  of  God, 
remitting  all  actual  sins  committed  by  the  in- 
dividual.  It  also  imprints  an  indelible  charac- 
ter, which  is  both  an  ornament  to  the  soul  and 
a  capacity  tor  receiving  the  other  sacraments. 
The  effect  of  the  sacrament  is  produced  tx 
Qfere  aferato;  that  is,  by  an  act  of  the  Holy 
Qtost  infallibly  accompmnying  the  performance 
of  the  external  rite.  Bishops,  priests  and  dea- 
cons are  the  ordinal^  ministers  of  baptism,  and 
all  others  are  forbidden  to  baptize  except  in 
case  of  necessity.  Baptism  is,  however,  valid 
when  duly  admitiistereo  by  any  person,  and  any 
one  may  lawfully  baptize  in  case  of  necessiQr. 
On  the  part  of  children  and  others  who  have 
never  attained  the  use  of  reason  no  disposi- 
tions  are  required.  In  order  to  receive  the 
sacrament  validly  a  person  who  has  the  use  of 
reason  must  know  what  he  is  doing  and  intend 
to  receive  baptism.  In  order  to  receive  the 
^ace  of  the  sacrament  he  must  have  faith,  and, 
if  he  has  conunitted  mortal  sins,  repentance; 
otherwise  the  grace  of  the  sacrament  remains 
suspended  untifhc  acquires  the  proper  disposi- 
tions. Besides  sacramental  baptism,  called  haP' 
tismum  fluminis,  there  are  two  substitutes  which 
can  supply  its  place,  called,  in  a  nide  and  im- 
proper sense,  baptismitnt  sanguinis  and  haptis- 
mum  fiaminis.  The  former  of  these  is  martyr- 
dom, the  second  is  the  desire  of  baptism, 
accompanied  by  faith  and  perfect  contrition  or 
the  love  of  God,  These  only  supply  the  place 
of  iKiptism  when  it  cannot  be  had,  and  confer 
sanctifying  grace,  but  not  an  indelible  charac- 
ter. Solemn  baptism  is  accompanied  with  the 
application  of  chrism  and  holy  oil,  and  several 
other  ceremonies  of  great  antiquity. 

BAPTISM  FOR  THE  DEAD,  a.  cus- 
tom mentioned  b^  Saint  Paul  in  I  Cor.  zv,  29. 
It  probably  consisted  in  the  vicarious  baptism 
of  a  living  Christian  for  a  catechumen  who 
bad  died  unbaptized,  the  latter  beiiw  thereby 
aixounted  as  baptized.  It  is  doubtful  if  the 
custom  was  ever  widely  prevalent,  and  it  seems 
to  have  soon  died  out  in  the  Church,  althou^ 
kept  alive  by  Marcioniies  and  other  heretics. 
It  was  forbidden  by  the  Synod  of  Hippo  (393). 
It  is  observed  by  the  Mormons  at  (he  present 
day. 

BAPTISM  OP  THE  DEAD,  a  supersti- 
tions custom  which  anciently  prevailed  among 
the  people  of  Africa  of  baptizing  the  dead.  Tlie 
third  council  of  Carthage  (Can.  vi)  speaks  of 
it  as  a  matter  of  which  ignorant  Christiana 
were  fond,  and  forbids  *to  believe  that  the 
Gregory  Hacianzenns 

_.,j   superstitious  opinioa 

prevailed  among  some  who  delayed  to  be  bap- 
tized. It  is  also  mentioned  by  Fhilastrius  as 
the  general  error  of  the  Montanists.  or  Cata- 
Phrygians,  that  they  baptized  men  after  death. 

BAPTIST  CHURCH  OF  CHRIST,  The, 
came  into  separate  existence  in  Tennessee 
about  die  beginning  of  the  19th  century  as  a 


reaction  ag^nst  certain  features  of  excessive 
Calvinism.  General  redemption  and  the  per- 
severance of  the  saints  form  cardinal  articles 
of  their  belief:  and  the  washing  of  feet  is  by 
them  practised  as  an  ordinance.  Congrega- 
tions of  the  Baptist  Church  of  Christ  are 
found  in  Tennessee,  thMr  chief  stronghold, 
Arkansas,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Missouri, 
North  Carolina  and  Texas.  In  dl  there  are 
about  ISO  churches  with  a  total  membership 
of   over  8,000. 

BAPTIST  YOUNO  PEOPLE'S  UNION 
OF  AMERICA,  an  association  representing 
many  young  people's  societies  connected  with 
the  Baptist  churches  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  organized  June  1891  in  Chicago,  which 
place  has  since  been  its  headquarters.  Upon 
the  formation  of  the  Union,  as  the  withdrawal 
of  the  Baptist  societies  was  feared  by  the 
Christian  Endeavor  societies,  a  plan  of  federa- 
tion was  adopted  for  the  establishment  of 
young  people's  societies  over  which  no  consti- 
tution should  be  required.  Conventions  are 
held  yearly.  Consult  Bacon  and  Northrop, 
<Young  People's  Societies*   (New  York  1900). 

BAPTISTA,  John,  Carmelite  poet:  b. 
Mantua  1448;  d.  1516.  His  poetical  writings 
were  well  known  throughout  Europe  during 
his  lifetime^  their  correctness  of  form  ana 
choice  Lalinity  caused  them  to  be  used  as  texts 
in  the  schools.  His  greatest  poem  is  'De  Ca- 
lamitate  Temporum*  (<0n  the  Evils  of  the 
Day'),  and  is  divided  into  three  parts. 

BAPTISTERY,  that  part  of  the  church, 
or  a  special  building  in  which  is  administered 
the  sacrament  of  baptism.  In  the  earliest  ages 
of  Christianity  the  solemn  administration  of 
this  sacrament  was  reserved  to  the  bishop, 
and  to  the  E^scopal  church  was  generally  an- 
nexed a  special  building  called  the  baptistery. 
As  the  converts  to  Christianity  increased,  it 
became  necessary  to  set  aside  for  the  baptis- 
mal ceremonies  a  small  space  within  the  main 
building  of  the  various  parish  churches.  The 
large  baptisteries  were  generally  circular  or 
polygonal  in  form  and  were  placed  close  to 
the  cathedral  church.  Many  were  noted  for 
their  beautiful  architectural  forms.  Northern 
Italy  contains  many  fine  examples,  notably  at 
Pisa,  Parma,  Florence,  Cremona,  Lucca,  Siena, 
Bologna,  Ascoli  and  elsewhere.  Many  of  these 
are  large  buildings  capable  of  holding  great 
throngs  of  people.  About  the  time  of  the 
Renaissance  separate  baptisteries  ceased  to  be 
erected,  baptismal  fonts  within  the  church  tak- 
ing their  place. 

BAPTISTINES.  (1)  A  religious  order  of 
women  founded  in  1744  in  Genoa  by  Baptista 
Solimani.  Their  rule  enjoined  a  strict  fast 
thron^iout  the  entire  year,  the  chanting  of  the 
office  at  midni^t  and  conversation  with  friends 
or  relatives  restricted  to  three  times  during  the 
year.  (2)  A  congregation  of  secular  priests 
founded  in  1755  by  D^mtuc  Olivieri  and  placed 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Cardinal  Prefect 
of  the  Propaganda  by  Pope  Benedict  XIV. 
The  congregation  ceased  to  exist  at  the  end 
of  the  18th  century. 

BAPTISTS,  the  name  of  a  reKgious  bo<^ 


I  England  in  the  Iftat  century,,  they 

Google 


were  mostly  of  Dutch  origui  and  made  uo  pec- 
mauent  impression  on  the  EJigUsh  people.  One 
wing  of  the  English  Purita.ns  at  length  de- 
spaired of  reformiiig  the  Oiu'rch  of  England 
in  accordance  with  their  ideas,  and  decided 
that  it  was  their  duty  to  come  out  of  that 
institution  and  establish  a  "pure  church,*  i.e., 
consisting  only  of  the  regenerate.  These  early 
Separatists  grew  into  the  two  modem  denom- 
inations luiowa  as  CongiegationaUsts  and 
Baptists. 

From  about  1593,  groups  of  Separatists 
gathered  in  and  about' Gain sborou^,  in  Lin- 
colnshire, About  1606,  persecution  drove  them 
to  Holland  Part  of  them,  who  had  met  at 
Scrooby  manor,  went  to  Leydcn,  whence  many 
afterward  became  the  Pilgrims  of  the  May- 
fiower,  who  established  the  colony  of  Plymouth 
TO  1621.  The  Gainsborough  group  went  to 
Amsterdam  with  theit  'teacher,"  the  Rev. 
John  Smyth,  who  had  been  a  clergyman  of  the 
Church  of  England  and  a  lecturer  in  Lincoln 
in  1600.  Here  Smyth  first  became  acquainted 
with  the  theolo^  of  Arminius,  which  he  soon 
adopted,  and  with  the  Mennonites,  whose  re- 
jection of  infant  baptism  seemed  to  him  to  be 
according  to  Scripture.  He  gave  utterance  to 
his  new  views  in  a  tract  called  'The  Character 
of  the  Beast'  (1609),  and  36  adherents  joined 
him  in  establishing  a  new  church  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  baptizing  believers  only.  Smyth  bap- 
tized himself  and  then  his  followers,  and  on 
tlus  account  he  is  often  called  the  •Se-Baptist.» 
In  1611  members  of  this  sect  returned  to  Lon- 
don and  established  a  church  there;  similar 
churches  were  formed  in  other  places,  and 
these  General  Baptists  (so  called  because  they 
believed  in  a  general  or  uniTcrsal  atonement) 
increased  rapidly.  In  1644  their  opponents  esti- 
mated their  numbere  at  47  churches. 

In  1616  a  congregation  of  Separatists  was 

§;red  in  Sou&wark,  London,  ^  Henry 
a,  a  former  minister  of  the  Church  of 
and.  A  peaceable  division  of  this  church 
place  in  1633,  a  part  going  out  to  estab- 
lish a  new  church  and  receiving  "a  new  bap- 
tism,* which  probably  maant  a  l^ptism  on  pro- 
fession of  faith.  In  1640  a  further  division 
occurred,  and  some  of  the  new  group  became 
convinced  that  baptism  should  he  immersion: 
so  they  sent  one  of  their  number,  Richard 
BInnt,  to  Holland,  where  he  was  immersed  by 
a  Mennonite  minister  at  Rhynsberg,  and  on 
his  return  the  members  of  this  church  were 
all  immersed.  In  a  few  years  this  became  the 
established  practice  of  all  the  Baptist  churches. 
In  1644  seven  churches  issued  a  'Confession 
of  faith^*  in  which  baptism  was  for  the  fir: 


known  as  Particular  Baptists,  because  they  in- 
sisted on  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  an  atone- 
ment for  the  elect  only.  This  distinction  of 
General  and  Particular  Baptists  became  less 
significant  with  the  lapse  of  time,  and  ceased 
altogether  with  the  formal  union  of  the  two 
bodie.t  in  1891.  Both  groups  were  one  in  their 
advocacy  of  believers'  baptism  and  soul  lib- 
erty. The  Confession  of  1644  was  the  first 
public  document  lo  assert  liberty  of  conscience 
for  all  men,  as  *the  tenderest  thing  unto  all 
conscientious  men,  and  most  dear  unto  them, 
and  without  which  all  other  libertiea  will  no! 


be  worth  the  """'"g.  mucfa  lest  the  enjtqrii^* 
The  Revolution,  just  then  beginning,  was  their 
opportunity.  Baptists  were  uniformlv  on  the 
side  of  Parliament,  and  several  of  them  rose 
to  high  rank  in  Cromwell's  army,  while  their 
churuies  grew  rapidly. 


It 


the! 


_  natural  that  they  should  expeTiciL__ 
full  share  of  persecution  after  the  Res- 


toration,—long  impruonment,  heavy  fines  and 
even  death  rewarded  their  devotion  to  civil 
and  religious  hber^.  One  of  their  preachers, 
John  Bun^ian  (q.v.),  was  confined  12  j^ears  in 
Bedford  jail  for  tiie  crime  of  preaching  the 
gospel,  and  employed  his  time  in  writing  the 
immortal  allegory  of  'Pil^im's  Progress* 
(q.v.).  The  Revolution  of  lw8,  and  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Toleration  Act  in  the  following 
year,  removed  from  Baptists  the  worst  of  their 
dinbilities,  btit  their  growth  for  a  time  was 
chedted  by  the  influence  of  Socinianism  among 
the  General  Baptists  and  Hyper-Calvinism 
among  the  Particntar  Baptists.  Not  ontil  the 
Wesleyan  revival  of  (he  18th  century  awakened 
all  England  to  new  ^irituai  life  and  vigor  did 
Baptists  rise  to  their  opportunities.  A  new  era 
in  their  history  is  marked  by  the  life  and  labors 
of  William  Carey  (q.v.),  who  led  the  way  in 
organizing  the  English  Baptist  Missionary  So- 
ciety, in  1792,  and  he  became  its  first  mis^on- 
ary  to  India.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the 
great  modem  missionary  movement  among 
English-speaking  Christians,  with  all  that  move- 
ment has  accomplished  for  the  _progress  of 
civilization,  as  well  as  of  Christianity.  One 
of  the  converts  of  the  Wesleyan  revival,  Dan 
Taylor,  established  the  'New  Connexion  of 
General  Baptists*  on  an  evangelical  basis,  and 
this  body  soon  became  strong  and  influential. 
English  Baptists  look  a  prominent  part  i      ' 


important    modern    Sunday-school    movement. 
On*  of  thdr  number,  WilUam  Fox  (q.v.),  be- 
1783,  the  first  school  for  teaching  the 


Bible  to  children,  and  secured  in  1785  the  for- 
mation of  the  first  "Society  for  Promoting 
Sunday-schools.*  The  demand  for  the  Bible 
promoted  by  such  study  caused  the  formation 
of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
(1802),  in  which  a  Baptist  minister.  Rev. 
'Thomas  Hughes,  was  a  leader  and  the  first 
secretary. 

The  growth  of  English  B^tists  went  on 
with  rapid  acceleration  throuf^  the  19th  coi- 
tury.  Some  of  the  best-known  preachers  of 
England  were  of  their  number— Robert  Hall, 
Charles  H.  Spurgeon,  Alexander  Maclaren 
(qq.v.).  The  organization  of  the  Baptist 
Union  in  18.^  marked  a  great  advance  in  soli- 
darity, and  gradually  all  the  denominational 
societies  have  been  either  absorbed  by  it  or 
affiliated  wilh  it.  The  Regents  Park  College 
(1817)  and  Spurgeon's  Pastor's  College  (1856) 
have  been  followed  by  other  institutions  for 
the  training  of  a  ministry  for  the  churches. 

The  first  Baptist  church  in  Wales  was 
formed  at  Swansea,  in  1649,  by  John  Myles, 
and  after  the  Restoration  it  emigrated  in  a 
body  to  Massachusetts.  Vavasor  Powell  left 
the  Church  of  England  and  became  a  Baptist 
about  1655,  and  aided  in  establishing  some  20 
churches  in  Wales.  After  the  Act  of  Tolera- 
tion, Welsh  Baptistt  increased  rapidly;  an  as- 
sociation was  formed  in  1799,  and  the  Baptist 
Union  of  Wales  in   1867.     llie  churdies  are 


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uow  more  numerous  than  tliose  oi  any  other 
denomination  save  the  Wesleyans,  and  are 
mostly  of  the  Calvinistic  type.  In  Scotland  the 
beginiuDg  of  Baptists  was  still  later,  the  first 
church  having  been  formed  in  1750.  Though 
some  preachers  oi  potable  power  have  risen 
among  ihem,  like  Archibald  McLean  and  the 
Haldane  brother!^  they  have  never  made  a  con- 
siderable impression  on  the  Scotch  people. 

From  the  beranntng,  the  Baptist  churches 
of  Great  Britain  nave  been  divided  on  the  ques- 
tion of  communion  with  other  churches.  Most 
of  the  early  Calvinistic  churches  and  part  of 
the  General  Baptists  insisted  on  'close'  com- 
munion, the  restriction  of  the  ordinance  tp 
the  baptized  (immersed).  Most  of  the  Gen- 
eral Baptists  and  part  of  the  Calvinistic  favored 
'open*  communion,  or  invitation  to  the  euchar- 
ist  of  all  Christian  peopi^  whether  immersed 
or  not  Many  churches  followed  the  'open* 
'  iciple  to  its  logical  conclnsion 


churches.  The  number  of  churches  adopting 
the  more  'Uberal*  practices  has  been  steadily 
increasing. 

The  number  of  Baptists  in  Great  Britain  in 
the  last  accessible  report  (1916)  was:  England, 
1,997  churches  264,923  members;  Wales  and 
Monmouthshire,  940  churches,  124,795  mem- 
bers; Scotland,  ISI  churches,  21,871  members; 
besides  a  few  in  Ireland,  Isle  of  Man  and  the 
Channd  Islands,  bringing  the  total  to  3,135 
churches  and  414^925  members. 

Baptists  in  European  countries  have  no 
historic  connection  with  the  Anabaptists  of. 
the  Reformation  period,  but  began  in  the  19th 
century  with  a  mission  to  France  (1832),  a 
cburch  of  six  members  being  formed  in  Paris 
in  1835.  After  the  Revolufioo  of  1843  there, 
was  freedom  from  persecution  and  opportunity 
of  growth,  and  there  has  been  gradual  prog- 
ress, though  slow.  Before  the  European  War, 
there  were  41  churches,  with  1,602  members 
reporled.  The  lack  of  a  school  for  the  train- 
ing of  a  native  ministry  has  been  a  great  bar 
to  the  advance  of  French  Baptists. 

In  Germany,  the  Baptist  churches  were  the 
result  of  the  conversion  and  labors  of  John 
Gerhardt  Oncken,  a  nativeof  Oldenburg  (1800), 
who  spent  some  years  in  England  and  wai  a 
colporter  in  his  native  land  of  the  British  Conti- 
aental  Society.  He  came  to  Baptist  views  of 
the  Church  and  its  ordinances  from  independent 
study  of  the  Scriptures,  without  knowing  that 
a  pec^e  existed  anywhere  who  held  and  prac- 
tised such  principles.  Professor  Bamas  Sears, 
of  the  Baptist  Theological  Seminary  at  Hamil- 
ton, N,  Y.  ^now  the  theological  department  of 
Colgate  University),  was  pursuing  studies  in 
Germanv ;  Oncken  became  aquainted  with 
Urn  ana  was  by  him  immersed,  together  with 
six  others,  and  the  Grst  Baptist  church  of  Ham- 
burg was  constituted.  For  some  years  Bap- 
tists were  severely  persecuted,  but  gradually 
were  granted  toleralion.  and  have  rapidly  in- 
creased, until  in  1916  they  numbered  232 
churches  and  44,338  members.  They  have  estab- 
lisbed  missions  in  the  surrounding  countries : 
Austria,  Belgium,  Bulgaria,  Denmark,  Russia, 
Switzerland,  which  have  been  very  successful. 
In  RusHa,  especially,  the  Baptist  missions  have 
net  with  great  success  among  the  Stundisis 
(q.v.),  a  large  part  of  whom  luve  adopted  the 


STS  881 

Baptist  principles.  Russian  Baptists  in  I9I6 
numbered  839  chucchcs  and  60,295  members. 
With  the  granting  of  complete  toleration  in 
that  country,  there  is  every  reason  to  expect 
that  ihdr  development  will  prpve  remarkable.' 
A  Triennial  Conference  formed  in  1849  unites 
the  operations  of  the  Germian  churches  and 
their  missions  (known  since  1855  as  the  Ger- 
man Baptist  Union).  A  theological  school 
was  established  at  Hamburg  in  1880,  which 
has  given  these  churches  a  well-trained  min- 
istry, and  ibis  fact  has  had  much  to  do  with 
their  progress. 

The  Baptists  of  Sweden  owe  their  origin 
to  Gustaf  W.  Schrocder,  a  Swedish  sailor, 
baptized  at  the  Mariner's  Baptist  Church  of 
New  York  in  1844,  and  Frederick  O.  Nilsson, 
also  a  converted  sailor,  baptized  in  1847  by 
Oncken.  The  first  church  was  so  persecuted 
that  most  of  them  emigrated  and  settled  in 
Minnesota.  In  1861  Captain  Schroeder  buih  a 
mceting-housc  at  Gothenburg,  and  Nilsson  be- 
came its  pastor;  both  were  heavily  fined  for 
holding  a  religious  service,  but  toleration  was 
soon  granted  and  several  other  churches  were 
formed.  In  1857,  they  organiied  a  Conference, 
and  in  1SG6  the  Bethel  Theological  Seminar>- 
was  established  at  Stockholm.  American  Bap- 
tists assisted  in  the  erection  of  a  new  build- 
ing for  this  school  in  1883,  as  they  also  did 
for  the  German  school  at  Hamburg.  Swedish 
Baptists  were  the  first  Christians  to  establish 
Sunday  schools.  Christian  Endeavor  Societies 
and  other  moaern  activities  iti  their  native 
land.  They  have  also  sent  out  missions  to 
Norway  and  Finland,  which  have  been  very 
successful.  In  Sweden  there  are  now  643 
churches  with  54,584  members ;  in  Norway  39 
churches  and  3.588  members;  and  in  Finland 
54  churches  with  3,179  members. 

Baptist  missions  have  been  established  in 
other  countries:  Greece,  Spain,  Italy,  That 
in  Greece  was  long  ago  abandoned,  and  only  a 
mission  in  Italy  by  Southern  Baptists  is  con- 
ducted at  present.  That  began  in  1870  in 
Rome,  where  a  theoli^cal  school  U  maintained, 
and  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  European  War 
flourishing  missionary  work  was  maintained 
in  many  parts  of  the  kingdom.  A  strong  and 
intelligent  native  ministry  is  rapidly  develop- 
ing, and  with  the  restoration  of  peace  growth 
should  be  steady.  There  are  now  46  churches 
and  1,362  members.  Of  all  ^iropean  Baptists 
it  is  true  that  their  niunbers  have  been  con- 
stantly depleted  by  emigration,  while  member- 
ship of  churches  of  the  various  races  in  Amer- 
ica has  been  correspondingly  increased.  The 
total  numeration  of  the  continental  Baptists 
is:   ^098   churches   zmd  202,682  members. 

The  first  Baptist  churches  in  Canada  were 
the  result  either  of  emigration  thither  from 
the  American  colonies,  or  of  roissionarylabors 
by  American  mis.iionaries.  From  1798  the 
formation  of  churches  proceeded  in  both  upper 
and  lower  Canada.  At  an  even  earUer  date. 
Baptists  were  found  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  the 
church  at  Horlon  was  organiEed  in  1778,  A 
group  of  churches  in  the  Ottawa  Association 
were  composed  mainly  of  Scotch  immigrants 
and  among  ihem  were  converts  of  the  Hal- 
dancs.  Since  1846  the  Baptist  Convention  of 
the  Maritime  Provinces  has  directed  the  activi- 
ties of  _  the  churches  of  Nova  Scotia,  New 
Brunswick  and  Prince  Edward's  Island 


■<5t>ogk 


in  1888  various  former  societies  were  consoli- 
daied  into  the  Baptist  Oinveiition  of  Ontario 
and  Quebec.  They  maintain  home  and  foreign 
missions  and  support  their  educational  insti- 
tutions. Of  these  the  most  important  are 
McMaster  University,  at  Toronto,  founded  in 
1880.  and  Acadia  College,  at  Wolfvillc,  N.  S. 
In  the  great  Western  provinces  of  the  Domin- 
ion, Canadian  Baptists  are  discovering  a  fruit- 
ful field  for  their  cultivation.  They  now  num- 
ber; churches,  1,325;  meml>ers,  137,922. 

A  Baptist  church  was  organized  in  Sydney. 
N.  S.  W.,  in  1834.  and  since  that  time  the 
work  has  extended  to  the  principal  towns  of 
Australia,  and  to  the  adjacent  colonies  of  Eng- 
land. Tasmania  and  New  Zealand.  Besides 
the  work  among  the  white  people,  a  mission  is 
maintained  among  the  Maoris.  In  the  seven 
Australasian  states  there  are  now  344  Baptist 
churches,  with  30,168  members.  In  other  Eng- 
lish colonies,  the  institutions  of  rcli^on  have 
uniformly  followed  the  flag  and  sometimes  pre- 
ceded it.  A  church  was  formed  in  south 
Africa  in  1820,  which  was' the  precursor  of 
vety  fruitful  labors,  so  that  now  there  are  131 
churches  and  18,924  members.  A  Baptist 
church  was  established  at  Kingston  in  Jamaica, 
in  1816,  and  now  in  the  West  Indies  there 
are  379  churches  and  53,680  members. 

Baptists  in  the  United  States.—  1.  Before 
the  formation  of  the  General  Convention. — 
Among  the  early  settlers  of  the  American  colo- 
nies were  some  who  were  called  'Anabaptists,* 
but  the  first  attempt  to  organize  a  church  was 
made  in  the  colony  of  Rhode  Island,  soon  after 
its  loundation  (J638).  Roger  Williams  ((J.V,). 
an  English  Puritan,  educated  at  the  Umver- 
sity  of  Cambridge,  came  to  Massachusetts  Bay 
in  1631  and  was  soon  called  to  be  minister  of 
the  church  at  Salem.  He  taught  several  things 
that  were  r^arded  as  heresies,  and  was  con- 
demned by  the  General  Court,  8  Oct.  1635,  to 
be  deported  to  England,  chiefly  because  he 
denied  the  authority  of  the  civil  magistrate  to 
punish  other  than  civil  offenses.  He  fled  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  court,  purchased  some 
land  from  the  Narragansett  Indians  and  estab- 
lished (he  colony  of  Rhode  Island,  those  who 
settled  with  him  making  a  compact  to  obey  the 
laws  duly  enacted  "only  in  civil  things."  This 
was  the  first  government  in  the  world  to  be 
established  on  the  basis  of  absolute  religious 
liberty.  Williams  was  joined  by  some  of  his 
Salem  church,  and  from  their  study  of  the 
Scriptures  they  decided  that  baptism  of  in- 
fants is  unwarranted.  Williams  was  baptized 
by  one  of  the  number,  Ezckiel  Holliman^.  and 
then  baptized  the  others,  thus  constituting  a 
church  of  12  members  (March  1639).  It  is 
not  quite  certain  how  the  baptism  was  admin- 
istered, but  there  is  no  record  of  a  later  change 
from  affusion  to  immersion. 

At  about  the  same  time  a  colony  was  begun 
at  Newport,  the  leader  of  which  was  John 
Clarke,  an  English  physician  of  Puritan  tenden- 
cies. The  church  formed  by  them  soon  be- 
came, if  it  was  not  from  the  first,  a  Baptist 
church  (the  traditional  date  is  1644,  but  the 
early  records  have  perished).  A  Welsh  Bap- 
tist church  cmiRrated  in  a  body  in  1663,  and 
settled  iirst  at  Rehobolh,  then  at  Swansea. 
The  Puritans  looked  with  little  favor  on  any 


severe.  John  Clarke  and  Obadiah  Holmes  came 
from  the  Newi>ort  church  and  held  a  reli^^ous 
service  in  a  private  house  at  Lynn,  for  which 
they  were  sentenced  to  pay  a  heavy  fine  or  be 
"well  whipped.*  A  friend  paid  Oarke's  fine, 
but  Holmes  was  whipped  in  the  streets  of 
Boston,  6  Sept.  I6S1.  A'Bajrtist  church  was 
formed  in  Boston  in  1665,  and  its  first  minister, 
Thomas  Goold,  was  several  times  imprisoned 
and  treated  with  such  severity  that  his  health 
was  undermined  and  he  died  in  1675.  Other 
members  of  this  church  were  likewise  treated, 
and  when,  in  1678.  a  small  meeting-house  was 
built,  by  order  of  the  General  Court  the  doors 
were  nailed  up.  A  church  formed  in  Kitteo'. 
Me.,  then  part  of  the  Massachusetts  colony, 
was  so  harassed  that  they  removed  in  a  ho^ 
(17  members)  lo  Charleston,  S.  C.  where  they 
established  the  first  Baptist  church  in  the  South. 
Persecution  continued  until  the  charter  of 
IftSI.  which  granted  'liberty  of  conscience  lo 
all  Christians  except  Papists.*  Churches  were 
gradually  formed  in  the  other  New  England 
colonies,  but  at  the  beginning  of  the  Great 
Awakening  ( 1740)  there  were  but  eight  churches 
in  Ma ssadhu setts,  and  hardly  as  many  more  in 
the  rest  of  New  England. 

Another  groui>  of  Baptist  churches  gathered 
about  Philadelphia,  the  first  being  formed  in 
1688  at  Pennepek  (now  within  the  city  limits), 
while  at  the  same  time  another  church  was 
organized  at  Middletown,  N.  I.  Within  the 
next  decade  a  number  of  churches  were  estab- 
lished in  New  Jersey  and  about  Philadelphia, 
which  soon  came  into  fraternal  relations  and 
held  "general  meetings*  with  each  church  in 
tura  Out  of  this  custom  grew  the  first  Asso- 
dation  (1707),  a  delegated  body  having  no 
legislative  or  judicial  authority  over  churches 
or  ministers,  hut  having  in  its  care  their  com- 
mon interests  and  conoiicting  their  missionary' 
and  benevolent  work.  As  Baptist  churches 
became  more  numerous  other  associations  were 
formed,  but  the  Philadelphia  was  long  the  lead- 
ing body  and  is  still  one  of  the  moat  influen- 
tial. The  issue  of  a  Confession  of  Faith  in 
1742,  in  the  main  a  readoption  of  the  Eng- 
lish Confession  of  1688  (which  was  essentially 
the  Westminster),  determined  the  thcolo^cal 
trend  of  American  Baptists  toward  Calvinism, 
rather  than  Arminianism. 

The  Baptist  churches  fully  participated  in 
the  spiritual  results  of  the  Great  Awakening 
(q.v.),  and  in  all  the  colonies  they  made  rapid 
advance.  In  Massachusetts,  for  example,  the 
number  of  churches  grew  in  40  years  from  8 
to  73,  and  of  members  from  200  lo  over  3.000. 
In  the  whole  of  New  England,  the  increase  was 
tenfold,  and  even  more  rapid  growth  was 
made  in  the  South  Atlantic  States.  Severe 
persecutions  in  Virginia  did  little  to  retard 
this  advance,  and  after  the  Revolution  progress 
was  greatly  accelerated.  From  this  time  puni- 
tive laws  were  repealed  in  all  the  States,  and 
gradually  all  forms  of  reli^ous  behef  were 
placed  on  an  wjual  le^al  footing.  The  principle 
of  entire  religious  liberty,  first  embodied  in 
law  in  the  colony  of  Rhode  Island,  became  the 
accepted  principle  of  the  Federal  Constitution 
and  was  adopted  soon  in  the  various  State 
Constitutions,  This  principle  had  been  adi-o- 
cated  consistently  bj;  English  Baptists  from 
their  beginning,  and  its  incorporation  into  flie 
fundamental  law  of  the  Uniteo  States  hu  \ 


Google 


followed  by  pfacticall;^  every  American  country 
and  is  to-day  recognized  by  European  jurists 
and  statesmen  as  the  most  important  contribu- 
tion of  modern  times  to  political  philosophy 
and  the  science  oE  government.  In  1906  France 
became  the  first  European  nation  to  adopt  the 
same  principle. 

The  settlement  of  the  West  after  the  Revolu- 
tion offered  a  great  opportunity  to  the  Baptists. 
The  churches  and  associations  of  the  older 
communities  sent  traveling  preachers  as  mis- 
sionaries among;  the  new  settlements.  Baptist 
churches  were  in  many  ca^es  the  first  to  be 
formed  in  the  new  States,  and  in  all  cases 
among  the  first  There  are  no  trustworthy 
Statistics,  but  an  estimate  generally  accepted 
is  that  in  1800  there  were  4S  associations  and 
1200  Baptist  churches  in  all  the  States,  with 
100/XW  tnembers.  The  growth  of  Baptists  dur- 
ing this  early  period  far  outstripped  that  of  the 
population. 

2.  From  the  Foundation  of  the  General  Con- 
vention to  the  Division  of  the  Denomination. 
—  Up  to  this  time  the  Baptist  churches  had  little 
cohesion  and  no  common  enterprises.  They 
■were  now  led  to  unite  in  the  work  of  foreign 
missions.  In  1810  the  American  Board  of  Com- 
missioners for  Foreign  Missions  had  been 
formed,  mainly  by  the  O^ngregalional  churches 
of  Massachusetts,  and  had  sent  several  mis- 
sionaries to  India,  among  them  Adoniram  Jud- 
son  (q.v.)  and  his  wife  and  Luther  Rice.  From 
study  of  the  Scriptures  they  became  convinced 
that  only  believers  should  be  baptized,  and  that 
the  apostolic  baptism  was  immersion.  So  on 
their  arrival  at  Calcutta  they  sought  out  Eng- 
lish Baptist  missionaries  and  were  immersed. 
This  involved  severance  of  their  relations  with 
the  Board  that  had  sent  them  out;  so  the  Eng- 
Ush  Baptists  assumed  temporary  support  of 
the  Judsons,  and  Luther  Rice  returned  to 
interest  American  Baptists  in  th^s  missionary 
enterprise.  He  quicWly  found  churches  in  and 
about  Boston  to  undertake  the  support  of  the 
Jndsons ;  and  then  undertook  a  tour  of  the 
country  and  the  enlistment  in  fordgn  missions 
of  all  Baptist  churches.  His  labors  were  so 
extensive  and  successful  that  a  convention  of 
delegates  representing  Baptists  of  all  States 
niet  at  Philadelphia  in  May  1814  and  formed 
the  General  Convention  of  the  Baptist  Denomi- 
nation in  the  United  States  for  Foreign  Missions. 
For  a  time  the  convention  carried  on  home 
missions  also,  but  in  tS32  a  separate  American 
Baptist  Home  Mission  Society  (q.v.)  was 
formed.  A  Tract  Society  begun  at  Washing- 
ton in  1824  was  later  removed  to  Philadelphia 
aiid  grew  into  the  American  Baptist  Publica- 
tion Society.  These  three  national  societies 
became  the  great  bond  of  unity  between  the 
churches  —  the  only  bond  of  unity  possible  un- 
der the  con^re^tional  polity  of  Baptists,  which 
■     :  mdependence  of  each  church  in 


.  a  work.  More  than  any  other  assign- 
able cause,  this  explains  the  remarkable  growth 
of    Baptists    during    the    next    three    or    four 

Next  to  this,  the  activity  of  Baptists  in 
Sunday-school  work  is  the  kev  to  their  prog- 
ress. The  Sunday  schools  of  Robert  Raikes 
(q.v.)  were  secular  schools;  the  first  real  Sun- 
day school,  with  the  Bible  as  the  textbook, 
was  that  of  William  Fox.    In  1797  the  Second 


Baptist  Church  of  Baltimore  began  such  a 
school  and  after  1800  Sunday  schools  increased 
rapidly.  The  progress  of  missions  and  Sun- 
day schools  caused  a  great  demand  for  the 
Bible,  both  in  the  English  version  and  in  trans- 
lations made  by  missionaries.  This  led  to 
local  societies  for  the  circulation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  at  length  to  a  national  organization, 
the  American  Bible  Society,  formed  in  1816 
by  representatives  of  evangelical  denomina- 
tions. The  rerfusal  by  the  Society  to  print 
versions  made  by  Baptist  missionaries  caused 
the  holding  of  a  convention  in  Philadelphia  in 
1837  and  the  forming  of  the  American  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society.  A  controversy  in  this 
body  about  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into 
English  was  the  origin  of  the  American  Bible 
Union,  in  1850. 

The  unanimity  of  Baptists  in  these  new 
enterprises  was  soon  impaired.  Violent  oppo- 
iition  was  made  to  the  Sunday  schools,  mis- 
sionary and  Bible  societies,  and  even  to  the 
Convention,  as  unscriptural.  Deeper  still,  as 
a  cause  of  disunion,  was  the  drift  of  the  ma- 
jority of  the  churches  away  from  the  older 
extreme  Calvinism,  to  which  the  minority  re- 
mained attached.  The  result  of  agitation  of 
these  questions  was  division  of  the  churches, 
3  comparatively  small  minority  withdrawing 
from  co-operation  with  the  others  and  forming 
the  body  since  known  by  the  various  names  of 
Old  School,  Primitive  or  *Hard  Shell*  Bap- 
tists. The  churches  of  this  order  have  shown 
little  capacity  of  growth  in  the  North,  and  many 
of  them  have  become  extinct^  but  they  arc 
numerous  and  even  flourishing  in  some  South- 
ern States,  especially  in  the  mountainous  parts 
of  Tennessee  and  Georgia.  There  was  another 
large  secession  of  Baptists  in  the  South  and 
Southwest  as  a  result  of  the  movement  led  by 
Alexander  Clampbell  and  others,  from  1815  to 
1835^  resultmg  in  the  establishment  of  the 
Disciples  of  Christ  (q.v.).  This  did  not  se- 
riously affect  the  Baptists  of  the  Middle  and 
New  England  Slates,  but  they  suffered  almost 
equally  from  the  agitation  known  as  the  Mit- 
lerite  movement,  which  was  the  origin  of  the 
Adventists   (q.v.). 

In  spite  of  all  hindrances  Baptists  Increased 
notably  in  numbers  in  the  period  we  are  con- 
sidering. They  participated  in  the  great  re- 
vivals that  characterized  these  years.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  century,  being  one  in  14 
of  the  population,  they  came  by  184S  to 
be  one  in  six,  having  increased  in  members 
from  100,000  to  686,807,  and  in  churches  from 
1,200  10  ^406. 

3.  From  the  Division  in  JS4S  to  the  For- 
mation of  the  Northern  Baptist  Convention, 
1907.—  The  controversy  regarding  slavery  ef- 
fected schisms  in  nearly  every  religious  body 
of  the  United  Stales.  From  1825  onward  this 
became  a  subject  of  bitter  debate  everywhere, 
and  could  not  he  kept  out  of  the  meetings  of 
religious  societies,  inasmuch  as  it  was  at  bot- 
tom an  ethical  and  religious  question.  Com- 
promises proved  unworkable,  and  in  May  1845 
a  convention  representing  the  Baptist  churches 
of  the  South  met  at  Augusta,  Ga.,  and  formed 
the  Southern  Baptist  Convention.  The  com- 
mon missionary  enterprises  were  thencefor- 
ward carried  on  by  various  boards  elected  by 
the    Convention   and    responsible 


to    it,  and       . 

Lioogle 


thence  to  the  churches.  This  has  proved  to  be 
a  very  compact,  flexible  and  effective  organiza- 
tion, much  superior  to  that  of  the  North.  There 
the  old  Convention  was  transformed  after  the 
division  into  the  American  Baptist  Missionary 
Union,  and  made  an  exclusively  foreign  mis- 
sionary society,  and  the  Home  Mission  and 
Pubhcation  Society  remained  entirely  inde- 
pendent Three  organi rations  instead  of  one 
proved  to  be  a  complicated  and  expensive 
method  o^  doing  the  business  of  the  churches, 
besides  introducing  rivalry  and  confusion, 
which  became  worse  rather  than  better  as  time 
went  on.  The  two  Bible  societies  further  com- 
plicated matters,  and  at  one  time  threatened 
another  disruption,  but  a  convention  held  at 
Saratoga  in  1883  effected  a  settlement  of  the 
Bible  question  by  recommending  that  the  work 
abroad  be  done  through  the  Missionary  Union 
and    that    at    home    through    the    PubHcatioD 

During  this  third  period  Baptjsts  have  pros- 
pered in  all  their  enterprises,  but  their  most 
notable  advance  has  been  in  educational  work. 
They  began  before  the  Revolution  to  establish 
schools.  Brown  University  having  been. opened 
in  1764,  and  a  number  of  colleges  and  theo- 
logical schools  were  founded  before  1850. 
Their  combined  endowments  were  small,  prob- 
ably less  than  $500,000,  and  their  students  few. 
There  are  now  (1917)  IS  theological  schools, 
with  1,449  students,  property  valued  at  over 
M,000,000  and  endowments  of  more  than 
^000,000;  12  institutions  of  collegiate  grade, 
with  41,030  students,  property  valued  at  nearly 
439,000,000  and  endowments  of  over  $42,000,- 
000:  besides  academies  to  the  number  of  118, 
with  18,019  students,  nearly  $7,000,000  in  prop- 
erty, but  with  endowments  less  than  $3,000,000 
—  most  of  them  having  none  whatever.  These 
statistics  do  not  include  institutions  like  George 
Washington  (formerly  Columbian)  University 
and  the  Universitv  of  Chicago,  founded  oy 
Baptists  and  largely  endowed  by  them,  which 
are  not  distinctively  Baptist,  The  inclusion 
of  such  would  about  double  the  figures  given 
above  tor  property  and  endowment, 

Durine  this  third  period  Bapti.sts  increased 
numerically  much  faster  than  the  population, 
the  latter  increasing  about  three  and  one-third- 
fold,  while  Baptists  increased  sixfold.  The 
statistics  for  1917  report  1,986  associations, 
51,248  churches  and  6,197,686  members,  or  one 
to  every  16  of  the  population,  exclusive 
of  the  Territories.  Of  these  2,593,249  are 
Southern  whites  and  2,150,929  are  negroes. 
The  separate  organizations  of  the  latter  were 
formed  after  the  close  of  the  Civil  War,  their 
first  State  convention  being  in  North  Carolina, 
in  1866,  and  their  national  convention  having 
been  organized  in  1880- 

The  formation  of  the  Northern  Baptist 
Convention  in  1907  was  the  result  of  agitation 
for  the  unifying  of  the  work  of  Northern 
Baptists.  It  IS  a  strictly  delegated  body  from 
the  churches,  which  elects  the  officers  of  the 
three  missionary  societies,  supervises  their 
work  and  controls  their  expenditures.  In  view 
of  the  legal  obstacles  to  actual  consolidation, 
this  seems  to  be  the  most  practicable  method 
of  securing  unity.  An  annual  budget  is  voted 
by  the  Convention  and  apportioned  to  the 
State  conventions,  thence  to  the 


and  finally  to  each  cburdi,  which  is  expected 
to  raise  or  surpass  the  siun  suggested.  The 
practical  efficiency  of  this  scheme  has  not  yet 
been  fully  demonstrated.  In  1910  the  Free 
Baptists  decided  to  merge  their  missionary 
work  with  that  of  the  Northern  Baptists, 
which  is  as  near  an  official  union  of  the  two 
bodies  as  the  Baptist  polity  admits.  The  theo- 
logical and  other  differences  between  the  two 
bodies  long  since  virtually  disappeared. 

The  advance  of  home  and  foreign  missions 
has  also  been  a  marked  feature  of  recent  years. 
Until  1859  Baptist  forei^  missions  were  prac- 
tically confined  to  India  and  China.  Since 
lliat  time  missions  have  been  established  in 
every  Asiatic  country,  notably  in  Japan,  and 
the  scope  of  previous  labors  has  beerj  greatly 
widened  Since  the  United  States  acquired 
the  Philippines  a  mission  has  been  begun  there. 
An  already  established  African  mission  was 
taken  over  in  1884  and  has  been  vigorously 
prosecuted.  .  Southern  Baptists,  besides  main- 
taining Asiatic  missions,  have  evangelized  some 
of  the  countries  of  South  America.  In  Asia 
there  are  now  1,897  Baptist  churches,  with 
213,647  members;  in  Africa,  131  churches  and 
18,924  members;  and  in  South  America  150 
diurches  and  16,928  members.  The  contribu- 
tions for  missions  have  doubled  thrice,  and 
now  amount  for  Northern  Baptists  to  $1^300,- 
000,  and  for  the  SouUiem  to  nearly  $700,000. 
In  home  missions,  besides  the  usual  evangeliz- 
ing agencies,  a  very  important  educational 
work  among  the  Southern  negroes  has  been 
conducted  since  the  Civil  War;  13  higher 
schools  and  10  secondary  schools  are  now 
maintained,  at  a  cost  of  $130,000  a  year.  The 
work  among  foreign  populations  is  also  of 
much  significance;  356  missionaries  and  four 
teachers  are  engaged  in  it.  The  annua]  in- 
come for  this  work  amounts  to  more  than 
$1,000,000,  'A  similar  work  is  conducted  by 
the  Southern  Baptists  through  a  Home  Mis- 
sion Board,  with  an  expenditure  oi  S387,0m. 
There  has  been  similar  expansion  in  the  worle 
of  the  American  Baptist  Publication  Society, 
which  publishes  58,982,000  copies  of  Stmday 
school  periodicals  annually,  and  does  a  gen- 
eral publishing  and  book- selling  business 
amounting  to  $321,000  additional.  Besides 
this,  it  conducts  Bible,  colportage  and  tnisskni- 
ary  work,  with  an  expenditure  of  over  $60(^- 
000.  The  Sundaj;  School  Board  of  the  South- 
ern Baptists  carries  on  similar  work,  with  an- 
nual income  of  $474,000. 

In  all  comparisons  of  Baptists  with  other 
religious  bodies,  only  communicant  members 
should  be  reckoned.  Every  Baptist  member 
is  necessarily  a  commimicani,  since  a  cardinal 
principle  of  all  Baptists  is  that  none  should 
be  baptized  and  become  members  of  the  Church 
except  on  their  personal,  intelligent  profession 
of  faith.  However  Baptists  may  differ  or* 
other  points,  they  are  a  unit  on  this.  They 
are  also  one  in  maintaining  that  baptism,  as 
commanded  by  Christ  and  practised  by  the 
apostles  was  the  immerMon  of  such  a  pro- 
fessed believer.  A  third  point  in  which  they 
are  united  is  that  the  Christian  Church  is  a 
democracy,  in  which  "there  is  neither  male  nor 
female,"  and  that  each  church  is  independent 
of  any  external  authority  in  its  own  affairs. 
From  this  thej-  draw  a  corollary,  whidi  may 


Google 


BAPTISTS  — BAR 


church  and  state  should  be  absolutely  sepa- 
rate, With  regard  to  other  matters  they  have 
differed  so  widely,  that  there  are  still  in  the 
United  Slates  at  least  13  difCerent  varieties 
of  Baptists  that  maintain  separate  orKaniia- 
tions.  All  but  one  of  these,  often  called  bj 
way  of  distinctioii  the  'regular"  Baptists,  are 
comparatively  small  in  numbers,  the  whole 
not  numbering  more  than  400^000  members. 

The  number  of  Baptists  in  the  world,  as 
rUKirted  for  1916^  is :  61,335  churches,  with 
7/()0,324  members. 

BibUography.— Vedder.  H.  C,  <A  Short 
History  of  the  BapHsts'  fPhlladelphia  1892i 
enlarged  illustrated  ed.  1907)  ;  Mcrnam.  E.  P., 


it  Churches  in  the  United  States'  (New  York 
1898) ;  id.,  'A  Century  of  Baptist  Achievement' 
{Philadelphia  1901);  Wright,  M.  E^  'Mission- 
ary Work  of  the  Southern  Baptist  Convention' 
(ib.  1902). 

Hensy  Clay  Vedder, 
Professor  of  Church  History,  Crosier  Theo- 
logical Sftainary. 
BAPTISTS,  FrMwill,  originated  in  New 
Hampshire  in  1780,  as  a  strongly  anti-Calvin- 
istic  body.  Beniamin  Randall,  a  Congrega- 
tionalist,  left  diat  body  and  advocated  open 
communion.  He  was  influenced  in  this  step 
by  the  prominence  given  by  the  Methodists  to 
various  of  the  ideas  advocated  by  him.  Ran- 
dall's first  Freewill  Baptist  Church  was  in 
New  Durhani,  K.  H.  In  ld41  the  Free-Ci»n- 
mnnion  Baptists  of  New  York  State  united 
with  the  Freewill  Baptists.  In  1870  the  Free- 
will Baptists  numbered  about  60,000,  and  in 
1895  over  86,000.  For  some  years  past  they 
have  been  officiaUy  known  as  "Free  Baptists." 
In  1910  the  Free  Baptists  and  the  Regular 
Baptists  of  the  United  States  consolidated 
their  missionary  societies  and  work  and  made 
it  possible  for  the  local  churches  to  unite,  if 
they  saw  fit.  In  1912  the  Free  Baptists  bad 
still  1,110  churches  and  over  65.000  adherents. 
The  'Original  Freewill  Baptists."  a  distinct 
organization,  similar  to  the  GenernI  Baptists 
of  England,  date  their. origin  from  1729.  In 
1912  they  had  834  churches  and  over  57,000 
members, 

BAPTISTS,  Gertnan  Brethren.  See  Ger- 
UAN  Baptist  Brethren. 

BAPTISTS,  Old  School  or  Primitive. 
This  body  split  ofT  from  the  other  Baptist  de- 
nominations about  IS35,  though  they  them- 
selves claim  to  be  the  "original  Baptists." 
They  are  opposed  to  the  strong  Calvinistic 
tendencies  exhibited  by  others  of  the  Baptist 
denominations,  and  do  not  countenance  paid 
ministers,  and  consequently  they  do  not  main- 
tain theological  seminaries,  schools  or  col- 
Itgea.  They  have  gradually  lost  their  hold  in 
the  Middle  States,  where  education  has  spread, 
but  the^  still  hold  their  own  in  the  mountain- 
ous regions  of  Georgia,  Tennessee  and  North 
Carolina.  In  all  they  have  nearly  3,000 
churches  and  over  lOO.ObO  members. 

BAPTISTS,  Seventh-Day,  who  hold  that 
the  command  to  observe  the  seventh  day,  the 
Jewish  Sabbath,  is  incumbent  upon  all  Qiris- 
tians  as  well  as  Jews,  date  the  foundation  of 


dieir  society  back  to_  1676,  when  the  fir^t 
church  of  the  denomination  was  opened  in 
Ij>ndon  by  Frands  Bampfield,  prebendary  of 
Exeter  Cathedral.  Since  then  various  churcbqs 
professing  the  same  views  as  Bampfield  have 
come  into  existence  aod  several  of  them  have 
disappeared.  The  original  society  is  still  active. 
The  first  church  of  the  Seventh-Day  Baptists 
was  founded  at  Newport,  R.  1.,  in  1671  by  Ste- 
phen Mumford,  Although  this  latter  is  older 
than  the  English  by  a  few  years  it  does  not 
appear  that  the  one  grew  out  of  the  other. 
The  American  society,  which  has  its  missionary 
headquarters  at  Westerly,  R.  I.,  is  active  in 
missionary  work  and  maintains  a  publishing 
house  at  Flainfleld.  N.  J, ;  an  academy  at 
Salem,  W.  Va,.  and  two  colleges,  one  at  Mil- 
ton, Wb..  and  the  other  at  Alfred  Centre, 
N.  Y.  The  96  churches  and  more  than  8,000 
members  of  the  American  society  are  scattered 
over  24  States. 

BAPTISTS,  Sixth-Principle,  believe  that 
the  h^ng-on  of  hands  is  an  indispensable  or- 
dinance of  the  Church  of  Christ.  They  are  a 
survival  of  the  General  Baptists  who  early 
made  their  appearance  in  Connecticut  and 
Rhode  island,  la  1917  the  Society  had  less 
than  1,000  members. 

BAPTISTS,  Twe-Se«d-iii-the>Spirit,  had 
their  origin  in  the  preaching  and  ultra- Calvin- 
istic doctrines  of  Danid  Pariter,  a  Baptist 
elder  and  preacher  of  Tennessee.  Parker,  who 
was  ordained  in  1806  in  Tennessee^  became  on^ 
of  the  strongest  opponents  of  the  organited 
work  of  the  Church.  In  1817  he  moved  to  UU- 
nois,  where  he  continued  his  opposition  to  the 
work  and  or^nization  of  the  r^ular  Churdt 
for  19  years.  Later  he  went  to  Texas,  la  va- 
rions  pamphlets  (1^6-29)  Parker  made  public 
iome_  very  peculiar  theories  he  held  concerning 
the  introduction  •mtd  perpetuation  of  evil  in 
the  human  race.  According  to  tbae  beliefs-' 
God,  when  He  created  Adam  and  Eve,  kifuseia 
into  them  particles  of  Htmsdf.  thus  making 
them  altogether  ^ood;  the  devil  corrupted 
them  b^  infusing  into  them  particles  of  him- 
idf.  Ere,  hy  predestination,  brought  forth  a 
certain  number  of  good  and  a  certain  number 
of  bad  offsprings;  and  all  her  daughters  after 
her  were  predestined  to  do  likewise.  The 
atonement,  according  to  Parker,  applies  only 
to  those  bom  of  the  good  seed,  those  born  of 
the  bad  being  absolutely  lost.  This  Baptist 
sect  is  uncompromisingly  opposed  to  ^11  hu- 
man institutions."  They  are  found  in  21  States 
and  have  nearly  SCO  clmrr^es  and  nearly 
13,000  members. 

BAPTISTS,  United,  were  so-called  after 
the  union  of  the  Regular  and  Separate  Bap- 
tists in  Kentucky  in  1801.  They  departed 
somewhat  from  the  stricUy  CalvinTstic  prin- 
ciples laid  down  by  other  denominations.  The 
latest  census  rives  the  United  Baptists  196 
churches  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Missouri, 
Alabama  and  Arkansas  with  a  membership  of 
about  13,000.  At  one  lime  the  Association  was 
much  stronger  than  it  is  now;  but  the  union 
of  many  of  the  United  Baptist  churches  with 
other  Baptist  denominations  weakened  them 
greatly. 


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2S6 


BAR  —  B  AR^UK-AUBB 


horizontal  lines  passing  over  the  shield  and 
occupying  one-fifth  of  the  surface. 

In  hydrography,  a  barrier  of  sand  in  the 
channel  of  a  river  or  along  the  scacoast.  Riv- 
ers are  constantly  engaged  in  the  transporta- 
tion of  sediment  seaward,  and  whenever  the 
current  is  checked  the  suspended  material  sinks 
and  accumulates  along  the  bottom.  Bars  thus 
formed  may  disappear  during  periods  of  floods 
when  the  water  gains  increased  velocity,  and 
they  frequently  change  their  position  with  slight 
alterations  in  the  course  of  the  current.  Sand- 
bars arc  also  common  at  the  mouths  of  rivers 
where  the  fiow  of  the  water,  and  therefore  its 
transporting  power,  is  lessened  before  entering 
the  sea.  "Hie  precipitation  of  the  sediment  is 
assisted  in  this  case  by  the  mingling  of  the 
fresh  and  saline  water.  The  formation  of  such 
bars  does  not  differ  from  that  of  a  delta.  The 
transporting  action  of  currents  and  waves 
sometimes  Duilds  up  a  lon^  line  of  bars  or 
reefs  along  the  seacoast,  as  is  seen  on  the  At- 
lantic and  Gulf  shores  of  the  United  States. 
See  Reef. 

In  law,  a  word  having  several  meanings; 
thus,  it  is  the  term  used  to  sip:nif^  an  enclosure 
or  fixed  place  in  a  court  of  justice  where  law- 
yers may  plead.  In  Enghsh  superior  courts 
King's  counsel  are  admitted  within  the  bar; 
other  members  of  the  bar  sit  or  stand  outside. 
A  railed-off  space  within  the  Houses  of  Lords 
and  Commons  is  similarly  called  the  bar.  The 
dock,  or  enclosed  space,  where  accused  persons 
stana  or  sit  during  their  trial  is  also  called  the 
bar;  hence  the  expression  "prisoner  at  the  bar.* 
It  has  also  a  general  meamng  in  legal  proced- 
ure, signifying  something  by  way  of  stoppage 
or  prevention.  There  is  also  a  trial  at  bar  — 
that  is,  a  trial  before  the  jut^s  of  a  particular 
court,  who  sit  together  for  that  purpose  in 
hanc  The  term  is  used  both  iu  England  and 
the  United  States  as  a  synonym  for  the  legal 
profession. 

In  mutic,  a  line  drawn  vertically  across  the 
stafi,  for  the  purpose  of  dividing  the  music  into 
equal  measures  of  time.  The  term  is  very 
often  improperly  applied  to  measures  them- 
selves. The  quantity  of  time  included  between 
two  bars  varies  as  the  time  is  triple  or  common, 
the  farmer  being  equivalent  to  three  crotchets 
and  the  latter  to  four.  The  thick  bar  at  the 
end  of  a  piece  of  music  is  called  the  double 
har.  Bars  were  first  used  about  the  middle  of 
the  ISth  century.    See  Measure. 

BAR,  Karl  Lndwig  von,  German  Jurist: 
b.  Hanover  1836;  d.  21  Aug.  1913.  He  was 
trained  in  the  universities  of  Gottingen  and 
Berlin,  and  sat  in  the  Reichstag  1890-93.  He 
was  a  strong  advocate  of  publicity  as  well  as 
of  more  humane  procedure  in  all  criminal 
trials.  Sometime  proFessor  at  Gottingen  and 
a  member  of  The  Hague  tribunal,  Dr.  Bar  ac- 

auired  a  world-wide  reputation  as  a  high  au- 
lority  on  international  law  and  a  leading 
advocate  of  international  arbitration.  Import- 
ant works  by  him  are  'Das  Internationale 
Privat  und  Slrafrceht'  (1862)  ;  'Die  Redefrci- 
heit  der  Milglieder  gezetzgcbender  Ver.samm- 
lungen'  (1868);  'Die  Lehre  vom  Kausalzu- 
sanunenhange  im  Rechte'  (1871);  'Das 
Deutsche  Rcichsgericht'  (187S) ;  'Staat  und 
Katholische  Kirche  in  Preussen'    (1883). 


BAR,  Russia,  a  town  in  the  government  of 
Podolia;  so  called  after  the  birthplace  of  its 
foimdress.  Bona  Sforza,  the  wife  of  King  S^ 
ismund  I  of  Poland.  It  is  famous  as  the  place 
where  a  confederation  of  the  Polish  people  was 
held  with  a  view  to  combating  the  Russian  in- 
fluence and  the  adherents  of  Russia  in  Poland, 
29  Feb.  1768.  The  Russians  took  Bar  by  storm 
on  the  following  28  May,  together  with  1,400 
men  and  20  pieces  of  cannon.  Eleven  fairs 
are  annually  held  here.  Leather- dressing,  dis- 
tilling, brick-making  and  a  trade  in  gram  are 
carried  on.     Pop.  about  13,000, 

BAR  HARBOR,  Ue.,  a  popular  summer 
resort  in  Eden  township,  Hancock  County, 
Me.,  on  the  east  shore  of  Mount  Desert  Island. 
It  is  on  a  branch  of  the  Maine  Central  Rail- 
road and  is  also  served  by  steamship  lines  from 
New  York,  Boston,  Portland  and  other  Atlan- 
tic coast  ports,  llie  ocean  here  is  often  too 
cold  for  bathing,  even  in  summer,  and  a  large 
open-air  sea-water  swimming  pool  serves  as  a 
substitute.  There  is  a  naval  coaling  station  on 
the  north  shore  of  Eastern  Bay,  and  Bar  Har- 
bor is  frequently  the  rendezvous  in  summer  of 
the  north  Atlantic  squadron  of  the  United 
States  navy.  It  derives  its  name  from  a  sandy 
bar  which  connects  Mount  Desert  with  the 
largest  of  the  Porcupine  group.  The  surround- 
ing scenery  is  very  pleasing,  and  within  a  short 
distance  are  many  points  of  interest  readily 
accessible  to  the  tourist.  Among  these  are  the 
summit  of  Green  Mountain,  Eagle  Lake,  Mount 
Newport,  Kebo,  The  Ovens,  Great  and 
Schooner  Heads,  Spouting  Horn,  Thunder 
Cave  and  Eagle  Cliff.  First  discovered  by 
Champlain,  Mount  Desert  was  settled  in  1608 
by  French  Jesuits,  whose  colony  was  destroyed 
eight  years  later  by  an  expedition  from  Vir- 
ginia, A  permanent  settlement  was  effected 
by  the  EngUsh  in  1761,  The  town  of  Mount  . 
Desert  was  incorporated  in  1789.  Since  that 
date  the  towns  of  Eden,  Cranberry,  Tremont 
antl  Southwest  Harbor  have  been  formed  from 
the  original  tract.  Consult  Street,  'Mount 
Desert:  A  History'   (1905).     Pop.  about  2,200. 

BAR-LE-DUC,  bar-15-duk,  or  BAR-SUR- 
ORNAIN,  bar-siir-oman,  France,  capital  of 
the  department  of  Meuse,  125  miles  east  t^ 
south  from  Paris.  It  consists  of  an  upper  and 
a  lower  town,  the  former  of  which  commands 
a  fine  view.  The  lower  town  extends  into  the 
valley  traversed  by  the  Ornain,  here  crossed  by 
three  stone  brides.  The  ancient  Church  of 
Saint  Ettenne  is  of  14th  centurv  workmanship; 
the  ruined  castle  commanded  the  entrance  into 
Lorraine.  The  streets  are  wide  and  well  laid 
out,  but  the  public  buildings  are  inferior.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  textiles  and  paper,  and 
there  are  foundries.  The  preserved  fruits  and 
confectionery,  as  well  as  uie  wines  of  Bar-le- 
due,  are  in  repute.    Pop.  17,068. 

BAR  SHOT,  a  double-headed  shot,  made  of 
two  half-balls  connected  by  a  bar,  and  formerly 
used  in  naval  tattles  for  cutting  away  the  masts 
and  rigging  of  the  enemy's  ship. 

BAR-SUR-AUBE,    bar-sur-6b,    France,    a 
town  34  miles  east  of  Troyes,  in  the  depart- 
of  Aube,  notable  as  the  scene  of  a  victory 


aid  and  Oudinot,  27  Feb.  1814.     The  council 


.Google 


B  AR-SUR-SEINS  —  BARAK 


as7 


whidi  dKided  the  plan  of  campaign  of  the 
Allies  was  held  here  the  day  before  the  battle. 
It  is  an  ill-bnilt,  ancient  town,  numerous  old 
coins  and  urns  attesting  that  the  Romans  must 
have  had  a  station  here.  Bar-sur-Aube  was 
destroyed  by  the  Huns  in  the  5th  century,  but 
was  rebmlt  soon  after,  yrben  it  became  a  place 
of  commerciat  importance.  A  chapel  on  the 
bri<^  over  the  Aube  martcs  the  spot  from 
whidi  the  Bastard  of  Bourbon  was  hurled  into 
the  river  by  command  of  Charles  VII  in  1441. 
The  leading  manufactures  include  leather,  flour 
and  agricultural  implements,  and  there  is  a 
trade  in  grain,  wine  and  wool.    Fop.  4,533. 


jeine,  21  miles  by  rail  southeast  of  Troves. 
The  river  is  crossed  here  by  a  double  bridge. 
It  is  notable  as  the  scene  of  a  victory  of  the 
allied  forces  over  the  French,  in  March  1814. 
Pop.  about  3,300. 

BARABA,  ba-r«-ba'  or  BARABA-TAR- 
TAR,  a  steppe  of  Siberia,  In  the  government 
of  Tomslc,  occupying  more  than  100,000  square 
miles.  Covered  with  salt  lalces  and  marshes, 
it  was  colonized  in  1730  by  the  Rus^ans,  who 
have  since  cultivated  parts  of  it 

BARABA8,  bq-rib'as,  tKe  principal  ocrson- 
age  in  Marlowe's  tr^edy,  'The  Jew  of  Malta.' 
BARABBAS,  the  robber  released  by  Pilate 
at  the  Passover  when  Jesus  was  condemned  to 
death.  It  was  a  custom  of  the  Roman  govern- 
ment, ior  the  sake  of  conciliating  the  Jews,  to 
release  one  Jewish  prisoner,  whom  they  might 
choose,  at  the  yearly  Passover.  Pilate  desired 
thus  to  release  Jesui,  but  the  Jews  demanded 
Barabbas  (Malt  iwvii,  16-26). 

BARABBAS:  A  DRBAH  OF  THE 
WORLD'S  TRAGBDY,  a  romance  by  Marie 
Corelli.  It  is  the  story  of  the  last  days  of 
Christ,  fail  betrayal,  crudfixioD  and  resurrec- 
tion. TIm  story  is  drsmatically  told,  florid  in 
s^lc  and  appeals  more  to  the  emotions  than 
to  the  reason. 

BARABINSKI,  a  Tartar  tribe  living  on 
the  banks  of  the  river  Irtish,  and  er^g^d  in 

Kstoral  and  agricultural  pursuits.  Their  re- 
gion is  Shamanistic,  but  Oiristianity  has  made 
some  progress  among  them. 

BARABOO,  b&rVboo,  Wis.,  ciw  and 
county-seat  of  Sauk  County,  on  the  Baraboo 
River,  and  the  Chicago  &  N.  W.  Railroad,  40 
miles  northwest  of  Madison  and  three  miles 
from  Devirs  Lake.  Settled  in  1839  in  the  cen- 
tre of  3  scenic  and  agricultural  region,  it  has 
important  manufaclunng  interests,  which  are 
promoted  by  excellent  water  power;  is  a  noted 
fmil  centre;  and  has  a  national  bank,  city  hall, 
water-works,  electric  light,  ^as  works,  daily, 
weekly  and  monthly  periodicals.  It  is  gov- 
erned, under  an  incorporation  charter  of  IS82, 
by  a  mayor,  elected  biennially,  and  a  municipal 
council.     Pop.  7,000. 

BARABRA,  bS-falirt,  Africa,  a  mixed 
ethnic  group  —  Nubian,  Egyptian  and  Arab  — 
living  on  both  sides  of  the  middle  Nile,  from 
Wa(^  Haifa  to  Assouan.  They  are  about  40,- 
000  in  number,  and  are  believed  to  belong  to 
the  same  stock  as  the  ancient  ^yptians. 


BARACOA,  ba-i9-k5'9,  Cuba,  a  seaport 
near  the  eastern  end  of  the  island,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  about  90  mites  east 
by  north  of  Santiago.  It  has  a  land-locked  har- 
bor and  exports  cocoa,  bananas  and  other  tropi- 
cal fruits.  The  industries  include  the  making 
of  oil  from  the  cocoanut  and  the  manufacture 
of  chocolate.  The  first  settlement  of  white 
men  on  the  island  of  Cuba  was  made  here  by 
Velasquez  in  1511.  This  town  was  the  capital 
of  CiAa  from  1518  to  1522.  Near  it  is  the 
mounlain  noted  as  the  "Anvil  of  Baracoa.'  In 
the  vicinity  Maceo  and  his  men  began  in  1895 
the  struggle  for  Cuban  independence.  Pop. 
about  6,000. 

BARADA,_  ba-ra'dq,  the  Abana  of  the  Bible, 
a  river  of  Syria,  rising  in  the  Anti- Lib  anus  and 
flowing  across  the  plain  to  the  east  past  Da- 
mascus. It  loses  itself  in  a  lake  called  Bahret- 
cl-Atcibeh.  Around  Damascus  its  waters  are 
used   for  irrigation  by  means  of  canals. 

BARAGA,  bar'^-g^,  Frederic,  Austrian  Ro- 
man Catholic  prelate  and  missionary:  b.  Tref- 
fen,  Camiola,  29  June  1797;  d.  Marquette, 
Mich.,  19  Jan.  1868.  He  came  to  die  United 
States  in  1830  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life 
among  the  Chippewa  and  Ottawa  Indians  in 
Michigan.  His  Chippewa  grammar  (1851)  and 
Chippewa  dictionary  (1851-53)  are  of  philo- 
liwical  importance,  and  he  was  also  the  author 
of  a  work  in  German  on  the  'History,  Charac- 
ter, Manners  and  Habits  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can Indians*    (1837). 

BARAGUAY  D'HILLIBRS,  bi-r^-gii-de- 
yi,  Achille,  Count,  marshal  of  France:  D. 
Paris  1795;  d.  187&  He  was  the  son  o£  Louis 
Bara^uay  dHilliers  (q.v.).  In  1830  he  took 
part  in  the  expedition  to  Algeria,  in  which  his 
success  gained  him  the  confidence  of  the  gov- 
ernment, which  created  him  a  lieutenant-gen- 
eral. In  1841  he  was  made  governor-general 
of  Algeria.  On  the  fall  of  Louis  Philippe  in 
the  revolution  of  1848  the  provisional  govern- 
ment appointed  him  to  the  command  of  the 
military  division  of  Besangon.  He  replaced 
Changamier  in  the  command  of  the  army  of 
Paris,  and  concurred  in  the  accomplishment  of 
the  toup  A'iua  on  2  Dec.  1851.  In  the  war 
with  Russia  in  1854  Baraguay  d'Hilliers  was 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Baltic  expedition, 
and  for  his  services  received  the  dignity  of 
marshal  of  France,  and  later  was  nominated 
a  senator.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  cam- 
pai^  of  1859,  when  France  leaded  with  &ir- 
dima  to  free  Italy  from  Austrian  domination. 

BARAOUAY  D'HILLIERS,  Louis, 
French  general:  b.  Paris  1764;  d.  Berlin,  6 
Jan.  1813.  Receiving  an  appointment  in  the 
army  of  Italy  from  Napoleon,  he  shared  all 
the  success  ot  the  campaign  of  1796-97.  Made 
general  of  division  and  commandant  of  Venice, 
in  1798,  he  accompanied  the  expedition  to 
E^ypt ;  and  afterward  successively  held  ap- 
pointments on  the  Rhine  in  the  Tyrol  and  in 
Catalonia.  He  commanded  a  division  in  the 
Russian  campa^  of  1812,  but  during  die  re- 
treat incurred  the  displeasure  of  Napoleon  and 
appears  to  have  died  from  <iiagrin  and  <fis- 
appointment. 

BARAK  ("Lightning  Flash"),  son  of  AM- 
noam,  was  the  ally  of  Deborah  in  the  struggle 
against  the  Canaanites.    He  ted  10,000  mcQ  of 


Cioogle 


BARANOPF  —  BARAHTZBVICH 


Naphtali  and  Zebulun  in  the  directiDn  of 
Uount  Tabor  while  Deborah  undertook  to  at- 
tract Sisera's  army  toward  the  same  place. 
Barak  routed  the  C^naanites  and  pursued  them 
to  Harosheth,  where  he  and  Deborah  sang  the 
'Ode  of  Triumph.'  Barak  seems  to  have  been 
a  representative  Jewish  leader  of  bis  time.  The 
name  Barak  is  met  with  in  various  forms  in 
3araous,  for  example,  i 
nilcar.     See  Debokah. 

BARANOFP,  Alexander  Adtdreevlch. 
Russian  explorer  and  merchant :  b,  Kargopol 
1747;  d.  16  April  1819.  A  merchant  and  manufac- 
turer in  Irkutsk,  Siberia,  in  1780,  he  became 
manager  of  the  colony  previously  founded  on 
Three  Saints  Bay,  Kodiak  Island,  Alaska,  in 
1791,    but    soon    afterward    taking    char 


.   Sain 


Paul's 


Harbor,  Kodiak  Island,  and  established  posts 
in  Cook  Inlet  and  in  Prince  William  Sound. 
At  Vosressensky  Harbor,  now  Resurrection 
Bay,  in  1794,  he  built  the  first  ship  constructed 
north  of  Vancouver  Island  on  the  northwest 
coast  of  America.  In  1796  he  placed  a  colony 
art  Yakutat  Bay.  Upon  the  or^nization  of  the 
Russian  American  Company,  m  1799,  he  was 
made  chief  manager,  and  his  jurisdiction  in- 
cluded all  of  Alaska,  the  Aleutian  Islands  and 
the  Kurile  Islands.  In  this  year  he  established 
X  post  at  Old  Sitka,  on  the  west  side  of  Bara- 
nof  Island,  which  was  destroyed  by  the  In- 
dians in  1S02.  In  1^04  he  drove  the  Indians 
from  the  site  of  the  present  town  of  Sitka, 
built  a  fortified  post  and  named  it  New  Arch- 
angel, to  which  he  transferred  the  beadQuar- 
ters  of  the  company.  During  Baranov's  ad- 
ministration of  the  affairs  of  the  company  it 
maintained  trading  posts  onW  along  the  south- 
ern part  of  Alaska,  from  Sitka  to  Unalaska, 
including  the  Cbugatdi  Gulf  (Prince  William 
Sound),  and  the  Gulf  of  Kenai  (Cook  Inlet). 
They  traded  as  far  north  as  the  Bristol  Bay 
region  and  took  seals  on  the  Fribylof  Islands, 
but  had  no  settlements  north  of  those  places. 
In  1812  he  i^aced  a  fort  at  Ross,  near  Bodega 
Bay,  California,  and  also  maintained  a  station 
on  the  Farallon  Islands  for  several  years.  He 
extended  the  commerce  of  the  company  to  the 
Spanish  settlements  in  California,  to  the  Sand- 
wich (Hawaiian)  Islands  and  to  China.  His 
administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  company 
dosed  in  1816^  and  in  November  of  that  year 
sailed  for  Russia  by  way  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  The  ship  was  detained  at  Ba- 
tavia,  Java,  where  BaranofF  fell  ill  of  a  fever, 
and  a  few  days  after  leaving  ibat  port  he  diea 
and  was  buried  in  the  Straits  of  Sunda. 

~  BARANOPF  ISLAND,  the  most  import- 
tant  of  the  Alexander  Islands,  Alaska.  It  il 
about  100  miles  lon^  and  25  miles  broad.  On 
its  northwest  coast  is  the  town  of  Sitka.  The 
island  derives  its  name  from  the  Russian 
trader,  Baranoff,  who  in  1799  took  possession 
of  it. 

BARANTB,  bi-raAt,  Amable  Gnillmme 
Prosper  Bnigiire,  Baron  de,  French  historian 
and  statesman:  b,  Riom,  Auvergne,  10  Jtme 
1782;  d.  23  Nov.  1866.  After  filling  some  sub- 
ordinate offices  he  was  appointed  in  1809  pre- 
fect of  La  Vendfe  In  this  year  was  pub- 
lished his  'Tableau  de  la  Littirature  Frangaisc 


au  XVIIIe  Siicle.'  In  1615  Louis  XVin 
made  Barante  Secretary  of  the  Ministry  of  the 
Interior,  and  about  the  same  time  be  took  bis 
seat  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  where  he 
voted  with  the  Moderate  Liberals.  In  1819  he 
was  raised  to  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  Hb 
principal  work,  'Histoire  des  Dues  de  Bour- 
gogne  de  la  Mai  son  de  Valois,  1364-1477* 
(1824-28),  secured  his  election  to  the  Academy 
in  1828.  Between  1830  and  1840  he  represented 
France  at  Turin  and  Saint  Petersburg,  but  after 
the  revolution  of  1848  he  devoted  himself  en- 
tirety to  literary  pursuits.  Other  works  of  his 
are  'Histoire  de  la  Ckinventionale'  (1851-53); 
'Histoire  du  Directoire>  (18S5):  'Etudes  His- 
toriques  et  Biographiques' ;  'Etudes  Littir- 
aires  et  Histonques*  (1858).  Consult  also 
'Souvenirs  du  Baron  de  Barante'  (1890-99). 
BARANTZEVICH,  Kuimir  Stanialavo- 
vicfa,  Russian  man  of  tetters:  b.  S^nt  Peters- 
burg 1851.  His  father  wa»  a  descendant  of  a 
noble  Polish  family  and  his  mother  was  French. 
At  the  time  of  the  Polish  insurrection  (1831), 
Barantzevicfa's  grandfather  was  bung  in  the 
presence  of  his  wife  and  two  sons,  but  the 
tradition  of  revenge  was  not  maintained  by 
either  the  father  of  the  author  or  any  member 
of  the  family.  Barantzevich's  taste  for  books 
was  created  in  him  by  his  own  father,  i^o 
taught  htm  to  read  and  write  at  the  mc  of 
five.  When  the  author  was  eight  years  old  he 
read  eagerly  Pushkin's  'Syn  Ctecbestva'  ('The 
Son  of  the  Country')  and  under  the  inspira- 
tion received  from  that  classic  wrote,  a  year 
later,  his  first  essay,  'PonyatovsW,*  glorifying 
the  deeds  of  a  Polish  hero  who  opposed  the 
aggression  of  die  Russian  armies.  Before  he 
entered  die  gymnasium  he  had  read  a  great 
number  of  good  books  in  various  languages. 
But  the  subjects  taught  in  the  school  inter- 
ested him  in  a  very  small  degree  and  he  left 
the  classroom  in  the  fourth  year.  At  that 
time  appeared  hb  poem,  'Zatnrtaya  Dyerevnya' 
( '  Forsidcen  Village  > ) ,  whidi,  althou^  ob- 
viously a  mere  imitation  of  Ndcrasov,  earned 
for  hrni  a  remarkable  popularity  among  the 
peasantry  whose  close  fnend  he  wiafaed  to  be- 
come despite  the  tradition  of  his  aristocratic 
family.  When  his  father  died  he  fell  into  dire 
poverty  and  was  obliged  to  work  for  his  liv- 
ing from  morning  till  late  at  night.  However, 
despite  all  these  strenuous  effort^  he  adapted 
A.  Tolstoy's  'Prince  Serebranyi'  into  a  drama 
'Oprichina'  (Life-Guards)  which  was  pro- 
duced successfully  and  which  brou^t  to  the 
author  an  honorarium  of  600  rubles.  When 
mother  died  he  saw  no  obsiacle^in  marry- 


.__ burden 

and  the  family  was  obliged  to  live  in  the  house 
of  a  drunken  train  conductor.  It  was  here 
that  he  wrote  'Odin  iz  nashih  starih  inako- 
myh*  ('One  of  our  old  acquaintances').  But 
fame  came  to  him  from  his  novel,  'Porvannyia 
Struny'  ('Broken  Strings'),  and  almost  all 
first-class  magazines  urged  him  to  contribute 
to  their  columns,  which  he  did  most  success- 
fully. In  a  series  of  remarkable  short  stories 
( 'Under  Oppression,'  'The  Old  and  the  New,» 
'Short  Stones')  and  his  separately  ^bltsbed 
novels,  'Raba'  ('Bondmaid')  and  'Chiuliak' 
('Stranger')  he  has  given  powerful  sketches  of 


.Google 


BAMSmOHA  ^  BARB  ACBNA 


the  life  of  tbe  lowly  plebeians  which  beer  the 
seal  of  his  own  stnifwle  in  life.  The  society 
of  Petrograd  has  notbeen  known  to  him  in- 
timately enough  to  describe  its  life  with 
exactitode  ana  his  cardinal  errors  are  uni- 
formity of  types  and  absence  of  intrigue.  Man 
and  his  soul  forni  the  princi^l  subject  of  his 
work,  and,  while  his  elaboration  could  be,  and 
often  is,  sun»ssed  from  the  artistic  point  of 
view,  his  stories  have  thrilled  and  elevated  the 
souls  of  his  readers  as  much  as  anything  that 
has  been  written  in  Russian  in  the  course  of 
the  last  century. 

BARASINGRA,  bSr-3-sI"'e4.  Sec  Swauf- 
Deer. 

BARATARIA,  Pintes  of,  a  compan);  of 
outlaws  under  the  leadership  of  a  notorious 
bandit,  Jean  Lalilte,  who  established  their  ren- 
dezvous in  the  Bsv  of  Barataria,  40  miles 
south  of  New  Orleans.  They  committed  great 
depredations  on  English  and  Spanish  shipping, 
but  their  colony  was  broken  up  in  1814  by  a 
United  States  naval  force.  Lafitte  and  some 
of  his  men  subsequently  served  under  Jackson 
in  the  battle  of  New  Orleans. 

BARATARIA  BAY.  a  body  of  water  in 
the  southeastern  part  of  Louisiana,  extending 
north  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  between  the 
parishes  of  Jefferson  and  Plaquemine.  It  is 
about  15  miles  long  by  six  wide,  and  it  and  the 
lagoons  branching  out  of  it  were  rendered  no- 
torious about  the  years  18ID-12  as  being  both 
the  headquarters  and  rendezvous  of  the  cele- 
brated Lafitte  and  his  buccaneers.  See  New 
Orleans,  Campaigct  and  Battle  of. 

BARATHRONr  the  name  of  a  deep  gorge 
near  Athens,  into  which  criminals  condemned 
to  death  were  thrown.  It  was  originally  a 
quarry,  but  was  enlarged  in  order  to  serve  for 
purposes  of  punishment.  Usually  persons  were 
thrown  into  it  after  execution,  but  occasionally 
while  living. 

BARATIERI,  U-rS-tya'r?,  Orvste,  Ital- 
ian Rcneral;  b.  Condino  1841;  d.  1901.  He 
fought  imder  Garibaldi  in  Sicily  in  1660  and 
joined  the  regular  army  in  1866.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1891  governor  of  Eritrea,  Italy's 
new  possession  on  the  Abyssinian  coastland  of 
Africa.  Under  the  schemes  of  conquest  enter- 
tained by  the  Italians  Baratieri  advanced  with 
an  army  into  the  highlands  of  the  interior,  cap- 
turing Kassala  in  1894,  and  later  marching  into 
Tigr^  whose  prince  he  twice  defeated  in  Jan- 
uary 1895.  King  Menelik's  forces  to  the  num- 
ber of  100,000  were  now  sent  against  Baratieri, 
who  u^as  obliged  in  consequence  to  retreat 
from  Adowa,  die  capital  of  Tigri,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  Adigrat.  Demoralization  of  the  Ital- 
ians becoming  evident,  Baratieri,  fearing  it 
mi^ht  become  general  and  hamper  his  retreat, 
determined  to  risk  all  on  a  battle  with  the 
Abyssinians,  and  once  more  turned  his  forces 
on  Adowa.  On  1  March  1896  the  battle  was 
foii^it  near  Adowa,  the  Italians  were  routed 
with  a  loss  of  250  officers,  7,000  men  and  all 
their  artillery.  Baratieri  was  court-martialed 
and  was  absolved  of  criminal  responsibility 
but  was  censured  for  his  conduct  of  the  cam- 
paign, and  left  the  army.  He  Dublished  his 
^Memoire  Mfrica  1892-96>  in  1897  as  a  de- 
fense of  his  method. 


BARATYNSKII  (properly  BotatvnsktiV 
Evgenii  Abramovich,  Russian  poet:  b.  10  Feb. 
1800;  d.  29  June  1844.  He  was  educated  in 
the  page-corps,  from  which  he  was  expelled  in 
1816.  Later  (1820)  he  joined  an  infantry  regi- 
ment in  Finland,  where  he  became  an  officer. 
In  1825  he  marriei  retired  from  military  serv- 
ice and  traveled  extensively  through  Germany, 
France  and  Italy.  He  started  writing  poetry 
very  early  in  life  and  had  the  good  fortune  to 
become  intimately  connected  with  Pushkin, 
Gnedich,  Pletnevyi  and  other  young  and  gifted 
poets  whose  friendship  undoubtedly  influenced 
the  development  and  direction  of  his  talent. 
His  lyric  poems  soon  gained  him  a  prominent 
place  in  the  number  of  Pushkin's  poetic  circle 
of  the  so-called  "romanticists.*  In  the  midst 
of  the  savage  nature  of  Finland  the  romantic 
nature  of  the  poet  grew  more  powerful,  but 
the  predominant  qu^ily  of  his  poetry  is  the 
elegiac  tone,  especially  in  his  *Eda'  (1826). 
This  poem  was  soon  followed  by  'Ball,'  <Or- 
gic,'  'Gypsy-Girl,*  in  which  the  poet  excels 
in  original  simplicity,  choice  of  figures  and 
lively  colors,  but  in  which  he  shows  the  pow- 
erful influence  of  Pushkin  and  Byron.  With 
regard  to  technique  he  is  a  true  master  of  form 
and  rhyme  and  some  enthusiasts  have  placed 
him  much  higher  than  Pushkin  himself  as  a 
versifier.  But  the  main  characteristic  of  his 
poetry  is  meditation  and  absence  of  true  emo- 
tion, the  chief  requisite  for  a  true  .master- 
piece in  lyricism ;  m  his  poetry  there  is  no 
trace  of  tnat  sentimentality  that  is  so  abun- 
dant in  the  work  of  his  models.  As  a  thinker 
he  is  destitute  of  the  definite  and  his  charac-  ' 
ters  are  but  shadows  in  a  mirror  which  leave 
no  deep  impression  despite  their  exquisite  ex- 
terior form.  The  best  of  his  lyrics  are  un- 
doubtedly 'Finland,*  'The  Last  Poet>  and  'On 
the  Death  of  (k>ethe.*  A  collective  edition  of 
his  works  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  1827 
(2d  ed.,  Moscow  1835),  from  which  many  Ger- 
man and  French  translations  have  been  made. 
Consnlt  'Russki  Arkhiv>  (1868,  pp.  141-47  and 
866-72) ;  Koenig,  'Litterarische  Bilder  aus 
Russland.* 

BARB,  a  horse  of  the  Barbary  breed,  in- 
troduced by  the  Moors  into  Spain,  and  of 
great  speed,  endurance  and  docility.  This 
breed  is  said  to  be  a  variety  of  the  Arabian, 
and  most  of  the  progenitors  of  the  present 
thoroughbred  horse  were  of  the  same  strain. 

BARBACAN,  or  BARBICAN,  a  project- 
ing watch  tower  or  other  advanced  work  be- 
fore the  gate  of  a  castle  or  fortified  town.  The 
term  harbacan  was  more  especially  applied  to 
the  outwork  intended  to  defend  the  draw- 
bridge, which  in  modem  fortifications  is  called 
the  tite  du  pont.  At  the  castles  of  Warwick 
and  Alnwick  the  medieval  barhacans  still  re- 
main, but  the  barbican  gate  at  York  is  almost . 
entirely  of  modern  construction. 

BARBACBHA,  bar~ba-sa-'na.  Brazil,  a 
flourishing  town  in  the  state  of  Minas-Geraes, 
125  miles  northwest  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It  is 
situated  In  the  Mantiqueira  Mountains,  about 
3iS00  feet  above  the  sea,  and  the  surrounding 
district  produces  cane  sugar,  coffee  and  grain. 
The  town  is  a  commercial  centre,  being  the 
outlet  for  the  product  of  mines  in  the  (Ustrict, 
but  much  of  its  importance  has  been  lMt.w:' ' 


.Google 


BARBADOS  —  BARBADOS  ULY 


the  development  o(  transportation  facilities. 
Barbacena  is  noted  for  its  healthfulness  and  is 
a  Dopular  resort.    Pop.  6,000. 

BARBADOS,  bar-ba'-doz,  an  island  of  the 
West  Indies,  lying  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  more 
than  100  miles  cast  of  the  nearest  members  of 
the  chain  of  Lesser  Antilles,  in  lat.  13°  4'  N. 
and  long.  59°  37'  W.  (Sec  Antilles).  The 
entire  area  of  the  island  available  for  the  pur- 
pose—  or  100,000  acres  out  of  a  total  acreage 
of  106,470  (about  166  square  miles)  —is  under 
cultivation.  Some  of  the  white  inhatntants  arc 
of  the  best  English  stock,  being  descendants 
of  early  settlers  who  were  closely  allied  hy 
the  bond  of  blood  or  lies  of  friendship  with 
the  colonists  of  Virginia.  The  only  foreign 
journey  ever  taken  by  George  Washington  was 
m  1751  (28  SepIember-22  December),  when  he 
visited  this  island  in  company  with  his  invalid 
brother,  Lawrence.  The  rainfall  is  abundant, 
and  the  climate  agreeable,  thanks  to  trade- winds 
blowing  steadily  across  the  Atlantic.  Barba- 
dos is  a  colony  of  England,  with  its  own  gov- 
ernor, legislature,  elc.  In  addition  to  many 
lesser  educational  institutions,  ihe  island  has 
Codrington  College,  which  is  affiliated  with  the 
University  of  Durham,  England.  Its  capital, 
Bridgetown,  hot,  dusty  and  commercially  active, 
is  also  the  see  of  the  bishop  of  Barbados. 
There  is  one  narrow-gauge  railway,  and  the 
highways  are  excellent.  The  chief  industry  is 
the  cultivation  of  sugar-cane,  to  which  the  soil 
is  peculiarly  adapted.  The  successful  manu- 
facture of  sugar  m  the  island  began  about  the 
middle  of  the  17ih  century.  The  Sea  Island 
cotton  industry  was  revived  in  1902  with  suc- 
cess, and  the  acreage  under  this  form  of  culti- 
vation amounts  to  nearly  2,000  acres,  from 
which  900,000  pounds  of  ■lint*  are  raised. 
Food  supplies  are  imported  largely  from  the 
United  States,  to  which  country  nearly  the  en- 
tire sugar  product  is  sent.  The  value  of  the 
annual  exports  is  about  $4,000,000;  of  the  aver- 
age annual  imports  about  $6,000,000.  Like 
Guadeloupe  and  its  dependencies,  and  Disirade 
and  Maria  Galanle,  Barbados  is  a  coral  island. 
Its  length  is  21  miles,  and  its  width  15  miles. 
The  interesting  'Pocket  Guide'  stales  that  Bar- 
bados is  "undoubtedly  the  healthiest  of  all  the 
West  Indian  islaads.  On  the  windward  side 
die  climate  is  especially  invigorating,  and  the 
island  is  much  patronized  by  residents  in  ndgh- 
boritig  colonies  as  a  health  resort.  The  Urth- 
rale  is  about  36  and  the  normal  death-rate  not 
more  than  26  per  thousand.*  The  island  has 
•representative  institutions  without  responsible 
government.  They  date  from  the  royal  charter 
of  Charles  I,  2  June  1627.  Next  to  the  house 
of  commons  and  the  house  of  assembly  in 
Bermuda,  the  Barbados  house  of  assembly  is 
the  most  ancient  legislative  body  in  the  Bntish 
dominions.  The  government  now  consists  of 
a  nominated  legislative  council,  a  house  of 
assembly,  consisting  of  24  members  elected 
annually  by  the  people;  an  executive  council, 
which   consists   of    the   governor,    the   colonial 


by  tbe  King;  and  a.,  i..i<^i.ut,>i.  ..uiiuhiliei.. 
Steamships  of  at  least  14  companies  serve  the 
island,  Ober  (see  Bibliography)  wrote  in 
praise  of  Codington  College;  "This  famoiu 
university,  the  only  one  of  its  class  in  the  Brit- 


ish West  Indies,  is  situated  in  Saint  John's 
parish,  15  miles  from  Bridgetown,"  Founded 
by  Sir  Christopher  Codington  in  1710  and 
amply  endowed,  *no  more  delightful  place  can 
be  itna^ned  than  ihis  as  a  retreat  for  students, 
with  vine-covered  corridors  opening  upon  ave- 
nues of  tall  and  stately  palms.*  Harrington 
College,  founded  23  years  later,  aUo  does  honor 
to  the  island. 

Spani^  discoverers,  whose  faocy  was  struck 
by  tne  beard-like  clumps  of  vines  or  tendrils 
hanging  from  the  wild  fig  trees,  named  the 
island  Los  Barbados  (*the  bearded* — in  plural). 
They  made  this  immortal  observation,  but  no 
settlement.  The  first  settlement  was  made  in 
1625  by  a  company  of  Englishmen,  Sir  Fred- 
erick Treves  (see  Bibliography)  writes:  *It 
is  in  Barbados  that  there  will  be  found  tbe 
most  substantial  relics  of  the  old  West  Indian 
aristocracy,  of  the  planter  prince,*  The  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  in  recent  years  has  varied 
between  196,000,  or  about  1,180  to  the  square 
mile,  and  171,893,  or  1,033  +  to  the  square  mile: 
About  11  per  cent  Caucasians.  No  omer  colony 
or  country,  with  the  possible  exception  of  some 
of  the  provinces  of  CWma^  jj  more  densely 
populated. 


BibliogrBphy.— Aspinall,  A.  E.,  'Pocket 
tjuide  to  the  West  Indies'  (Chicago  and  New 
York    1914),   and   "The   British  West   Indies* 


(London  1912);  Ober,  F.  A,,  'Guide  to  the 
West  Indies'  (New  York  1908) ;  Treves,  F.. 
'The  Cradle  of  the  Deep'  (London  1908).  Sec 
also  article  West  Indies  —  Bibliography. 

Marrion  Wilcox  . 

BARBADOS  CBDAR,  a  cedar  or  juniper 
(Juniperus  barbadensis) .  It  is  found  in  Florida 
and  the  other  warm  parts  of  America. 

BARBADOS  CHERRY,  a  West  Indian 
shrub  or  small  tree  (Malpighia  glabra)  of  the 
natural  order  Malpighiaccre^  with  handsome 
crimson  axillary  flowers,  cultivated  to  some  ex- 
tent in  warm  countries  for  its  acid  fruit,  in- 
ferior to  but  resembling  a  white  cherry.  M. 
urens  also  bears  an  edible  but  smaller  fruit,  and 
is  sometimes  also  called  Barbados  cherry. 

BARBADOS  FLOWER  PENCE,  or 
BARBADOS  PRIDE,  the  beautiful  plant 
Poinciana  pulckerrima.  It  belongs  to  the  legu- 
minous order,  and  the  sub-order  Casalpinica. 
It  is  a  low,  spiny  tree  with  an  odor  like  savin. 
It  is  a  native  of  the  tropics  of  both  hemispheres, 
and  in  Barbados  especially  it  is  used  for  fence 
purposes, 

BARBADOS  GOOSEBERRY.  BLAD 
APPLE,  or  LEMON  VINE  {Pereskia  acute- 
ata),  a  shrubby,  slender,  tropical  American 
cactus  which  bears  lemon -yellow,  smooth, 
edible  pear-  or  epg-shaped  fruits  as  large  as 
olives.  The  species  is  widely  used  in  green- 
houses as  a  stock  on  which  to  graft  other 
species  of  cacti.  Its  more  sturdy  relative,  P. 
bico,  is  similarly  uSed    for  larger    species   of 

BARBADOS  LEG,  a  name  fretguently  ap- 
plied to  the  disease  called  elephantia^s.  It  is 
common  in  Barbados,  and  is  endemic  in  many 
tropical  and  semi-tropical  countries.  See 
Elephaktiasis. 

BARBADOS  LILY,  the  AtnaryllU  ttptes- 
tris,  now  called  Hippeaslntm  tquesire,  an  orna- 
mental plant  from  the  West  Indies. 


,  Google 


BARB  ASA — BAKBARY 


Churches  who  is  supposed  to  have  flourished 
in  the  3d  or  early  part  of  the  4th  century.  Her 
historir  has  been  related  by  various  chroniclers, 
but  with  so  many  discrepancies  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  ascertain  either  the  events  of  her  life 
or  the  circumstances  of  her  martirrdom.  Ac- 
cording to  Jacobus  de  Voragine,  the  author  of 
the  'Aurea  Legenda,'  she  was  born  at  Heliopo- 
lis,  in  ^ypt,  of  pagan  parents.  On  arriving  at 
the  age  of  womanhood  she  was  very  beautiful, 
and  her  father,  fearing  lest  she  should  be  taken 
ftom  him,  confined  her  in  a  tower,  and  in  the 
pictures  of  this  saint  the  tower  is  therefore  one 
of  her  most  frequent  attributes.  In  her  seclu- 
sion she  heard  of  the  preaching  of  Origen,  and 
wrote  to  him  begging  for  instruction,  wnere- 
upon  be  sent  one  of  his  disciples  who  taught 
and  baptized  her.  On  learning  this  her  father 
was  so  incensed  thai  he  put  her  to  death. 
Metaphrastes  and  Mombritius  inform  us  that 
she  was  martyred  at  Heliopolis  in. the  region 
of  Galerius  and  their  account  agrees  with  the 
Emperor  Basil's  Menology  and  with  the  Greek 
Synaxary.  Others  again  hold  that  she  suffered 
at  Nicomedia,  in  2357  under  Maximian  T.  Her 
festival  occurs  4  December. 

BARBARA  ALLEN'S  CRUELTY,  an 
old  English  ballad  preserved  in  Percy's  'Re- 
liques.'  While  BarlMxa's  lover.  Jemmy  Groves, 
was  on  his  death-bed,  her  only  remarir  to  him 
was,  *Young  man,  I  think  you're  dying.'  For 
this  unnatural  composure  she  subsequently  en- 
dured the  pangs  of  remorse. 

BARBARA  FRIETCHIE,  the  title  o1  a 
noted  poem  by  Whittier  (1863)  founded  upon 
an  incident  reported  to  have  occurred  in 
Frederick,  Md.,  in  the  Gvil  War.  Recent  in- 
vestigations have  thrown  some  doubt  upon  the 
authenticity  of  the  account  A  play  upon  this 
theme  has  been  written  1^  the  late  dramatist 
Clyde  Fitch. 

BARBARBLLI,  (Horgio.     See  Giokgione. 

BARBARIAN,  a  term  used  by  the  Greeks 
to  designate  a  foreigner;  one  who  could  not 
speak  Greek.  At  first  the  Romans  were  in- 
clnded  tv  the  Greeks  under  the  term  barbarian; 
but  as  the  inhabitants  of  the  great  Italian  dty 
gradually  gained  imperial  power,  and,  more- 
over, began  to  consider  the  Greek  language  a 
desirable  if  not  even  an  indispensable  part  of 
a  liberal  education,  they  were  no  longer  placed 
in  the  category  of  barbarians,  nor  was  thdr 
speech  deemed  barbarous. 

BARBAR08SA.     See    Frederick    Bakba- 

BOSSA. 

BARBAROSSA,  Arooj,  or  Honik,  cor- 
sair chieftain,  styled  "^Barbarossa*  from  his  red 
beard.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Greek  at  Mitylene, 
and  in  I5l6  assisted  Selim,  King  of  Algiers,  in 
driving  the  Spaniards  out  of  that  country. 
Having  taken  possession  of  the  capital  he  put 
Sclim  to  death  and  mounted  the  throne  him- 
self.   He  died  in  1518. 

BARBAROSSA,  Khidr-ed-Din,  the  younger 
brother  and  successor  of  the  preceding.  He 
surrendered  the  sovereignty  of  Algiers  to 
Selim  I,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  in  exchange  for  a 
force  of  2,000  janissaries  and  the  title  of  dey. 
Hi;  was  afterward  appointed  'captain  pasha"  or 
hijfh  admiral  of  the  Turkish  fleet,  conquered 


Tunis,  and  in  1538  gained  a  victory  over  the 
imperial  fleet  under  the  command  of  Andreas 
Doria  in  the  Bay  of  Atnbracia.  He  died  in 
154& 

BARBAROUX,  bar-ba-roo',  Chules  Jean 
Huie,  celebrated  French  revolutionist  of  the 
Girondin  party:  b.  Marseilles,  6  Uarch  1767; 
d.  Bordeaux,  25  June  1794.  At  first  an  advocate 
and  journalist  at  Marseilles,  he  was  sent  by  that 
city  to  the  Constituent  Assembly  at  Paris. 
There  he  opposed  the  Court  party  and  took 
part  with  the  minister,  Roland,  then  out  of 
favor.  After  the  events  of  10  Aug.  1792  he  re- 
nimed  to  his  native  town,  where  he  was  re- 
ceived with  enthusiasm,  and  was  soon  after 
chosen  delegate  to  the  convention.  In  the  con- 
vention he  adhered  to  the  Girondists,  and  be- 
longed to  the  party  who  at  the  trial  of  the  King 
voted  for  an  appeal  to  the  people.  He  boldly 
opposed  the  party  of  Marat  and  Robespierre, 
and  even  directly  accused  the  latter  of  aiming 
at  the  dictatorsmp;  he  was,  consequently,  in 
May  1793  proscribed  as  a  royalist  and  an  enemy 
of  the  re^blic.  He  fled  to  Calvados,  and  thence 
with  a  few  friends  to  the  Gironde,  where  he 
wandered  about  the  country,  hiding  himself  as 
best  he  could  for  about  13  months.  At  last,  on 
the  point  of  being  taken,  he  tried  to  shoot  him- 
self ;  but  the  shot  miscarried,  and  he  was  guil- 
lotined at  Bordeaux.  He  was  one  of  the  great 
spirits  of  the  Revolution.  There  was  no  loftier- 
minded  dreamer  in  the  Girondist  ranks;  hardly 
a   nobler   head  than  his   fell   in   that   reign  of 

BARBARY,  Africa,  a  geneial  name  for  the 
most  northerly  portion  of  the  continent,  extend- 
ing about  2,600  miles  from  Egypt  to  the  Allan* 
tic,  with  a  breadth  varying  from  about  140  to 
550  miles ;  comprising  Morocco,  Fei,  Algeria, 
Tunis  and  Libya  (including  Tripoli,  Barca  ana 
Fezzan).  Boraered  by  the  Mediterranean  mi 
the  north,  and  by  the  Sahara  on  the  south,  the 
temperature  of  this  region  is  generally  moder- 
ate and  remarkably  uniform,   seldom   descend- 


dry  season,  when  the  ground  is  frequently  w 
parched  as  to  render  walking  upon  it  im- 
practicable. From  September  to  March  is  the 
wet  season,  but  the  rains  are  moderate,  aind 
almost  every  day  affords  a  respite  of  sunshine. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  though  sandy  and  light  on 
the  coast,  the  climate  healthy,  and  agricultural 
productions  are  various  and  abundant  The 
range  of  production  gives  a  combination  of 
both  tropical  and  temperate  fruits.  Agricul- 
ture is,^  nevertheless,  greatly  neglectecC  but 
under  £urop«ui  influences  has  made  consider- 
able advance  in  the  present  century.  For  three 
centuries  the  inhabitants  of  the  Barbary  states 
rendered  diemsclves  the  pest  of  human  society 
by  their  depredations  upon  the  commerce  of  the 
seas  until  they  were  finally  subdued  in  the  ]9di 
century.  See  Barbary  Powers,  United  States 
Tbeaties  and  Wars  with  the. 

History. — Anciently,   all    Africa    was    com- 

£rehended  under  two  divisions  —  Ecrot  and 
ibya  —  while  Libya  was  subdividea  into 
northern  and  southern  Libya.  North 
Libya  comprised  mainly  what  is  now 
known  as  the  Barbary  states.  Herodo- 
tus says  that  in  his  day  northern  Libya  was 
inhabited  by  the  indigenous  race  of  Libyans 


tea 


BARBARY  AI^— BARBARY  POWERS 


and  by  the  foreign  Pbcenicians  and  Greeks. 
These  latter  settled  at  various  points,  from 
Egypt  to  Carthage,  while  the  indigenous  IJb- 
yans  occupied  from  the  east  to  the  west 
tllrou^out  the  entire  extent  OE  the  origin  of 
the  Libyans,  whom  Herodotus  calls  indigenous, 
we  have  na  trace.  Aratnan  tradition  says  they 
colonized  Libya  from  Yemen.  The  Phtenicians 
early  settled  Carthage  (869  B.C.)  and  perhaps 
the  still  more  western  coasts  of  Mauritania, — 
at  least  it  appears  that  Carthage  was  a  powerful 
state  at  the  invasion  of  Greece  by  Xerxes.  The 
Cyreniatis,  who  were  Greeks,  had  colonized  at 


Gyrene,  jiist  east  of  the  bay  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean called  Syrtis  Major  (Gulf  of  Sidra),  in 
what  is  now  known  as  Barca.     West  of  Car- 


thage lay  Numidia  and  Mauritania,  even  to  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules;  east  of  Cyrenc  was  E^tyft; 
while  between  these  two  forrign  colonies 
stretched  the  narrow  coast  line,  from  the  Major 
to  the  Minor  Syrtis,  known  as  Emporia,  The 
rapidly  growing  Carthaginian  power  soon  ex- 
tended colonies  along  the  entire  coast  from  the 
Pillars  of  Hercules  to  Grecian  Gyrene.  The 
Jealousy  of  Rome  was  not  long  in  being  awak- 
ened against  so  threatening  a  rival  The 
history  of  the  Punic  wars  is  well  known.  At 
the  end  of  117  years  the  Carthaginian  power 
was  extinguished,  Carthage  herself  in  ruins, 
and  Africa  a  Roman  province  from  Mauritania 
to  Cyrenaica.  The  more  complete  subjugation 
of  Numidia  was  accomplished  in  the  Jugurthine 
War,  and  that  of  Mauritania  in  the  reign  of 
Gaudius.  Thus  the  territory  of  the  Barbary 
states,  from  indqwndent  native  sovereignties 
and  foreign  colonies,  had  come  into  the  hands 
at  Rome.  About  400  a.d.  several  Teutonic 
tribes,  overrunning  Gaul  and  crossing  the 
Pyrenees,  settled  in  Spain.  When,  in  428, 
Boniface  revolted  against  Honorius,  the  Van- 
dals crossed  the  Fretum  Gaditanum  into  Africa, 
led  by  Gens  eric,  drove  out  the  inhabitants, 
utterly  expelled  the  Roman  power  from  upper 
Libya,  and  reigned  100  yan.  Then  came  the 
Struggle  under  Justinian  for  the  re-eatablish- 
ment  of  the  Roman  ascendency.  By  Belisarius 
it  was  conducted  to  a  successful  issue,  and 
northern  Africa  was  united  to  the  Eastern  em- 
pire. For  over  300  years  this  relation  continued 
until  about  the  middle  of  the  7th  century;  the 
Saracens  overran  Numidia  and  Mauritania  to 
the  Atlanlic,  and,  notwithstanding  the  disas- 
trous death  of  their  leader  Okba,  the  sceptre  of 
upper  Libya  passed  again  from  the  hands  of 
Rome  into  that  of  Arabia.  Fifty  years  later 
the  conquests  of  Musa  and  Tank  were  pushed 
across  the  straits,  and  a  Saracenic  empire  es- 
tablished in  Spain.  But  the  revolution  which 
brought  the  Abbasides  to  the  calii^te  of 
Arabia  and  drove  the  only  surviving  caliph  of 
the  Ommiades  into  Spain  prepared  the  way  for 
the  independence  of  the  western  colonies,  and 
Africa  began  to  throw  off  the  Saracenic  yoke 
(788>.  A  succession  of  fortunes  now  attended 
the  slates  of  upper  Lib^.  For  eight  centuries 
they  were  alternately  tnbutary  and  independent, 
passing  from  hand  to  hand,  like  the  stakes  of 
a  faro  bank,  liU  in  the  16th  century  the  two 
brothers  Barbarossa  conquered  the  whole  ter- 
ritory of  NitTtiidia  and  Carthage,  and  erected 
the  regencies  of  Algiers  and  Tunis.  A  few  years 
later  the  Turkish  Sultan,  whose  snpremacy  the 
younger  Barbarossa  had  acknowledged,  erected 


the  pashalic  of  Tripoli  over  the  ancient  Qr- 
renaica,  while  in  the  west  there  was  a  gradual 
consolidation  of  power  into  the  hands  of  Mo- 
hammed ben  Hamid,  and  his  son.  who  finally 
established  the  dynasty  of  Sherifs  in  the  empire 
of  Morocco,  now  divided  into  two  protectorate^ 
the  district  west  of  Fez  under  the  protection  of 
Spain,  and  the  district  cast  of  Fez  under  the 
protection  of  France,  while  the  French  erected, 
between  Morocco  and  the  possessions  of  the 
Porte,  the  regency  of  Algeria.  Tripoli  came 
under  the  sovereignty  of  Italy  in  1912.  The 
religion  of  the  Barbary  states  is  generally 
Islamism.  The  European  settlers  are  of  course 
Christians,  or  Jews,  while  the  blacks,  who  are 
slaves,  are  pagans.  There  scAn  to  be  at  present 
six  races  or  tribes  of  men  inhabiting  the  Bar- 
bary states:  (1)  The  Moors.  (2>  The  Arabs. 
(3)  The  Berbers,  who  are  indigenous,  and  from 
whom  the  states  probably  received  the  appella- 
tion Barbary.  (4)  The  Jews.  (5)  The  Turks, 
(6)  The  Blacks.  The  Arabs  call  the  Barbary 
states  Moghreb  (west).  The  language  of  llw 
people  inland  differs  from  that  of  Arabia  and 
byna,  though  not  so  much  as  on  the  coast.  See 
Algeiua;  Bahca;  Fezzan;  Morocco;  Twpou; 
Tirais.  Consult  Dumont,  P.  J.,  'TTiirty-five 
Years  Slavery  and  Travels  in  Africa'  (London 
1819) ;  Edwards,  A.,  'The  Barbary  Coast'  (New 
York  1913). 

BARBARY  APE,  or  HAGOT,  a  small 
species  of  ape  of  the  genus  Macacus,  interest- 
ing as  being  the  onl^  animal  of  the  monkey 
kind  in  Europe.  It  is  found  on  the  rock  of 
Gibraltar,  where  the  individuals  are  few  in 
number;  whence  it  has  been  concluded  by  M. 
de  Blamville  that  they  have  sprune  from 
domesticated  apes  escaped  from  confinement 
in  the  houses  of  Gibraltar.  The  Barhaiy 
magot  is  a  small  tailless  monkey  complete^ 
covered  with  greenish- brown  hair.  In  its  wild 
state  it  is  lively  and  intelligent,  but  becomes 
sullen  and  intractable  in  captivity. 

BARBARY  POWBRG,  United  Stfttet 
Treatiea  and  Wars  with  the.  The  four  Mo- 
hammedan states  of  Morocco,  Algiers,  Tunis 
and  Tripoli,  though  either  independent  or 
nominally  tributary  to  Turkey,  were  for  some 
three  centuries,  the  I6th  to  the  19th,  a  common 
foe  to  Mediterranean  commerce  and  traveL 
Almost  their  entire  subsistence  was  on  the 
produce  of  piracy :  either  the  avails  of  captured 
stores,  the  ransoms  for  ^prisoners  held  in 
slavery  or  the  blackmail  paid  by  other  powers 
for  immunity.  The  large  states  paid  them  a 
regular  annual  tribute  —  though  by  joinii% 
forces  they  could  have  stopped  the  piracy  at 
any  time, —  on  the  express  ground  that  it  gave 
them  the  monopoly  of  Mediterranean  trade 
against  the  small  ones  which  could  not  afford 
it ;  and  England,  which  paid  about  $280,000  a 
year,  deliberately  put  the  price  high  to  pre- 
vent others  from  bidding  up  to  it.  Even 
these  sums  bought  only  temporary  truce,  as  the 
pirate  state  lived  on  depredations,  and  the 
tribute  had  to  be  supplemented  with  constant 
presents  and  concessions.  A  paM  of  this 
tribute  was  always  demanded  in  armed  vessel^ 
ammunition  and  naval  stores,  so  that  the 
civilized  powers  fu  mi  shed  the  means  for 
plundering  themselves.  The  ransom  of  cap- 
tives from  them  was  a'  leading  object  of  public 
and  private  charity,  and  collections  were  taken 


BARBASTRO 


op  in  churches  for  this  end.  In  1786  there 
were  2,200  Chriatian  captives  in  Algiers  alone. 
When  the  United  States  began  to  send  vessels 
to  the  Mediterranean  no  longer  protected  by 
the  English  flag,  the  pirates  at  once  assailed 


priated  $80,000  in   1784  to  buy  immunity  after 
the  European  model;  but  it  seemed  likely  to 
cost    nearer    $1,000,000,    and,    reversing    their 
usual  parts,  John  Adams  preferred  to  nay  as 
a  cheaper  resort  than  fighting,  while  Jenerson 
considered  fighting  both  cheaper,  more  honor' 
able  and  the  preparation   for  a  better   future. 
Morocco,    for  some   reason    much    the    most 
amenable,  signed  iti  1787  a  50-years'  peace  with- 
out triCuie,  though  with  the  understanding  of 
some  presents  to  the  Sultan,  and  kept  it,  save 
for  a  short  time  in  1803.    The  Dey  of  Algiers 
asked  $59,496   for  his  captives,  or  over  $2,800 
each,  though  the  last  French  captives  ransomed 
bad  only  cost  $300,  or  with  costs,  $500;  and  the 
matter  hung  tire   for  several   years,   11   of  the 
21   dying  before  the  final  ransom  of  1795.     In 
1793,   t^   the  carelessness   or  bad   faith   of   an 
English   counsul,   the  Algerine   corsairs   gained 
entrance  to  the  open  sea  bqiond  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar,  and  captured  10  United  States  ves- 
sels at  a  blow,  the  number  of  our  captives  in 
their  bands  in  November  being  115.    Negotia- 
tions were  set  on  foot,  and  on  5  Sept   1795 
Congress    paid    Algiers    $992,463.25    for   peace 
and    the    ransom   of    all   our    prisoners  —  this 
sum  including  a  36-gun  frigate  costing  $99,727, 
and  about  $100,000  worth  of  stores  and  ammu- 
nition.    It  also  engaged  to  ^y  $21,600  a  year 
thereafter  in  naval  stores,  $20,000  on  presenta- 
tion of   a   consul,  biennial  presents  of  $17,000, 
and    other    regular    and    incidental    gifts.     In 
1796    it    sent    four   armed   vessels   as   arrears. 
A  treaty  was  made  with  Tripoli  in  November 
1796.  on  much  the  same  terms  save  that  there 
were  no  ransoms;  and  one  with  Tunis,  in  1799, 
for  $107,000.     The  cost  of  immunities  and  ran- 
soms in   1802  had  been  over  $2,000,000;  and  of 
course    even    this    bought    nothing   permanent. 
The  Pasha  of  Tripoli  broke  the  treaty  in  three 
years    and    a   half,    demanding   $225,000    with 
$25,000  annually,  and  on  refusal  declared  war, 
14  May  1801,    A  squadron  under  Commodore 
Dale     was    sent     to     the     Mediterranean     and 
blockaded    TripoU,    also    forcii^    Algiers    and 
Tunis    to    think     better     of     their     threatened 
alliance   with   it  and  to   renew  their  treaties. 
Morris  succeeded  him,  but  was  soon  recalled. 
Preble,    who   tot^    his    place,    1803-04,    forced 
Morocco,   which  had  joined  Tripoli,  to  with- 
draw from  the  alliance  and  renew  its  treaties ; 
carried     on    a    vigorous    blockade ;    and    bom- 
barded   Tripoli   five  times.    Barron   succeeded 
PrebJe.  but  in  the  middle  of  1805  turned  over 
the    command    to   Rodgers,   who   at   once   pre- 
pared   for   a   grand  bombardment   and  assault. 
The    scale    was   turned,    however,   by    William 
Eaton    <q.v,),  who  took  up  ihe  cause  of  the 
Pasha's      elder     brother,     Hamel     Caramelli, 
driven   frotn  the  throne  some  years  before,  or- 
ganized   at   Alexandria    a    singular    rabble  «f 
cosmopolites,  and  after  a  desperate  six  weeks' 
march    across   the   desert,   captured,  with   the 
aid  of  the  navy,  the  seaport  of  Deme  in  Barca, 
several    hundred   miles   east  of  Tripoli.     The 
Pasha  feared  an  insurrection  as  well  as  Rod- 


gers'   attack;   and   hasti^   signed  on   3   June 

1805,  with  Tobias  Lear,  United  Slates  consul- 
general  at  Algiers,  who  had  come  to  Tripoli 
on  purpose,  a  treaty  by  which  the  United 
States  paid  $60,000  ransom  for  the  prisoners, 
left    Hamet's    supporters   to   the    Pasha's   ven- 

?:ance  and  Hamet  himself  to  beg  the  United 
tates  for  a  pension,  and  allowed  the  Pasha 
four  years  to  deliver  up  Hamet's  wife  and 
children.  The  need  and  honor  of  this  abject 
surrender  of  our  government  belongs  to  his- 
torical polemics.  The  embargo  ol  1807  pre- 
vented further  trouble  for  some  years  by  an- 
nihilating our  commerce;  but  after  its  removal 
iu  1810  the  depredations  were  renewed,  and  in 
1812  Algiers  was  ready  for  more  gratifications. 
The  Dey  had  received  from  us  $378,363,  but 
made  out  a  case  for  $27,000  arrears,  forced  the 
United  States  consul  to  borrow  it  at  usurious 
rates,  and  then,  ordering  him  out  of  the  coun- 
try, declared  war.  The  War  of  1812,  however, 
having  denuded  the  Mediterranean  of  our 
trading-vessels,  he  captured  only  one  brig  and 
11  persons;  and  after  the  war  our  naval  force 
under  Decatur  was  turned  against  Algiers.  He 
found  its  entire  l^eet  at  sea;  captured  two  and 
cut  off  the  rest  from  portj  entered  the  dw  30 
June  1815,  41  days  after  sailing;  and  forced  the 
Dey  to  sign  wilhin  three  hours,  without  gift  or 
present,  on  pain  of  having  hie  city  destroyed 
and  his  fleet  captured,  a  trea^  abolishing  all 
tribute  or  presents  of  any  sort  thereafter  from 
the   United   States,   delivering   up   all   his   cap- 


demnit^  for  the  captured  brig.  Tunis 
Tripoli  having  allowed  English  ships  to  seize 
American  prizes  in  their  harbors,  Decatur  pro- 
ceeded to  both  places  and  forced  their  rulers  to 
make  similar  treaties,  pay  indemnities  and  re^ 
lease  all  their  Christian  prisoners  of  whatever 
nations.  This  magnificent  action  of  the  United 
States  induced  the  English  government  (o  take 
»milar  steps  the  next  year,  but  Tunis  and 
Tripoli  did  not  abandon  piracy  till  1819,  and 
Algiers  was  not  finally  reduced  till  1829  by 
France.  It  was  the  United  States  which  first 
lifted  this  incubus  of  'Algerine"  (as  the  entire 
system  was  compendiously  called)  piracy  and 
slavery  from  the  Christian  world.  Consult 
Schuyler,  E.,  'American  Diplomacy'  (London 
1886)  ;  Adams,  H.,  'History  of  the  United 
States,'  Vols.  I,  II,  IX  (1889-90);  Felfon,  C. 
'Life  of  Eaton,'  in  Sparks,  'American 
Biography'  ;  Lane-Poole,  S,  E.,  'The  Story  of 
the  Barbary  Corsairs'  (New  York  1896).  See 
TREATtEs ;     United     States  —  Diplomacy     of 

BARBASTRO,  bSr-ba'itro.  Spain,  city  of 
Aragon,  30  miles  east- southeast  of  Huesca. 
The  city  has  straight,  well-made  and  paved 
streets,  a  cathedral  with  paintings  tni  Galeran, 
parish  church,  college,  Latin  and  three  other 
schools,  town- ho  use,  session- house,  ecclesiasti- 
cal courthouse,  extensive  hospital,  two  prisons, 
several  convents  with  churches  attached,  two 
palaces,  a  theatre  and  bull-ring.  It  also  pos- 
sesses philosophical,  agricultural,  commercial 
and  other  literary  and  beneficent  associations. 
The'  manufactures  of  Barbastro  have  sreatly 
declined,  consisting  only  of  hats,  hardware, 
cutlery,  shoes  and  ropes ;  while  a  little  trade  is 
carried  on  in  cattle,  horses  and  mules.    It  is 


Google 


BARBAULD  —  BARBEL 


the  terminus  of  a  brancli  railway  liae  with  a 
juDction  at  Selgna,  12i^  miles  distant  Pop. 
about  7,500. 

BARBAULD,  Atuu  Ledtia,  English 
writer,  daugbter  of  the  Rev,  John  Aikin :  b. 
Kibworth,  Leicestershire,  20  June  1743;  d.  9 
March  1825.  Her  earliest  production  was  a 
small  volume  of  miscellaneous  poems,  printed 
in  1773.  This  was  succeeded  in  the  same  year 
by  a  collection  of  pieces  in  prose,  published  in 
conjunction  with  her  brotfier.  In  1774  she 
married  the  Rev.  Rochemont  Barbauld,  Her 
'Early  Lessons  and  Hymns  for  Children,*  and 
various  essays  and  poems,  have  secured  for 
her  a  permanent  reputation.  In  1812  appeared 
the  last  of  her  separate  publications,  entitled 
'Eighteen  Hundred  and  Eleven,'  a  poem  of 
considerable  merit ;  previous  to  which  she  bad 
edited  a  collection  of  English  novels,  with 
critical  and  biographical  notices.  A  similar 
selection  followed  from  the  best  British  essay- 
ists of  the  reign  of  Aime,  and  another  from 
Richardson's  manuscript  correspondence,  with 
a  memoir  and  critical  essay  on  his  life  and 
writings.  She  will  be  longest  remembered  by 
her  beautiful  and  much-quoted  lyric  begin- 
ning:  •Life,  we  have  been  long  together.* 
Consult  Aildn,  'Works  of  A.  L  Barbauld'; 
Ellis's,  'Life  and  Letters  of  Mrs.  Barbauld' 
<1874);  Ritchie,  Mrs.  Thackeray,  'Book  of 
Sibyls'  (1883). 

BARBAZAN,  bar-ba-z6A,  Amaold  Gail- 
hem,  Sire  de,  French  captain,  distinguished  by 
Charles  VI  with  the  title  of  'Chevalier  Sans 
Reproche,»  and  by  Charles  VIIl  with  that  of 
'Restaurateur  du  Royaume  et  de  la  Couronne 
de  France" :  b.  about  the  end  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury; killed  at  BuHegneville  1432.  He  earned 
the  former  of  his  titles,  while  yet  voung,  by 
his  successful  defense  of  the  national  honor  in 
a  combat  fought  in  1404  between  six  French 
and  six  English  knights,  before  the  Castle  of 
Monlendre;  and  the  latter  designation  he  ac- 
[the 


BARBB-HARBOIS,  bar-ba-mar-bwa. 
Francois,  Marquis  de,  French  statesman:  b. 
Metz,  3  Jan,  1745;  d.  14  Jan.  1S37.  After 
fulfilling;  diplomatic  offices  at  several  German 
courts  be  was  sent  to  the  United  States  as 
consul-general  of  France.  He  oTgaa'ued  all 
the  French  consulates  in  this  country,  in  which 
he  resided  10  years,  and  married  the  daughter 
of  William  Moore,  governor  of  Pennsylvania, 
In  1785  he  was  appomted  by  Louis  XVI  super- 
intendent of  Samt  Domingo,  and  introduced 
many  reforms  into  the  administration  of  jus- 
lice  and  of  finance  in  that  island.     He  returned 


the  Revolution  he  was  exiled  to  Guiana  as  a 
friend  of  royalty,  but  being  recalled  in  1801  he 
was  made  director  of  the  treasury,  a  title 
which  he  soon  exchanged  for  that  of  minister. 
In  1803  he  was  appointed  to  cede  Louisiana  to 
the  United  States  for  $10,000,000,  but  had  the 
skill  to  obtain  the  price  of  $16,000,000,  a  piece 
of  diplomacv  for  which  he  was  liberally  re- 
warded by  Napoleon.  In  1813  he  entered  the 
Senate,  and  the  next  year  voted  for  the  for- 


feiture of  the  Emperor  and  the  re-«stablisb- 
ment  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty.  He  was  well 
received  by  Louis  XVIII,  aniointed  a  peer  of 
France  and  honorary  counselkir  of  the  univer- 
sity, and  confirmed  in  the  office  of  the  first 
president  of  the  court  of  accounts,  which  he 
had  formerly  held.  He  was  an  object  of  the 
indignation  of  Napoleon  after  his  retura  to 
France  from  Elba,  and  was  ordered  to  leave 
Paris.  He  resumed  bis  oflices  after  the  return 
of  the  Bourbons,  but,  moderate  in  his  prin- 
ciples, and  an  enemy  of  all  reaction,  he  was 
not  in  harmony  with  the  majority  of  those  v/itb 
whom  he  associated;  and  in  the  Chamber  of 
Peers  he  succeeded  with  difficulty  in  effecling 
the  substitution  of  banishment  for  death  as  a 
penalty  for  political  offender*.  After  the 
revolution  of  July  he  exercised  the  same 
adulation  and  took  the  same  oaths  of  fidelity  to 
Louis  Philippe  which  he  had  formerly  given  to 
Napoleon  and  the  Bourbon  jirinccs.  The  de- 
sire to  die  first  president,  which  had  been  the 
motive  of  all  his  flexibility,  proved  at  last  a 
vain  one,  and  in  1834.  he  was  succeeded  in  his 
office,  and  as  a  consolation  received  the  por- 
trait of  the  King,  accompanied  by  an  autograft 
letter.  His  numerous  works  contain  curious 
details  concerning  Saiat  Domingo,  Louisiana 
and  Guiana,  which  he  studied  in  his  exile^  and 
he  wrote  also  upon  the  treason  of  Arnold. 

BARBECUE,  a  lar^  gathering  of  i>eopIe, 
generally  in  the  open  air,  for  a  social  enter- 
tainment or  a  political  rally,  the  leading  feature 
of  which  is  the  roasting  of  animals  whole  to 
furnish  the  members  of  the  party  with  food. 
The  word  is  said  to  have  been  employed  in 
Virginia  prior  to  1700,  and  the  institution  of 
the  barbecue  is  of  Southern  origin. 

BARBEL  (Barbus),  a  genus  of  fresh- 
water abdominal  malacaptcrygious  fishes,  of 
the  faituly  Cyprinida,  or  carps,  distinguished 
by  the  shortness  of  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins,  a 
strong  spine  replacing  the  second  or  third  ray 
of  the  dorsal,  and  four  fleshy  filaments  grow- 
ing from  the  lips,  two  at  the  nose  and  one  at 
each  comer  of  the  mouth,  and  forming  the 
kind  of  beard  to  which  the  genus  owes  its 
name.  Of  the  several  species,  generally  named 
after  the  country  or  nver  wnere  they  are 
found,  the  European  one,  common  in  most  of 
the  rivers  of  its  temperate  climates,  and  hence 
called  B.  vulgaris,  is  most  deserving  of  notice. 
Its  average  length  is  from  12  to  18  inches,  hut 
individuals  have  been  taken  measuring  three  feet 
and  weighing  from  15  to  18  poiwds.  The  head 
is  smooth  and  oblong,  and  the  upper  jaw  is 
much  longer  than  the  lower.  Its  dorsal  spine, 
which  is  strong  and  serrated,  often  inflicts 
severe  wounds  on  the  fishermen  and  damages 
their  nets.  It  lives  on  small  fishes,  and  also 
on  aquatic  plants,  worms  and  insects,  which  it 
obtains  tv  boring  with  its  barbels  into  the 
banks  of  the  stream  and  turning  up  the  loose 
soil.  Its  flesh  is  very  coarse  and  unpalatable, 
and  at  the  time  of  spawning,  the  roe  is  dan- 
gerous to  eat.  Anouicr  species,  common  in 
the  Nile,  is  described  as  weirfiing  upward  of 
70  pounds,  and  has  a  flesh  which  is  fine,  deli- 
cate and  well-flavored.  When  cau^t,  the 
fisherman  puts  an  iron  throu^  its  law  and 
fastens  tt  by  a  short  cord  to  the  bank  of  the 
river,  where  it  retnains  alive  till  required. 


Google 


BASBBR  — BARBBK  OP  SEVILLE 


BARBER,  Edwin  AUee,  AmeHcan  archae- 
ologist: b.  Baltimore,  Md,  13  Aug.  1851.  He 
was  gradualed  at  Williston  Seminary  in  1869, 
attended  Lafayette  College  1869-72,  afterward 
received  the  degrees  oi  A.M.  and  Ph.D^  and 
was  assistant  naturalist  in  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey  in  1874-^75.  Director  of  the 
Peansylvania  Museum,  Philadelphia,  since 
1901.  His  writiiiKs  include  a  targe  number  of 
maeaiine  articles:  'Genealogies  of  the  Barber 
and  Atlee  Families' ;  'Pottery  and  Porcelain 
of  the  United  States'  (1895,  19Q2,  1909); 
•An^o-American  PoMeiy>  (1899-1901) ; 
'American  Glassware,  Old  and  New' 
(1900)  ;  'Tulip  Ware  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania-German Potters'  (1903) ;  'Marks  of 
American  Potters'  (1904) ;  'Artificial  Soft 
Paste  Porcelain'  (1907);  'Salt  Glazed  Stone- 
ware' (1907);  'Tin  Enameled  Pottery'  (1907); 
'Lead  Glazed  Pottery'  (1908);  'The  Majolica 
of  Mexico'  (1908);  'Hard  Paale  Porcelain' 
(Oriental),  (1910);  'The  Ceramic  Collectors' 
Glossary'  (1914) ;  'Spanish  Porcelains  and 
Terra  CoHas'  (191S) ;  'Hispano- Moresque 
Pottery'  (191S).  Member  of  the  American 
Philosophical  and  many  other  learned  societies. 
BARBER,  Francis,  American  soldier:  b. 
Princeton,  N.  J.,  1751;  d.  Newburg.  N.  Y.,  11 
Feb.  1783.  He  was  graduated  at  Princeton  in 
1767,  and  became  principal  of  a  school  in 
Elixabethtown,  where  Alexander  Hamilton  was 
one  of  his  pupils.  He  was  successively  major 
and  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  3d  New  Jersey 
artillery,  and  assistant  inspector-general  under 
Baron  Steuben.  He  took  part  in  the  battles  of 
Trenton,  Princeton,  Brandywine  and  German- 
town,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  Monmouth 
and  in  Sullivan's  Indian  expedition,  1779.  He 
was  of.  the  greatest  service  lo  Washington  in 
securing  intelligence  of  the  enemy's 'movements 
and  in  putting  down  (he  mutiny  of  New  Jersey 
and  Pennsylvania  troops.  In  1781  he  com- 
manded a  battalion  of  infantry  in  Lafayette's 
Virginia  campaign,  and  was  present  at  York- 
town.  He  was  killed  by  a  falling  tree  at  the 
close  of  the  war. 

BARBER,  one  who  sbavn  beards  and 
dresses  hair.  The  occupation  of  barber  is  an 
institution  of  civilited  life,  and  is  only  known 
among  those  nations  that  have  made  a  certain 
progress  in  civilization.  It  is  referred  to  by 
the  prophet  Eiekiel :  'And  thou,  son  of  man, 
take  thee  a  barber's  razor,  and  cause  it  to  pass 
upon  thine  head  and  upon  thy  beard.*  CEzdi. 
V,  1).  We  do  not  read  of  a  barber  at  Rome 
till  about  the  year  454  of  the  city;  but  there, 
as  elsewhere,  when  once  introducedj  they  be- 
came men  of  great  notoriety,  and  thar  shops 
were  the  resort  of  all  the  loungers  and  news- 
mongers in  the  city.  Hence  they  are  alluded  to 
bj'  Horace  as  most  accurately  informed  in  all 
the  minute  history,  both  of  families  and  of  the 
state.  But  in  early  times  the  operations  of  the 
barber  were  not  confinccL  as  now,  to  shaving, 
hair-dressing  and  the  making  of  wigs;  but  in- 
cluded the  dressing  of  wounds,  blood-letting 
and  other  surgical  operations.  It  seems  that  in 
all  countries  the  art  of  surgery  and  the  art  of 
shaving  went  hand  in  hand.  The  title  of 
barber-chirurgeon,  or  barber- simjeon,  was  gen- 
erally applied  to  barbers.  The  barbers  of 
Lcmdpn  were  first  incorporated  by  Edward  IV 
in  1461,  and  at  that  time  were  the  only  persons 
who  practised  surgery.     The  barbers  and  the 


surgeons  were  separated,  and  made  two  dis- 
tinct corporations  ~  in  France^  in  the  time  of 
Louis  XIV,  and  in  England  in  1745.  The  sign 
of  the  barber-chirurgeon  consisted  of  a  striped 
pole  from  which  was  suspended  a  basin ;  the 
iillet  round  the  pole  indicating  the  riband  or 
bandage  twisted  round  the  arm  previous  to 
blood- letting,  and  the  basin  the  vessel  for  re- 
ceiving the  blood.  This  sign  has  been  generally 
retained  by  the  modern  barber.  In  the  United 
States,  however,  it  is  only  occasionally  that  the 
basin  may  be  seen  hanging  at  the  door  of  a 
barber's  shop.  The  character  of  the  barber  is 
amusingly  illustrated  in  one  of  the  tales  of  the 
'Arabian  Nights  Entertainments,'  and  has  been 
immortaliiea  by  Beaumarchais,  Moiart  and 
Rossini,  under  the  name  of   'Figaro.' 

BARBER-FISH.     See    Surgeon-Fish. 

BARBER  OF  SEVILLE,  The  (Le  Bar- 
bier  de  Seville),  one  of  the  wittiest  of  all 
dramas  and  most  mordant  of  satirical  solvents, 
was  written  by  Beaumarchais  under  irritation 
at  speculative  misadventures  in  American  trade, 
in  1772,  ready  for  the  stage  in  1773  and,  after 
two  jrears  of  prohibition  and  intrigue,  first 
acted  in  February  1775.  In  its  first  form  it  was 
overloaded  with  allusions  to  his  personal  affairs 
and  was  ill-received.  Revised  on  the  instant 
it  won  on  the  second  night  a  great  success.  Sev- 
eral passages  then  suppressed,  because  they 
had  been  hissed,  when  inserted  nine  years  later 
in  'The  Marriage  of  Fifraro,'  were  received  with 
applause.  The  second  title  of  the  Barber,  'The 
Futile  Precaution'  points  to  Fatouville's  'La- 
Pricaution  inutile'  (1692)  as  the  source  of  its 
plot.  Something  was  borrowed  also  from  St- 
daine's  'On  ne  s'avise  jamais  de  tout.'  But 
the  ex-valet  Figaro,  the  central  figure,  is  Beau- 
marchais' sole  creation,  a  marvelous  and  half- 
autobiographic  combination  of  gaiety  and  phi- 
losophy, disillusioned  shrewdness,  deep  reflec- 
tion and  lambent  wit  The  guardian  yrho 
wishes  to  marry  his  ward  is  a  stock  figure  of 
old  comedy.  But  Bartholo  is  no  commonplace 
old  man  nor  Rosine  the  conventional  ingenue. 
Duped  Bartholo  may  be,  but  he  is  no  unworthy 
antagonist  of  the  young  lover  Almaviva  and 
counters  well  on  the  devices  of  Figaro  from 
point  to  point  so  that  the  interest  nses  stead- 
ily to  the  very  denouement  The  dialogue 
throughout  sparkles  with  overflowing  wit,  un- 
expected turns  of  phrase,  words  of  double  in- 
tent, topsy-turvy  application  of  proverbial  wis- 
dom and  even  quite  superfluous  jests.  The  play 
is  still  popular  in  France  and  in  the  version 
^ven  it  by  Rossini  in  his  opera,  'II  Barbiere  di 
Seviglia'  (1816),  has  an  international  currency. 
The  best  edition  of  'Le  Barbier  de  Seville'  is 
in  'Thfeatre  de  Beaumarchais,'  edited  by  d'Heyli 
and  Marescot.  For  its  history,  autobiographi- 
cal elements  in  it  and  contemporary  opinion  of 
it  consult  Lominie,  'Beaumarchais  and  his 
Times'  (Vol.  2,  pp.  233  f.).  For  the  character 
of  Figaro  see  Brunetiere,  'fipooues  du  theatre' 
(pp.  297f.),  and  Lintilhac,  'Beaumarchais.* 
A  modem  mic  of  Figaro  may  be  seen  in  Au- 
gier's  'Fils  de  Giboyer'  (trans,  by  A.  B.  Uyriclc, 
New  York  1905).  See  Mabhiage  of  Figaro, 
The. 

Benjamin  W.  Wells. 

BARBER  OF  SEVILLE,  opera  boufTe  in 
two  acts  by  Gioacchimo  Rossini  (libretto  by 
Sterbini,  founded  on  Beaumarchais'  celebrated 


BARBBR  POET  — BARBERS'  ITCH 


play).  First  produced  in  Rome  S  Feb.  1816. 
The  work,  destined  to  become  one  o(  the  most 
popular  in  operatic  repertory,  was  at  first  a 
dismal  failure,  due  largely  to  popular  ceseiit- 
ment  at  the  use  of  a  subject,  which  had  al- 
ready been  turned  to  account  by  other  com- 
Gsers,  especially  Paisiello,  whose  setting  had 
en  a  favorite  with  the  Italian  opera  public. 
It  was  not  long,  however,  before  the  tables 
were  turned  and  Paisiello's  'Barbie re'  was 
forever  barred  in  favor  of  the  newcomer. 
Aulhorilies  differ  as  to  the  length  of  time  in 
which  the  music  was  written.  In  any  event, 
the  period  was  not  more  than  three  weeks. 
The  fact  is  sigiii6cant  of  Rossini's  imm< 
facility  of  invention.  It  is  said  that  when 
of  his  contemporaries  was  told  that  Rossini  had 
written  the  music  in  13  days,  he  replied,"  with  a 
twinkle  in  his  eye:  *It  is  quite  possible;  he  is 

The  Barber  is  full  of  irresistible  verve,  the 
music,  piquant  and  graceful,  rollicking  and 
glittering  in  turn.  The  stoiy  is  a  sort  of  pro- 
loRue  to  that  of  Mozart's  'Figaro,'  but,  muii' 
cally,  there  is  little  in  common  between  them. 
Rossini  was  concerned  merely  with  writing  a 
comic  opera  which  would  amuse  and  charm 
the  senses  and  he  succeeded  to  perfection. 
There  are  20  distinct  musical  numbers  con- 
nected  by  recitative  in  the  style  so  common  to 
Italian  opera  of  that  period  ^ — "rccilalivo  secco' 
or  dry  recitative,  as  it  is  called.  It  aitproxi- 
males  speech  more  nearly  than  song,  but  is  con- 
stantly :kbout  to  break  into  music.  Its  mo- 
notonous character  is  undeniable  and  it  has 
largely  disappeared  from  operatic  writing,  sup- 
planted by  the  more  musical  song-speech  of 
the  modem  music  drama.  Among  the  indi- 
vidual musical  numbers,  attention  may  be 
focus sed  on  Figaro's  buffo  aria,  Largo  al 
factotum,  celebrated  the  world  over,  Rosina's 
cavatina,  Una  voce  poco  fa,  which  has  done 
service  tor  most  of  the  great  prima  donnas  of 
the  19th  century  and  the  "calumny"  aria  of 
Don  Basil io.  For  the  famous  music  lesson 
scene,  Rossini  wrote  a  concerted  number,  but 
it  has  been  lost  —  providentially,  from  the 
viewpoint  of  the  prima  donna,  who  has  thus 
been  able  to  introduce  a  show  piece  of  her  own 
choice  and  so  at  once  to  pique  the  curiosity  and 
astonish  the  ears  of  her  audience. 

The  Barber  remains  in  the  active  repertory 
of  most  of  the  opera  companies  and  bears  well 
its  century  of  life.  The  first  performance  in 
America  took  place  in  New  York  on  17  May 
1819,  in  an  English  translation  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Thomas  Phillips  ^  and  in  1825  it  was 
produced  in  the  authentic  Italian  version  hy 
Manuel  Garcia' s  Italian  Opera  Company,  which 
introduced  many  of  the  Italian  operas  to  the 
American  public.    Adelina  Patti  was  an  unfor- 

S1  table   Rosina,   while,   in   more  recent   years, 
arcella  Sembrich  found  the  role  a  grateful 

Lewis  M.  Isaacs. 


BARBERINI,  bar-bar- re'ne,  celebrated 
Florentine  family  which  became  powerful 
through  Cardinal  Mafico  Barberini.  who  was 
elected  Pope  in  1623  as  Urban  VIII.  Few  of 
the  Popes  have  carried  nejioiism  so  far  as 
Urban,    who,    during    his    reign    of  21    years. 


seemed  intent  on  only  one  object^the  aggran- 
dizement of  his  three  nephews.  Two  offhem 
were  appointed  cardinals,  and  the  third  became 
Prince  of  Palestrina.  The  principality  of 
Palestrina  continued  in  the  possession  of  the 
Colonna  branch  of  the  family  until  1889,  be- 
coming  extinct  in  the  male   hne  in   that   year. 

BARBERINI  FAUN,  a  famous  piece  of 
Greek  sculpture,  so  called  from  its  havmg  once 
been  in  the  possession  of  the  Roman  family  of 
Barberini.  It  is  now  in  the  Glyptothek  at 
Munich. 

BARBERINI  PALACE,  the  residence  of 
the  Barberini  family  in'Rome,  b^un  by  Pope 
Urban  VIII,  its  most  distinguished  member, 
but  not  finished  till  1640.  It  contains  a  famous 
picture-gallery  and  a  library  with  over  10,000 
volumes  and  10,000  manuscripts. 

BARBERRY  {Berberis),  a  genus  of  about 
175  species  of  shrubs  of  the  family  Ber- 
beridacea,  natives  of  temperate  climates.  The 
yellow  flowers  are  succeeded  by  red,  dadc- 
blue  or  black  fruit  which  in  some  species  is 
used  for  making  jellies  of  beautiful  color  and 
distinct  flavor:  that  of  some  other  species  is 
dried  and  used  like  raisins.  The  yellow  roots 
and  sometimes  the  stems  of  several  species  are 
used  in  dyeing,  and  the  bark  of  some  in  lanmng. 
Many  of  the  species  are  used  for  ornament  and 
for  hedges,  but  in  wheat-growing  sections  they 
should  not  be  planted,  because  they  are  host- 
plants  for  the  icidium  stage  of  wheat- rust 
(Puccinia  grattiinis') ,  which^  however,  has 
been  known  lo  develop  in  localities  remote  from 
barberry  bushes.  B.  vulgaris  and  its  varieties 
and  B.  Ihutibergii  (considered  fay  some  botanists 
a  form  of  vulgaris)  are  probably  the  most  com- 
mon species  planted  in  America.  The  former, 
an  American  species,  is  a  rather  erect  shrub 
about  10  feet  tall,  with  large  leaves  and  racemes 
of  flowers  which  ate  followed  by  red  fruits 
that  persist  during  the  winter  and  even  well 
into  the  second  summer;  the  latter,  a  Japanese 
species,  is  a  low,  spreading,  graceful  shrub 
with  dainty  little  leaves  which  become  brilliant 
red  in  autumn,  and  with  solitary  yellow  flowers 
followed  by  orange-red  persistent  fruits.  The 
stamens,  which  in  many  if  not  all  species  are 
sensitive,  spring  up  when  touched.  Propaga- 
tion is  usually  effected  by  means  of  seeds  or 
cuttings  of  green  wood,  but  sometimes  by 
grafts  and  layers.  For  description  of  species 
cultivated  for  ornament  in  America,  consult 
Bailey,  'Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture' 
(1914). 

BARBERRY  BLIGHT  or  RUST.  See 
Rusts. 

BARBERS'  ITCH.  Two  distinct  diseases 
of  the  skin  are  known  by  this  name  —  one  of 
a  parasitic  nature,  the  otner  not  parasitic.  In 
the  latter  there  is  an  inflammation  of  the  hair 
follicles  characterized  1^  the  formation  of 
papules  and  pustules  pierced  by  hairs.  It 
affects  the  hairy  part  of  the  face  and  runs  a 
chronic  course.  It  is  more  inclined  to  affect 
the  upper  lip  and  upper  parts  of  the  face.  The 
more  important  disease  is  the  Tinea  torhr,  or 
parasitic  disease.  Here  the  hair  follicles  are 
infected  in  a  fungus,  the  trichophyton.  It  is 
a  form  of  ringworm  of  the  beard.  It  affects 
the  lower  t«rt  of  the  face  and  neck,  cansing 
itching,    scaly    eruptions    that    secret    a    thick 


BASBBRTON  —  BARBIBR 


aa? 


muciu  and  spread  out  ring-like  from  the 
centre.  The  disease  is  always  cotitracted  from 
another  person  or  sometimes  from  lower  ani- 
mals. Uncleanljr  barbers'  implements  are  {he 
diief  agents  in  its  spread.  In  the  early  stages 
—  the  paraiitic  form  —  it  is  readily  curable, 
but  in  the  chronic  stages  it  may  prove  very 
diCBciih  to  treat  snccessTulIy. 

BARBBRTON,  Ohio,  city  in  Summit 
Coimty,  seven  miles  south  from  Akron,  and  39 
miles  from  Cleveland ;  on  the  Erie,  the  Balti- 
more &  CHiio  and  the  Pennsylvania  railroads. 
The  town  was  founded  in  1893  by  O,  C.  Barber, 
president  of  the  Diamond  Matdi  Company, 
whose  works  are  located  here.  It  is  known 
as  the  'masic  city,"  living  acquired  a  popula- 
tion of  10,000  in  about  18  years.  It  is  a  pro- 
gressive manufachirinK  centre,  having  sewer- 
pipe  mills,  rubber  works,  potteries,  iron  works, 
paint  mills,  salt  wells,  strawboard  -works  and 
other  industries.  The  United  States  census  of 
manufactures  for  1914  reported  34  industrial 
establishments  of  factory  grade,  emplt^ing 
3,706  persons,  of  whom  3,1111  were  wage 
earners,  recdving  $1,734,000  annually  in  wages. 


.       _ ,  a  mayor 

and  city  council  elected  biennially.  Pop.  12,0O0L 
BARBHS,  Armand,  b3rb<^s',  Sr-moti' 
French  politician  and  revolutionist :  b.  island  of 
Guadaloupe  1810;  d.  1870.  At  an  early  age  he 
was  taken  to  France,  and  in  1830  went  to  Paris 
to  attend  the  law  classes,  where  he  bad  an 
opportunity  of  manifesting  his  political  omnions 
at  that  period  of  public  excitement.  During 
the  whole  reign  of  l.auis  Philippe  he  was  con- 
stantly engaged  in  conspiracies.  In  conse- 
Sience  of  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  over- 
row  the  government  he  was  condemned  -to 
death,  a  sentence  which  was  commuted  to  per- 
petual confinement.  The  revolution  of  184S 
restored  Barbes  to  liberty.  He  then  founded  a 
club,  which  took  his  name,  in  which  the  doc- 
trines of  socialism  were  superseded  by  re- 
publicanism. After  the  insurrection  of  May 
1849,  BarUis  was  sentenced  to  deportation.  In 
1854  he  was  again  set  at  liber^,  and  left  France, 
a  voluntary  exile. 

BARBET,  any  of  the  tropical  South  Ameri- 
can birds  of  the  families  Capitonidis  and  Buc- 
canidtF,  both  of  which  are  characterized  by 
prominent  bristles  about  the  mouth,  which  as- 
sist them  in  catching  flying  insects.  The  birds 
of  the  former  family  are  more  usually  called 
■thickheads,"  and  those  of  the  latter  'pufF- 
birds»   (qq-v.). 

BARBETTE,  bar-bet',  the  platform  or  ele- 
vation of  earth  behind  the  breastwork  of  a 
fortification  or  an  intrenchment,   from  which 


mcnt  to  the  barbette.  When  the  garrison  has 
much  heavy  ordnance,  or  the  enem;^  has  opened 
his  trencbes,  or  when  it  is  determined  to  can- 
nonade the  intrenchments  of  a  given  point,— 
as,  for  example,  a  bridge  or  pass, —  and  the 
direction  of  the  cannon  is  not  to  be  materially 
changed,  it  is  usual,  instead  of  making  a 
barbette,  to  cut  embrasures  in  the  parapet;  on 
the  contrary,  firing  from  the  barbette  is  ex- 
pedient  when  one  expects  to  be  attacked  only 


by  infantry,  or  wishes  to  cannonade  the  whole 
surrounding  country.    See  FOKriFicATiON. 

BARBETTE  GUN.  See  Ordnance. 

BARBETTE  TURRET.     See  Tukbet. 

BARBEY  D'AUREVILLY,  biir-ba-dd- 
re-ve-yt.  Jules,  French  critic  and  novelist :  b. 
Saint-Saveur-le-Vicomle,  Manche,  2  Nov.  1808; 
d.  Paris,  24  April  1889.  As  a  contributor  to  the 
Pays  in  Paris  he  created  a  sensation  by  the  un- 
reserved tone  and  peculiar  style  of  bis  literan 
criticisms.  He  wrote  'On  Dandyism  and  G. 
Brummel'  (1845);  "The  Prophets  of  the  Pa.st' 
(1851)  ;  "(kethe  and  Diderot'  (1880)  ;  'Polem- 
ics of  Yesterday'  (1889);  'Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury; The  Works  and  the  Men*  (1861-92). 
Of  his  novels  *e  best  are  'The  Bewitched' 
(1854);  and  'The  Chevalier  des  Touches* 
(18645. 

BASBIANO,  bar-byi'nS.  Abrechtda,  an 
Italian  military  officer,  who  formed  the  first 
regular  company  of  Italian  troops  ongnized  to 
resist  _  foreign  mercenaries,  about  13/9.  This 
organization,  named  the  "Company  of  Saint 
GtoTge,"  proved  to  be  an  admirable  school,  as 
from  its  ranks  sprang  many  future  officers  of 
renown.  He  became  grand  constable  of  Naples 
in   1384,  and  died  in  1409. 

BARBICAN.     See  Bakbacan. 

BARBIE  DU  SOCAGE,  bar-byfl-da-bo- 
kazfa,  Jean  Denia,  distinguished  Froich  geo- 
grapher: b.  Paris  1760;  d.  there  1825.  He  laid 
the  foundation  of  his  fame  in  1788  by  the  pub- 
lication of  his  beautiful  Atlas  to  the  'Voya^ 
du  Jeune  Anacharsis,'  and  was  appointed  in 
1792  keeper  of  the  maps  of  the  Royal  Library, 
and  in  1809  professor  at  the  Sorbonne.  In  1821 
be  founded  the  Geographical  Society,  of  which 
he  became  president.  He  was  also  a  member 
of  the  Institute.  His  maps  and  plans  to  the 
'Voyage  pittoresqne  en  Grece,  de  Choiseul 
Gouffier,'  and  to  the  works  of  Thucydides, 
Xenophon,  etc.,  exhibit  much  erudition.  He 
also  prepared  many  modem  maps,  and  i)ub-. 
Hshed  excellent  dissertations  in  various  scien- 
tific collections.  Although  the  progress  of  time 
has  necessarily  deprived  much  of  his  work  of 
its  original  value,  his  labors  have  not  the  less 
given   a    decided   stimulus   to   the   progress   of 

BARBIER,  bar-byi.  Antoine  Alexandre, 
French  bibliographer;  b.  Coulommiers  1765;  d. 
182S.  In  1794  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  was 
chosen  a  member  of  the  committee  appointed 
to  collect  works  of  literature  and  art  exisline 
in  the  monasteries,  which  were  then  suppressed! 
This  was  the  cause  of  his  being  appointed  in 
1798  keeper  of  the  library  of  the  Consei!  d'fitat, 
collected  by  himself,  and  when  it  was  trans- 
ported to  Fontainebleau  in  1807  Napoleon  ap- 
pointed him  his  librarian.  On  the  return  of 
the  King  he  had  the  care  of  his  private  libraty. 
His  excellent  'Catalogue  de  la  Bibliolh&jue  du 
Conseil  d'filat'  {1801-03)  is  now  very  rare.  His 
"Dictionnaire  des  ouvrages  anonymes  el  pseu- 
donymes'  (1806-09,  4  vols,  3d  ei,  1824),  is  on 
account  of  its  plan,  its  accuracy  and  its  fullness 
(at  least  in  respect  to  French  literature),  one 
of  the  best  works  in  this  branch  of  bibliography. 

BARBIER,  Henri  Angnste,  French  poet: 
b.  Paris.  29  April  1805;  d.  Nice,  12  Feb.  1882. 
Having  written  an  historical  novel  (1830)  with 
Royer,  depicting  Frnich  mediKval  society^-hc  , 


BARBIBR — BARBOUR 


1  which  he  obtained  a  brilliant 
with  'The  lambes*  (1831) ;  (31st  ed,  1882),  a 
series  of  poignant  satires,  political  and  social, 
lashing  the  moral  depiavtty  of  the  higher 
classes, —  notably  the  ignoble  scramble  for  office 
under  the  new  government,  the  subject  of  'The 
Quarry,'  the  most  famous  among  these  satires. 
His  nexl  works,  'Lamentation*  (1833),  be- 
wailing the  misfortunes  of  Italy,  and  'Lazarus' 
(1837),  in  which  he  describes  the  misery  of  the 
English  and  Irish  laborer,  show  a  considerable 
falhng  off;  and  in  those  that  followed,  the 
poet  of  'The  lambes*  is  scarcely  to  be  recog- 
nised.   He  was  elected  to  the  Academy  in  1869. 

BARBIBR,  Paul  Jules,  a  prolific  French 
dramatist:  b.  Paris,  8  March  1825;  d.  1901. 
Having  won  success  with  his  first  effort,  'A 
Poet>  (1847),  a  drama  in  verse,  he  produced 
'The  Shades  of  Moli&re'  (1847);  'Andri 
(Hienier'  (1849);  'Willy  Nilly.'  a  comedy 
(1849)  ;  and  thereafter  in  collaboration,  mostly 
with  Michel  Carrf,  a  number  of  dramas  and 
vaudevilles,  also  countless  librettos  for  comic 
operas.  After  the  war  of  187()-71  he  published 
'The  Sharpshooter,  War  Songs'  (1871),  a 
collection  of  patriotic  poems;  and  later  two 
other  volumes  ot  lyrics.  'The  Sheaf  (1882) 
and  'Faded  Flowers'  (1890)  ;  besides  'Plays  in 
Verse'   (2  vols.,  1879). 

BARBIKR  DE  SEVILLE.  See  Babber 
OF  Seville. 

BARBIZON,  bar-bf-z6i^,  France,  a  village 
on  the  skirts  of  the  forest  of  Foiitainebleau, 
in  the  department  of  Seine- et-Mame.  Its 
picturestiue  situation  on  the  edge  of  the  forest 
and  association  have  made  it  a  favorite  haunt 
of  artist!!  and  tourists  which  has  ^ven  its  name 
to  a  school  ot  French  landscape  painters. 

BARBIZON,  The  Pfdnters  of,  a  group  of 


Barbizon  about  1844.  While  often  referred  __ 
as  the  Barhizon  school,  they  did  not  form  a 
school  in  the  usual  sense,  but  were  attracted 
together  by  similar  ^ims  and  principles.  These 
principles  may  be  reduced  to  the  one  that  each 
painting  be  studied  directly  from  nature  and 
express  a  mood  or  sentiment  of  the  artist  The 
result  was  a  grasp  on  truth  and  life  with  a 
poetic  character  that  gave  thdr  work  per- 
manency and  charm.  They  are  of  the  Romantic 
school  as  applied  to  the  landscape.  Tile  dis- 
tinctive note  of  the  school  appears  in  the  work 
of  Rousseau  and  Millet,  each  of  whom  made 
his  home  in  Barbizon.  Co  rot,  Diaz,  Dupr^ 
Daubigny  and  Troyon  were  members  of  the 
group.  (Se*  articles  on  these  artists).  Recog- 
nition of  their  merit  came  slowly  as  a  result 
of  the  conflicts  that  existed  between  the  classic 
and  romantic  schools  in  the  first  half  of  the 
19th  century.  The  painters  ot  Barbiion  are 
among  the  most  important  in  the  history  of 
landscape  painting,  into  which  they  infused  new 
hfe;  their  influence  was  tremendous  not  only 
in  Europe  but  in  America.  They  are  well 
represented  in  American  galleries,  such  as  the 
Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  and  the  Vander- 
bilt  collection.  New  York,  and  the  Shaw  col- 
lection of  Boston.  Gwisuh  La  Farce.  'The 
Higher  Life  in  Art'  (New  York  1908>  ;  Mollet, 
'Painters  of  Barbizon'  (London  1895)  ; 
Muther,   'History  of   Modern  Painting*    (IJln- 


don  1907) ;  Tomson,  Arthur,  'Painters  ot 
Barbizon'  (ih  1908);  Thompson,  D-  C, 
(painters  of  Barbizon*  (ib.  1902)  ;  Van  Dyke, 
"Modern  French  Masters'   (New  York  1906). 

BARBOU,  barTxw,  the  name  of  a  cele- 
brated French  family  of  printers,  the  descend- 
ants of  John  Babbou,  of  Lyons,  who  hved  in 
the  I6th  century.  From  hia  press  issued  the 
beautiful  edition  of  the  works  of  Clement 
Marot  in  1539.  His  son,  Hugh,  removed  Irom 
L^ons  to  Limoges,  where,  among  other  works, 
bis  celebrated  edition  of  'Cicero's  Letters  to 
Atlicus'  appeared  in  1580.  Joseph  Gekard,  a 
descendant  of  the  same  family,  settled  in  Paris, 
and  continued  in  17S5  the  series  of  Latin 
classics  in  duodecimo, —  rivals  to  the  Elzevirs 
of  an  earlier  date,^  which  had  been  begun  in 
1743.  by  Coustelier.  This  series  of  classics  is 
much  prized   for  its  elegance  and  correctness. 

BARBOUR,  bar^r,  Erwin  Hinckl». 
American  geologist :  b.  near  Oxford,  Ohio.  He 
was  us i slant  palaeontologist  in  the  United 
States    Geological    Survey    in    1882-88;    Stone 

Erofessor  of  natural  history  and  geologj-  in 
3wa  College  in  1889-91^  became  professor  of 
geology  in  the  University  of  N^raska,  and 
acting  State  geologist  in  1891 ;  and  curator  of 
the  Nebraska  State  Museum  since  1891.  In 
1893  he  took  charge  of  the  annual  Morrill  geo- 
logical expeditions,  and  since  then  he  has  also 
been  ensaged  in  the  United  States  C^eolo^cal 
and  Hy Orographic  Surveys. 

BARBOUR,  James,  Ainerican  statesman: 
b.  Orange  County,  Va.,  10  June  1775;  d.  8 
June  1842.  He  was  admitted  to  the  Bar  when 
19  years  old.  He  served  in  the  Vii^nia  legis- 
lature 1796-1812,  becoming  governor  of  the 
State  in  the  latter  year.  Three  years  later  he 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate.  He 
was  Secretoiy  of  War  1825-27,  and  Minister  to 
Rnf^land  1828-29.  In  politics  he  was  strongly 
an ti- Democratic.  He  was  chairman  of  the  con- 
vention which  nominated  Harrison  and  Tyler 
for  the  presidency  and  vice-presidency. 

BARBOUR,  John,  Scottish  poet,  of  whose 
lite  but  little  is  known.  He  is  supposed  to 
have  been  born  about  1316;  was  educated  at 
Oxford  and  Paris;  he  was  archdeacon  ot 
Aberdeen  from  1357  until  his  death.  He 
traveled  in  England  in  1357  and  in  1363  went 
to  France  for  scholarh"  puijoses.  He  was  a 
clerk  in  the  household  of  Robert  II  who  in 
13?8  gave  him  a  perpetual  annuity  of  20s,  in- 
creased in  1388  to  £10  a  year.  He  died  in 
Aberdeen.  13  March  1395.  His  great  epic,  'The 
Bruce,'  tells  the  story  of  Robert  Bruce  and 
the  battle  ot  Bannockburn.  It  was  written  in 
1375  and  brought  him  favor  from  the  Kine- 
Its  style  is  clear  and  pure  and  compares  favor- 
ably with  contemporary  English  poets  except 
Chaucer.  It  is  important  also  as  a  record  of 
the  manners  and  customs  of  the  time.  First 
printed  in  Edinburgh  in  1571 :  best  modern  edi- 
tion by  Skeat  (Eariy  English  Text  Society-, 
London  1870-89).  He  also  wrote  'Legends  of 
the  Saints,'  of  33,533  verses;  the  best  modem 
e^tion  is  that  by  Metcalfe  (Scottish  Text  So- 
ciety, Edinburgh  1896)  ;  and  a  fragment  on  (he 
Trojan  War.  Consult  Horstmann,  'Barbour's 
Legendcnsaramlung,  nebst  den  Fragmenten 
seines  Trojanenkneges'  (Heilbronn  1882)  ; 
Lang,  Andrew,  'History  of  Scotland'    (1900). 


BARBOUR — BARCELONA 


BARBOUR,  PfalUp  Pendleton,  American 
jurist:  b.  GraoRe  County,  Va.,  25  May  1783;  d 
24  Feb.  1841.  He  studied  law  at  William  and 
Maiy  College  and  began  to  practise  in  1802. 
He  led  the  war  party  in  the  Virginia  legislature 
1812-14,  when  hi  was  elected  to  Congress,  be- 
coming speaker  of  the  House  in  1821.  Four 
years  later  he  was  appointed  a  judge  in  his 
native  State,  returning  to  Congress  in  lfiZ7 ; 
but  later  resigning  through  ill-health.  He  was 
subsequently  ammmted  a  Federal  judge,  and  in 
1836  was  promoted  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States.    In  polities  he  was  a  Democrat. 

BARBOUR,  Ralph  Henry,  American  au- 
thor: b.  Cambndge,  Mass.,  13  Nov.  1870.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Highland  Militair  Acad- 
emy of  Worcester,  Mass,  He  is  well  known 
as  a  contributor  of  verse  and  short 


Stii 


C 


under  the  pen  name  of   'Richard 
Powell,*  but  has  published  a  number 


of   entertaining    boy's    stones    under   his    

name.  His  publications  include  'The  Half- 
back* (1899)  ;  'For  the  Honor  of  the  SchooP 
(1900):  'Captain  of  the  Crew*  (1901);  'Be- 
hind the  Line'  (1902):  'The  Land  of  Toy' 
(1903);  'Wealherby's  Inning'  (1903);  '^The 
Book  of  School  and  College  Sports'  (19M)  ; 
'Four  in  Camp'  (1905);  'Four  Afoot'  (1906); 
'Tom,  Dick  and  Harriet'  (1907)  ;  'Forward 
Pass'  (1908);  'Dotible  Play>  (1909);  'The 
Golden  Heart'  (1910):  'The  House  in  the 
Hedge'  (1911);  'The  Harbor  of  Love'  (1912): 
'The  Junior  Trophy'  (1913)  ;  'Partners  Three' 
(1913). 

BARBOURSVILLE,  Ky-  town  and 
county-seat  of  Knox  County,  185  miles  south- 
east of  Louisville,  on  the  (Cumberland  River, 
and  the  Louisville  &  N.  Railroad.  The  chief 
industries  are  connected  with  mining,  Itmiber- 
ing  and  oil  wells.     Pop.  2,000, 

BARBOURSVILLE,  W.  Va.,  town  of 
Cabell  County,  situated  on  the  Guyandotte 
River,  and  on  the  Chesapeake  &  O.  and  Ginran- 
dotte  Valleiv  railroads,  rane  miles  eut  of  Hunt- 
ington. It  is  the  seat  of  BarbourBville  College, 
a  Methodist  institution,  and  of  the  Kuhn  Me* 
morial  Hospital,  and  is  of  historic  interest  as 
ibe  scene  of  a  Federal  victory  in  the  Civil  War, 
13  July  1861.    Pop.  about  900. 

BARBOX  BROTHERS,  a  short  story  by 
IMckens,  with  a  second  part  known  as  'Barbox 
Brothers   &  Co.' 

BARBUDA  bar-boo'da.  Briush  West  In- 
dies, one  of  toe  Leeward  Islands,  25  miles 
north  of  Antigua.  It  is  of  coral  formation, 
has  a  fertile  soil,  and  produces  tobacco,  cotton. 


pepper.      There    are    forts    i 
of  tlie  isla    "        ' 


the 


._. e  island,  and  a  roadstead,  bill  .._ 

port.  The  population  is  almost  entirely  negroes, 
and  numbers  about   1,000. 

BARBUDO.  bar-boo'do,  or  BARBU,  Span- 
ish names  in  the  West  Indian  region  for  the 
strange  fishes  of  the  family  Polynemida:.  See 
Hango-Fish. 

BARBT,  PrusMa,  a  town  in  the  province  of 
Saxony,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  16  miles 
south- south  east  of  Magdeburg.  It  is  well  built 
and  has  an  old  castle,  and  manufactures  of 
linen  and  cotton,  soap-works,  breweries  and 
•fistiUeries.     Pop.   5,292. 

BARCA.  north  Africa,  an  Italian  posses- 
noti.    part    of    Libia    Italuuta,    ^hig   east    of 


Tripoli,  about  500  miles  long  by  400  miles  wide. 
It  forms  a  portion  of  the  ancient  Cyrenaica, 
in  its  widest  sense,  where  the  Greeks  had  two 
ftourishtng  colonies.  The  Greeks  were  followed 
in  possession  of  the  country  by  the  Romans, 
and  the  monuments  of  both  peoples  remain  in 
the  ruins  of  their  cities.  The  sides  and  sum- 
mits of  the  hills  in  the  east  and  north  are 
fertile,  andyield  abundant  crops  and  excellent 
pasture.  The  loftiest  heights  do  not  exceed 
1,800  feet.  Flowering  shrubs  occur  in  great 
variety,  including,  among  others,  roses,  laures- 
tinas,  honeysucljes,  etc.  The  Bedouin  inhabit- 
ants have  numerous  camels  and  other  cattle, 
constituting  their  principal  wealth.  Among 
beasts  of  prey  the  most  common  are  hyenas 
and  jackals ;  noxious  insects  also  abound. 
There  are  hardly  any  permanent  streams,  most 
of  the  water-courses  being  of  the  nature  of 
mountain  torrents,  which  lose  themselves  in 
the  sands  of  the  Libyan  Desert.  The  eastern 
portion,  however,  is  tolerably  well  supplied 
with  water  by  rains  and  spnngs.  The  chief 
exports  of  the  country  consist  of  grain  and 
cattle,  along  with  ostrich  feathers  and  ivory, 
brought  by  caravans  from  the  interior.  The 
sponge  fisheries  are  also  important.  The  chief 
imports  are  textiles  and  drugs.  Next  to  Ben- 
gali, the  capital,  the  seaport  of  Derna  is  the 
chief  town,  Barca  used  to  form  a  dependency 
of  Tripoli,  later  a  separate  province  under 
Turkish  dominion.  By  the  Treaty  of  Quchy, 
signed  by  the  Turkish  and  Italian  delegates  18 
Oct  1912,  it  was  formally  reco^^niied  as  a  de- 
peiidency  of  Italy;  it  forms  with  Tripoli  the 
new  Italian  colony  Libya.  The  population  is 
variously  estimated,  but  probably  does  not  much 
exceed  325,000. 

BARCAROLLE,  barlc^-rdl,  a  song  of  the 
gondoliers  at  Venice,  often  composed  by  them- 
selves, to  some  simple  and  pleasing  melody, 
such  as  may  be  timed  to  the  stroke  of  the  oar. 
Such  meloaies  are  sometimes  introduced  into 
operas,  and  have  been  written  for  the  piano. 

QARCELLONA,  bir-chil-lo'n^,  Sicily,  a 
town  in  the  province  of  Messina,  situated  on 
the  Lon^ano  River,  27  miles  west  of  the  town 
of  Messina.  It  is  noted  for  its  sulphur  baths 
which  are  frequented  from  May  to  September. 
The  suburb  of  Fozzo  di  Gotto  is  separated  ' 
from  the  main  town  by  a  small  stream,  the 
Fiume  di  Castro  Reale,  supposed  to  be  the 
Longanus  of  antiquiQr.  Oil,  manna,  wine  and 
fruit  are  the  most  important  products.  There 
are  fine  forests  on  the  near-by  mountains.  The 
chief  commerce  is  in  oil  and  fish.     Pop.  26,172. 

BARCELONA,  lur-the-ld'ni,  Spain,  the 
laiYcst  city  and  second  seaport  of  Spain,  440 
miles  northeast  of  Madrid  by  rail  (310  miles 
direct  line) ,  It  is  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the 


a  half-moon,  on  the  coast  of  the  Medi 
ranean,  between  the  mouths  of  the  Llobregat 
and  the  Besos,  in  the  midst  of  a  spacious  fer- 
tile valley.  It  was,  even  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
one  of  the  principal  commercial  places  on  this 
sea.  On  the  southwest  lies  the  hill  of  Mon- 
juich,  with  a  fort  which  protects  the  harbor. 
Barcelona  is  divided  into  the  old  town,  the 
streets  of  which,  with  one  or  two  exceptions, 
notably  the  broad  Rambia,  are  narmw  and 
medieval  but  ahnqrs  picturesque  and 


■t^ftogle 


040 


BARCELONA 


and  the  new  city,  with  wide  streets  and  band- 
some  modern  houses.  The  walU  of  the  old 
city  have  been  converted  into  boulevards  called 
Tondas.  In  the  suburbs  are  most  of  the  fac' 
tones.  Its  manufactures  which  ace  the  most 
important  in  Spain  include  cottons,  silks, 
woolens,  machinery,  iron  casting  papcr,  glass, 
mathematical  instruments  chenucals,  stoneware 
and  soap.  There  are  also  dyeworks,  lanner- 
ies,  etc.  Previous  to  the  great  war  many  of 
the  articles  needed  in  commerciai  production 
were  imported.  But  as  these  sources  of  supply 
were  closed,  new  industries  sprang  up;  espe- 
cially to  be  noted  are  those  of  bottle  tops,  elec' 
trie  wire  and  cable,  enameled  ironware,  hard- 
ware, needles  and  buttons,  galvanized  iron  and 
tinware,  grindstones  and  crucibles,  emery  prod* 
ucts,  glass,  inks,  varnishes,  glue,  waterproof 
cloth,  etc.  New  establishments  also  began  mak- 
ing rubber  articles,  straw  hats,  shirts,  neckties, 
furniture  and  toys.  Forty-six  new  textile  com- 
panies, manufacturing  in  silk,  cotton  and  wool, 
have  been  (1916)  begun  since  the  war  began, 
but  principally  in  the  knitted  goods  industries, 
for  which  not  only  the  city  but  the  whole  dis- 
trict is  noted.  But  perhaps  the  greatest  growth 
has  been  in  the  line  of  chemical  industries,  to 
supply  articles  formerly  imported  from  Ger- 
many. These  include  general  chemical  prod- 
ucts, aniline  dyes,  drugs  and  essences,  oils 
and  soaps,  alcohol,  glucose  and  chemical  fer- 
tilizers ;  as  well  as  photographic  papers  and 
films,  carbonic  acid  gas,  liquid  lye,  cream  of 
tartar  and  antiseptics.  The  local  tanning  in- 
dustry increased  largely  owing  to  the  war's  de- 
mand for  leathers,  and  12  new  tanneries  were 
established  to  supply  this  trade.  The  importa- 
tions of  raw  cotton  into  Barcelona  for  the 
campaign  year  1915-16  was  396,788  bales,  of 
which  314,855  came  from  the  United  States. 
While  this  supply  was  98,744  bales  less  than 
the  preceding  year  it  was  5,722  bales  more  than 
the  ante-war  period,  and  for  the  United  States 
an  increase  of  38,490  bales  over  Barcelona's 
purchases  for  the  year  just  previous  to  the 
war.  Of  the  total  supply  of  cotton  now  (1916) 
reaching  Barcelona  80  per  cent  is  grown .  in 
the  United  States,  15  per  cent  in  India  and  S 
per  cent  in  Egypt.  Agriculture  and  the  grow- 
mg  of  fruits  and  nuts  showed  a  marked  in' 
crease  in  1915-16.  The  harbor  is  spacious,  30S 
acres  and  has  an  entrance  300  yards  wide  be- 
tween two  long  piers.  The  entrance  is  pro- 
tected by  a  large  mole,  which  has  been  recently 
extended,  and  there  is  a  large  floating  dry- 
dock.  The  exports  consist  largely  of  manu- 
factured goods,  wine  and  brandy,  fruit,  oil, 
cork,  etc.  The  chief  imports  are  coal,  grain 
cotton,  hemp,  foodstuffs,  etc.  In  1910  1,662 
ships  of  2,463,741  tons  burden  entered  the  har- 
bor. The  city  contains  a  tmiversity  founded 
in  1430,  transferred  to  Cervera  in  1714  and  re- 
opened, here  in  1837,  now  occupying  a  noble 
pile  of  buildings,  completed  in  1873.  It  has 
faculties  of  law,  medicine,  philosophy,  natural 
sciences,  jnathematics  and  pharmacy,  about 
1,900  pupils  and  a  library  of  150^  volumes. 
Barcelona  also  contains  the  archives  of  the 
kings  of  Aragon  (nearly  4,000,000  documents), 
two  museams,  a  palace  of  fine  arts,  school  of 
architects  and  engineers,  a  foundling  hospital, 
a  general  hospital,  large  enough  tn  contain 
3,000  sick  persons,  a  deaf-and-dumb  institution, 
a  large  arsenal,  a  cannon  foundry,  several  lai^ 


theatres,  a  bull  ring  seating  14.500  peraoas,  and 
a  fine  Spanish  Gothic  cathedral  dating  from 
the  13th  century.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Supreme 
Court,  a  bishop  and  the  captain-general  of 
Catalonia,  and  is  altogether  a  beautiful  and 
agreeable  town,  with  various  interesting 
features  and  highly  picturesque  surroundings. 
Electric  lights  and  electric  tramways  have  been 
introducea  Barcelona  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  Carthaginians  in  the  3d  century 
B.C.,  and  was  an  important  city  under  lite 
Romans,  Goths  and  Moors.  It  was  from  the 
9th  till  the  12th  century  governed  by  its  own 
counts ;  but  afterward  t^  the  mania^e  of 
Rasimond  IV  with  the  dau^ter  of  Ramiro  II, 
King  of  Aragon,  it  was  umled  with  that  king- 
dom. In  1640  it  withdrew,  with  all  Catalonia, 
from  the  Spanish  government;  and  submitted 
to  the  French  Crown;  in  1562  it  submitted 
again  to  the  Spanish  government;  in  169?  it 
was  taken  by  the  Frendn,  but  restored  lo  Spain 
at  the  Peace  of  Ryswick.  In  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession  Barcelona  took  the  part  of 
the  Archduke  Charles;  but  in  1714  was  be- 
sieged by  the  troops  of  Philip  V,  under  the 
command  of  the  Duke  of  Berwick,  and  taken 
after  an  obstinate  resistance.  A  strong  citadel 
on  [he  east  side  of  the  city  was  then  erected  to 
overawe  the  inhabitants,  but  was  destroyed  in 
1845.  On  16  Feb.  1809,  Barcelona  was  taken 
by  surprise  by  the  French  troops  under  Gen- 
eral Duhesme,  and  remained  in  the  power  of 
the  French  till,  in  1814,  all  their  troops  were 
recalled  from  Catalonia  to  defend  their  own 
country.  In  1821  the  yellow  fever  carried  oft 
40,000  of  the  inhabitants.  The  city  has  been 
the  scene  of  mai^'  serious  and  sanguinary  re- 
volts, particularly  in  1832,  1836,  1840  and  1841. 
Latterfy,  industry  and  commerce  have  rapid^ 
increased,  the  construction  of  railways  contri- 
buting to  this  result.  This  city  is  re^rded  as 
the  centre  of  anarchist  movements  m  Spain. 
It  is  governed  by  a  council  elected,  for  four 
years  by  all  the  citizens  over  25  years  of  age. 
and  presided  over  by  an  alcalde  chosen  by  the 
mem  Mrs    among    their    awn    number.       Pop. 

8oo,ooa 

BAKCBLONA,  bar-shf-l6-na,  VcneiueU, 
the  capital  of  a  district  and  of  Ac  state  of 
Bermudez,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Never!,  160 
miles  east  of  Caracas.  The  surrounding 
country  is  fertile,  but  the  city  is  hot  and  un- 
healthy. Cattle,  jerked  beet,  hides,  indigo, 
cotton  and  cacao  are  the  chief  exports.  The 
district,  formerly  a  separate  state,  has  since 
1881  formed  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  state 
of  BermAdez.  The  city  was  founded  in  1634 
by  Juan  Urpjn,  and  during  the  long  period  of 
Spanish  domination  was  known  by  the  name 
of  NnevS  (New)  Barcelona.  Pop.  about 
13,000. 

BARCELONA,  Bank  of.  In  its  more 
modem  sense,  that  is  to  say,  an  institution  of 
deposit,  loan,  discount,  domestic  and  foreign 
exchange,  etc.,  open  to  the  commercial  public, 
the  Bank  of  Barcelona  must  be  regarded  as 
the  earliest  of  banks  in  the  European  world. 
As  its  operation  had  a  bearing  upon  the  alfairs 
of  America  they  possess  especial  interest 
Primarily  this  relates  to  the  obrussa,  obrvsum, 
ohriEo,  or  test  or  'trial  of  the  pyx.*  In  Spain, 
by  the  ordinance  of  Valencia,  made  by  King 
J^^n,  who  conquered  the  Idngdom  of  Ai'agon, 


BAKCHSSTBR   TOWERS 


Wnt 


it  is  expressly  provided  that  reals  shall  only  be 
coined  m  Valencia,  and  that  the  mintners  shall 
[k:  supervised  by  two  well-known  citizens,  so 
dial  no  fraud  shall  be  committed  as  to  material 
or   weight.     (Grimaudet,    'Law    of    Payment,* 

tl4).  The  coin  referred  to  is  the  well-known 
panish  real  de  plata,  of  eight  to  the  dollar. 
It  was  lawful  money  in  the  United  States  down 
to  1853  and  is  still  known  to  New  York  trades- 
men as  the  'shilling*  and  throughout  the 
Southern  States  and  California  as  the  "bit.* 
The  coinage  supervision  ordered  by  John  of 
Aragon  (father  of  Ferdinand,  in  whose  reign 
Columbus  discovered  America),  was  afterward 
extended  to  the  mint  of  Barcelona,  where  the 
supervisors  of  the  obriso  viere  nominated  b^ 
the  bank  and  who  thus  furnished  a  secure  basis 
for  its  extensive  dealings  in  full  wei^ted 
reaU,  and  reals  de  d  ocho,  (dollar  pieces  of 
eight  reals)  which  it  exchanged  for  the 
heterogeneotis  coins  that  flowed  into  its  great 
commercial  port  from  all  parts  of  Europe. 

From  Barcelona  King  John's  test  of  the 
coins,  called  in  England  "The  Trial  of  the 
Pyx,*  was  carried  from  Spain  into  the  Spanish- 
American  mints  of  Mexico  and  Peru  and  sub- 
sequently adopted  bjr  the  United  States  govern- 
ment. This  supervision  and  testing  of  the 
coins  is  still  conducted  in  the  American  mints 
under  a  commission  of  civilians  appointed  by 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

Upon  returning  from  his  momentous  voy- 
.ge  of  discovery,  Columbus  appeared  before 
lung  Ferdinand  and  Queen  Isabella,  then  hold- 
mg  court  at  Barcelona,  _  and  there  unfolded  to 
bis  sovereigns  and  a  brilliant  throng  of  nobles 
and  ecclesiastics  the  particulars  of  his  wonder- 
ful achievement,  exhibiting  among  other  proofs 
a  nuint>er  of  American  natives,  specim 
their  field  products  and  handiwork,  and 


upon  a  royal  scale,  was  especially  pre^red  for 
the  mining  of  gold,  to  carry  out  which  object 
the  King  bad  recourse  to  two  financial 
measures :  First,  immediate  sequestration  and 
sale  of  the  property  of  heretics ;  second,  a  loan 
from  the  Bank  of  Barcelona.  This  loan  fur- 
nishes an  additional  point  of  interest  in  that 
institution. 

Among  its  various  operations  the  bank 
received  on  deposit  and  disbursed  the  revenues, 
or  part  of  them,  of  the  four  great  ecclesiasti co- 
military  orders,  and  kept  the  accounts  of  about 
a  dozen  other  orders  of  knighthood,  like  those 
at  Calatrava,  Saint  James,  Golden  Fleece, 
Saint  George,  etc.,  some  of  which  were 
ecclesiastical  and  others  chivalrous.  The  royal 
treasure  which  during  the  reign  of  Henry  IV 
of  Castile  was  deposited  in  the  castle  of 
Segovia  was  afterward  divided  and  removed 
by  his  step- sister,  Queen  Isabella,  who  de- 
posited a  portion  of  it  in  the  Bank  of  Barce- 
lona :  because  the  Contador- General  or  Super- 
intendent of  Finances,  is  known  to  have  drawn 
for  public  disbursements  upon  that  institutioit 
some  of  his  warrants. 

In  1480  Isabella,  holding  court  at  Toledo, 
had  signed  a  decree  which  greatly  affected  the 
Bank  of  Barcelona.  'To  support  the  govern- 
ment of  Castile,  Henry  IV  had  issued  certain 
cedulas  or  certincates  of  annuities,  assigned  on 
the  public  rentes;*  these  by  purchase  had  be- 
come the   property  of  the  nobles;  who  in  turn 


had  borrowed  monev  on  them  from  the  bank. 
Isabella's  decree  aenouncing  and  annulling 
these  certificates  —  virtually  an  act  of  re- 
pudiation—was entrusted  for  execution  to  her 
confessor,  Fernando  de  Talavera,  who  per- 
formed his  office  with  such  fidelity  that  it 
'saved*  30,000,000  maravedis  annually  to 
the  Crown,  or  three-fourths  of  the  entire 
revenue,  (Prescott,  'Ferdinand  and  Isabella,' 
I.  299).  Uttle  more  is  heard  oE  the  bank 
after  this  despoilment.  The  treasure  from 
America  went  no  longer  to  Barcelona,  but  to 
Sevitla,  where  it  was  consigned  to  the  Casa  de 
Contratacion,  or  Board  of  Trade,  and  thence 
sent  to  the  mints,  of  which  there  were  five, 
each  of  them  situated  in  a  fortified  city  of  the 

After  (he  struggle  to  survive  the  depletion 
of  its  resources  m  1480  the  bank  was  hardly  in 
a  condition  to  weather  the  dvil  wars  which  at- 
tended the  effort  to  wrest  the  crown  from 
Joana  and  her  son  Charles.  During  this  period 
of  violence,  the  old  bank,  despairing  of  a  re- 
turn to  p«ce  and  security,  appears  to  have 
(juictly  discharged  its  obligations,  wound  up 
its  affairs  and  honorably  dissolved.  For  the 
history  of  other  ancient  banks  see  Byzan- 
TUM,  Bank  op;  Fucgehs,  Bank  of  the; 
Genoa,  Bank  *oy;  Medici,  Banks  of  the; 
Tyse,  Bank  of;  Venice,  Bank  of, 

Ajxxander  Del  Mas. 

BARCHBSTBR  TOWBSS,  the  aetond  of 
Anthony  Trollope's  Chronicles  of  Barsetsfaire 
— *The  Warden'  (1855),  'Barchester  Towers' 
(1857),  <Dr.  Thome'  (1858),  <Framley  Par- 
sonage' (1861),  'The  Small  House  at  Ailing- 
ton'  (1864),  'The  Last  Chronicle  of  Barset' 
(1867) — has  been  on  the  whole  the  most  popu- 
lar of  Trollope's  many  novels  and  is  thoroughly 
representative  of  all  his  best  qualities.  He 
took,  be  said,  great  delight  in  writing  the  story, 
as  he  did  vitb  the  entire  series,  which,  more 
than  any  other  section  of  his  work,  is  full  both 
of  gusto  and  the  look  of  reality.  Strangely 
enough,  he  had  never  lived  in  a  cathedral  city, 
except  London,  and  had  no  intimate  knowledge 
of  clerical  affairs;  the  idea  of  'The  Warden,' 
out  of  which  all  the  other  Barset shire  novels 
grew,  came  from  a  chance  visit  to  Salisbury 
Close.  But  imagination  so  far  took  the  place 
of  experience  that  Trollope  made  the  Chron- 
icles, on  the  whole,  the  most  notable  represen- 
tation in  fiction  of  the  ligbter  phases  of  Eng- 
lish ecclesiastical  life.  The  theme  of  'Bar- 
chester Towers'  is  excellently  adapted  -  to 
Trollope's  aWlities.  A  new  bishop  of  Bar- 
chester, coming  into  his  diocese  with  tactless ' 
commotion,  disturbs  the  deep  calm  long  estab- 
lished there.  The  book  is  an  account  of  the 
confusions  and  little  wars  he  causes  before  the 
community  once  more  settles  back  into  peace. 
It  would  nave  been  easy  to  be  merely  farcical, 
and  Mr.  Slope,  the  bishop's  chaplain  and  the 
villain,  comes  near  to  farce;  but  for  all  the 
hurndng  and  scurrying  about,  for  all  the  inno- 
cent intrigues  and  macMnations  which  make  up 
its  plot,  'Barchester  Towers'  is  very  real.  It 
particularly  suggests  Hawthorne's  comment 
upon  Trollope's  books  in  general:  "They  pre- 
cisely suit  my  taste, —  solid  and  substantial, 
written  on  the  strength  of  beef  and  through 
the  inspiration  of  ale,  and  just  as  real  as  if 
'  some  giant  bad  faewn  a  great  lump  out  of  tlK 


Google 


842  BASl 

earth  and  put  it  nnder  a  glass  case,  with  all 
its  inhabitants  going  about  their  daily  business, 
and  not  suspecting  that  they  were  being  made 
a  show  of.  And  these  books  are  just  as  Eng- 
lish as  a  beefsteak.'  'Barchester  Towers'  is 
not  a  book  of  the  spirit,  for  Trollope  cared 
neither  for  mysteries  nor  for  doctrines.  It  is 
essentially  comic  but  essentially  humane,  with- 
out sharp  satire  or  caricature.  The  plot  is  easy 
and  credible,  the  good  humor  unflagging, 
the  styl^  if  not  distinguished,  yet  clear;  the  set- 
ting ana  descriptions  are  always  full  of  truth. 
The  characters,  however,  give  the  book  its 
memorable  excellence.  It  is  not  only  that  they 
think,  speak  and  act  naturally.  They  are  pre- 
sented with  a  picturesqueness  which  never  dis- 
torts them  and  a  comic  force  which  but  adds 
to  their  verisimilitude.  Such  personages  as 
Bertie  Stanhope  and  Mrs.  Proudie,  the  particu- 
lar triumphs  of  this  novel,  may  reasonably  be 
mentioned  with  the  immortak. 

Casl  Vak  Dokbit. 

BARCLAY,  JamcB,  Canadian  preacher  and 
educator:  b.  Paisley,  Scotland,  19  June  1844. 
He  was  licensed  by  the  Paisley  Presbytery  in 
1870  and  was  minister  of  Saint  Paul's  Church, 
Montreal,  from  1883  to  1910.  While  in  Scot- 
land he  was  frequently  summoned  to  Balmoral 
to  preach  before  Queen  Victoria.  He  served 
through  the  Riel  rebellion  in  the  Northwest 
Territories,  in  1885,  and,  besides  being  connected 
with  various  local  institutions,  has  been  presi- 
dent of  Trafalgar  Institute  since  its  openmg. 

BARCLAY,  John,  Scottish  poet  r  b.  Pont-4- 
Mousson,  France,  1582;  d.  1621.  He  accom- 
panied lus  father  to  England,  where  he  was 
much  noticed  by  James  I,  to  whom  he  dedi- 
cated a  politico- satirical  romance,  entitled 
'Satyrikon,*  in  Latin,  directed  against  the  Jes- 
uits. He  wrote  also  several  other  works,  among 
which  is  a  singular  romance,  in  elegant  Latin, 
entitled  'Argents,'  which  first  appeared  at 
Paris  in  1621.  It  is  an  allegory,  of  a  character 
similar  to  that  of  Satyrikon,  and  alludes  to  the 
political  state  of  Europe,  and  especially  France, 
during  the  league.  Like  the  earfier  work,  it  has 
been  several  times  reprinted,  and  has  also  been 
translated  into  several  of  the  modem  languages, 
including  English. 

BARCLAY,  John,  Scottish  clergyman:  b. 
1734;  d.  1798.  He  was  appointed  assistant 
minister  at  Fettcrcaim,  where  he  attracted  wide 
attention  throu^  his  novel  doctrines.  His  ad- 
vocacy of  these  led  to  his  dismissal  by  the 
Presbytery,  whose  decision  was  upheld  I^  the 
General  Assembly.  Barclay,  however,  continued 
to  preach  in  Edinburgh,  London  and  elsewhere. 
He  founded  the  sect  known  by  his  name  as 
Bardayitcs  or  Bereans  —  the  latter  name  being 
taken  from  Acts  xvii,  2.  Barclay  was  the 
author  of  many  tracts,  pamphlets,  etc.,  includ- 
ing 'Without  Faith,  Without  God;  or  an  Ap- 
peal to  God  Concerning  His  Own  Existence' 
(1769).  (See  Bereans).  Consult  'Works  of 
John  Barclay,'  edited  with  memoir  (18S2). 

BARCLAY,  Robert,  a  member  of  the 
Society  of  Friends :  b.  23  Dec.  1648,  at  Gordons- 
town,  in  the  coun^  of  Moray,  of  an  ancient 
and  honorable  family;  d.  Ury,  near  Aberdeen, 
3  Oct.  llWO.  The  troubles  of  the  countiy  in- 
duced his  father,  Colonel  Barclay,  to  send  him 
to  Paris,  to  be  educated  under  the  care  of  his 


uncle,  who  was  principal  of  the  Scots  Collie 
in  that  capital,  and  who  offered  to  make  hun 
his  heir  if  he  would  become  a  convert  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion.  Barclay  refused  and 
soon  afterward  his  father  sent  for  him  lo  re- 
turn home;  and  Colonel  Barclay  soon  after  be- 
coming a  Quaker,  his  son  followed- his  example. 
Uniting  ah  the  advantages  of  solid  learning  to 

S'eat  natural  abilities,  he  soon  distinguished 
mself  by  his  talents  and  zeal  in  the  support 
of  his  new  opinions.  His  first  treatise  in  sup- 
port of  his  adopted  principles  was  published  at 
Aberdeen  in  the  year  1670,  nnder  the  title  of 
'Truth  Cleared  of  Calumnies,'  etc.  To  propa- 
gate the  doctrines,  as  well  as  to  maintain  the 
credit  he  had  gained  for  his  sect,  he  published, 
in  1675,  a  regular  treatise,  in  order  to  explain 
and  defend  the  system  of  the  Quakers,  whidi 
production  was  also  very  favorabl>r  received. 
These  and  similar  labors  involved  turn  in  con- 
troversies with  the  leading  members  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Aberdeen,  and  others;  but  he  was 
at  the  same  time  bu^  with  his  great  work  in 
Latin,  <An  Apology  for  the  True  Christian 
Divinity,  as  the  Same  is  Preached  and  Held 
Forth  by  the  People  in  Scorn  Called  Quakers,' 
published  at  Amsterdam  in  1676;  an  English 
translation  appeared  later  in  the  same  year. 
He  traveled  with  William  Penn  and  George 
Foxe  throu|;h  the  greater  part  of  England,  Hol- 
land and  Germany,  to  spread  the  opinions  of 
the  Quakers.    He  with  other  Qtiakers  was  im- 

Srisoned  for  five  months  at  Ury  because  of  bis 
eliefs,  but  enjoyed  the  roval  favor  after  his 
release,  and  in  1683  was  made  nominal  governor 
of  East  Jersey  under  patent  to  the  Society  of 
Friends  by  the  Duke  of  York.  He  never  came 
to  America,  however.  His  estate  remained  in 
the  possession  of  his  descendants  until  1854. 
His  study  remained  as  he  left  it  for  about  two 
centuries  when  it  was  pulled  down.  The  last 
of  his  productions,  in  defense  of  the  theory  of 
the  Quakers,  was  a  long  Latin  letter  addressed, 
in  1676,  to  Adrian  de  Paets,  'On  the  Possibility 
and  Necessity  of  an  Inward  and  Immediate 
Revelation.)  It  was  not  published  in  England 
until  1686,  With  few  exceptions,  both  partisans 
and  opponents  unite  in  the  profession  of  great 
respect  for  the  character  and  talents  of  Bar- 
clay. Besides  the  works  already  mentioned  or 
alluded  to,  he  wrote  'Catechism  and  Confes- 
sion of  Faith'  (1673);  'Theses  Theolopa;' 
(1675),  of  which  the  Apology  was  a  defense; 
'The  Anarchy  of  Ranters'  (1676);  'Universal 
Love  Cxinsidered  and  Established  Upon  Its 
Right  Foundation'  (1677)  ;  and  various  replies 
to  the  most  able  opponents  of  his  Apology.  In 
1692  a  collected  edition  of  his  works  appeared 
under  the  title  'Truth  Triumphant'  It  wis 
republished  in  1717-18.  The  'Apology,'  'Cate- 
chism,' and  'Treatise  on  Church  Government' 
(formerlycalled  'The  Anarchy  of  the  Ranters') 
have  been  issued  by  the  Friends'  Book  Store 
(Philadelphia).  Consult  Armistead,  William, 
'Ufe  of  Robert  Barclay'  (Manchester  18S0). 
See  Quakers. 

BARCLAY,  Robert  Heriot,  British  naval 
officer:  b.  Scotland  1785;  d  1837.  He  served 
with  Nelson  at  Trafalgar,  and  lost  an  ann  in 
the  battle.  He  was  sent  out  to  command  the 
British  flotilla  on  the  Lakes  in  1813,  and  was 
defeated  by  Commodore  Perry  at  the  battle  of 
Lake  Erie  on  10  September  of  that  year.    Ht 


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BARCLAY  — BARD 


was  inbtequently  court-martialed  for  the  loss 
oE  bis  fleet,  but  was  'fully  and  honorably  ac- 
quilted.* 

BARCLAY,  SiK  Thotnu,  English  jurist: 
b.  Dunfermline,  Scotland,  18S3.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Unirersity  College,  London,  and  at  the 
universities  of  Londou,  Bonn,  Paris  and  lena. 
He  went  to  Paris  as  a  correspondent  of  the 
Timet  in  1876.  He  resigned  this  post  in  1882 
to  devote  Umself  cxdnsivel:^  to  French  law 
practice.  Since  19D0  he  has  identified  himself 
with  the  active  agitation  for  a  Kood  under- 
standing with  France.  He  visit«a  the  United 
States  in  1903-04,  and  there  stirred  up  a^tation 
for  an  Anglo-Amcrtcaii  treaty  of  arbitration 
and  ctMciliatioo.  In  1905,  at  the  imitation  of 
the  Associated  Chambers  of  Germany,  be  visited 
Berlin  and  delivered  addresses  in  favor  of  im- 
proving Anglo-German  relations,  and  in  the 
same  year  founded  the  International  Brother- 
hood Alliance  (Fratemitas  Inter  Gentes)  for 
the  encouragement  of  personal  relations  among 
the  laboring  clasaea  of  different  countries.  He 
was  knighted  in  1904,  and  became  member  of 
Parliament  for  Blackburn  in  1910.  He  is  as 
officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  and  Knight  of 
the  Order  of  Leopold.  He  has  published 
'Problems  of  International  Practice  and  Di- 
plomacy' (1907) ;  'The  Turco-Italian  War  and 
Its  Problems>  (1912);  'Companies  in  France' 
(2d  ed.,  1899),  and  other  law  boobs,  and  the 
articles  on  international  law  in  tbc  *Encyclo- 
pedia  of  the  Law  of  £^land'  and  the  'Encyclo- 
pedia Britannica' ;  'loirty  Years  of  Anglo- 
French  Reminiscencca'  (1914) ;  'Law  and 
Usage  of  War>  (1914),  and  articles  in  The 
fiintletnth  Century,  etc. 

BARCLAY  DB  TOLLY,  HichMl,  Prince, 
diatinguished  Russian  general  r  b.  Livotua 
1761;  d.  Insterburg,  14  May  1818.  He  entered 
the  army  at  an  early  age,  and  his  long  service 
as  a  subordinate  in  can^iais  against  the 
Turks,  Swedes  and  Poles  laid  the  basis  of  a 
valuable  experience,  and  served  to  develop  his 

great  natural  capacity  for  command.  In  1810 
e  was  made  JUinister  of  War.  He  occupied  this 
Ksition  in  1612,  when  Napoleon  invaded  Russi^ 
t  was  soon  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of 
the  army.  He  adopted  a  plan  of  retreat,  which 
was  soon  seen  to  be  a  strict  necessity,  as  the 
Russian  army,  officially  estimated  at  more  than 
500,000,  did  not  greatly  exceed  100,000  men.  In 
this  difficult  campaign  Barclay  proved  no  un- 
worthy opponent  of  Napoleon  himself-  Not- 
-wtthstanding,  the  Russians  became  impatient  of 
A  policy  which  seemed  to  show  no  active  re- 
sults, while  jealousy  of  the  Scottish  extraction 
of  Earcby  and  other  causes  completed  his  over- 
throw, and  after  the  capture  of  Smolensk  by 
the  French  he  was  superseded  by  Kutusofi. 
Serving  under  his  successor,  he  commanded  the 
rjeht  wing  of  the  Russian  army  at  the  battle 
of  Moscow,  maintained  his  position,  and  cov- 
ered the  retreat  of  the  rest  of  the  army.  After 
the  battle  of  Bautien,  in  1813,  at  which  he  again 
distin^ished  himself,  he  was  reappointed  to 
the  chief  command,  which  he  had  soon  after  to 
resign  to  Prince  Schwarienberg.  He  forced  the 
surrender  of  General  Vandanime,  who  had  been 
detached  by  Napoleon  for  some  special  opera- 
tions, after  the  battle  of  Dresden,  and  took 
part  in  the  decisive  bsttle  of  Leipzig.  On  cross- 
ins  the  Sbme  at  the  bad  of  the  Russian  troopa 


he  issued  a  strict  proclamation,  forbidding  all 
license  on  the  part  of  his  soldiers,  and  by  the 
maintenance  of  an  exact  discipline  he  concili- 
ated the  French  as  much  as  possible  to  tlte  in- 
vaders. He  was  made  a  fieltt-marshal  in  Paris. 
In  1815  he  commanded  a  mixed  corps  of  con- 
tinental troops.  In  this  year  he  received  from 
the  Emperor  the  title  of  prince,  and  from 
Louis  XVIII  the  badge  of  t£«  Order  of  Mili- 
tary Merit.  The  Emperor  Aleitander  caused 
a  statue  to  be  erected  to  him  in  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal places  of  Saint  Petersburg. 

BARCLAY  SOUND,  an  inlet  an  the  west 
coast  of  Vancouver  Island.  It  is  some  35  mile* 
in  extent  and  the  Albemi  Canal  conttnnes  it  yet 
farther  inland.  It  contains  several  islands  and 
iron  ore  is  found  along  its  shores. 

BAR-COCHSBAS.  BAR-COCHAB,  or 
BAR  KOKBA.  the  name  given  to  one 
Simeon,  a  celebrated  Jewish  impostor  of  the  2d 
century  A.D.,  who  pretended  to  be  the  Messiah. 
He  called  himself,  or  was  called  by  his  follow- 
ers, Bar-Cochba,  meaning  Son  of  the  Star^  and 
applied  to  himself  Balaam's  prophecy,  "There 
shall  come  a  star  out  of  Jacob,"  etc.  He  obtained 
the  support  of  the  celebrated  Rabbi  Aldba,  and 
availing  himself  of  the  general  dissatisfaction 
produced  among  the  Jews  by  Hadrian's  at- 
tempt to  erect  a  temple  to  Jupiter  on  the  site  of 
the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  raised  the  standard  of 
revolt,  and  soon  mustered  numerous  followers. 
After  carrying  on  a  kind  of  guerilla  warfare, 
he  made  himself  master  of  Jerusalem  about 
132,  and  gained  possession  of  about  SO  fortified 
places.  Hadrian,  who  had  at  first  despised  the 
msurrection,  now  saw  the   necessity  of   acting 


ing  a  general  engagement,  gradually  made  him- 
self master  of  the  different  forts  which  the 
rebels  possessed,  and  then,  though  not  without 
great  loss,  took  and  destroyed  Jerusalem.  Bar- 
cochba  retired  to  a  mountain  fortress,  and 
perished  in  the  assault  of  it  by  the  Romans 
three  years  after,  about  135.  Consult  Dren- 
bourg,  'Histoire  de  la  Palestine'-  Schlattler 
•Geschichfe  Israels,*  and  article  ■Bar  Kokba* 
in  the  'Jewish  Encyclopedia.* 

BARD,  John,  American  physician:  b.  neat 
Philadelphia,  February  I7l6;  d.  30  March  1799. 
He  was  of  a  family  which  had  fled  from  France 
upon  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes. 
He  practised  his  profession  a  few  years  in 
Philadelphia,  but  removed  to  New  York  in 
1746,  where  he  rose  to  the  first  rank  amoiMi 
physicians.  In  1759,  the  dtiiena  of  New  Yor£ 
were  alarmed  by  the  arrival  of  a  ship,  on  board 
which  a  maliguaut  fcyer  was  raging,  and  Dr. 
Bard  was  appointed  to  take  measures  to  pre- 
vent the  disease  from  spreading.  He  succeeded 
in  keeping  the  pestilence  withm  the  limits  oi 
a  temporary  hospital,  but  to  ^uard  against 
similar,  dangers  in  future,  at  tus  suggestion, 
Bedloe's  Island  was  purchased,  and  hospital 
buildings  erected  thereon,  which  were  placed 
under  nis  charge.  He  continued  the  practice 
of  his  profession  to  an  advanced  age,  and 
upon  the  establishment  of  the  New  York  Medi- 
cal Society  in  1788  was  elected  its  first  presi- 
dents 

BARD,  Thomaa  Robert,  American  politi- 
cian: b.  Chanbcrsburg,  Pa.,  8  Doc   1841.;  ^ 

,11-  .1,  Google 


'BARD  — BAROB 


Hueneme,  Cal.,  5  March  I9lS.  He  engaged  in 
railroading  in  Maryland  1S5S-64,  when  he  went 
to  California  to  attend  to  the  interests  of  Col. 
Thomas  A.  Scolt,  From  this  time  he  resided 
in  Ventura  County,  engaging  in  wbarving  and 
warehousing,  banking,  sheep  grazing,  real 
estate  and  petroleum  mining.  In  1892  he  was 
the  only  Republican  elector  for  California.  He 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  7  Feb. 
1900  by  the  unanimous  vote  of  the  Republican 
majonty  in  the  legislature  and  served  until 
1905. 

BARD,  Italy,  a  fortress  and  village,  about 
23  miles  southeast  of  Aosta.  The  fortress, 
which  stands  on  a  huge  mass  of  rock  at  au 
elevation  of  1,019  feet,  has  been  thrice  taken : 
in  1052  by  Duke  Amedeus  of  Savoy;  by  the 
French  during  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succes- 
sion in  1704:  and  in  1800,  before  the  Battle  of 
Marengo,  when  the  troops  of  Napoleon,  hav' 
ing  crossed  the  Saint  Bernard,  found  their 
further  advance  into  Italy  checked  here  by 
400  Austrians,  who  maintained  a  stubborn  dc' 
fense  for  a  week.  Ultimately  Napoleon  con- 
trived to  elude  the  vigilance  of  the  ^rrison, 
and  passed  by  a  mountain-track    dunng    the 

BARD,  a  designation  applied  to  the  ancient 
poets  of  the  Celtic  tribes,  who  in  battle  raised 
the  war-cry,  and  in  peace  sang  the  exploits  of 
their  heroes,  celebrated  the  attributes  of  their 
gods  and  chronicled  the  history  of  theii  nation. 
Their  early  history  is  uncertain.  Diodorus 
tells  us  that  the  Celts  had  bards,  who  sang  to 
musical  instruments ;  and  Strabo  testifies  that 
they  were  treated  with  respect  aiq)roacbing  to 
veneration.  There  is  a  passage  in  the  'Ger- 
mania'  of  Tacitus  in  which  a  word  occurs  that 
some  have  read  as  bardiiut,  and  translated 
■Bard's  Song' ;  but  barilut  appears  to  be  the 
true  reading,  and  the  true  signification  merely 
■War-cry.^ 

The  first  Welsh  bards  of  whom  anything  is 
extant  are  Taliesin,  Aneurin  and  Llywarch 
Hen,  of  the  6th  century;  but  their  language  is 
imperfectly  understood  From  the  days  of 
these  early  representatives  of  the  bards  we  have 
nothing  further  till  the  middle  of  tbe  10th  cen- 
tury, when  the  reputation  of  the  order  was  in- 
creased wider  the  auspices  of  Howel  Dha.  A 
code  of  laws  was  framed  by  that  prince  to 
regulate  their  duties  and  fix  their  privileges. 
They  were  distributed  into  three  classes,  with 
a  fixed  allowance;  degrees  of  rank  were  estab- 
lished, and  regular  prize  contests,  known  as 
titUddfodt,  were  institnted.  Their  order  was 
frequently  honored  by  the  admission  of 
pririces,  among  whom  was  Llewellyn,  last  King 
of  Wales.  The  Britons,  kept  in  awe  as  they 
were  by  the  Romans,  subsequently  harassed  by 
the  English,  and  jealous  of  the  attacks,  the 
encroachment,  and  the  neighborhood  of  aliens, 
were,  on  this  account,  attached  lo  their  Celtic 
manners.  This  situation  and  these  circum- 
stances inspired  them  with  a  ^roud  and  ob- 
stinate determination  to  maintain  a  national 
distinction,  and  preserve  their  ancient  usages, 
among  which  tfie  bardic  profession  is  so 
eminent.  Sensible  of  the  influence  of  their 
traditional  poetry  in  keeping  alive  the  ideas  of 
military  valor  and  of  ancient  glory  among  the 
people,  Edward  I  is  said  to  have  collected  all 
the  Welsh  bards,  and  caused  them  to  be  hanged 


by  martial  law  as  stirrers  up  of  sedition.  On 
this  incident  is  founded  Gray's  well-known  ode 
'The  Bard.*  We,  however,  find  them  existing 
at  a  much  later  period,  but  confining  themselves 


gies.  But  little  is  known  oi  the  music  and  a 
ures  of  tbe  bards;  their  prosody  depended 
mnch  cm  alliteration;  their  instruments  were 
the  harp,  the  pipe  and  the  crwth.  Attempts 
have  been  made  in  Wales  tor  the  revival  of 
bardism,  and  the  Cambrian  Society  was  formed 
in  1818,  for  the  preservatioR  of  tne  remains  of 
this  ancient  literature  and  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  the  national  muse.  Within  recent 
years  the  eisteddfods  have  again  assumed  a 
national  importance.  The  bardic  institution  of 
the  Irish  bears  a  strong  affinity  to  that  of  the 
Welsh.  The  professional  bardic  sdiools  only 
disappeared  at  the  end  of  the  18tb  century.  The 
genealogical  sonnets  of  the  Irish  bards  are  still 
the  chief  foundations  of  the  ancient  history  of 
Ireland.  Their  songs  are  strongly  marked  with 
the  traces  of  Skaldic  imagination,  which  still 
apprars  among  the  "talc-tellers,*  a  sort  of 
poetical  historians,  s^posed  to  be  the  descend- 
ants of  the  bards.  There  was  also  evidently  a 
connection  of  the  Welsh  with  Armonca. 
Hence,  in  the  early  French  romances,  we  often 
find  the  scene  laid  in  Wales;  and,  on  ^e  other 
hand,  many  fictions  have  passed  from  the 
I'ronbadours  into  the  tales  of  the  Welsh.  In 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland  bards  were  in  eiust- 
ence  down  to  the  17th  century.  Considerable 
remains  of  compositions  supposed  to  be  those 
of  the  old  bards  are  still  preserved.  Consult 
Jones,  'Relics  of  the  Welsh  Bards'  (London 
1784);  Stephens,  'Literature  of  the  Kymry* 
(London  1873):  Hyde,  'Literary  History  of 
Ireland'  (New  York  1906)  ;  Hull,  'Irish  Uter- 
aturc'  (Vol.  IL  London  1908) ;  Walker, 
'Memoirs  of  the  Irish  Bards'  (Londbn  1786). 
BARDE,  Frederick  Samtiel,  American 
writer  and  naturalist:  b.  Hannibal,  Mo.,  25  July 
1869;  d.  Guthrie,  Okla.,  23  July  191&  After 
receiving  an  academic  education  at  Sedalia.  be 
began  work  as  a  newspaper  reporter  at  that 
place.  In  1894  he  joined  the  staff  of  the  Kan- 
sas City  Star  and,  four  years  later,  was  sent  as 
its  representative  to  Guthrie,  then  the  capital 
of  Oklahoma  Territory.  Reporting  legislative 
sessions,  political  conventions  and  statehood 
gatherings  and  visiting  all  parts  of  the  Indian 
and  Oklahoma  Territories,  his  acquaintance 
with  the  people  and  their  history  and  institu- 
tions became  very  thorough  and  his  remarkable 
a[rtitude  for  discernment  and  analysis,  coupled 
with  his  ability  as  a  writer,  gave  him  a  hearing 
and  a  measure  of  influence  that  is  seldom  ex- 
erted by  an  independent  writer.  Many  of  his 
contributions  were  published  in  metropolitan 
papers  and  magazines  in  the  Eastern  cities.  He 
edited  and  aided  in  the  publication  of  several 
books,  among  them  'The  Life  of  Billy  Dixon* 
(buflalo  hunter).  Gen.  J.  C.  Jamison's  'With 
Walker  in  Nicaragua'  and  Doolin's  'Outdoor 
Oklahoma.'    For  many  years  an  ardent  sports- 


of  the  most  successful  wild  bird  and  animal 
photographers  in  America.  The  Oldabonta 
legislature  (1917)  made  a  special  appropriaticm 
for  the  purchase  of  his  manuscripts,  field-notes, 
lAotographs,  negatives  and  other  material  per- 


BASDBBH  —  BARD8TOWN 


the  Oklaboma  Hutorical  Society. 

BARDEBN,  durles  VnUiant,  American 
editor  and  author:  b.  Groton,  Mass.,  28  Aug. 
1847.  He  served  with  the  1st  Uassachusetts 
Volurteers  in  the  Civil  War,  1862-64,  and  was 
graduated  at  Yale  University  in  1869.  He  held 
several  educational  positions  in  the  years  fol- 
lowing and  in  1872  became  superintendent  of 
schools  at  Whitehall.  N.  Y.  He  has  been  editor 
and  publisher  of  the  School  Bulletin  since  1874. 
He  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  educational 
publications  at  the  Inlemational  Congress  of 
1893,  was  president  of  the  Educational  Press 
Association  of  America  1900-06.  His  published 
woHcs  include  'Uanu^  of  School  Law' 
(1875)  ;  'Some  Facts  About  Our  Public  School 
System*  0878)_;  'Educational  Journalism' 
(1881);  'Teachug  as  a  Business  for  Men* 
(1885);  'The  Teacher  As  He  Should  Be* 
(1891);  'HistoTy  of  Educational  Journalism 
in  New  York'  (1893);  '(Jeography  of  the 
Empire  Slate'  (1895);  'Problems  of  Gty 
School  Uaniwetnent'  (1899);  'Dictionary  of 
Educational  Biography'    (IWl);    'Educational 


'Fables  for  Teachers'  (1909);  'A  Shattered 
Halo'  (1912);  'The  Trial  Balwice'  (1913); 
*The  Girl  from  Girton'   (19U). 

BARDBLL^  Hra.,  the  obliging  landlady  of 
Mr.  Pickwick  in  Dickens'  'Pickwick  Papers,' 
and  the  hetvine  of  the  famous  'Bardell  vs. 
Pickwick'  case, 

BASDBSANBS,  bar-de-s&'nec,  Syrian  poet 
and  theologian,  who  lived  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  2d  century,  in  Edessa,  and  is  memorable 
for  the  peculiari^  of  his  doctrine^  which  were 
taught  through  iM  hymns  ascribed  to  him  and 
in  use  in  the  Church  till  the  4th  century.  He 
considered  the  evil  in  the  world-only  an  acci- 
dental reaction  of  matter,  and  all  hfe  as  the 
offspring  of  male  and  female  Mans.  From 
God,  the  inKrutable  Principle  oi  all  substances, 
and  from  the  consort  of  this  first  Principle 
proceeded  Christ  the  Son  of  the  Living,  and 
a  female  Holy  Ghost;  from  these,  the  spirits 
or  created  powers  of  the  four  elements;  this 
forming  the  holy  eight,  or  the  godlike  fullness, 
whose  visible  copies  he  found  in  the  sun,  moon 
and  stars,  and  uerefore  attributed  to  these  all 
the  changes  of  nature  and  of  human  destiny. 
The  female  Holy  Ghost,  impregnated  by  the 
Son  of  the  Living,  was.  according  to  him,  the 
Creator  of  the  world.  The  human  soul,  origi- 
nally of  the  nature  of  the  Mons,  was  confined 
in  the  material  body  only  as  a  punishment  to 
its  fall,  but  not  subjected  to  the  dominion  of 
the  stars.  He  considered  Jesus,  the  .£on,  des- 
tined for  the  salvation  of  souls,  only  a  feigned 
man,  and  his  death  only  a  feigned  death,  but 
his  doctrine  the  sure  means  to  fill  the  souls  of 
men  with  ardent  desires  for  their  celestial 
home,  and  to  lead  them  back  to  CJod,  to  whom 
they  go  immediately  after  death,  and  without 
a  resurrection  of  the  earthly  body.  Bardesanes 
proragated  this  doctrine  in  Syrian  hymns,  and 
IS  the  first  writer  of  hymns  in  this  language. 
The  Bardcsanists  did  not  formally  separate 
themselves  from  the  orthodox  Christian 
Church,  and  they  maintained  themselves  until 
the  5th  century.    A  fragment  of  the  work  of 


Bardesanes  upon  destiny  is  preserved  in  the 
Greek  language,  by  Eusebius,  'PrKpar.  Evangel, 
lib.  vi,  cap.  103.'  He  led  an  irreproachable  Ufe. 
Consult  Heigenfeld,  'Bardesanes'   (1864). 

BASDILI,  Christopb  Gottfried,  German 
metaphysician:  b.  Blaubeuren,  Wurtemberg,  28 
May  1761;  d.  Stuttgart,  5  June  1808.  He  vras 
distinsuished  as  a  critic  and  opponent  of  Kant, 
and  philosophical Iv  a  forerunner  of  Scfaelling 
and  Hegel  througti  his  exposition  and  defense 
of  the  reality  of  pure  alMtract  thought  as  a 
ground  of  concrete  thinking  and  being. 

BARDOLPH,  Shakespearean  character. 
He  is  one  of  the  dissolute  comrades  of  Falstaff 
and  appears  in  the  plays  'Heniy  IV.'  _parts  I 
and  II ;  'Henry  V' ;  and  Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor.' 

BARDOWICK.  bar'di-vek,  Germany,  town 
in  Hanover,  once  the  commercial  centre  of 
northern  Gerrnany,  but  now  an  insignificant 
village,  famous  for  the  ruins  of  a  one-time 
magnificent  cathedral,  dating  from  before  the 
destruction  of  the  town  in  1189.  The  region 
is  fertile,  and  the  town  is  a  centre  for  trade  in 
farm  products.    Pop.  (1910)  2,200. 

BARDS.  Spelled  variously  barde,  barding, 
etc  Horse-armor,  often  wrongly  termed 
caparuoni.  The  latter  is  the  term  for  rich 
coverings  {hoiuings)  spread  over  the  back  of 
horses  on  ceremonial  occasions,  whereas  the 
bardings  were  to  protect  the  war-horse  (de- 
ilrier)  in  combat  The  ancient  Dacian  mounted 
spearmen's  (calapkraclt)  horses  were  entirely 
covered  with  scale  armor,  includingf  head  and 
feet  The  Etruscans  used  a  chest  protection 
(plailron)  for  war-horses;  the  Persians  and 
Gredcs  used  a  horse  frontal.  A  teitiire  of 
leather  covering  the  entire  head  of  the  horse  was 
known  in  very  early  days  in  Europe.  By  the 
13th  century  chain  armor  (called  "trapper  of 
mail*)  for  horses  was  used  in  Europe ;  the 
leather  •breasi-piece'  is  mentioned  in  1347. 
Plate  armor  for  horses  was  introduced  into 
Europe,  piece  by  mece,  in  ihe  Middle  Ages 
to  become  a  complete  panoply  by  the  middle 
of  the  ISth  century.  The  full  set  ^panoply) 
consisted  of  chanfron,  crinet,  peytral,  flan- 
chard,  croupiere,  tail-Kuard,  rein-guard.  The 
purposes  for  these  Afferent  pieces  were  as 
follows : 

Chanfron  (spdied  variously  chamfron, 
champfrein,  etc.)  or  frontal,  a  guard  for  the 
forepart  of  the  horse's  head  (with  or  without 
blinkers).  Crinet,  criniere  or  crinatc,  armor 
for  the  neck  of  the  horse.  Peytral,  polytral,  poit- 
rail  or  poitrinal,  a  brestplate.  Flancharit 
armor  to  protect  the  flanks.  Crupper,  or 
eroupiire,  a  protection  for  the  horses  rear. 
Tail-guard,  a  tubular  appendix  to  the  croupiire, 
served  to  protect  the  tail.  Rein-guard,  hinged 
plates  protecting  the  reins. 

The  above  full  panoply  became  quite  general 
by  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  but  from  that 
time  was,  piece  after  piece,  discarded  till  by 
IfiOO,  horse  armor  was  becoming  rare.  Armor 
for  the  horse's  legs  was  rarely  used.  In  order 
to  reduce  the  enect  of  chafing,  horse  armor 
was  lined  with  leather. 

<!!leubnt  W.  <3oaii9K. 


1  Ihe  Louisville  and  Nashville  Rulroad. 

Google 


BASDWAN  —  BAKBTTI 


It  is  the  scat  of  fiethlehetn  Academy  and  of 
Saint  J'oseph'a  Coliege,  It  contains  flour  mills, 
saw  mills,  chair,  broom  a"''  ' 


works  and      for 


from  Tai^es,  and  celebrated  for  its  tbermal 
Bprinfi 


the  waterworks  and  lifting  plant.  From 
1S08  to  1641  Bardstown  was  the  seat  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  bishopric,  which  was  trans- 
ferred to  Louisville  in  the  latter  year.  Pop. 
2,126. 

BARDWAN,  biird-waa',  India,  a  division 
of  Bengal,  upon  the  Hugli,  about  75  miles  from 
Calcutta.  Area,  13,850  square  miles;  pop.  8,- 
245,000.  Apart  from  its  products,  ncc,  Krain, 
hemp,  cotton,  indigo,  etc.,  it  has  a  notea  coal 
field  of  about  500  square  miles  in  area,  with  an 
annual  output  of  about  500,000  tons.  The  cap- 
ital of  the  same  name  has  a  population  of  about 
35,000.  It  is  a  miserable  place  — an  aggregate 
of  second-rate  suburbs  —  but  contains  numer- 
ous temples  and  a  lai^  palace. 

BARBBONE,  or  BARBON,  PnOw-God, 
the  name  of  a  leather  seller  in  Fleet  street  in 
London,  well  known  in  his  day  as  a  prominent 
preacher  among  the  Baptists:  b.  about  1596; 
d.  1679.  He  made  himself  notorious  as  an  en- 
em^  of  the  monarchy  and  in  1660  on  Monk's 
arrival  in  London,  Barebone,  at  the  head  of  a 
numerous  mob,  presented  a  petition  to  Parlia- 
ment against  the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts. 
In  1661  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower  and 
remained  for  some  time  in  confinement 

BAREBONES  PARLIAMENT,  a  deri- 
,sive  term  atylied  to  the  'Little  Parliament'  sum- 
moned by  Oliver  Cromwell  4  July   1653.  After 


and  of  the  Council  of  the  Army  to  tfie  Con- 
gregational churches  in  each  county,  inviting 
them  to  nominate  fit  persons,  'faithful,  fearing 
God  and  hating  covetousness,*  to  serve  in  Par- 
liament. These  lists  were  duly  sent  ill,  sub- 
jected to  scrutiny  by  the  army  council  and 
names  excluded  from  or  additions  made  by 
that  body.  This  Parliament  consisted  of  140 
members  — 129  from  England,  6  from  Ireland 
and  5  from  Scotland;  and  to  it  Cromwell  made 
over  his  dictatorship.  This  'Assembly  of  Nom- 
inees* began  by  abolishing  the  Court  of 
Chancery  and  was  proceeding  to  abolish  tithes 
when  under  pressure  by  the  army  the  majority 
resigned  in  a  body;  Cromwell  dissolved  Par- 
liament on  12  December  of  the  same  year  and 
immediately  thereafter  assumed  the  lord  pro- 
tectorate of  the  kingdom.  Its  title  is  taken 
from  one  Barebone,  a  tanner,  one  of  the  mem- 
bers for  the  city  of  London.  Judged  by  mod- 
em standards,  some  of  its  proposals  showed 
political  wisdom:  civil  marriages  and  the  due 
registrati 

fie.  Co  .  .  _  _,  __  _... 
'arliament'  (London  1899). 
BAREFOOTED  FRIARS.  See  Friars. 
BAREOB  ba-rSzh,  a  light,  open  tissue  of 
sillc  and  worsted  or  cotton  and  worsted  for 
women's  dresses,  originally  manufactured  near 
Bariges,  France,  and  in  that  country  known  as 
crepe  de  barige.  The  fabric  is  now  chiefly 
manufactured  at  Bagneres  de  Bigorre. 

BARAGBS  (ancient  ValletmaI,  France, 
watcrino;  place  in  the  south  of  France,  depart- 
ibent  of  the  Hautes-Pyrfn*es,  22  miles  south 


I  situated  in  a  valley  between  two  perpendicu- 
lar chains  of  mountains,  along  with  numerous 
other  villa^.  From  Jime  to  September  it  is 
crowded  with  patients,  and  the  bath  establish- 
ment ii  a  spacious  marble  building.  A  military 
hospital  and  an  ecclesiastical  charity  hospital 
are  also  prominent  local  institutions.  Extreme 
cold  and  the  danger  of  frequent  avalanches 
almost  depopulate  the  town  in  winter. 

BAREILLY,  ba-ra'lf,  Hindustan,  town  in 
the  northwest  provinces,  capital  of  a  district 
of  the  same  nam^  151  miles  east-southeast 
from  Delhi.  It  has  a  pleasant  and  elevated 
sit&  and  contains  one  well-built  street,  an  o\i 
and  a  new  fort,  and  cantonments  in  tbe 
environs.  The  principal  manufactures  are  orna- 
mental furniture,  sword-cutleiy,  gold  and  silver 
lace  and  perfumery.  'There  is  a  .brisk  and 
lucrative  commerce  in  grain,  cotton  and  sugar, 
the  tax  on  which  is  the  chief  source  ol  mu- 
nicipal revenue.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Indian 
mutiny  tbe  native  garrison  mutinied  and  to^ 
possession  of  the  place.  It  was  retaken  by 
Lord  Clyde  in  May  185a    Pop.  129,462. 

BARENTZ,  WiUUm,  Dutch  navigator;  b. 
about  1560,  who  di^overed  Nova  Zembia  in 
1594.  While  on  a  diird  expeditkin  to  the  same 
region,  in  1596,  he  discovered  Spitzbergsn,  but 
had  to  spend  the  winter  of  1596-97  in  Nov« 
Zembia.  He  and  his  companions  suffered  great 
hardships  which  led  to  his  death  on  the  home- 
ward joumey.  Relics  of  his  expedition  were 
discovered  undisturbed  in  1871. 

BARftRE  DE  VIEUZAC,  ba-rlr-dE-vyC- 
z^k,  Bertnnd,  French  revolutionist  and  wi- 
tatoTT  b.  Tarbes,  10  Sept  17S5 ;  d.  14  Jan.  1841. 
An  advocate  of  Toulouse,  he  acted  as  a  deputy 
in  the  National  Assembly,  and  was  sent  by  the 
department  of  the  HauteS'Pyrfn&s  to  the  Na- 
tional Convention  in  1792.  He  soon  became 
active  as  a  journalist  and  attached  himself  to 
die  ifountain,  supporting  it  with  eloquence  of 
such  a  flowery  and  poetical  sprle  as  afterward 
earned  him  the  name  of  the  *Anacreon  of  the 
^llotine,"  He  was  president  of  the  conven- 
tion when  the  sentence  was  passed  upon  Louis 
XVI.  He  rejected  the  appeal  to  the  people, 
and  gave  his  vote  with  these  words;  'The  law 
is  for  death,  and  I  am  here  only  as  the  organ  of 
the  law.*  Though  a  supporter  of  Robespierre, 
he  concurred  in  his  downfall,  yet  this  did  not 
save  him  from  bein^  impeached  and  sentenced 
to  transportation.  His  sentence  was  not  carried 
into  effect  and  he  shared  in  the  general  am- 
nes^  of  the  18th  Brumaire.  Elected  a  depu^ 
during  the  Hundred  Days,  he  was  banished 
after  the  second  restoration.  He  went  to  Brus- 
sels, where  he  devoted  himself  to  literary  worit 
till  the  revolution  of  July  permitted  his  return. 

BARBTTI,  t^-rit'le,  Giuseppe  Marc'  An- 
tonio, Italian  writer:  b.  Turin  1719;  d.  5  May 
17S9.  In  1751  he  took  up  residence  in  London. 
In  1753  he  published  a  'Dissertation  on  Italian 
Poets.'  About  this  time  he  was  introduced  to 
Tohnson,  then  engaged  in  the  compilation  of 
his  'Dictionary,'  of  which  Baretti  availed  him- 
~ ""  '        impile  an  Italian  and  English  diction- 


lished  his  reputation  as  a  scholar.    In  this  year 


BARGB  CANAL 


he  visited  his  native  country,  and  published  at 
Venice  a  critical  journal,  the  Frusta  Let- 
teraria,  which  was  soon  suppressed.  He  re- 
turned to  England  in  1766,  and  in  1768  pub- 
lished an  'Account  of  the  Muineri  and 
Customs  of  ItaW.'  While  defending  himself 
in  s  street  brawl  he  mortally  wounded  one  of 
his  assailants,  and  was  tried  for  murder  at 
the  Old  Bailey,  but  acguitted.  On  this  occa- 
sion Johnson,  Burke,  Goldsmith,  Garridc  and 
Reynolds  gave  testimony  to  his  good  character. 
In  177D  he  published  his  'Journey  fram  London 
to  Genoa  through  England,  Portiwal,  Spain 
and  France,'  and  continued  to  putuish  intro- 
ductory works  for  students  in  the  Italian  and 


edition  of  Machiavelli's  works.     He 


(  the 


Scritte  in  Lingua  Italiana'  appeared 
in  six  volumes  in  I813-ia  Baron  Pietri  Custodi 
published  his  'Scritti  Scciti,  Inediti,  o  Ran' 
(1822).  Consult  L.  Collison  Mortey,  <G.  Ba- 
retti,  with  an  Account  of  His  Literary  Friends' 
(London  1909). 

BARGE  CANAL,  The  New  York  State. 
The  improvement  of  the  New  York  State 
canals  authorized  by  a  vote  of  the  people  in 
1903  has  become  popularly  loiown  as  the  Barge 
Canal.  This  phrase  is  without  particular  sig- 
nificance iu  itself,  being  but  the  snortened  form 
of  "Thousand-ton  barge  canal,*  the  name  which 
was  first  given,  based  on  the  proposed  size,  but 
which  is  now  a  misnomer,  since  subsequent 
legislation  has  increased  the  capacity  of  the 
canal  two  or  three  fold. 

The  Barge  Canal  is  the  improvement  of  four 
branches  of  the  State  waterway  system.  These 
canals  had  already  undergone  various  enlarge- 
ments, but  the  Barge  Canal  is  more  Chan  an  en- 
Urgement,  in  several  respects  it  is  a  radical 
change  in  form  of  construction.  Of  these 
changes,  three  are  especially  prominent.  First, 
the  new  canal  has  no  towmg-path  and  conse- 

auenlly  no  animal  towage.  Again,  electrically- 
riven  machinery  replaces  hand-operation.  But 
the  greatest  change  is  the  substitution  of  river 
canalization  for  independent  canals.  When  the 
original  State  canals  were  built  the  best  practice 
of  the  time  dictated  a  channel  separated  from 
die  natural  streams.  Canal -builders  naturally 
sou^t  the  valley^  but  they  put  their  waterways 
away  from  and  sughtly  above  the  stream  beds. 
Modem  practice,  because  of  ability  to  cope 
with  floods,  boldly  chooses  the  valley'bottoms 
and  makes  the  natural  stream  into  a  canal.  This 
procedure  has  largely  changed  tbe  locations  of 
canals  in  New  York,  in  some  instances  placing 
the  new  channel  several  miles  from  the  old 
waterway.  Briefly  to  summarize  the  chief 
changes  —  the  Bai^e  Canal  is  a  thorough  mod- 
ernization in  size,  construction  and  equipment. 
The  four  branches  improved  are:  (1)  The 
Erie,  or  main  canal,  which  stretches  across  the 
State  from  east  to  west  and  joins  the  Hudson 
River  with  Lake  Erie;  (2)  the  Cbamplam, 
which  runs  northerly  from  the  eastern  terminus 
of  the  Erie  and  enters  the  head  of  Lake  Cham- 
plain  ;  (3)  the  Oswego,  which  starts  north, 
midway  on   the   line  of   the   Erie,   and   reaches 


The  Barge  Canal,  while  differing  from  the 
earlier  canals  in  many  respects,  is  really  but  a 
stage  in  the  development  of  tne  State  water- 
ways. The  ori^al  Erie  and  Champlain  canals, 
completed  in  1825  and  1623,  respectively,  were 
so  successful  that  a  veritable  mania  for  canal- 
building  spread  over  both  the  State  and  nation. 
In  New  York  this  agitation  resulted  in  the 
building  of  several  additional  canals  and  in  the 
enlargement  of  the  ori^nal  Erie  within  11 
years  after  its  opening,  and  a  few  years  later 
in  the  enlargement  of  the  three  oteer  canals 
which  are  now  jiarts  of  the  Barge  Canal  im- 
provement. This  first  enlargement  was  pro- 
tracted through  26  years  and  even  then  was  not 
entirety  finished.  About  a  decade  later  a  popu- 
lar feeling  of  opposition  to  canals  became  so 
strong  as  to  bring  about,  within  the  next  half 
dozen  year^  the  abandonment  of  several  lateral 
branches.  However,  shortly  after  this  the  ad- 
verse sentiment  gave  place  to  a  favorable  atti- 
tude and  an  improvement  was  undertaken 
which  proved  to  be  the  beginning  of  a  reawaken- 
ing of  interest  in  canals  that  lus  endured  until 
the  present  time. 

This  period  of  reawakening  fotind  its  first 
expression  in  18S4  in  the  lengtnening  of  locks. 
In  16%  came  the  first  official  suggestion  of  an 
enlargement  similar  to  what  has  become  the 
Barge  Canal.  The  Constitutional  Convention 
of  1894,  recogniring  the  popular  demand  for 
improved  canals,  included  an  article  in  its  pro- 
posed amendments  whereby  such  improvement 
could  be  authorized.  This  enlargement,  ordered 
bv  the  people  in  1895  and  calling  for  nine  feet 
depth  in  the  Erie  and  Oswego  canals  and  seven 
feet  in  the  Champlain  Canal,  owing  to  the  ex- 
haustion of  funds,  was  but  partially  completed. 

At  the  beginning  of  1899  the  Slate  found 
itself  in  a  quandary.  The  old  canals  were 
antiquated ;  the  attempted  improvement  was 
unavailable  without  considerable  additional 
outlay.  As  a  result  a  committee  of  eminent 
citixens  was  appointed,  with  authority  to  study 
the  whole  situation  and  in  effect  to  formulate 
a  canal  policy  for  tbe  State.  This  committee 
reiwrted  to  the  legislature  of  1900,  giving  rou^ 
estimates  for  completing  the  attempted  enlarge- 
ment and  also  for  making  improvements  on 
lines  substantially  like  those  later  adopted,  and 
recommending  for  immediate  action  tbe  making 
of  careful  surveys  and  estimates  for  the  latter 
scheme.  Almost  contemporaneously  with  the 
work  of  this  committee,  two  Federal  investiga- 
tions had  been  in  progress  —  the  Deep  Water- 
ways survey  and  a  study  of  relative  costs  of 
transportation  between  l^es  and  sea  by  ships 
and  by  barges.  These  investigations  produced 
valuable  data  and  helped  mold  puMic  sentiment. 

The  recommended  survey  was  made  in  19(K^ 
with  a  repoH  to  the  legislature  in  1901.  In- 
ability of  canal  advocates  to  concentrate  on  any 
one  plan  delayed  legislative  action  till  1903. 
Then,  after  a  revision  of  estimates,  the  meas- 
ure was  referred  for  a  vote  at  the  1903  fall 
election.  It  was  carried  by.  a  substantial  ma- 
jority and  authorized  the  expenditure  of  $101,- 
000,000  for  improving  the  Erie,  Champlain  and 
Oswego  canals.  Plans  were  begun  at  once,  but 
the  undertaking  was  so  enormous  that  actual 
construction  did  not  begin  till  the  spring  of 
I90S.  in  1909,  after  surveys  had  been  made, 
the  Cayuga  and  Seneca  Canal  was  ordered  to 


.Google 


BARGE  CANAL 


be  enlarged  to  Barge  Canal  dimensions  by  a 
second  referendum,  which  appropriated  $7,- 
000,000.  Construction  progressed  steatUly  till 
1913,  when  it  became  necessary  to  provide 
^7,000;000  more,  for  the  purpose  of  complet- 
ing the  three  canals  first  undertaken.  This  was 
done  by  another  referendum  and  was  necessi- 
tated largely  by  court  awards  for  damage  and 
propertj;  claims  and  in  lesser  measure  by  very 
greatly  increased  costs  for  labor  and  materials. 

To  provide  suitable  terminals  for  the  new 
canals,  a  fund  of  $19,800,000  became  available 
by  a  vote  of  the  people  in  1911.  Several  years' 
a^tatioQ  preceded  this  action.  In  1909  a  com-  . 
mission  composed  of  certain  State  officials  had 
been  appointed  to  investigate  and  report  on  the 
subject  In  1910  this  commission  was  sent  to 
Europe  to  study  the  terminals  there. 

The  Barge  Canal  may  be  aptly  called 
Nature's  gateway  to  the  heart  of  the  continent. 
Nature  surely  prepared  the  route.  The  Hudson, 
which  has  a  safe  and  commodious  harbor  at 
its  mouth,  is  the  only  navigable  Atlantic  sea- 
board river  in  the  United  States  which  cuts  the 
coast  range  of  mountains.  In  the  centre  of  the 
State  a  second  range  makes  way  for  a  valley. 
At  Little  Falls  a  rocky  barrier  was  pierced 
during  the  last  glacial  overflow  by  the  waters 
of  the  Great  Lakes.  Also  natural  watercourses 
across  the  State  —  one  from  east  to  west 
across  the  centre,  one  from  the  extreme  south 
to  the  extreme  north  across  the  eastern  side 
and  one  almost  across  from  north  to  south  at 
the  centre  —  are  provisions  which  man  has 
appreciated  and  utilized.  Westward  from  the 
canals  the  Great  Lakes  extend  a  thousand  miles 
inland. 

There  are  442.6  miles  of  construction  in  the 
new  canals.  The  358.7  miles  of  intervening 
lakes  and  adjoining  rivers  make  a  total  of  801.3 
miles  —  the  length  of  the  State  waterway 
^stem  of  Barze  Canal  dimensions.  Of  this 
whole  system  about  72  per  cent  of  the  length  is 
in  river  or  lake  channel.  Thus  it  appears  that 
the  Barge  Canal  is  largely  a  river  canalization 
scheme.  A  brief  description  of  tlie  route  will 
give  force  to  this  statement.  . 

The  Hudson  River  from  the  ocean  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Mohawk  is  the  first  link.  The 
bed  or  valley  of  the  Mohawk  is  Utilized  from 
the  Hudson  to  the  old  portage  near  Rome. 
Then  Wood  Creek,  Oneii^  Lake,  and  Oneida, 
Seneca  and  Clyde  rivers  are  used,  carrying  the 
chaimel  to  the  western  part  of  the  State,  wnere 
the  streams  run  north  and  the  alignment  of  the 
old  channel  is  retained  for  the  new  canal.  The 
other  branches  of  the  Barge  Canal  occupy  natural 
Streams  throughout  most  of  their  len^h, 
the  Cham])lain  branch  lying  in  the  canalized 
Hudson  River  and  Wood  Creek,  the  Oswego 
branch  utilizing  Oswego  River,  and  the  Cayuga 
and  Seneca  Canal  occupying  the  bed  of  Seneca 
River.  Also  Lake  Champ^in  and  Onondaga, 
Cross,  Cayuga  and  Seneca  lakes  form  parts  of 
the  waterway  system. 

There  are  varigus  'land  lines,"  for  passing 
around  dams,  cutting  off  bends  and  other  pur- 
poses, and  in  the  western  part  of  the  State  the 
new  channel  is  largely  a  widening  and  deepening 
of  the  old  canal. 

The  dimensions  of  the  Bai^e  Canal  are  the 
same  for  all  four  branches.  Briefly,  the  mini- 
mum channel  in  earth  cutting  in  the  independent 


or  artificial  canal,  or  land  line,  is  75  feet  wide 
at  bottom  and  123  to  171  feet  at  water-surface. 
In  rock  cutting,  with  nearly  vertical  sides,  the 
width  is  W  feet  In  river  and  lake  channels 
the  width  is  from  150  to  200  feet  There  is 
a  depth  of  12  feet  throughout.  The  actual 
dimensions  vary  greatly,  but  the  minimum  size 
is  fixed  by  law.  The  locks  have  generally  been 
reported  to  have  a  length  of  from  338  to  343 
feet  between  gates  (310  feet  available  length) 
and  a  width  of  45  feet.  However,  from  actuai 
measurements  after  construction  it  has  be^ 
found  that  the  largest  parallelogram  to  fit  all 
the  locks  is  limited  to  300  feet  by  44.44  feet 
Boats  havine;  ends  to  conform  to  a  certain 
rounded  head-wall  may  utilize  10  feet  more. 

The  critical  points  in  supplyii^  water  to 
canals  are  the  summit  levels.  The  new  Erie 
Canal  has  one  summit  level  —  in  the  vicinity 
of  Rome  — and  one  half-summit  — at  the  Lake 
Erie  end. '  A  glance  at  the  profile  will  show 
these  summits  and  how  the  canal  descends  from 
them.  The  natural  flow  of  the  streams  which 
are  canalized  to  form  the  Barge  Canal  is  in 
general  sufficient  to  maintain  the  requisite  depth 
of  water  in  the  levels  between  the  locks  and 
also  to  supply  the  water  required  for  lockage 
and  incidental  operations. 

The  greatest  independent  water-supply  for 
the  Erie  Canal  is  that  for  the  western  section. 
Fortunately  an  almost  unlimited  supply  is  avail- 
able by  tapping  the  Niagara  River.  From  here 
it  is  necessary  to  <^ri7  a  continuous  sun>1y 
easterly  to  the  Seneca  River.  Tn  order  to  pass 
this  water  in  requisite  volume,  the  canal  bottom 
on  the  loiig  levels  has  been  given  a  proper 
grade,  which  provides  for  carrying  at  least 
1237  cubic  feet  per  second.  It  is  estimated  that 
this  supply  is  adequate,  not  only  for  10,000,000 
tons  seasonal  traffic,  for  which  the  Barge  Canal 
is  designed,  but  also  for  the  maximum  traffic 
which  the  canal  is  capable  of  handling^  namely, 
from  18,500,000  to  20,000,000  tons  per  season. 
To  furnish  the  Rome  summit  level  the  existing 
sources  of  supply  are  retained  and  two  new 
reservoirs,  Delta  and  Hinckley,  are  built.  The 
old  Rome  level  was  supplied  by  an  extensive 
system  of  reservoirs  and  feeders,  built  largely 
in  the  Adirondack  region.  This  entire  system 
is  retained,  together  with  such  portions  of  the 
old  canal  as  are  needed  to  bring  the  waters  to 
the  Barge  Canal. 

The  Champlain  Canal  has  a  summit  level  be- 
tween Lake  Champlain  and  the  Hudson  River. 
The  corresponding  summit  of  the  old  canal 
was  supplied  by  a  feeder  which  took  its  water 
from  the  Hudson  at  Glens  Falls.  This  same 
Glens  Falls  feeder,  improved,  supplies  the  needs 
of  the  northern  portion  of  the  new  Champlain 
Canal,  while  the  southern  portion  lies  in  the 
channel  of  the  Hudson. 

Seneca  and  Cayuga  lakes,  Iving  at  the  heads 
of  their  respective  stretches  of  the  Cayuga  and 
Seneca  Canal,  form  natural  reservoirs  to  supply 
both  this  canal  and  the  Erie  branch  between 
its  junction  with  the  Cayuga  and  Seneca  Canal 
and  Three  River  Point. 

The  Oswego  Canal  begins  at  Three  River 
Point  Here  Oneida  and  Seoeca  rivers  unite, 
bringing  their  natural  flow  and  also  a  part  of 
the  supplies  from  the  Rome  level  reser 
and  Lake  Erie.  As  the  canal  is  chiefly  ii 
Oswego  River,  its  needs  are  amply  met. 


:,  Google 


BARGE  CAHAL 


I  A  Buf  a  cum!   bxk.    FiiM  of  tba   Erie  canal,  locklnc  op  oit  of  the  RodioB.     Tluaa  old  locki,  used  bow  u  a 

bj-^MM  at  Iho  riftat  I 

1  TlBoe  of  lEitea  ol  Slscki  (lock  Id  tIiw  ibon  is  lint  of  lorlM)  wIIUd  atieuli  of  1)  milsa,  loimlu  naaMal  ■wM~)(^0    C 
of  tiiih  lift  locki  in  tin  wotld;  auroiato  lift,  lai  faet  rS 

1  A  iUb  mm  tool  looc  for  oaBatiilni  tba  lowai  Mohawk  ^ 


BASGE  CANAL 


IM  last  loDc  and  100  f aat  hlfh,  formini  ■  raurmlt  on  Hobawk  hodwattn  fM  —wljlBg  eaaal 


2  NuTifiitiDB  of  ol<j-«iud  boaU 

t  Lock  ind  moobla  dam  of  biid(a  trpe 


.Google 


BABOBCANAl. 


Electric  equipmeat  on  the  canal  is  of  the 
Dcwest  desigo.  Id  general  a  hydro-electric 
power  jtalion  at  each  lock  supples  the  needed 
energy  for  lighting  and  operating.  Some 
stations  supply  more  than  one  lock,  substations 
being  provided  where  necessary.  Gasoline 
eieciric  stations  are  used  at  movable  dams, 
where  the  head  of  water  needed  for  developing 
power  is  destroyed  by  the  act  of  raising  the  dam. 
The  turbines  and  generators  in  each  station 
are  in  du[dicate.  Also  hand-operating  devices 
are  avaibble  in  case  both  sets  of  electric  in- 
stallabon  are  disabled. 

The  Barge  Canal  locks  are  built  of  concrete 
throughout,  bcith  side  and  cross  walls  and  floor. 
At  a  few  points,  where  favorable  rock  is  en- 
countered, the  concrete  floor  has  been  dispensed 
with.  The  lifts  range  from  6  feet  to  40j5  feet 
Within  each  side  wall  runs  a  culvert  for  filling 
and  emp^tug  the  lock.  The  culverts  are  con- 
nected with  ports  that  open  into  the  chamber 
at  the  bottom  of  the  walls.  These  culverts  vary 
in'  size,  the  dimensions  being  S  by  7  feet  for 
locks  of  12  feet  lift  or  less,  6  by  8  feet  for 
lifts  between  12  and  23  feet,  and  7  by  9  feet 
when  the  lift  is  23  feet  or  more,  llie  lock- 
gates  are  of  the  mitering,  girder  ^pe,  cairyine 
the  principal  load  as  beams.  They  are  built  oi 
iiteel,  with  single  skin-pbtes,  but  have  white  oak 
quoin  and  toe-i>osts.  The  quoin-post  swings 
on  a  cast-steel  pivot,  set  in  the  concrete,  and  is 
held  at  the  top  by  an  adjustable  anchorage.  The 
bearing  is  against  cast-iron  quoin-plates  set 
'  I  the  side  walb.  The  lock-gates  are  each 
j>ened  and  closed  fc 
a  heavy  coil  spring 


horse-power  motor  acting  through  a 

gears  designed  to  ooen  or  close  the  gates  in 

about  one  minute.     Movement  of  the  gates  is 


each  end  of  each  l___  .._  .  _.  . 
ing  the  flow  of  water  to  the  culverts  are  ___ 
pended  on  two  chains,  which  pass  over  chain 
wheels  near  the  top  of  the  valve  wells  to 
suitable  cast-iron  counterweights.  The  chain 
wheels  are  mounted  on  a  shaft  rotated  by  a 
motor  operating  through  a  train  of  gears.  The 
movement  of  the  valves  is  controlled  in  a 
manner  similar  (o  the  movement  of  the  gates. 
Electric  capstans,  one  at  each  end  of  each  lock, 
are  provided  to  control  the  movement  of  boats 
along  the  approach  walls  and  to  tow  them  into 
and  out   of  the  lock  chamber. 

Reinforced  concrete  power  stations,  20  by  30 
feet  in  plan  and  about  20  feet  high,  are,  in 
general,  constructed  adjacent  to  the  various 
locks.  The  hydro-electric  power  stations, 
operated  by  the  water  in  the  canalj  are  each 
equipped  with  two  vertical-shaft  turbines,  which 
'  1  all  but  a  few  cases  are  directly  ' 


s  are  each  equipped  with  two  generators 

directly  connected  to  gasoline  engines  designed 
to  operate  at  a  speed  of  600  revolutions  per 


New  York  has  recognized  the  supreme 
weakness  of  most  American  waterways  —  the 
lack  of  terminals  and  efficient  frei^t-handling 
machinery  —  and  is  supplying  these  needs  in  the 
Barge  Canal.  However,  it  was  eight  years  after 


the  canal  was  authorized  before  the  terminals 
were  added.  But  their  construction  has  been 
pushed  with  such  vigor  that  they  are  ready  with 
the  opening  of  the  completed  canal.  These  ter- 
minals are  located  at  some  50  cities  and  vil- 
lages along  the  canals  as  well  as  on  some  of 
their  connecting  natural  watercourses.  The 
character  of  the  terminal  varies  to  meet  the 
needs  of  each  particular  locality,  but  in  gen- 
eral a  terminal  consists  of  a  suitable  place  for 
dockage,  the  machinery  for  handling  goods 
quickly  and  cheaply,  a  building  for  temporary 
storage  and  in  many  places  connections  with 
adjacent  railways.  The  purpose  of  the  State 
is  to  furnish  a  place  where  any  shipper  or  boat- 
man may  have  the  advantages  of  efficient  ter- 
minal facilities  at  a  reasonable  cost  Recent 
legislation  has  vested  the  State  Public  Service 
Commission  with  power  to  require  connections 
to  be  built  between  railroads  and  canal  ter- 
minals, as  well  as  authority  to  regulate  freight 
rates  and  control  combinations. of  rail  and  water 

Since  the  Barge  Canal  Ucs  so  largely  in  lake 
and  river  channel,  various  aids  to  navigation 
are  needed,  such  as  Ughthouses,  range  towers, 
beacons,  buoys  and  markings  on  bridges. 
Lights,  either  fixed,  flashing  or  occulting,  are 
displayed  by  night.  The  Federal  practice  of 
marking  channels  has  been  adopted,  but  with 
the  interpretation  that  upstream  means  proceed- 
ing awa</  from  the  ocean  toward  the  interior, 
irrespective  of  local  conditions  of  actual  up- 
stream or  downstream.  Thus  in  going  westerly 
from  the  Hudson  on  the  Erie  Canal  or  in  pro- 
ceeding away  from  the  Erie  Canal  on  any  of  the 
other  canals,  red  lights  are  on  the  right  or 
starboard  side  of  the  channel  and  white  lights 
are  on  the  left  or  port  side.  The  buoys  and 
beacons  which  show  red  lights  are  painted  red, 
while  those  which  show  white  lights  are  painted 
black,  but  this  latter  color  will  probably  be 
changed  to  white, 

A  study  of  the  distribution  of  population  in 
New  York  Stale  reveals  some  important  condi- 
tions. It  is  discovered  that  within  two  miles 
of  the  State  waterways  live  73J4  per  cent  of 
the  people  of  the  State.  If  the  distance  is  ex- 
tended so  as  to  include  the  territory  within  S, 
10  and  20  miles,  the  percentages  are  77,  82  and 
87,  respectively.  Looking  from  another  angle, 
it  appears  that  within  20  miles  lies  46  per  cent 
of  the  area  of  the  whole  State.  If  lines  are 
drawn  on  a  map  —  one  at  SO  and  one  at  70 
miles  from  the  waterways  —  we  find  that  71 
and  38  per  cent,  respectively,  of  the  area  he 
within  them.  These  are  the  respective  distances 
which  motor  trucks  of  3i  and  2  tons'  capacity 
can  cover  in  a  day's  run,  going  and  returning. 
This  fertile  field  for  motor  truck  operation  in 
connection  with  the  enlarged  canals  is  full  of 
promise.  The  importance  commercially  of  the 
conditions  revealed  by  this  study  is  not  gen- 
erally appreciated,  but  a  little  consideration  will 
discover  what  it  means  to  the  State  and  to  the 
country  at  large  that  there  live  within  a  half- 
hour's  walk  of  the  waterways  three-quarters  of 
the  population  of  the  State,  about  7,00(^000 
people,  or  7  per  cent  of  the  whole  United 
States  population,  whose  products  and  whose 
supplies  may  have  available  a  means  of  cheap 
transportation. ' 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


BARHADAD  I  —  BAIUHCBRJBUS 


The  Barge  Canal  is  the  essential  connecting 
link  between  two  extensive  and  important 
waterway  systems,  which  are  in  part  existent 
and  in  part  only  projected.  To  the  west  lie  the 
Great  Lakes.  Four  noteworthy  canals,  to  con- 
nect with  these  lakes,  are  in  a  iaii  way  to  be 
built.  At  the  seaboard  a  project  known  as  the 
Intracostal  canals  would  give  an  inside  pas- 
sage along  a  large  portion  of  our  Atlantic 
Coast.  The  Federal  government  has  made  sur- 
veys for  most  of  these  canals  and  some  it  has 
already  built.  Of  this  whole  vast  scheme,  the 
mileage  now  in  existence  is  already  great  — 
1,500  miles  in  the  Lakes  and  800  miles  in  New 
York  waterways.  The  intracoastal  chain  would 
add  1,800  miles  and  the  projects  adjacent  to  the 
Lakes  at  least  800  miles  more. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  1918  season,  the 
Federal  government,  as  a  war  measure,  assumed 
control  of  the  Barge  Canal  in  so  far  as  traffic  is 
concerned. 

Certain  statistical  data  follow : 

Erie  Canal— 340.7  miles  long;  3S  locks,  674.45 
feet  total  lockage;  2  guard-locks;  1  terminal 
lock;  6  junction  locks;  4  feeder  locks.  Cham- 
plain  Canal  — 62.6  miles  long;  11  locks,  168,3 
teet  total  lockage;  2  junction  locks.  Oswego 
Canal  — 235  miles  long:  7  locks,  118.6  feet  total 
lockage.  Cayuga  and  Seneca  Canal  —  92.7 
miles  long,  including  Cayuga  and  Seneca  lakes ; 
4  locks,  71.0  feet  total  lockage.  Fifty-seven 
locks,  2  guard-locks  and  1  terminal  lock,  all  of 
Barge  Canal  dimensions,  and  12  smaller  locks 
have  been  built.  Construction  has  included  30 
new  dams,  5  old  dams  with  new  crests  and  5 
old  dams  used  without  change;  also  300  bridges 
and  various  other  structures,  including  guard- 
gates,  culverts,  spillways,  oulkheads,  waste- 
weirs,  by-passes,  flumes,  tertninals,  gate-houses, 
power-houses,  warehouses,  lighthouses  and 
range  towers.  The  total  number  of  all  kinds 
of  structures  exceeds  700.  Some  entirely  new 
types  of  structure,  siphon  spillways  and  auto- 
matic crests  on  dams,  have  been  originated  in 
Barge  Canal  construction,  and  some  novel  and 
bola  adaptations  in  design  have  occurred,  such 
as  the  bridge  type  of  movable  dam,  the  siphon 
lock,  the  sector  gate  and  an  enormous  Taintoc 

Site.  The  first  construction  was  begun  on  24 
pri!  190S;  the  first  work  on  the  Erie  on  7 
June  1905,  Many  finished  portions  have  been 
put  into  use  upon  completion.  The  whole 
canal  with  full  depth,  but  with  isolated  parts 
not  yet  of  full  width,  is  being  put  into  use  in 
1918.  A  boat  utilizing  full  lock  dimensions  can 
carry  about  3,000  tons,  but  probably  not  many 
boats  more  than  half  that  capacity  will  be 
used. 

NoBLB  E.  Wkitk«d, 
Senior  Assistant  Engineer,  Department  of  Slate 
Engineer. 

BARHADAD  I,  King  of  Damascus  from 
about  885  to  844  b.c.  He  was  the  ally  of  Asa, 
Kinjg  of  Tudah  against  Israel  and  also  fought 
against^  Ahab.  He  also  campaigned  against 
Shalmaneier  IIL  It  is  probable  that  he  was 
murdered  by  the  usurwr  Hazael  (2  Kings  viii, 
9-15). 

BARHADAD  II,  King  of  Damascus  from 
804  to  744  B.C.  He  was  the  son  of  the  usurper 
Hazael.    He  formed  a  coalition  against  Zakir, 


but  was  unsuccessful  in  tlie  siege  of  Hairak, 
Zakir's  capital.  Damascus  was  besieged  in  603 
and  Barhadad  was  obliged  to  pay  tribute  to 
Adad-nirari  IV,  King  of  Assyria. 

BARHAH,  Richard  Harris,  English 
humorous  writer:  b.  Canterbury,  6  Dec.  178S; 
d.  17  June  1845.  Having  bcea  ordained  a 
clergyman,  he  became  in  1821  one  of  the  minor 
canons  of  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral  In  1824  he 
was  appointed  a  priest  in  ordinary  oi  the 
chapel-royal,  and  was  shortly  afterward  pre- 
sented to  the  rectory  of  the  united  parishes  of 
Saint  Mary  Magdalene  and  Saint  Gregory, 
London.  In  1837,  on  the  starting  of  Beniley> 
Miscellan\,  under  the  editorship  of  Charles 
Dickens,  ne  laid  the  foundation  of  bis  literary 
fame  by  the  publication  in  that  periodical  of 
the  'Ingoldsby  Legends'-~-a  series  of  humor- 
ous tales  in  verse  and  prose  which  achieved  an 
immense  success,  having  in  a  collective  form, 
from  1840  onward,  been  published  over  and 
over  again  in  various  .editions,  with  many 
legends*  added  to  the  oriranal  number. 
His   life  has  been  written  by  nis   son.     See 

IHCOLDSBV  LqXNDS. 

BAR-HEBRSUS  (or  Yuhanna  Abul- 
FASAj),  Syrian  bishop  and  historian:  b.  Mala- 
tiah  1226;  d.  Maragha,  30  July  1286.  His  father 
was  a  Jew  by  birth  and  the  son  became  known 
as  Bar-Hebr«us,  that  is,  'son  of  the  Hebrew.* 
His  father  having  moved  to  Antioch  Bar-He- 
brseus  completed  nis  education  there.  He  studied 
Arabic  and  Syriac,  philosophy,  theology  and 
medicine,  and  acquired  distinction  among  lus 
contemporaries.  In  1246  he  was  ordained  at 
Tripolis  as  Jacobite  bishop  of  Guhas,  near 
Malatia,  and  a  year  later  was  transferred  to 
the  neighboring  diocese  of  Lakabhim,  whence 
in  1253  he  passed  to  be  bishop  of  Aleppo.  He 
was  deposed  soon  after  by  his  superior  on  ac- 
count of  disputes  about  the  patriarchate,  and 
was  restored  to  his  see  in  1258.  In  1264  he 
was  promoted  by  the  patriarch,  Ignatius  III,  to 
be  maphrian  —  the  next  rank  below  that  of 
patriarch  —  an  office  he  held  until  his  death. 
To  the  modem  student  Bar-HebrKus  is  im- 
portant as  a  historian.  His  Syriac  'Chronicle' 
IS  made  up  of  three  parts.  The  first  is  a 
history  of  secular  events  from  the  Creation 
to  his  own  time  and  gives  valuable  informa- 
tion regarding  the  history  of  southeastern 
Europe  and  western  Asia.  The  second  and 
third  parts  of  the  'Chronicle'  deal  with  the 
history  of  the  Church.  For  theologians  his 
'Ausar  Raze'  ('Storehouse  of  Secrets')  is  of 
special  value  as  a  critical  and  doctrinal  com- 
mentary on  the  texts  of  the  Scriptures.  A 
full  list  of  his  other  works  and  of  editions  of 
such  of  them  as  have  been  published  is  con- 
tained in  W.  Wright's  'Syriac  Literature.' 
The  more  important  of  them  are  'Kethabha 
dhe-Bhabhatha>  ('Book  of  the  Pupils  of  the 
Eyes'),  a  treatise  on  logic  or  dialectics; 
'Hewaih  Hekhmetha  ('Butter  of  Wisdom'), 
an  exposition  of  the  Aristotelian  system  of 
philosophy;  'Sullaka  Haunanaya'  ('Ascent  of 
the  Mind'),  a  treatise  on  astronomy  and  cos- 
mography; various  medical  works;  'Kethabha 
dhe-Semhe>  ('Book  of  Rays>),  a  treatise  on 
grammar;  ethic  works,  poems  and  'Kethabha 
dhe-Thunnaye  Meghahhekhane'  ('Book  of 
Entertaining  Stories'),  edited  with  translation 


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BARGE  CANAL 


t  A  nard-nta  —  ■  (tnictua  nlaccd  •!  polnlf  vhtre  a  bn«k  would  MflottitT  daaiut  eiiul  or  adlMant  tMTHd&  „  _  „  I  _ 
J  A  KhlhtSe  -Me  <><  th».  D»d  (or  udhic  UTidUon  «  Ondd.  Uk.  IJn^ed  hv  VjOOQ  IC 

1  bmT*  on^  f™!"*' ■*  ^1»V.  ocMD  icbooiitra  and  i>Id-i<Md  canal  boati  Ifimi  >Ioii(iida      i^yn^'-uu/  x^v^v^^it. 


BARGE  CANAL 


Digitized  by  GOOI^IC 


BARI  — BAKIHQ 


SSI 


ty  E.  A.  Budge  (London  1897).  The  ffram- 
matical  treatises  were  edited  by  Abbi  Martin 
under  the  title  'Oeuvres  Kfammaticales  d' About 
Faradj  dit  Bar  Hebneus'  (2  vols.,  Paris  1872). 
The  'Chronicle,'  the  first  part,  was  published 
by  Bruns  and  Kirsch  (Leipzig  1789)  and  in  a. 
superior  edition  by  Bedjan  (Paris  1890).  The 
second  and  third  parts  were  edited  by  Abbeloas 
and  Lamy  (3  vols.,  Paris  and  Louvain  1872- 
77).  For  the  Bible  commentary  consult  (Jotts- 
beraer,  'Barhebraus  und  seine  SduiHoi.  zur 
HeHigen  Schrift'   (Freiburg  1900). 

BARI,  a  negro  people  of  Africa,  dwelling 
on  both  sides  of  (he  White  Nile.  Gondokoro 
is  their  chief  town.  They  practise  agricultun 
and  cattle-raising.  Their  country  was  con- 
quered by  Baker  Paiha  in  1871  for  ^ypt 

BARI,  ba're  (ancient  Bauom),  Italy,  im- 
portant seaport  of  sonthem  Italy,  in  Apulia, 
capital  of  the  province  of  Bari  delle  Pnglie, 
and  situated  oa  a  promontory  of  the  Adri^ic, 
69  miles  northwest  of  Brindiii.  It  was  a  place 
of  some  importance  under  the  Romans,  passed 
from  them  to  the  Saracens,  and  was  afterward 
selected  as  the  seat  of  government  by  the 
Nordimen  who  conquered  Apulia.  It  has  been 
thrice  destroyed  and  rebuilt  on  the  same  site. 
The  present  town,  surrounded  by  walls  and 
defended  by  a  castle^  consists  of  a  poorly-boilt 
old  town  widi  a  better  put  of  more  recent 
date.  It  is  the  see  of  an  archbishop  and  pos- 
sesses a  cathedral  with  a  tower  260  feet  hi^ 
dating  from  the  eariy  half  of  the  lltb  century, 
but  largely  spoiled  by  re^^t  alterationi.  Its 
dome  was  renovated  tn  1905,  and  c<her  altera- 


church  of  Sau  Nicola  dates  from  10B7;  and 
there  is  also  a  roy&l  lyceum.  Bari  manufac- 
tUTcs  cotton  and  linen  goods,  organs,  pianos, 
hats,  soap,  ^lass  and  liquors,  and  has  a  trade' 
in  wine,  gram,  almonds,  oil,  etc.  It  has  regidar 
steamboat  cammunication  with  Venice,  Ancona, 
Trieste,  Brindisi,  Genoa  and  Marsalles.  A. 
United  States  consul  is  stationed  herv;  Pop. 
103,168. 

BARIATINSKI,  bar-ya-ten'ske,  Alexan- 
der Ivanovich,  Prince,  Russian  tield-marshal ; 
b  1814:  d.  Geneva,  9  March  1879.  He  was 
educated  with  the  future  Tsar  Alexander  II,  and 
while  a  young  officer  in  the  hussars  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Caucasus,  where  his  successes 
against  the  famous  Shamyl  secured  him,  in 
1852,  the  rank  of  lieutenant-general.  On  the 
accession  of  Alexander  II  he  returned  to  Saint 
Petersburg,  and  in  1856  was  appcunted  to  the 
command  of  the  army  of  the  Caucasus.  Three 
successful  campaigns  were  closed  by  the  storm- 
ing of  Ghunib  and  the  capture  of  ^amyl.  For 
these  services  he  was  made  a  field- marshal. 
His  health,  however,  had  broken  down,  and 
the  remainder  of  his  life  was  passed  duefly 
abroad. 

BARILI,  ba-re1«,  Philiwines,  a  town  in  the 
province  of  Cebu,  27  miles  from  Cebu,  its 
capital.    Pop.  about  32,000. 

BARILLA,  ba-re'-yi  (Spanish,  'impure 
soda*),  the  commercial  name  of  a  crude  va- 
riety of  soda  obtained  by  burning  certain  fleshy 
plants  that  grow  near  the  ocean  and  in  other 
salty  places.  The  Saltola  ioda  was  largely  nsed 
for  this  purpose,  and  was  cultivated  in  Spain, 


Sicily,  Sardinia  and  other  places  on  account  of 
the  considerable  yield  of  barilla  that  it  fur- 
nished. The  plants  were  cut  in  September, 
dried  for  about  a  month,  and  then  burned  on 
an  Iron  grating,  beneath  which  was  a  _pit  into 
which  the  fused  ashes  fell.  The  bummg  was 
continued  until  a  ton  or  two  of  the  ash  had 


and  shipped  to  market.  Barilla  contains  about 
20  per  cent  of  soda,  the  remainder  consisting 
chiefly  of  chlorides  and  sulphates  of  sodiimi, 
cakium  and  almninum.  It  was  formerly  much 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap,  but  has  now 
been  almost  entirely  replaced  by  purer  grades 
of  soda,  obtained  by  ch^i^cal  means  from  com- 
mon salt.    See  Kelp. 

BARINO.  the  familv  name  of  one  of  the 
most  influential  financial  establishments  in  the 
world,  the  well-known  house  of  Baring  Broth- 
ers &  Company.  John  Baring,  the  father  of  the 
founders,  was  a  German  cloth  maker  who  en- 
^ged  in  business  in  a  small  way  at  Larkbear, 
Devonshire,  England,  in  the  earlier  half  of  the 
I8th  century.  His  sons,  Francis  and  John, 
established  the  firm  of  Baring  Brothers  in  Lon- 
don in  1770.  In  November  1890,  owing  to  the 
collapse  of  South  American  securities,  the  firm 
was  threatened  with  suspension,  and  a  financial 
crisis  ensued.  With  Habilities  of  £20,000,000 
and  assets  of  £12,000,000,  the  position  was 
grave,  (kisclien,  then  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer, was  pressed  by  the  governor  of  the 
Bank  of  Et^and  to  pleoge  the  national  security 
for  il,0O0,0O0,  which  he  refused  to  do  for  any 
private  firm;  but  a  timely  loan  from  the  Bank 
of  France  and  the  co-operation  of  the  Roths- 
childs and  die  joint  stock  banks  in  raising  a 
guarantee  fund  of  £18,000,000  averted  the  cnsis 
without  government  aid  or  the  suspension  of 
the  Bank  Act.  Since  that  time  the  bank  has 
been  reorganized  as  a  limited  banking  com- 
pany. 

BARINO,  Alexander.  See  AsHBtnrniK, 
AuxAMDSR  Baring,  Lord. 

BARING,  SiK  Evelyn.  See  OtOMEB,  Ev- 
elyn Baring. 

BARING,  SiE  Francis,  English  banker:  b. 
Larkbear,  England,  1740;  d.  1810.  He  obtained 
a  commercial  training,  founded  the  great  finan- 
cial house  of  Baring  Brothers  &  Company, 
became  a  director  of  the  East  India  Company, 
and  was  created  a  baronet  in  1793.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  discussions  relative  to  ihe 
Dank  Restriction  Act  of  1797,  and  at  the  time  of 
his  death  was  reckoned  the  first  merchant  in 
Europe.  His  second  son,  Alexander,  became 
1st  Baron  Ashburton  (q.v.). 

BARING.  Sir  Fruida  ThomhlU,  Et«lish 
banker,  son  of  Sir  ThMuas:  b.  1?96;  d  1866. 
Under  successive  Whig  governments,  he  was  a 
Lord  of  the  Treasury,  Secretary  of  Treas- 
ury, Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  and  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty.  He  was  created  Baron 
Northbrook  in  1866. 

BARING,  Manrice,  English  author  and 
joumaHst:  b.  27  April  1874.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He 
entered  the  diplomatic  service  in  1898,  was  at- 
tach6  to  the  British  Embassy  in  Paris  1898- 
1900,  third  secretary  to  the  British  Embas^  in 
Copenhagen    190(WB,    and   was   transferred   to 


Google 


BARING  — BARIUM 


Rome  in  1902.  He  whs  employed  in  tlie  For- 
eign Office  1903-04,  and  resigned  from  the  serv- 
ice in  the  latter  year.  He  acted  as  war  cor- 
respondent for  the  Morning  Post  in  Manchuria 
in  1904  in  Russia  1905-08,  and  was  special  cor- 
reapondent  for  the  same  journal  in  Ginstanti- 
nople  in  1909.  In  1912  he  was  correspondent 
tor  the  London  Timer  in  the  Balkans,  was 
gazetted  temporary  lieutenant  in  the  British 
expeditionary  force  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
European  War  in  1914,  and  was  promoted  staff 
lieutenant  in  1915.  He  has  written  noveli. 
essays,  narratives  and  poems,  including  'Hil- 
desheim  and  Quatre  Pastiches'  (1899);  <Tbe 
Black  Prince"  (1902) ;  'Gaston  de  Foix» 
(1903);  'With  the  Russians  in  Mancliuria> 
(1903) ;  'Mahasena'  (190S) ;  'Desiderio* 
(1906);  'Sonnets  and  Short  Poems'  (1906); 
'Thoughts  on  Art  and  Life  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci'  (1906):  'A  Year  in  Russia'  (1907): 
'Proserpine'  (1908) ;  'Russian  Essays  and 
Stories'  (1909)  ;  'Orpheus  in  Mayfair'  (1909)  ; 
'The  Story  of  Forget  Me  Not'  (1909)  ;  'Land- 
marks of  Russian  Literature'  (1910);  'Dead 
Letters'  (1910);  'The  Glass  Mender'  (1910); 
'Diminutive  Dramas'  (1910) ;  'Collected 
Poems'  (1911);  ; The  Russian  People'  (1911); 


ind  Arcite'  (1913) ;  'What  I  Sa     .. 

sia'     (1913);     'Lost    Diaries'     (1913);    'The 
Mainsprings   of   Russia'    (1914)  ;    'An   Outline 


brook:  b.  1799;  d.  1873.  He  devoted  himself 
early  lo  commercial  pursuits,  and  also  to  poli- 
tics, in  which  he  was  a  Gjnservative,  thus  tak- 
ing the  opposite  side  to  his  brother.  He  entered 
Parliament  in  1835,  representing  the  borough 
of  Huntingdon  from  1844  till  his  death. 

BARING,  Tbonus  Qeorfe,  Ut  Earl  of 
Norlhbrook:  b.  1826;  d.  London,  Eng.,  15  Nov. 
1904.  He  was  successively  a  Lord  of  the  Ad- 
miralty, Under-Secretary  of  State  for  Indi^ 
Under-Secretary  of  War,  governor-general  of 
India  (187i-76)  and  First  Lord  of  the  Ad- 
miralty (1880-85).  and  was  created  an  earl  in 
1876. 

BARINQ-GOULD,  Sabine,  English  cler- 
gyman and  novelist :  b.  Exeter  28  Jan.  1834. 
He  was  graduated  from  Cambridge  in  1856,  and 
from  ifel  was  rector  of  Lcw-Trenchard 
in  Devon.  Among  his  numerous  works  are 
'Iceland:  lis  Scenes  and  Sagas'  (1864);  'The 
Book  of  Werewolves'  (1865);  'Curious  Myths 
of  the  Middle  Ages'  (1866-67) ;  'Lives  ot  the 
Saints'  (1872-79) :  ^Yorkshire  Od<Kties> 
(1874)  T  'Getmany,  Past  and  Present'  (1879). 
Prominent  among  his  novels  and  other  later 
books  are  'Mehatah :  a  Story  of  the  Salt 
Marshes'  (1880)  ;  'John  Herring'  (1883- 
1913)  ;  'Red  Spider'  (1887)  ;  'Grettis  the  Out- 
law' (1890);  'The  Broom  Squire'  (1896); 
'Guavas  the  Tinner'  (1897);  'Bladys' 
(1897);  'Domitia*  (1898);  'Pablo  the  Priest' 
(1899) ;  »A  Book  of  the  West'  (1899) ;  'Furse- 
Bloom'  (1899) ;  'The  Crock  of  (kild'  (1899)  ; 
'Winefred'  (1900);  'A  Book  of  Dartmoor' 
(1900);  'In  a  Quiet  Village'  (1900);  'Virgin 
Saint*   and    Martyis'     (1900);    The    Frobish- 


Simplc  Souls'   (1912). 

BARING  ISLAND,  an  island  in  the  Arctic 
Archipelago.  The  name  is  also  given  to  a  bay 
and  strait  They  were  named  t^  Sir  Francis 
Baring,  who  was  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  at 
the  time  of  their  discovery. 

BARINGO,  a  lake  in  East  Africa,  north- 
east of  the  Victoria  N^nia,  about  20  miles 
long,  200  square  miles  in  area,  and  between 
3,000  and  4,000  feet  above  sea-lcveL  Tfaougfa 
fed  by  many  streams,  it  has  no  visible  outlet- 
It  contains  several  small  islands  and  was  dis- 
covered by  Thomson  in  1883. 

BARITE,  ba'rit  (Greek,  ■heavy*  in  allu- 
sion to  its  high  specific  gravity),  a  mmeral  hav- 
ing the  formula  BaS04,  and  crystallizing  in  the 
oithorhombic  system,  but  also  occurring  mass- 
ive, and  in  granular,  earthy  and  stalactitic 
forms.  It  is  usualb'  white  or  nearly  so,  and 
has  a  hardness  of  from  2.5  to  3.5.  Its  specific 
gravity  ranges  from  4.3  to  4.6,  and  from  this 
circumstance  the  mineral  is  often  called  "beavy- 
spar.*  Barite  was  first  examined  (in  1602)  by 
(^asciorohls,  a  shoemaker  of  Bologna,  vrfio  dis- 
covered th^  it  becomes  phosphorescent  when 
heated  with  combustible  matter,  and  ^ve  it  the 
name  lapis  soHs,  or  'sun  3t<»ic*  Barite  occurs 
in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  in  large  quan- 
tities. The  commercial  sources  are  usually 
residual  deposits  in  day  caused  by  the  differen- 
tial weathering  of  the  enclosing  limestone.  It 
also  occurs  in  veins  and  as  a  gangue  mineral 
with  metallic  ores.  In  the  United  States  it  is 
found  abtuidantly  in  many  States,  notably  in 
Virginia,  North  Ou'olina  and  Missouri.  The 
latter  State  yields  over  two^ihirds  of  the  total 
United  States  production.  It  constitutes  an  in»- 
portant  source  of  barium  compounds  and  is 
used  largely  in  the  manufacture  of  white 
paints.  Bartte  was  mined  in  the  United  States 
to  the  extent  of  51,547  tons  in  1914.  It  b  rarehf 
found  pure,  being  generally  associated  witn 
silica,  lime,  iron  and  often  containing  a  percent- 
age of  galena.     See  also  BAiuuif;    Miherai. 

PKODUCTION   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES. 

BARITONE,  or  BARYTONE,  a  male 
voice,  whose  compass  partakes  of  those  of  the 
common  bass  ana  the  tenor,  but  does  not  ex- 
tend so  far  downward  as  the  one  nor  to  an 
equal  height  with  the  other.  Its  best  tones  are 
from  the  lower  A  of  the  bass  clef  to  the  lower 
E  or  F  in  the  treble;  yet  we  find  Verdi  and 
M^erbeer  exacting  G  and  even  A  flat  from  iL 
This  name  is  also  given  to  the  smaller  bass 
saxhorn  in  B  fiat  or  C,  used  in  reed  and  brass 
bands. 

BARIUM,  a  metallic  dement,  stivngly  re- 
sembling calcium  in  its  chemical  properties. 
The  mineral  barite   (q.v.)   was  the  first  com- 

Eund  of  barium  to  be  examined.  In  1750 
Lrg^raf  showed  that  barite  contains  sulphu- 
ric acid  and  the  subsequent  tabors  of  Schcele 
and  Gahn  proved  that  it  also  contains  a  pre- 
iriously  unrecognized  earth,  which  Bergmann 
called  terra  ponderosa,  or  "Tieavy  earth.'  In 
1^79  Guyton  de  Morveau  proposed  the  name 
■barote*  (Greek  *heavy')  for  dns  earth,  and 
Lavoisier  modified  the  word   to    *baryta,*  in 


iizodsi  Google 


which  form  it  still  survives.  Sttbsaiuentty  ba- 
ryta was  found  to  be  the  oxide  of  a  new  metal, 
which  was  isolated  by  electrolysis  in  18CB  by 
Benelius  and  Potitin  and  afterward  by  Davy, 
and  named  •barium.*  When  absolutely  pure, 
barium  is  a  stiver-white  metal  with  the  density 
of  3.78.  It  is  a  little  harder  than  lead,  melts  at 
1580°  F.,  and  vaporizes  at  1760"  F.  It  ojddiies 
rapidly  in  the  air,  and  decomposes  water  read- 
ily. It  is  ductile  and  somewhat  malleable. 
Powdered  barium  talrcs  fire  spontaneously.  Its 
atomic  weight  is  137.4  (0-*  16),  and  its  chemi- 
cal symbol  is  Ba.  Its  specific  gravity  appears 
to  be  between  3.75  and  4.00.  Barium  occurs  in 
nature  in  all  primary  rodcs  and  in  some  min- 
eral waters.  The  most  common  sources  of 
barium  compounds  are  the  carbonate  and  sul- 

Ehate,  whidi  occnr  native  as  witherite  and 
irite  (qq.v.),  respectively.  The  nitrate  is 
prepared  t^  acting  upon  me  native  carbonate 
wiOi  nitric  add.  It  is  a  soluble  salt,  with  the 
formula  Ba{NOi).  The  nitrate  decomposes 
upon  being  strongly  heated,  the  nitric  acid  be- 
ing   expened,    wnile    barium    monoxide     (or 


another  molecule  of  oxygen  and  forms  the 
dioxide,  BaOi;  and  on  being  more  strongly 
heated,  the  dioxide  gives  up  the  extra  atom  of 
oxygen  again,  and  returns  to  the  monoxide.  It 
was  long  ago  proposed  to  make  use  of  this 
curious  property  for  isolating  pure  oxygen 
from  the  air,  by  alternately  heating  the  dioxide 
at  a  high  temperature,  and  collecting  the  oxy- 
gen given  off  as  it  returns  to  the  monoxide  and 
then  subrntttfog  it,  at  a  lower  temperatnrt,  to 
the  action  of  a  current  of  air  until  tt  has  again 
passed  into  the  state  of  dioxide.  It  was  found, 
nowever,  that  the  process  would  work  only  for 
a  short  time,  after  which  a  fresh  supply_  of 
baryta  was  required.  Recent  investigationi 
have  gone  far  toward  discovering  the  cause 
of  this  loss  of  activity,  and  it  is  now  likely 
that  oxygen  will  sometime  be  made  on  a  com- 
mercial scale  by  this  most  ingenious  process. 
Baryta  absorbs  water  with  considerable  evolu- 
tion of  heat  and  the  formation  of  a  hydrate, 
Ba(OH).,  which  crj;stalliie3  with  eight  mole- 
cules of  water.    Barium  hydrate  is  also  made. 


salts  of  barium.  The  hydrate  is  used  in  refiit- 
ing  sugar,  being  much  superior  to  lime  for  this 
purpose.  With  cane  sugar  it  forms  an  insoluble 
compound  from  which  the  sugar  may  after- 
ward  be  set  free  by  a  current  of  carbon  diox- 
ide gas.  The  hydrate  is  also  likely  to  be  of 
Seat  use,  in  the  near  future,  for  preventing  the 
rmation  of  boiler  9cale,_  by  precipitating  the 
carbonates  and  sulphates  in  the  feed  water,  in 
the  form  of  insoluble  barium  compounds.  The 
value  of  barium  hydrate  for  this  purpose  has 
long  been  known,  but  until  the  develi^ment  of 
the  electrolytic  method  of  manufacturing  it,  the 
expense  involved  was  prohibitive.  Barium  sul- 
phate (barite)  is  thrown  down  as  a  precipitate 
whenever  a  soluble- barium  compound  is  added 
to  a  solution  of  any  sulphate ;  and  for  this 
reason  soluble  barium  sahs  arc  much  used  by 
the  chemist  in  testing  for  sulphuric  acid  and 
snllAates.  The  chloride  (BaCl.)  is  the  salt 
nioirt  commonly  empkiyed  as  a  reagent  for  this  . 


iulphatc . 

when  ground  up,  was  formerly  used  to  adulter- 
ate white  lead.  The  artificial  sulphate  was  also 
used  for  this  purpose  and  is  itself  used  as  a 
paint,  under  the  name  of  *permanent  wliite,* 
or  blanc  fixe.  The  artificial  sulphate  is  said  to 
be  superior  to  the  natural  mineral  for  use  as  a 
paint,  as  it  has  more  *body."  In  ready-mixed 
paints  white,  ground  and  hydrate  barite  is  em- 
ployed as  a  pigment.  With  30  per  cent  of  zinc 
sdlphate,  70  per  cent  of  barite  is  mixed  to  form 
the  white  pigment  called  'iithopone,*  which  is 
used  extensively  as  a  "flat*  wall  paint 
Barite  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  ^azed  and  coated  paper.  When  barium 
sulphate  is  heated  with  coal  it  loses  its 
oxygen,  and  becomes  reduced  to  the  sulphide 
BaS,  a  salt  which  is  hi^ly  phosphorescent,  and 
is  known  as  Bologna  phosphorus.  After  ex- 
posure to  sunlight  or  to  a  strong  artificial  light, 
barium  sulphide  sliines  for  hours  with  a  bright, 

E olden  li^t  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
minous  paint.  The  sulphide  may  be  heated 
in  an  earttienware  retort  through  which  moist 
carbonic  acid  sas  is  being  passed,  and  baryta 
caustic  thus  obtained.  Barium  is  readily  rec- 
ognized by  the  spectroscope  through  a  number 
ol  characteristic  green  lines.  Its  volatile  sahs 
commtinicate  a  green  color  to  non-tuminous 
flames,  and  are  used  (especially  the  nitrate)  in 
pyrotedmy. 

In  poisoning  by  the'  barium  salts  the  symp- 
toms resemble  those  seen  in  poisoning  by_  other 
metals.  In  the  acute  forms  there  is  pain  and 
burning  In  the  mouth  and,  stomach,  nausea, 
vomiting  and  chills.  These  are  followed  by 
diarrhoKi,  diuiness  and  chilly  feelings.  The 
pulse  is  flowed,  at  first  large  and  full,  later 
small  and  scarcel];  reci^nizable.  Uuscle  paral- 
ysis supervenes  with  dyspniEa,  loss  of  conscious- 
Bess,  convulsions  and  death.  The  remedial 
treatment  condsts  of  prompt  washing  of  the 
stomach  with  a  solution  of  Glauber's  salts. 
This  forms  the  insoluble  barium  sulphate, 
which  is  inert. 

Previous  to  the  European  War  there  was 
no  barite  industry  in  the  United  States.  The 
entire  supply  was  imported  from  Germany  at 
a  price  with  which  the  American  manufactur- 
ers could  not  compete^  althou^  many  attempts 
were  made  to  do  so.  Within  a  tew  weeks  after 
the  war  began,  an  idle  plant  at  Sweetwater, 
Tenn.,  had  started  up,  and  has  been  working 
night  and  day  ever  since.  Mines  are  in  opera- 
tion in  southeastern  Missouri,  northwestern 
Georgia,  central  and  western  Kentucky,  north- 
eastern Alabama,  southwestern  North  Carolina, 
northwestern  South  Carolina  and  southwestern 
Virginia.  The  production  in  1915  amounted  to 
108,547  short  tons  —  more  than  twice  the  pro- 
daction  of  1914,  For  I9I6  the  output  was 
double  that  of  1915,  and  reached  a  value  of 
^1,000,000.  Barite  mines  were  opened  in  1916 
in  Colorado,  Nevada,  California  and  Alaska. 
The  only  deposit  of  witherite  of  commercial 
value  known  in  the  United  States  is  in  Mari- 
posa County,  Cal. 

About  10  per  cent  of  the  output  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  barium  salts  — the  caAon- 
ate,  nitrate,  chloride,  chlorate,  hydrate  and  bin- 
oxide;  all  heretofore  imported  from  Germany. 
Of  the  baritmi  chemicals  the  most  important  U 


.Google 


854 


BAR-JBSU3  —  BASK-BBBTLBS 


the  biuoxide  on  account  of  its  use  in  the  prep- 
aration of  bydrc^en  peroxide. 

BAR-JB5US,  or  BLYHAS,  a  Jewish  sor- 
cerer who  opposed  Pani  before  Sei^ui  Psulus 
at  Paphos  m  Cyprus  and  was  smitten  with 
blindness  (Acts  xiii,  6-12).  There  is  diiSculty 
in  regard  to  his  name,  as  m  verse  6  he  is  called 
Bar-Jesu3  and  in  verse  8  Elymas.  By  some 
Ehnnas  is  explained  by  an  Arabic  root  as  *thc 
WiM  Man.*  Others  ressrd  Dymas  as  his 
name  and  Bar-Jesus  as  a  Christian  name  desig' 
nating  him  after  his  conversion  to  the  new  reli- 
gion. In  regard  to  the  entire  story  considerable 
difiiculty  is  experienced  in  its  interpretation.  It 
is  closely  similar  to  the  story  of  Simon  Magus 
in  Acts  viii,  and  many  commentators  see  in 
it  a  defense  of  Paul  ^^inst  his  identification 
with  the  Magian  then  so  common  among  Juda- 
izing  Christians.  For  a  full  discussion  of  Bar 
Jesus  and  the  passage  in  Acts  xiii  consult 
Krenkel,  'Josephus  und  Lucas*  (Leipzig  1894). 

BARK,  the  more  or  less  easily  separable 
layers  of  tissue  surrounding  the  woody  cylinder 
of  trees  and  shrubs;  also,  by  extension,  the 
analogous  part  (cortex)  of  textile  plants  such 
as  hemp^iute,  ramie,  flax,  etc.,  and  other  annual 
Stems.  The  layers  are  divided  into  three  groups 
which  may  be  readily  seen  in  a  yearling  stem: 
(1)  The  phloem,  bast  the  inner  food-conduct- 
ing  tissue  annually  thickened  from  the  cam- 
bium (q.v.)  layer  which  separates  it  from  the 
wood ;  (2)  the  green  zone  which  generally  does 
in  thickness  but  which  in  young 
in  food  elaboration  (see  Paoio- 
(3)  the  epidermis  or  external 
layer  with  contiguous  cone  cells  which  increase 
from  the  phetlogen,  or  cork  cambium,  a  layer 
of  epidermal  or  cortical  cells.  These  cork  cells, 
which  develop  mainly  at  right  angles  to  tbe 
(firection  of  the  stem,  die  and  become  more  or 
less  weather-b^ten  and  seamed  from  cracking 
and  give  the  characteristic  a^peanmce  to  tree 
tnmks.  Many  trees  can  be  identified  by  their 
bark  alone. 

The  bark  of  many  trees  and  ^rubs  is  of 
economic  use  mainly  in  tanning,  dyeing,  medi- 
cine and  cookery.  In  tanning  (q.v.)  anch  barks 
U  are  rich  in  tannic  acid  are  most  in  demand ; 
oak,  hemlodc  and  diestnut  (qq.v.)  are  general 
favorites  in  America  and  Europe;  eucalyptus 
and  acacia  in  Australia.  Larch  and  willow 
bark  are  used  for  special  work.  To  obtain 
diese  barks  the  trees  are  felled  after  the  sap 
has  started  to  flow  in  the  spring,  tbe  rougn 
exterior  layers  removed,  the  bark  of  the  tnink 
and  main  limbs  peeled  ofE  in  lengths  of  about 
two  feet  with  specially  made  tools;  the  bark 
of  the  smaller  branches,  in  equal  lengths,  is 
loosened  with  mallets  and  slipped  off.  After 
removal  the  bark  is  loosely  piled  in  open  sheds 
to  dry  or  stacked  on  end  in  die  open  air,  the 
larger  pieces  being  placed  on  the  outside  to 
protect  the  smaller  inner  ones  from  rain  and  sun, 
which  together  with  mildew  are  the  important 
agencies  thai  may  injure  the  quality  of  the  prod- 
uct. The  barks  used  in  medicine,  cookenr,  etc., 
are  treated  under  individual  titles.  See  Cabca- 
RILLA,  Cinchona  and  Cinnauon;  also  C^hk. 

BASK,  Penivian.  A  bark  obtained  from 
several  trees  belonging  to  the  genus  Cinchona, 
which  grow  spontaneously  in  many  parts  of 
South  America,  but  more  particularly  of  Peru. 
The  trees  somewhat  resemble  a  cheriy-tree  in 


aM>earance.  and  have  white  or  pink  flowers. 
This  valuable  medicine  was  formerly  called 
Jesuit's  Bark,  from  having  been  introduced 
mto  Europe  by  the  members  of  that  Order 
settled  in  Soudi  America.  They  were  instructed 
in  its  use  by  the  natives  of  Peru,  and  it  con- 
tinued for  many  years  a  soUfcc  of  profit  to  the 
Order.  Its  botanical  name  was  derived  from 
that  of  the  Countess  del  Chinchon,  the  lady  of 
a  Spanish  viceroy,  who  had  been  cured  tv  't. 
The  tree  from  which  it  is  obtained  i^ws 
abundantly  in  the  forests  of  Quito  and  i'ern, 
and  the  bark  is  cut  by  the  natives  in  the  months 
of  Septpnber,  October  and  November,  during 
which  alone  the  weather  is  free  from  rain. 
The  bark  is  of  three  lands  —  red,  yeUow  and 
pale,  of  which  the  yellow  and  pale  barks  are 
the  stronger  in  their  febrifuge  properties.  The 
crown-bark,  as  the  highest-priced  is  termed,  is 
of  a  pale  yellowish- red.  The  pale  is  the  origi- 
nal Peruvian  cinchonEL_and  is  produced  by  sev- 
eral varieties  of  the  Cinchona  oSUinaiis.  The 
red  is  obtained  from  the  C.  succidubra,  which 
grows  chiefly  in  the  forests  of  Ecuador  around 
Chimborazo.  The  yellow  sort  is  produced  by 
the  C.  calisaya,  and  grows  in  Bolivia  and  Peru. 

The  uses  of  the  bark  in  medicine  are  too 
welt  known  to  need  description ;  but  the  chem- 
ical discoveries  in  relation  to  it  are  deserving 
of  more  particular  mention.  Its  medicinal 
properties  were  found  to  depend  upon  the 
presence  of  a  substance  called  quinine.  This 
exists,  more  or  less,  in  all  kinds  of  Peruvian- 
baik,  but  in  quantities  very  unequal  in  the 
various  kinds.    See  QriuifJE. 

BARK,  or  BABQUB,  a  three-masted  ve^ 
sel  whose  foremast  and  maimnast  are  sqturs- 
rimed,  but  whose  mizzenmast  has  fore-and-aft 
saus  only.  The  distinction  between  a  bark 
and  a  barkentine  is  that  the  latter  has  but  one 
mast  square-rigged,  the  main  and  roiizen  being 
both  rigged  fore-and-aft. 

BARK-BBBTLBS,  members  of  the  fam- 
ily Scolytidx,  and  allied  to  the  weevils.  Th^ 
are  of  an  elon^te  cj^indrical  form,  truncated 
before  and  behind  They  mine  under  the  bark 
of  trees,  running  their  winding  galleries  in 
every  direction,  but  rarely  attack  living  healthy 
trees.  They  are  usually  brown  or  black  in 
color.  Tbe  rounded  head  does  not  end  in  a 
snout  and  is  deeply  supken  in  the  thorax;  tbe 
clavate  anteimse  are  somewhat  elbowed,  while 
the  palpi  are  very  short;  the  elytra  are  often 
hollowed  at  the  end,  and  the  short  stout  legs  arc 
toothed  on  the  under  side  of  the  femora,  and 
the  tarsi  are  slender  and  narrow.  The  eggs  are 
laid  in  the  bark,  whence  the  larv«  on  being 
hatched  bore  straight  into  the  sap  wood,  or 
mine  between  the  bark  and  the  sap  wood.  They 
are  fleshy,  cylindrical,  footless  larvae,  wrinkled 
on  the  back  When  fully  grown  in  the  autumn 
they  gnaw  an  exit  for  the  beetle,  taking  care 
to  leave  a  little  space  closed  in  front  of  their 
burrow  to  conceal  the  pupa.  The  various 
s^ies  of  Scolytus,  Tomicus  and  Xyloterus 
-~   '-    -    disease    similar   to   firebKgfat, 


their   ravages    beneath    the    twigs   of    fruit 

'c    causing    the   bark   to   shrivel    and   peel 

a  nre  bad  run  through  the  orchard. 


Xylo  terns  fnscatus  has  been  found  to  bor« 
into  empty  wine  casks  and  spoil  them 
for  use.  The  spruce  forests  of  Maine 
and    other    parts    of    nor^ient    Hew    En^ 


vCiOogIc 


BARK.LOU  W — BAKKBS 


SM 


land  have,  since  1818,  been  devastated  by 
Dendrocotonm  pictaperda  of  Hoiddns.  It  at- 
tacks and  kills  vigorous  trees  in  perlect  health, 
the  largest  and  best  stands  of  timber  suffering 
most  from  its  ravages.  The  estimated  number 
of  adults  which  under  favorable  conditions  may 
emerge  from  an  average-siied  tree  is  from  5,000 
to  7,000.  Hopkins  estimated  that  an  average 
of  three  pairs  of  beetles  to  the  square  foot  of 
barl  on  10  to  15  feet  of  the  trunk  of  An 
1  tree  are  sufficient  to  kill  it,  and 


sufficient  to  Idll  from  20  to  25  more  trees.  _  .. . 
other  beetles  (Folygraplmt  sttfifennit  arid 
Tttropium  cittnamoptentm)  also  aid  the  D«u- 
drocoionus  in  IdlHng  the  spruce.  Consult  Pack- 
ard, 'Report  on  the  Insects  Injurious  to  Forest 
and  Shade  Trees'  (1890);  Hopkins,  'Insect 
Enemies  of  the  Spruce  in  the  Northeast'  (Bnl- 
letin  No.  28,  Division  of  Entomology,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  1891). 

BARK-LOUSE,  a  hemipferaus  insect  of 
the  scale  family  (Coecida).  The  baric-lice  are 
verj'  small  insects,  whose  females  are  wingless, 
[heir  bodies  resembling  scales.  The  females 
sting  the  bark  of  trees  with  a  Ions  slender 
beak,  sucking  in  the  sap,  and,  when  Tcrj-nn- 
merous,  injure  or  kill  the  tree.  The  males 
have  two  wings  but  no  beak,  and  take  no  food. 
The  apple  bark-louse  {MylilaspU  pomonttn)  is 
destructive  to  young  apple-trees,  while  in  Florida 
M,  gioveri  is  a  pest  of  die  orange,  as  is  also 
the  San  Ios4  scale-insect  (q.v).  The  cocWn^l, 
the  mealy-bug  of  hothouses,  and  various  other 
coccid  insects,  belong  to  this  group.  See  Scale- 
insects,  and  the  names  of  various  species. 

BAKKAL,  or  JBBEL  BARKAL,  an  iso- 
lated sandstone  rock,  400  feet  high,  in  Nubia, 
near  the  Fourth  Cataract  o£^  the  Nile.  It  is 
nearly  perpendicular  on  all  sides,  but  fully  so 
on  the  side  nearest  the  Nile.  Tkere  are  some 
rematknUe  ruins  in  the  vicinity-  Excavatiots 
here  have  revealed  inscriptions  and  arcbeolog- 
ica]  remains  of  great  interest  and  value,  an 
account  of  which  may  be  found  in  Lepsius' 
'Denkjnalcr,>   VoL  V. 

BARKER,  Albert  Smith,  American  naval 
officer:  b.  Uassaehusetts,  March  1843.  He  was 
graduated  at  Ac  United  States  Naval  Academy 
in  1859;  served  on  the  frigate  Mitiijsippi  in 
the  opetrations  to  open  the  Mississippi  River 
in  1861-63,  takinc  part  in  the  bonterdnient  and 
pass^e  of  Forts  Jackson  and  Saint  Philip  and 
the  Qialmette  batteries,  the  capture  of  New 
Orleans  and  the  attempted  pass^e  of  Port 
Hudson,  where  his  vessel  was  destroyed  He 
became  captain  5  May  1892;  commanded  the 
cruiser  Newark  during  the  war  with  Spain; 
subsequently  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the 
battleship  Origon,  which  he  took  to  Manila. 
He  becaune  a  rear-admiral,  and  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  Norfolk  Navy  Yard  in  1899; 
and  in  July  1900  succeeded  the  late  Rear- 
Admiral  Philip  as  conuhandant  of  the  Brooklyn 
Navy  Yard  He  was  appointed  commander-ia- 
chief  of  the  north  Atlantic  fleet  (1903-05); 
was  retired  31  March  1905.  He  was  the  first 
one  in  the  United  States  to  fire  hi^  explosives 
in  shells. 

BARKBR,  Xdonnd  Hcnrr,  Engtidi  philol- 
ogist: b.  Hollym.  Yorkshire  December  1788; 
d  London,  21  March  1839.    He  undertook  the 


labor  of  reprinting  the  'Thesaurus  Grsecus*  of 
H.  Stephens,  upon  which  was  expended  an 
immense  amount  of  time  and  money,  but  owing 
:  to  severe  adverse  criticisms,  the  work  did  not 
appear  iu  the  form  which  was  originally  in- 
tendei^  or  under  his  name.  His  first  work, 
'Classical  Recreations,'  appeared  in  London, 
1812;  one  volume  only  was  published  He  also 
wrote  dissertations^  essays,  etc,  for  reviews; 
a  work  upon  the  claims  of  Sir  Philip  Francis 
to  the  authorship  of  the  Junius  letters ;  a  Greek 
and  English  dictionary,  etc.  In  the  latter  part 
of  his  life  he  became  so  reduced  through  liti- 
gation that  he  was  at  one  time  confined  in  a 
debtors'  prison,  and  finally  died  in  an  obscure 
lodging-house  in  extreme  want. 

BARKER,    George    Frederick,    American 


Scientific  School  at  Yale.  1858,  and  Albany 
Medical  College,  1863,  and  taught  at  Har- 
vard and  Yale  universities,  Wheaton  Colle^ 
(III.)  and  Western  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
From  1873  to  1900  he  was  professor  of  physics 
in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  became 
professor  emeritus  in  1900.  He  was  a  United 
States  commissioner  at  the  International  Elec- 
trical Exhibition  at  Paris,  1881,  where  he  re- 
ceived the  Legion  of  Honor  decoration,  with 
rai^  of  commander.  He  frequently  served  as 
an  expert  in  patent  and  other  cases,  notably  as 
a  ETOvermnent  expert  in  the  suit  against  die 
American  Bell  Telephone  Company  and  in  the 
Lydia  Sherman  poisoning  case  in  1872.  He 
was  president  of  the  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science;  president  of  the 
American  Chemical  Society  and  vice-president 
of  the  American  Philofophical  Society.  His 
publications  have  chiefly  appeared  in  the  Amer- 
ican Journal  of  Science,  American  Chemiti  and 
Proceedinffs  of  the  American  PkiloiophiaU 
Soeiely.  Others  are,  besides  textbooks  on 
chemistry,  'Nitrous-Oxide'  (1866);  'CorreU- 
twn  of  Vitol  and  Physical  Forces'  (1871) ; 
'Progress  in  Physics'  (1892^.  For  several 
jrears  he  contributed  to  the  Smithsonian  reports. 
BARKER,  Jacob,  American  financier:  b. 
Swan  Island  Me.,  7  Dec.  1779;  d  Philadelphia, 
26  Dec  1871.  He  early  developed  remarkable 
business  ability,  settled  in  New  York,  and  be- 
fore he  was  21  owned  five  trading  vessels  and 
controlled  a  large  credit.  In  1801  he  met  with 
heavy   reverses,    but   obtaining   a  government 


tocdc  the  raising  of  a  loan  of  $5,00(^X10  for  the 
goveranunL  He  -was  a  fotmder  of  Tammany 
Hall,  and  a  State  senator,  and  established  the 
Exchange  Bank  in  Wall  Street  in  1815  which 
failed  in  1819.  His  financial  methods  aroused 
intense  opposition  and  he  was  indicted  for 
fraud  in  1826  and  convicted,  but  a  new  trial 

J  Hashed  the  indictment.  Removing  to  New 
trleans  in  1334,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
and  accumulated  a  large  fortune  that  was 
nyistly  lost  during  th^  Civil  War.  He  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate  at  the  dose 
of  the  war,  but  was  not  allowed  to  take  his 
ieat      In   1867  he  was   declared   bankrupt   and 


Google 


BARKER  — BARLAAH  AND  JO  SAP  HAT 


the  Reconstruction  Committee,  with  Their 
Action*  (1866).  Consult  'Incidents  in  the  Life 
of  Jacob  Barlcer.  1800-1855'  (New  Yoric  1855)  ; 
Turner,  'The  Conspiracy  Trials  of  18Z6  and 
1827 ;  A  Chapter  in  the  Life  of  Jacob  Barker* 
(Philadelphia  1864);  'The  Speeches  of  Jacoh 
Barker  and  His  Counsel  on  the  Trials  for  Con- 
spiracy' (New  York  1826) ;  and  <The  Trial  of 
Jacob  Barker,  Thomas  Vermilya  and  Matthew 
L.  Davis'   (ib.  1827). 

BARKER,  J.  Ellis,  English  author  and 
joUTTialist :  b.  Cologne,  Germany,  9  May  1870. 
He  was  educated  at  Cologoe,  and  after  hia 
return  to  England  became  known  as  a  contrib- 
utor to  the  leading  reviews  and  lectured  before 
die  Royal  United  Service  Institution,  the  Med- 
ical Association  and  the  Liberal  Union  Club. 
He  has  published  'The  Rise  and  Decline  of  the 
Netherlands'  (1906)  ;  'British  ,  Soeiahsm* 
(1908);  'Modern  Germany'  (1908;  4th  ed., 
rev.  1912)  ;  'Great  and  Greater  Britain :  The 
Problems  of  Motherland  and  Empire'  (1910); 
•Points  Against  Free  Trade';  'Points  for 
Tariff  Reform' ;  and  numerous  contributions  to 
the  Nineteenth  Century  Review,  Fortnightly 
Review,  NalioniU  Review  and  to  the  leading 
London  and  provincial  dailies. 

BARKER,  LcweUyi  Franklin,  Canadian- 
American  anatomist ;  b.  Norwich,  Ont.,  1867. 
He  was  professor  and  head  of  the  department 
of  anatomy  in  the  Rush  Medical  College  of 
Universitj;  of  Chicago,  190O-0S,  and  professor 
of  medicine  Johns  Hopkins  Univcrsiw  and 
chief  physician  Johns  Hopkias  Hospital  since 
190S._  He  is  author  of  'The  Nervous  System 


BARKER,  Thomas  Jones,  English  histori- 
cal portrait  painter:  b.  Bath  1815;  d.  1882. 
He  studied  his  art  in  Paris  under  Horace  Ver- 
net,  and  exhibited  regularly  at  the  Salon  from 
1835  to  1845,  and  afterwards  at  the  Ro^ 
Academy.  He  was  an  eye-witness  of  many 
episodes  of  the  Franco- Prussian  War  of  1870, 
of  which  he  has  left  several  pictures.  His  most 
noteworthy  works  are  'The  Bride  of  Death' 
(1840);  'The  Meeting  of  Wellington  and 
Blucher'  (1851);  'Wellington  Crossing  the 
Pyrenees'-  "The  Melie  — Charge  of  Cuiras- 
Biers  and  Chasseura'  (1872)  ■  'Balaklava— One 
of  the  Six  Hundred'  (1874);  'The  Return 
Through  the  Valley  of  Death'  (1876). 

BARKER,  Wharton,  American  financier 
and  publicist :  b.  Philadelphia,  1  May  1846.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennayl- 
vania  in  1866,  became  a  member  of  the  banking 
firm  of  Parker  Brothers  &  (Company,  in 
which  capacity  he  became  special  financial 
agent  of  the  Russian  government  He 
supervised  the  building  of  four  cruisers 
for  Russia  and  went  to  that  country  to 
advise  concerning  the  development  of  coal 
and  iron  mining.  He  obtained  valuable  rail- 
road and  telegraph  interests  in  China,  but 
his  concessions  in  that,  country  were  soon  with- 
drawn. In  18£9  he  founded  a  periodical  de- 
voted to  political,  economic  and  social  condi- 
tions, called  the  Penn  Monlhh.  He  proposed 
the  names  of  Gariield  and  Harrison  for  the 
presidency,  and  strenuously  opposed  a  third 
term  for  General  Grant  He  joined  the  Popu- 
list party  in  1896  and  soon  gained  prominence 


in  the  par^,  becoming  its  candidate  for  the 

iire^dency  in  1900.  He  b  a  member  of  several 
earned  societies.  He  has  traveled  extensively 
in  the  United  State*,  Europe,  C^ina,  Japan  and 
South  America,  and  is  a  leading  advocate  of 
a  commercial  union  of  all  Amedcan  nations 
and    oppcmeul    of    all    temporary    arbitration 

BARKER'S  HILL,  a  form  of  waierwheel 
devised  by  Dr.  Barker,  some  300  years  ago.  It 
turns  about  a  vertical  axis,  down  which  the 
water  that  is  to  operate  it  flows.  At  the  lower 
extremity  of  the  vertical  axis  two  or  more 
hollow  arms  project  horizontally,  like  the 
spokes  of  a  wheel.  Water  is  discharged  tan- 
genlially  from  the  ends  of  these  hollow  arms, 
and  by  its  reaction  causes  the  wheel  to  rotate. 
Barker's  mill  is  now  used  only  as  a  to^  al- 
though a  modification  of  it,  invented  tv  White- 
law,  is  still  used,  to  some  extent,  as  a  source 
of  power  in  Great  Britain,  where  it  is  known 
as  the  Scotch  turbine.    See  Tubbine. 

BARKIHQ,  England  town  in  Essex,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Roding,  about  two  miles 
above  its  junction  with  the  Thames,  and  seven 
miles  northeast  from  London.  It  has  a  parish 
church,  a  handsome  structure,  with  a  lofty 
tower,  and  some  fine  public  buildings.  There 
are  also  the  ruins  of  Barking  Abbey,  at  one 
time  among  the  wealthiest  nunneries  of  Eng- 
land.    Pop.  22,000. 

BARKING  WOLF,  a  name  in  early 
American  books  for  the  prairie  wolf  or  coyote, 
on  account  of  the  greater  resemblance  in  its 
voice  to  the  barking  of  a  dog  than  to  the  bowl 
of  the  wolf.    See  Covors, 

BARKIS,  a  rpstic  figure  in  Dickens'  'David 
Copperfield.'  He  proposes  to  David's  nurse, 
Peggotty,  in  the  since  famous  phrase  *Barkis 
is  willin'.* 

BARKLEY,  Charles  William,  navigator: 
b.  1759;  d.  North  Crescent,  Hartforj,  1832. 
He  left  Ostend  (or  the  northwest  coast  of 
America  in  the  autumn  of  1786  in  the  Imperial 
Eagle,  and  in  luly  of  the  succeeding  year  be 
discovered  the  long-lost  strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca, 
between  Vancouver  Island  and  the  mainland 
of  the  United  States,  which  he  charted  under 
the  name  of  the  Greek  seaman,  its  first  dis- 
coverer. Barkley  Sound,  Vancouver  Island, 
was  also  discovered  and  named  by  him- 

BARLAAH,  bir^t-am,  Italian  theologian: 
b.  Seminaria,  Calabria ;  d.  about  1348.  He  was 
a  monk  of  Saint  Basil,  noted  for  his  learning, 
and  particularly  for  his  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  Greek  language.  In  1327  he  visited  Con- 
stantinople, and  in  1331  be  was  appointed  abbot 
of  the  convent  of  Saint  Salvator.  In  1339  the 
kings  of  France  and  Sicily  sent  Barlaam  in 
vain  to  Pope  Benedict  XII  at  Avignon,  for 
the  purpose  of  obtaining  assistance  against  the 
Mohammedans,  and  of  arranging  a  union  be- 
tween the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches.  Hence- 
forth he  was  engaged  in  various  religious  con- 
troversies, and  was  defeated  in  them  alL  He 
finally  entered  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and 
through  the  influence  of  his  friend,  Pelrarth, 
received  from  Pope  Clement  VI  the  bishopric 
of  Geraci. 

BARLAAH  ANDIOSAPHAT,  one  of 
the  most  popular  of  early  medieval  fomaiKCs, 
formerly    supposed   to   nave  been  wtittta  by 


.Google 


BASL  AAHITB8  —  BASLBY 


Saint  John  of  Damascas.— or  Damascentis,  as 
he  is  sometiines  called, —  a  Syrian  monk  born 
about  the  end  of  the  7th  century.  According  to 
the  narrative  Josaphat  was  the  son  of  a  king 
of  India  brought  up  in  magnificent  seclusion, 
to  the  end  that  he  might  know  nothing  ot 
human  miseiy.  Despite  his  father's  care,  the 
knowledge  of  sickness,  poverty  and  death  can- 
not be  hidden  from  him:  he  id  oppressed  by 
the  mystery  of  existence.  A  Christian  hermit, 
Barlaam,  finds  his  way  to  him  at  the  risk  of 
life,  and  succeeds  in  converting  him  to  Qiris- 
tianity.  The  prince  uses  his  influence  to  pro- 
mote the  new  faith  among  his  people.  When 
he  has  raised  his  kingdom  to  high  prosperity, 
he  leaves  it  to  spend  the  remainder  of  his  days 
as  a  holy  hermit.  The  story  is,  with  the  neces- 
sary changes,  substantially  ttie  story  of  Buddha. 
The  correspondences  of  the  two  stories  are 
most  minute,  and  even  the  phraseolo^,  in 
which  some  of  the  details  of  Josaphal's  lustory 
are  described,  is  almost  B  Uteral  rendering  of 
■be  Sanskrit  of  the  'Lalita  Vistara.'  Even 
tfie  very  word  Josaphat  or  Joasaph  (Arabic, 
Yudasatf)  is  a  corrupt  form  of  Boduat,  or 
Bodisatva,  a  common  title  for  the  Buddha 


Buddba  and  Josaphat  was  first  recognized  by 
Diogo  do  Couto  (1542-16161,  the  historian  of 
Portuguese  India.  In  moaern  times  it  was 
noticed  by  Laboulaye  in  the  Journal  dts  Dibats 
(July  1859).  A  year  later  Dr.  Felix  Liebrecht 
■nade  an  elaborate  treatment  of  the  subject, 
putting  the  identity  of  the  stories  beyond  dis- 

Ste.     Subsequent   researches   were    made   tiy 
u  Uuller,  Zotenberg  and  others.    The  origi- 


dota*  fParis  1832),  and  translated  into  German 
by  Liebrecht  (Mijoster  1847).  A  Latin  version 
was  current  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  about  the 
15th  centurv  began  to  appear  among  the  works 
of  Saint  Jonn  Damascenus.  But  it  is  no  longer 
ascribed  to  him.  The  Iwend  appeared  in  the 
'Speculum  Historiale'  of  Vincent  of  Beauvais, 
and  also  in  the  'Golden  Legend'  of  Jacobus  de 
Veragine.  Three  poetical  versions  in  French 
of  the  I3th  century  are  also  extant.  There 
are  also  Italian  and  German  versions  derived 
from  the  medixval  Latin.  The  Spanish,  Polish 
and  Bohemian  versions  are  also  from  this 
source.  There  are  also  ver^ons  in  Icelandic, 
Swedish,  Norwegian  and  even  a  version  in 
the  Tagalog  langu^e  of  the  Philippines  (Ma- 
nila 17)2).  The  names  of  Barlaam  and  josa- 
^t  appear  in  both  the  Greek  and  Roman 
fists  of  saints.  Their  names  were  inserted  by 
Petrus  de  Nafalibus  in  his  'Catalogus  Sanc- 
torum' (1380)  and  Cardinal  Baronius  included 
them  in  the  official  'Martyro!ogium>  authorized 
by  Sixtus  V  (1585-90)  under  the  date  of  27 
November.  In  the  Orthodox  Eastern  Church 
*the  holy  Josaph,  son  ot  Abener,  King  of  In- 
dia' is  allotted  the  26th  of  August.  Thus 
Gautama  the  Buddha  is  officially,  albeit  un- 
wittingly, recognized  as  a  saint  in  two  great 
branches  of  the  Christian  durch.  In  Palermo 
there  is  a  church  dedicated  to  Divo  Josaphat 
The  cominlers  of  the  'Gesta  Romanorum,* 
Boccaccio,  Gower  and  Shakespeare  have  all 
drawn  materials  from  this  romance.  (Consult 
AppeL  'Qui  von  Cambrai  und  Josaphas  nach 
den  Handschriflen  von  Paris  und  Monte  C^s- 


»ino>  (Halle  1907);  Jacobs,  Joseph,  'Barlaam 
and  Josaphat'  (London  1896) :  Liebrecht,  <Zur 
Volkskunde>  (Heiibronn  im);  Muller,  Max, 
'Selected  Essays'  (London  1881);  Zotenberg, 
H.,  'Notice  sur  le  livre  de  Barlaam  et  Joasai^^ 
(Paris  1886). 

BARLAAMITBS,  in  ecclesiastical  history, 
followers  of  Barlaam,  a  Latin  monk  of  the 
14th  century;  known  chiefly  from  their  con- 
troversy with  the  Quietist  monks  of  Mount 
Atbos.    Consult  Gibbon,  'Roman  Empire.'  ' 

BARL.a:US,  bar-le'iis,  or  B^ffiRLE,  Kas- 
p&r  Tan,  Dutch  historian  and  learned  writer: 
b.  Antwerp,  12  Feb.  1S84;  d.  Amsterdam.  14 
Jan.  1648.  His  'Poems,'  mostly  Latin,  are  not 
forcible,  but  his  'History  of  Brazil  under 
Maurice  of  Nassau'  is  decidedly  so;  and  he 
composed  also  numerous  fine  orations,  the  in- 
fluence he  exercised  upon  contemporary  thought 
being  very  considerable. 

BARLBTTA,  bar-I^'ta,  Gabrieno,  Italian 
monk;  b.  perhaps  at  Barletta,  in  the  kingdom 
o'f  Maples,  in  the  15th  century.  He  became 
celebrated  at  Naples  on  account  of  his  sermons, 
in  which  he  mixed  sarcasm  and  the  ludicrous 
with  the  sacred;  ijuoting,  now  Virsil,  now 
placing  David  at  Oie  side  of  Hercules; 


tinue  it  in  Latin  and  end  ii 

times  he  forgot  himself  so  _   . . 

pressions  of  which  he  had  not  considered  the 


1  Italia 

1  Greek.     Some- 


serious  authors,  Niceron  and  others,  have  given 
the  response  of  thepreacher,  but  it  cannot  be 
reproduced  here.  There  is  tmder  his  name  a 
collection  of  Latin  sermons,  which  have  gone 
through  more  than  20  editions. 

BARLETTA,  Italy,  seaport  town  on  the 
west  shore  of  the  Adriatic,  33  miles  northwest 
of  Bari.  In  the  market-place  is  a  colossal 
bronze  statue,  about  18  feet  high,  supposed  to 
represent  the  Emperor  HeracTius.  A  statue 
of  the  statesman  Massimo  d'Azeglio,  who  died 
in  1866,  adorns  another  square.  The  cathedral 
is  a  fine  Byzantine  edifice,  the  nave  of  which 
is  supported  by  antiaue  granite  columns.  There 
are  several  other  churcoes,  convents  for  both 
sexes,  an  ori^ian  instttution,  a  college  founded 
by  Ferdinand  IV  and  a  theatre.  The  harbor 
is  formed  by  a  mole  running  out  from  the 
shore.  It  admits  of  small  vessels  only,  but 
good  anchorage  ground  is  found  in  the  road- 
stead. Barletta  nas  a  considerable  trade  in 
grain,  wine,  almonds  and  die  other  productions 
of  the  country,  which  are  exported  to  the  dif- 
ferent ports  of  the  Adriatic.    Pop.  44,200. 

BARLEY  (A.  S.  baarlic,  from  here,  barley 
+leac,  a  leek,  plant) ;  getius  Hordewm;  our 
fourth  most  important  cereal.  It  belongs  to 
the  Poacett  or  grass  family,  and  is  one  of  the 
oldest  of  the  cultivated  members  of  this  family. 
It  was  cultivated  in  ancient  Egypt  (Exod.  ix. 
31)  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Pliny  regardea 
it  as  the  most  ancient  food  of  mankind.  It  baa 
been  found  in  the  lake  dwellings  of  Switzer- 
land in  deposits  belon^g  to  the  Stone  Age. 
Ears  of  barley  are  represented  plaited  in  uie 
hair  of  the  goddess  Ceres,  and  are  also  shown 
on  ancient  coins.  One  of  the  sacred  books  of 
the  Chinese  claims  that  it  was  grown  in  China 
2000  e.c.     It  grows  wild  in  westero  Asia,  and 


digitized  byGoOgle 


BARLBT  BREAK -BAHLBYCORN 


this  is  probably  its  original  bcme.  It  is  ada^ed 
to  both  warm  and  cold  climates  has  a.  wider 
range  of  distribution  than  any  other  cereal,  be- 
ing  grown  all  over  the  region  embraced  in  the 
temperate  zones,  from  Alaska,  Iceland  and 
Norway  in  the  north  to  Algeria.  Egypt,  India 
and  other  subtropical  coantries.  The  Nepaul 
or  Himalaya  barley  is  very  hardy,  producing 
good  crops  at  an  elevation  of  14,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  In  Oiile  and  Switzerland  it  thrives  at 
5,000  feet,  but  on  the  plateaus  of  Peru  it  rarely 

Barley  is  divided  into  several  types,  of 
which  the  following  are  recognized ;  Two- 
rowed  barley,  Hordeum  dislickon;  four-rowed 
barley,  ft.  vulgare,  the  common  barley,  bere  or 
bigg;  six-rowed  barley,  H.  kexailickon;  naked 
barley,  H.  distickon  nudum,  the  scales  not  ad- 
hering to  the  grain  as  in  other  types;  fan, 
spratl.  or  Brattledore  barley,  H.  seocnton,  two- 
rowed  with  wide-spreading  awns ;  this  is  valued 
in  Germany  and  is  sometimes  called  German 
rice.  These  types  are  further  subdivided  into 
varieties,  the  most  popular  for  maltine  belong- 
ing to  the  two-rowed  type.  The  best  known  is 
the  Chevalier,  which  originated  in  Suffolk, 
England,  in  1819.  This  variety  and  selection* 
from  it  constitute  the  high-priced  barley  of 
California.  In  Europe  the  two-rowed  type  pre- 
dominates. In  this  country  the  si«-rowed  is 
more  common.  The  four-rowed  varieties  were 
formerly  used  for  malting;  they  are  hardy  and 

Eroductive  but  coarse,  and  are  being  replaced 
y  the  two-rowed.  In  northern  latitudes  well- 
drained  and  fertile  medium  or  rather  light 
soils,  particularly  those  of  a  calcareous  nature, 
are  oest.  Strong  loams,  heavy  clays  and  soils 
rich  in  humus,  produce  heavy  crops,  but  of 
inferior  quality.  In  southern  latitudes  medium 
to  heavy  loams  are  best.  Climate  and  season 
are  of  more  importance  than  soil  in  determin- 
irg  whether  the  barley  will  be  a  good  malting 
variety  or  not.  A  ratncr  diy  climate  suits  welf 
The  climate  of  eastern  and  southeastern  Eng- 
land produces  the  best  malting  barley.  It  may 
be  sown  broadcast  or  drilled,  but  the  latter 
method  is  more  satisfactory.  Fall -sown  va- 
rieties are  handled  like  fall-sown  wheat,  but  it 
is  generally  sown  in  the  spring  after  spring- 
wheat  sowing  is  over.  The  amount  sown  varies 
from  two  to  three  bushels  per  acre.  It  ger- 
minates quickly,  and  late  spring  frosts  may 
injure  it.  Fertilizers  when  ap^ied  must  be 
evenly  distributed  or  an  uneven  growth  will 
result.  It  ripens  before  spring  wheat,  and 
should  be  fully  ripe  before  it  is  cut.  The  color 
and  value  of  the  grain  is  easily  injured  by  damp 
weather.  From  30  to  40  bushels  of  grain  and 
1,500  tg  2,200  pounds  of  straw  is  a  good  vield. 
Sometimes  this  jaeld  of  grain  is  doublea.  A 
good  malting  variety  must  have  quick,  hi^ 
and  even  germinating  power;  the  grains  must 
be  plump,  heavy,  fhm-husked  and  uniform  in 
size;  of  good  bright  color,  not  'steely*  or 
bleached,  indicating  immaturity  when  cut.  nor 
musty ;  must  contain  a  high  percentage  of 
starch,  mealy  not  flinty,  showing  that  the  starch 
can  be  readily  transformed  during  malting. 
BarlCT  is  sometimes  attacked  by  rust  and  smut, 
but  less  so  than  wheat.  (See  Wheat), 
Wireworms  are  sometimes  troublesome.  The 
production  of  barlev  in  the  United  States  is  in- 
creasing.   In  1866,  7,916J42  bushels  were  grown 


on  492,532  acres.  In  I91^  180,927,000  bushels 
on  7,674,000  acres.  The  four  leading  States  in 
1916  were  California.  33,320,000  busfaels;  Min- 
nesota, 26,125,000  bushels;  North  Dakota, 
26,738,000  bushels;  South  Dakota,  ia,72a000 
bushel.  The  average  yield  for  the  year  1916 
was  23,6  bushels  per  acre.  The  average  farm 
value  88.2c  per  bushel. 


starch,  69.8;  ether  extract,  1.8;  crude  fibre,  2.7; 
ash,  2.4.  Digestion  experiments  with  pigs 
showed  that  80  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter,  81 
per  cent  of  the  protein,  87  per  cent  of  the  nitro- 
gen-free extract,  and  57  per  cent  of  the  ether 
extract  were  digestible.  Barley  is  chiefly  used 
for  malting,  for  the  preparation  of  spirits,  beer 
and  malted  foods.  It  is  also  employed  in  do- 
mestic cookery  as  "pot  or  hulled  barley*  in 
which  only  the  husks  are  removed;  "pearl  bar- 
ley" is  the  grain  deprived  of  husks  and  pellicle, 
then  ground  to  a  round  form  and  polished; 
"patent  barley*  is  flour  obtained  in  grinding 
pearl  barley.  It  is  used  in  soups,  for  making 
demulcent  and  emollient  drinks  for  invalids 
and  for  other  purposes.  Barley  bread  is  darker 
in  color  and  less  nutritious  than  that  from 
wheat  flour;  it  does  not  contain  gluten,  but  is 
fairly  rich  in  other  proteids. 

Barley,  or  decoctions  of  it,  are  used  to 
modify  cows'  milk  for  feeding  to  infants.  Bar- 
ley meal  and  the  by-products,  barley  bean,  bar- 


stock  feeds.  Its  use  for  horse  feed  i.  .._. 
United  States  is  confined  to  the  Pacific  coast. 
For  other  stock  its  use  is  more  f^eral.  It  may 
be  fed  atone  or  with  other  gram.  Barley  hay 
is  grown,  the  crop  being  cut  before  the  grain 
is  mature.  As  a  forage  crop  or  pasture  it  may 
be  grown  alone  or  with  peas,  vetches  or  other 
quick-growing  legumes.  Barley  straw  is  usually 
considered  as  not  worth  feeding,  but  may  be 
used  as  bedding, 

BARLEY  BREAK,  a  ^me  once  common 
and  often  mentioned  by  old  English  writers.  It 
was  played  by  six  young  people,  three  of  either 
sex,  formed  into  couples,  a  ^oung  man  and  a 
young  woman  in  each,  it  being  decided  by  lot 
which  individuals  were  to  be  paired  together. 
A  piece  of  ground  was  then  divided  into  three 
spaces,  of  which  the  central  one  was  profanely 
termed  hell.  This  was  assigned  to  a  couple  aa 
their  appropriate  place.  The  couples  who  occu- 
pied the  other  spaces  then  advanced  as  near  as 
they  dared  to  the  central  one  to  tempt  the 
doomed  pair,  who  with  one  of  their  hands 
locked  in  that  of  their  partner,  endeavored  with 
the  other  to  grasp  them  and  draw  ihem  into  the 
central  space.  If  they  succeeded,  they  were 
then  allowed  themselves  to  emerge  from  it,  the 
couple  caught  talcing  their  places.  That  the 
game  might  not  be  too  speedily  finished,  leave 
was  given  (o  the  couple  in  danger  of  being 
taken  to  break  hands  and  individually  try  to 
escape,  while  tio  such  liberty  was  accorded  to 
those  attempting  to  seize  them. 

BARLEYCORN  John,  a  personification 
of  the  spirit  of  barley,  or  malt  liquor.  It  is 
commonly    used    jocularly,    and    in    humorous 


:,  Google 


BARLOW  —  BABMBH 


Sir  John  Barleycorn.'    Bams'  ballad  on  Jolin 
Barleycorn  -is  well  known. 

BARLOW,  Joel,  American  poet  and  diplo- 
matist: b.  Reading,  Ginn.,  24  March  1754;  d. 
near  Cracow,  Poland,  24  Dec.  1812.  In  1774  he 
was  placed  at  Dartmouth  College,  New  Hamp- 
shire, and  after  a  short  residence  entered  Yale 
College,  New  Haven,  where  he  displayed  a  tal- 
ent tor  versification,  which  gained  him  the 
friendship  of  Dr.  Dwight,  then  a  tutor  there. 
Barlow,  more  than  once  during  the  vacations 
of  the  college,  -served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  army 
of  the  Rcvohition.  In  1778  he  amlied  himself 
to  the  study  of  taw,  but  soon  after  accepted 
the  position  of  chaplain  in  the  army,  which  he 
held  till  the  close  of  the  war  (1783).  During 
this  period  his  songs  and  addresses  were  said 
to  have  animated  and  encoursged  the  soldiers; 
at  diis  time,  too,  he  planned  and  partly  com- 
posed hiB  'Iflsion  of  Columbus.'  He  went  to 
Hartford,  where  he  started  a  weekly  newspa- 

Kr,  continuing  at  same  time  the  preparation  of 
;  poem  for  the  press.  Il  was  published  in 
1787,  and  some  months  after  in  London.  To 
promote  the  sale  of  his  poem,  and  that  of  a  new 
edition  of  the  Psalms  adapted  by  him,  Barlow 
gave  up  the  newspaper  and  became  a  book- 
seller. In  1788  we  find  him  in  France  as  agent 
for  speculators  in  land,  called  the  Sdoto  (Ohio) 
Land  Ompany.  The  Revolution  was  then  in 
progress,  and  Bariow  went  about  lecturing  and 
organiziog  societies  in  its  favor.  He  went  to 
En^and  in  1791,  and  was  deputed  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  by  the  London  Constitutional  So- 
ciety to  present  an  address  to.  the  French  Con- 
vention. In  1795  he  was  appointed  American 
consul  at  Algiers,  a  post  he  held  for  onlv  two 
years.  Returning  to  Paris  he  made  some  suc- 
cessful conuneraal  speculations  and  acquired  a 
considerable  foKune.  He  returned.  aiEter  an 
absence  of  17  years,  to  his  native  country- 
(1805).  In  1811  he  was  appointed  Minister- 
plenipotentiary  to  France.  In  the  followii^ 
year,  owing  (o  the  fatu^uei  and  privations  of  a 


Cracow.  His  principal  poem,  the  'Coluoibiad,' 
has  never  been  popular;  it  is  defective  in  plan 
and  execution,  overloaded  with  philosophical 
discussions  and  political  tirades,  and  disfigured 
by  pedantic  and  uncouth  words  of  his  own 
coinage.  His  prose  writings  bear  the  stamp  of 
an  active  and  energetic  intellect,  but  Ia(±  that 
ripeness  of  judgment  required  by  the  complex 
nature  of  the  subjects  he  examinee.  Consult- 
Todd,  'Life  and  Letters  of  Joel  Barlow* 
(1886). 

BARLOW,  Peter,  English  physidsi  and 
mathematician:  b.  Norwich,  October  1776;  d. 
I  March  1862.  He  was  professor  of  mathe- 
maiics  in  the  Royal  Military  Academy  at 
Woolwich  for  a  period  of  40  years.  His  great- 
est work  is  the  'Mathematical  and  Philosoph- 
ical Dictionary'  (1814).  He  was  also  the  au- 
ihor  of  an  elaborate  work  on  the  'Machinery 
and  Manufactures  of  Great  Britain'  (1837); 
of  a  treatise  on  the  'Force  and  Rapidity  of 
f-ocomotives'  (1838);  and  of  an  'Essay  on 
Magnetic  Attraction,'  one  of  the  first  works 
in  which  the  phenomena  of  magnetism  were 
distinctly  etiunciated.  He  invented  the  Bar- 
low lots. 


vented  the  saddleback  form  of  rail  which  bears 
his  name,  and  among  his  more  notable  achieve- 
ments is  the  Saint  Pancras  terminal  station  in 
London.  He  was  consulted  in  regard  to  the 
reconstruction  of  the  Tay  Bridge  after  its 
fall  in  1879.  In  1876  he  visited  the  United 
States  as  one  of  the  judges  of  the  Centennial 
Commission.  He  published  'Ilhimination  of 
Lighthouses';  'Diurnal  Electric  Tides  and 
Storms' ;  'The  Resistance  of  Flexure  in 
Beams';   'The  Logograph.' 

BARLOWS,  Arthur,  English  navigator: 
b.  about  1550;  d.  about  16^  In  1584  he  was 
sent  with  Philip  Amidas  to  select  a  suitable 
location  for  Raleigh's  proposed  American  col- 
ony. They  explored  the  coast  of  North  Caro- 
lina and  on  their  return  to  England  Barlowe 
wrote  an  enthusiastic  description  of  the  at- 
tractions  of  the  land  they  had  visited. 

BARLOWS  DISEASE.    See  Scukvy. 

BARH.    See  Yeast. 

BARMECIDES,  a  celebrated  Persian 
family,  whose  virtues  and  splendor  form  a 
favorite  subject  for  Mohammedan  poets  and 
historians.  Two  eminent  members  were 
Khaled-ben-Barmek,  Prime  Minister  of  Caliph 
Abu!  Abbas  Al-Saffah  and  tutor  of  the  cele- 
brated Hanin  al-Rasehid,  and  his  son  Yah^a, 
(Srand  Viiier  of  Ha  run.  The  expression 
Barmecides'   Feast,   meaning   a   visionary  ban- 

?uet  or  make-believe  entertainment,  originates 
rom  a  story  in  the  Arabian  Nights'  Entertain- 
ments, of  a  wealthy  Barmecide,  to  whom  a 
poor  man,  Schacabac,  had  applied  for  charity. 
On  the  latter  informing  him  that  he  was 
starving,  the  Barmecide  invited  him  to  dinner; 
and  callmg  for  a  succession  of  the  most  sump- 
tuous viands,  although  none  were  provided, 
urged  his  guest  to  fall  to  and  enjoy  himself, 
praising  the  merits  of  each  dish  as  it  was  pre- 
tended to  arrive  on  the  table.  Schacabac,  al- 
though sneering  all  the  pangs  of  hunger,  en- 
tered Into  the  humor  of  his  host,  de- 
clared his  infinite  enjoyment  of  everything 
set  before  him  and  by  his  patience  so  won  the 
heart  of  his  eccentric  entertainer  that  the  lat- 
ter not  only  pro-vided  for  him  immediately  an 
actual  and  plenteous  repast,  but  likewise  took 
him  into  his  house  and  entrusted  him  with 
the  management  of  his  affairs. 

BARMECIDES'  FEAST.  See  Babhe- 
aPES. 


_  formed  by  the  union  of  seven 
villages  located  in  the  valley  of  Barmen, 
from  which  it  takes  its  name,  and  its  western 
border  adjoins  the  city  of  Elberteld.  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  Rhenish  Missionary  Society, 
which  has  here  a  large  seminary.  The  valley 
is  remarkable  for  natural  beauty.  The  United 
States  has  a  reaideiM  consul.  Barmen  contains 
the  principal  ribbon  manufactories  on  the  Con- 
tinent and  its  ribbons  are  sent  into  alt  parts 
of  the  world.  Next  to  ribbons  the  most  im- 
portant textile  manufactures  are  zanellas  or 
Indian  cloths,  satin  for  lining,  and  lace.  Bar- 
men also  possesses  nimierous  large  dye  worics, 
besides  manufactiires  of  chemJCBls,  plated  and 


iizodsi  Google 


aeo 


BARHOTB  COURT —  BABH 


other  metal  wares,  buttons,  yams,  iron,  ma- 
chines, pianos,  organs,  soap,  etc.  There  are 
also  in  the  valley  numerous  bleachfields  and 
Turkey-red  dye  worics.  The  city  has  six  tail- 
way  stations  and  one  of  its  remarkable  feat' 
ures  is  the  electric  swinging  railway  over  and 
along  the  line  of  the  Wupper  between  Barmen 
and  Sonnbom.  Lower  Barmen  has  a  mineral 
spring  and  a  bathing  eslabUshment.  Pop. 
169,214. 

BAKMOTE  COUST  (from  berg,  hill, 
and  mote,  meeting),  a  name  given  to  local 
courts  held  in  the  lead- mining  portions  of 
Derbyshire,  England,  Their  purpose  is  the 
defimtion  of  the  ancient  rights  of  the  inhabit- 
ants and  the  settlement  of  disputes  connected 
therewith.  They  are  of  ancient  origin,  but  their 
scope  has  been  much  restricted  during  the  Vic- 
tonan  period.  Cmsult  Bainbridge,  'The  Law 
of  Mines  and  Minerals'   (5th  ed.,  1900). 

BARN  (Saxon,  bertm,  from  here,  bariey, 
and  em,  a  close  place  or  repository).  The 
word  seems  ori^nally  to  have  denoted  a  build- 
ing for  the  stonng  of  grain.  In  modem  times 
it  has  a  wider  significance  —  all  structures  of 
any  capacit;/  used  on  a  farm  for  storing  crops 
and  sheltering  stock  being  known  as  barns. 
In  the  changeable  climate  o>  the  United  States, 
with  its  severe  winters,  protection  to  cattle 
becomes  an  important  item  in  the  operations 
of  husbandry,  and  as  our  agriculture  becomes 
more  highly  developed  we  construct  more  ex- 
pensive, convenient  and  useful  bams.  A  well- 
built  bam,  embracing  all  the  conveniences 
needed  for  the  easy  and  safe  storiiw  of  crops 
and  the  comfort  and  well-being  of  ^rm  stod^ 
will  always  be  one  of  the  safest  and  best  in- 
vestments a  fanner  can  make.  At  one  time 
the  barns  an  many  estates  were  capacious 
enough  to  contain  all  the  grain  raised  on  them, 
but  recently  the  practice  of  stacking  grain  has 
gained  ground  and  it  is  now  cousiaered  the 
Setter  plan  —  building  the  grain  bam  of  sufG- 
cient  size  to  contain  one  or  two  ricks  of  grain 
at  a  time  and  all  the  necessary  appurtenances 
for  threshing.  The  stacked  grain  is  kept  in 
better  condition  from  having  a  freer  circulation 
of  air  and  being  so  disposea  as  to  be  free  from 
the  attacks  of  vermin.  A  regular  yard  is  set 
apart  for  stacks,  elevated  platforms  are  pro- 
vided on  wluch  the  stacks  are  built  and  they 
are  so  arranged  as  to  prevent  vermin  from 
climbing  to  toem  from  tne  groiuid  and  so  far 

g para  ted  as  to  leave  eaui  stack  isolated, 
any  such  conveniences  are  known  to  the 
American  farmer.  The  skeleton  bam,  a  build- 
ing but  partially  enclosed,  space*  being  left 
between  the  boards  for  the  free  ingress  of 
air,  with  a  durable  roof  and  projecting  eaves, 
is  most  used  for  grain  and  for  liie  storing  of 
hay  loosely  trussed  for  market  The  sheep 
and  stock  bams  on  the  continent  of  Europe 
are  Kenei^alty  of  an  inferior  character  and 
usually  serve  also  as  a  residence  for  the  fam-' 
ily  of  the  servant  or  foreman  of  the  farm, 
llie  sheep  and  stock  bams  of  the  United  States 
are  generally  commodious  structures  with  wide 
she<£  on  each  side,  in  which  the  animals  find 
shelter  and  receive  their  provender,  or,  when 
built  on  a  side  hill,  the  cellar  is  appropriated 
to  this  purpose.  Sheds  also  surround  the 
whole  yard  m  many  instances,  while  stacks  of 
the  poorer  quality  of  hay  and  threshed  straw 


!  of  the  yard,  tbcir  contents 


the  B  .  . 

quarters  for  the  animals  and  profitable  for 
the  farmer.  Modifications  of  this  general  plan 
are  made  by  each  farmer  according  to  his 
means  and  peculiar  ideas.  As  a  general  rule, 
stock  barns  are  found  most  profitable  when 
they  afford  the  most  ample  accommodations. 
The  greater  the  comfort  of  his  animals^  the 
more  uniform  the  profit  of  the  farmer.  Great 
care  should  be  used  in  the  selection  of  a  place 
for  the  farm  buildings.  The  bams  should  be 
easily  reached  and  so  arranged  as  to  admit  of 
the  economical  disposition  of  both  crops  and 
manures.  The  soil  should  be  dry  and  porous 
or  should  be  thoroughly  drained.  Ample  pro- 
vision should  be  made  for  the  saving  of  ma- 
nures. Side-hill  bams  afford  cellars  m  which 
these  may  be  kent  without  waste,  tkdr  bulk 
augmented  and  tnose  changes  produced  upon 
them  which  are  so  essential  to  their  highest 
efficiency.  If  no  ^ood  springs,  streams  or  welb 
can  be  obtained,  dtlems  for  rain  water  should 
be  provided  Bams  are  usually  built  of  wood, 
some  of  ston&  a  few  of  brick  and  of  concrete 
or  gravel  wall  The  gravel  wall  can  be  made 
cheaper  than  stone  walls  and  can  be  boili 
on  farms  affording  only  gravel  and  Muall  stones 
of  a  quality  too  poor  to  btiild  ordinary  stone 
walls.  Bam  floors  are  usually  of  wood;  and 
when  intended  for  the  threshing  or  handling 
of  giain  should  be  tight  and  smooth  and  kept 
clean.  Oak,  beech  and  yellow  pine  form  ex- 
cellent floors.  The  threshing  floors  described 
by  Columella  were  formed  by  wetting  the 
earth  with  the  lees  of  oil,  mixing  in  some 
chaff' and  ramming  the  whole  down  firmly; 
chaff  was  then  trodden  on  the  top,  and  the 
whole  left  to  dry  in  the  sun.  The  lees  of  oil 
were  said  to  check  vegetation,  and  to  drive 
away  venmn.  The  preparation  of  corrugated 
iron,  at  a  cMnparatively  cheap  rate  of  cost, 
suggests  d>at  material  as  one  of  the  best  for 
a  well-built  bam.  The  roof  deserves  more 
attention  tiian  it  usually  receives  at  the  hands 
of  the  farmer  who  wishes  to  be  truly  economi- 
cal in  his  expenditure  for  buildings.  Fmally, 
let  all  farmers  remember  that  ventilation  is 
one  of  the  most  important  things  to  be  secured, 
especially  in  stock  bams.  The  plan  and  con- 
struction of  a  barn  varies  with  the  purposes 
for  which  it  is  used.  For  detailed  plans  and 
interna!  fixtures  for  both  Stock  and  general 
bams  consult  Curtis,  'Farm  Buildiiss  for 
Land  Owners,  Agents,  and  Tenants'  (London 
1912) ;    Dolve,    <Bam    Plans,'    North    Dakota 


Experiment  Sution  Bulletin  97  (Agricukural 
Coatge,  N.  D.,  1912)  ;  Hii;  'Practical  Si^ges- 
tions  for  Farm  BuiltUngs,'  United  States  [de- 


partment of  Agriculture  Farmers'  Bulletins 
126,  190  and  461  (Washington  1901,  1904  and 
1912);  McConnd.  <Fann  Equipment:  Build- 
ings and  Machinery'  (New  York  1910)  ;  Rad- 
ford, 'Practical  Bam  Plans  and  All  Kinds  of 
Farm  Buildings'  (ib.  1911);  id,  'Practical 
Country  Buildings'  (Wausau,  Wis.,  1912); 
Eraser,  'Economy  of  the  Round  Dairy  Bam,' 
Illinois  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  143  (Ur- 
bana  1910) ;  Ocodc.  'The  King  System  of 
Ventilation,'  Wisconsin  Station  Bulletin  250 
(Madison  1908)  ;  Shaw  and  Jeffery,  'OJlege 


.Google 


BAKH  OWL  — BARNABAS 


Ml 


book  of  Farm  Buildings'   (London  1908). 

BARN  OWL,  a  widespread  bat  rather  un- 
common owl  {Strii  fiammea)  which  seems  to 
be  known  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  is 
everywhere  recognuabte  among  other  owb  bv 
the  heart-shaped  form  of  the  facial  discs,  which 
meet  in  a  point  below  the  beak.  These  give  a 
very  quaint  expression,  which  has  led  to  the 
soubriquet  'monkey- faced*  in  the  Southern 
Sutes.  It  is  about  17  inches  in  length,  and  its 
plumaKc  is  yellowish-red,  irregulsrly  marked 
with  lighter  and  darker  tints.  The  eyes  are 
small  and  black  and  surrounded  by  cream-col- 
ored discs,  bordered  with  rust-red.  The  le^ 
are  long  and  bear  short  feathers  only.  It  is 
more  numerous  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
United  States  than  in  the  northern  ;>ortion,  and 
is  rarely  seen  even  where  many  exist,  since  it 
if  more  completely  nocturnal  in  its  habits  than 
are  most  owls.  It  makes  its  nest  in  hallow 
trees  or  a  niche  in  some  rocky  clift  or  earthen 
bank,  and  occasionally  nests  in  belfries  or  old 
walls,  as  is  a  common  habit  in  Europe.  The 
nest  is  composed  of  straw  and  feathers  and  the 
eggs  are  white.  H.  K.  Fisher,  author  of  'The 
Hlwks  and  Owls  of  the  United  States'  (1893), 
rc^rds  this  owl  as  probably  the  most  bene- 
ficial of  its  tribe  to  the  agnculturist,  because 
in  America,  at  least,  h  subsists  almost  entirely 
upon  the  small  rodents  so  injurious  to  crops. 
Tliis  is  especially  true  in  the  South,  where  it 
subsists  on  the  cotton  rat  and  the  many  harm- 
ful mice;  while  in  the  West,  it  catches  go|ihers, 
^roimd-squirreU  and  rabbits,  so  that  It  is  en- 
titled to  gratitude  and  protection.  The  same 
beneficent  service  is  reported  for  it  in  other 
parts  of  the  world.  The  American  is  regarded 
ay  many  ornithologists  as  a  separate  specie^ 
Strix  pratiiicola. 

BARN  SWALLOW,  one  of  (he  most  fa- 
miliar alnd  widespread  of  North  American 
swallows  {Ckelidon  erylhrogasUr) .  Its  plum- 
age is  InstroDS  blue;  the  forehead,  chin  and 
throat  dull  chestnut,  bounded  by  a  collar-like 
band  of  blue  across  the  chest,  below  which  the 
plumaee  is  pale  reddish-brown.  By  its  deeply 
forked  tail  it  is  readily  distin^ished  from  the 
square-tailed  cliff-swallow,  which  also  throngs 
about  bams  and  often  is  wrongly  termed  bam 
swallow ;  but  the  latter  invariably  puts  its  flask- 
shaped  ijesls  under  die  eaves  ontside  of  the 
structure,  while  the  true  bam  swallow  invaria- 
bly nests  inside  the  building.  These  birds  hare 
remarkable  wing  power,  flying  for  many  miles 
at  a  time  at  the  rate  of  more  than  a  mile  a 
minute,  with  consummate  prace  and  ease,  and 
catching  in  the  air  all  their  food,  which  con- 
sists of  winged  insects,  many  of  which  are  in- 
jarions  or  annoyins  to  man,  so  that  their  pres- 
ence is  of  decided  benefit,  as  well  as  a  pleasant 
accompaniment  of  rural  life.  Before  the  coun- 
try was  dense^  populated  the  swallows  made 
their  homes  in  caves,  or  in  niches  of  rocks,  or 
hollow  trees,  but  ever  since  the  civilization  of 
the  country  began,  these  trustful  birds  have 
built  their  nests  close  to  man's  habitationE, 
everywhere  frequenting  bams  and  outhouses. 
Their  tiest  is  composed  of  layers  of  mud,  about 
an  uicb  thick  plentiful  lymixed  with  straw,  and 
lined    with   feathers.     They  usually   rear  two 


broods  a  season  —  the  first  in  May,  and  the  sec- 
ond in  July,  The  eggs  are  four  to  six  in 
number,  white,  with  red  and  purple  spots  and 

Slashes  nearly  covering  the  larger  end.  When 
e  second  brood  of  young  are  capable  of  u^ng 
their  wings,  the  swallows  congregate  in  flocks 
of  thousands,  and  migrate  southward,  travel- 
ing by  dayUght,  instead  of  at  night,  as  is  the 
custom  of^most  migratory  birds.  In  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  country,  the  bam  swallows 
have  been  nearly  exterminated  ty  the  English 
sparrow,  who  seiae  their  nest  for  their  own 
breeding  purposes  and  destroy  their  eggs  and 
young  in  a  ruthless  way,  often,  apparently,  in 
a  spirit  of  malicious  mischief. 

BARNABAS,  the  surname  given  by  the 
apostles  to  Joses,  or  Joseph,  a  fetlow-laborer 
01  Paul,  and,  like  him.  ranked  as  an  apostle. 
He  was  a  Levite  and  a  native  of  Cyprus; 
contributed  to  the  community  of  goods  among 
the  disciples  (Acts  iv,  36-37) ;  was  sponsor  for 
San],  the  former  persecutor.  That  he  was  a 
man  of  influence  in  the  early  church  of  Jeru- 
salem is  attested  by  his  being  commissioned  to 
investigate  the  church  of  Antioch.  He  jour- 
neyed thence  to  Tarsus,  where  he  joined  Saul, 
with  whom  he  was  again  sent  out  upon  mis- 
sionary work  (Acts  xiii  2).  With  Paul,  he 
Cumeyed  througji  Asia  Minor,  and  wound  up 
3  missionary  tour  at  Antioch,  where  both  he 
and  Paul  became  involved  in  the  contentions 
of  the  Judairing  Christians  regarding  circum- 
cision. They  submitted  the  matter  to  the  apos- 
tles and  returned  to  Antioch,  where  they  labored 
for  some  time  before  revisiting  the  communi- 
ties established  during  their  first  tour  of  Asia 
Minor.  A  difference  arose  between  them  in  re- 
gard to  Mark,  a  nephew  of  Barnabas,  and  they 
separated,  Barnabas  and  Mark  going  to  Cyprus, 
the  narive  place  of  the  former.  From  this  time 
Ac  history  of  Barnabas  is  obscure.  There  is  men- 
tion of  him  (1  Cor.  ix,  6)  as  being  still  actively 
engaged  in  missionary  work,  but  it  would  ap- 
pear that  he  never  rejoined  Paul.  There  are 
unsupported  traditions  that  he  preached  in 
Rome;  that  he  was  founder  and  first  bishop 
of  the  church  of  Milan,  and  that  he  suffered 
martyrdom  at  Salamis  in  his  native  Cyprus, 
There  is  an  eiKstle  of  21  chapters  ascribed  to 
Barnabas  by  Tertullian  and  other  early  Chris- 
tian writers,  but  without  any  support  of  inter- 
nal evidence.  It  was  probably  written  in  die 
2d  century  by  a  Gentile  who  had  come  under 
the  influence  of  Alexandrian  Judaistic  thought 
An  apocryphal  Acts,  an  apocryphal  Gospel  also 
bear  his  name.  Tertullian  also  ascribes  to  him 
the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Consult  "Barnabas*  in  Hastings'  'Dic- 
tionary of  the  Bible'    (New  York  1898)  ;  id. 


Cheync,  'Encyclopaedia  Biblica'  (ib.  1899); 
namack,  A-,  'Cbronologie  der  altcristlichen 
Litteratur'    (Leipzig   1897);  Kriiger,   G,,   'His- 


tory of  E^rty  Christian  Literature'  (New  York 
1897) ;  Lightfoot,  J.  B.,  'Apostolic  Fathers' 
(London  1893). 

BARNABAS,  Acts,  Bi^tle,  and  Oospel 
ol  (1)  The  'Acts  of  Barnabas'  are  clearly 
apocryphal  and  of  late  date.  They  recount  his 
missionary    journeys    and    his    martyrdom    in 


At  the  end  of  the  Codex  Sinaiticus  of  the  4tii 
century,  there  is  an  epistle  of   Barnabas.^ It 

Ciooglc 


BAKNABAS  —  BARNACLB 


is  slron^y  and- Jewish  in  tone,  is  full  of  alle- 
gorical interpretations  of  the  Old  Testament. 
It  once  enjoyed  quasi-canonical  authority,  as 
is  home  out  by  Euselnus  and  by  the  comments 
of  Clement,  Origen  and  other  early  Christian 
writers,  who  also  are  unanimous  in  ascribing 
it  to  Barnabas,  the  coworker  of  Paul.  Internal 
evidence,  however,  renders  this  claim  impos- 
sible. Its  authority  was  greatest  at  Alexandria, 
and  it  is  clearly  of  Alexandrine  origin  and  was 
directed,  as  its  opening  shows,  to  some  body 
of  Christians  in  lower  E^pt.  Its  date  has 
been  much  debated  as  being  from  70  to  130 
A.D.,  but  Lighlfoot's  interpretation  of  the  apoc- 
alyptic passage  in  chapter  iv  is  really  conclu- 
sive for  the  reign  of  Vespasian  (70-79  A.P.). 
This  epistle  is,  therefore,  the  earliest  of  the 
Apostolic  Fathers  and,  as  such,  is  of  special 
interest.  Its  central  problem  —  the  relation  of 
Judaism  and  Christianity  —  of  the  old  and 
new    forms   of    a    divine   covenant  —  was   one 


satisfactorily.  (3)^  The  existence  of  a  'Gospel 
of  Barnabas'  is  inferred  from  references  to 
it  in  several  ancient  writings,  notably  in  the 
<Decretum  Ge!asii>  (496  AJaX  but  we  have  no 
knowledge  of  its  contents.  There  exists,  how- 
ever, in  a  single  Italian  manuscript,  a  long 
gospel  with  this  title,  written  from  a  Moham- 
medan standpoint,  but  embodying  Gnostic  ele- 
ments. It  has  been  edited,  with  an  English 
translation  by  Lonsdale  and  Ragg  (1907),  who 
hold  that  it  was  the  work  of  a  Christian  rene- 
gade to  Mohammedanism  about  the  13th-16th 
century.  The  work  is  highly  imaginative  and 
at  times  grotesque,  but  is  pervaded  with  a  high 
ethical  enthusiasm.  Consult  Braunsberger,  0., 
'Der  Apostel  Barnabas,  sein  Leben  und  der 
ihm  bcigclcEte  Brief  (Maini  1876)  ;  Cunning- 
ham, 'Epistle  of  Barnabas'  (1S77)  ;  Donaldson, 
J.,  'The  Apostolic  Fathers';  Lightfoot,  J.  B, 
'Apostolic  Fathers'  (London  1893)  ;  Kriiger, 
G.,  'Early  Christian  Literature'  (New  York 
1897);  Reuss,  E.,  'Theologie  chretiennc' ;  and 
articles  "Barnabas"  in  Chcyne,  'Encyclopedia 
Biblica'  (New  York  1899)  ;  and  Hastings, 
'Dictionary  of  the  Bible*,  (ib.  1898). 

BARNABAS,  Cap«,  a  headland  of  Alaska, 
which  the  navigator.  Captain  Cook,  discovered 
on  Saint  Barnabas  Day. 

BARNABITES,  a  congregation  of  regular 
clerics  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  founded 
in  1S32  by  three  priests  —  Zaccharia  of  Cre- 
mona, Ferrari  and  Morigia  of  Milan,  They 
were  at  first  called  the  Regular  Clerks  of  Saint 
Paul  from  their  first  church.  Saint  Paul's  in 
Milan,  which  name  they  exchanged  for  Bama~ 
bites  when,  in  1545,  they  were  presented  with 
the  church  of  Saint  Barnabas  in  Milan.  A 
new  rule  was  drawn  up  and  approved  in  1579, 
In  addition  to  the '  three  monastic  vows,  they 
look  a  fourthj  never  to  exert  themselves  for 
an  office  withm  the  congregation  or  without, 
and  never  to  accept  a  dipnity  out  of  (he  con- 
gregation except  by  speaal  permission  of  ihe 
Pope.  Their  houses  are  called  colleges.  The 
superior  is  chosen  every  third  year  &  a  Gen- 
eral Chapter.  The  lay  brothers  have  to  pass 
through  a  novitiate  of  five  years.  The  exten- 
sion has  been  limited  to  Iialy,-  Austria,  France 
and  Spain.  The  French  Revolution  and  its 
sequeke  drove  them  from  France  and  Spain. 


Tht^  returned  to  FraiKe  in  1857,  but  were 
again  driven  out  in  1880.  Cardinal  Lambrus- 
'  chini  was  the  most  celebrated  member  of  the 
order  in  recent  times.  The  order  has  about 
25  houses  altogether.  Many  Russians  of  noble 
ancestr};,  who  had  joined  the  Church  of  Rome, 
have  joined  the  order  within  the  last  20  years. 

BARNABY,  Sir  Nattaaaid,  English  naval 
architect:  b.  Chatham  1829;  d.  London,  IS  Junt 
1915.  He  began  his  career  as  an  apprentice 
shipwriglit  in  Sheemess  dockyard  at  the  age 
of  14,  afterward  entering  the  designing  office 
of  the  admiralty.  In  1872  he  became  chief 
naval  architect,  and  from  1875^  was  chief 
naval  constructor  to  the  admiralty.  He  brought 
about  the  substitution  of  steel  for  iron  in  ship- 
building, and  die  subsidizing  of  merchant  ves- 
sels for  use  in  war.  He  was  created  a  K.C.B. 
in  1S8S. 

BARNABY  RUDCB,  a  novel  by  aarles 
Dickens,  published  in  1841.  It  contains  an 
account  of  the  Gordon  riots  in  London,  2-7 
June  17S0.  The  plot  is  extremely  intricate. 
Some  of  the  most  whimucal  and  amusing  of 
Dickens'  character- studies  appear  in  the  pages 
of  this  novel,  while  the  whole  episode  of  the 
^thering  and  march  of  the  mob  and  the  storm- 
ing of  Newgate  is  surpassed  in  dramatic  in- 
tensity by  no  passage  in  modern  fiction,  unles) 
by  Dickens'  own  treatment  of  the  French  Rev- 
olution in  the  'Tale  of  Two  Cities.* 

BARNACLE,  Lorxl  Decimna  Tke,  the 
name  ot  the  nobleman  whom  Dickens  in  his 
'Little  Dorrit'  places  in  charge  of  the  circum- 
locution office. 

BARNACLE,  a  degenerate  crustacean  of 
the  order  Cirripedia,  living  attached  to  some 
foreign  object,  such  as  wharf  piles,  rocks  and 
the  bottoms  of  ships.  The  barnacles  would  at 
first  glance  hardly  be  regarded  as  Crustacea 
at  all  and  were  considered  to  be  molliisca,  until 
in  1836  Thompson  found  that  the  young  barna- 
cle was  like  the  larvx  of  other  low  Crustacea 
(Copepoda).  The  young  barnacle  is,  as  in  ibt 
common  sessile  form,  a  shell-like  animal;  the 
shell  composed  of  several  pieces  or  valves  with 
a  multivalve,  conicaj,  movable  Ud,  having  an 
opening  through  which  several  pairs  of  long, 
many-jointed,  hairy  appendages  are  thrust, 
thus  creating  a  current  which  sets  in  toward 
the  mouth.  The  common  barnacle  {Baianiu 
baiatioidet)  abounds  on  every  rocdcy  diore  from 
extreme  hi^-watcr  mailc  to  deep  water,  and 
the  student  can,  by  putting  a  group'of  them 
in  sea  water,  observe  the  opening  and  shultine 
of   the   valves  and  the  movements  of  the  ap- 

E.dages.  The  structure  of  the  barnacle  may 
t  he  observed  in  dissecting  a  goose-bamacle 
iLepai  fascicttiant') .  This  barnacle  consists 
of  a  body  (capitulum)  and  leathery  peduncle. 
There  are  six  pairs  of  jointed  feet,  represent- 
ing the  feet  of  the  Cyclops.  The  month,  witb 
Ihe  up^er  lip,  mandibles,  and  two  pairs  of  max- 
illce,  will  be  found  in  the  middle  of  the  shell 
A  short  (Esophagus  leads  to  a  pouch-like 
stomach  and  tubular  intestine.  This  form,  like 
most  barnacles,  is  hermaphroditic,  the  ovary 
lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  shell,  or,  in  the 
pedunculated  forms,  in  the  base  of  tbc  pe- 
duncle, while  the  male  gland  is  either  close  to 
or  some  distance  from  the  ovary.  There  is 
also  at  the  base  of  the  shell,  or  in  the  pcdnnck 


Google 


BAKNACLS-BATKK  —  BASNARD 


868 


when  developed,  a  cement-'gland,  the  secredon 
of  which  is  for  the  purpose  of  attaching  the 
barnacle,  when  in  the  "t^pris*  stage,  to  some 
rock  or  weed. 

While  the  aexes  are  generally  united  in  the 
same  individual,  in  the  genera  Ibla  and  Scaipel- 
lum,  besides  the  normal  hermaphroditic  form, 
there  are  females,  and  also  males  called  "com- 
plementary males,'  which  are  attached  parasit- 
ically  both  to  the  females  and  the  hermaphro- 
ditic forms,  living  just  within  the  valves  or 
fastened  to  the  membranes  of  the  body.  These 
complemental  males  are  degraded,  imperfect 
forms,  with  sometimes  no  mouth  or  digestive 
canal.  The  apparent  design  in  nature  of  thdr 
different  sexual  forms  is  to  effect  cross- fertili- 
zation. The  eggs  pass  from  the  ovaries  into 
the  body-cavity,  where  they  are  fertilized  and 
remain  for  some  time.  They  pass  through  a 
morula  condition,  a  suppressed  gastrula  or  two- 
layered  slate,  and  hatch  in  a  form  called  a 
*NanpIius,*  from  the  fact  thet  the  free-snim- 
ming  larva  of  the  Entomostnca  was  at  first 
thought  to  be  an  adult  Crustacean,  and  de- 
scribed under  the  name  of  Nauplius.  The 
Nauplius  of  the  genuine  barnacles  has  three 
pairs  of  legs  ending  in  long  bristles,  with  a 
single  eye  and  a  pair  of  antennae,  the  body  end- 
ing in  front  in  two  horns,  and  posteriorly  in  a 
long  caudal  spine.  Alter  swimming  about  for 
a  while,  the  Nauplius  attaches  itself  to  some 
object  by  its  anteniue,  and  a  strange  transfor- 
mation results.  The  body  is  enclosed  hy  two 
sets  of  valves,  appearing  as  if  bivatved,  like  a 
cypris;  die  peduncle  grows  out,  concealing  the 
rudimentary  antennee,  and  the  feet  become 
smaller,  and  eventually  the  barnacle  shape  is 
attainea.  The  common  barnacle  (Balanus  ba- 
lanoidet)  attains  its  full  size,  after  becoming 
fixed,  in  one  season ;  that  is,  between  April  and 
November.  Consult  monographs  on  the  Crus- 
tacea by  Charles  Darwin  (London  1851-54)^ 
'Challenger  Reports"  (Vol.  XXVIII)  ;  Hoek, 
'Report  on  the  Cirripedia  Collected  by  H.  M. 
S.  Challenger'  (London  1884);  Pilsbury,  'On 
the  Classification  of  Scalpelliform  Barnacles' 
in  Proceedings  of  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of 
Natural  Sciences  (Philadelphia  1908);  'Bar- 
nacles of  Japan  and  Bering  Sea>  (London 
1911);  Robtnson,  'Fishes  of  Fancy'  (London 
1883):  Mayer,  'Sea-Shore  Life>  (New  York 
1906) ;  Caltnan,  <Ufe  of  Crustacea'  (New  York 
1911). 

BARNACLE-EATER.    See  File  Fish. 


BARNARD,  Lady  Anne,  Scollish  poet, 
author  of  <Auld  Robin  Gray':  b,  17S0;  d.  26 
May  1825.  She  was  the  eldest  daughter  of 
James  Lindsay,  5th  Earl  of  Balcarres,  and  in 
1793  married  Andrew  Barnard,  a  son  of  the 


;  Lady  Aone  lived  till  1807,  when,  losing 
her  husband,  she  returned  to  London,  her  resi- 
.  dcnce  till  her  death.  Her  famous  lyric  was 
written  as  early  as  1772  to  be  sung  to  an  ancient 
melody ;  but  she  first  acknowledged  its  author- 
ship in  1823  to  Sir  Walter  Scott,  who  two  years 
later  edited  it  for  the  Bannatyne  Club,  with 
two  continuations.  Her  'Letters'  were  pub- 
lisbed  in  1901, 


BASNARD,  Charles,  American  tniscellane- 
ous  writer:  b.  Boston,  Mass.,  13  Feb.  1838; 
author  of  books  on  horticulture,  music,  elec- 
.  tricity  and  other  technical  subjects,  and  since 
18C0  a  contributor  to  the  press  on  a  very  great 
variety  of  subjects.  Was  contributing  editor 
to  the  CenlHry  Dictionary,  regarding  'Tools 
and  Machines."  Author  ot  'The  County  Fair' 
and  other  plays.  Lecturer  for  board  of  edu- 
cation. New  York,  and  writer  and  lecturer  on 
housekeeping  efficiency  and  founder  of  first 
housekeeiung  experiment  station.  More  re- 
cently, lecturer  on  social  and  educational  sub- 
jects in  Pasadena,  Cal. 

BARNARD,  Mrs.  Charlotte  AlingtOD, 
'Claxtbel,'*  English  composer  of  songs  and 
ballads;  b.  1830;  d.  Dover  1869,  She  married 
in  1854  Charles  Barnard,  and  four  years  later 
began  to  compose.  She  wrote  nearly  100  bal- 
lads between  1858  and  1868  under  the  pseudo- 
nym ot  Garibel,  many  of  them  becoming  very 
popular,  "Won't  You  Tell  Me  Why,  Robin?* 
and  'Come  Back  to  Erin,"  being  especially  well 
known.  In  most  cases  she  wrote  the  words  for 
her  song^and  she  was  also  the  author  of  a  vol- 
ume of  'Thoughts,  Verses  and  Songs.' 

BARNARD,  Edward  EmerBon,  American 
astronomer:  b.  Nashville,  Tenn.,  16  Dec.  1857. 
He  learned  photograf^y  in  a  studio  as  a  boy, 
and  began  astronomical  studies  alone.  He 
studied  at  the  Vanderbilt  University  and  Uni- 
versity of  the  Pacific,  and  received  degrees 
from  many  sources,  including  those  of  hon. 
SoD.  from  Vanderbilt,  LL.D-,  Queens  (Can- 
ada), He  was  in  charge  of  the  Vanderbilt 
University  Observatory,  1883-87.  He  was  astron- 
omer in  Lick  Observatoo'.  California,  1887-95, 
and  then  became  professor  in  Chicago  Univer- 
sity, His  principal  discoveries  are  the  fifth  satel- 
lite of  Jupiter  m  1892  and  16  comets.  He  has 
iTiade  photographs  of  the  Milky  Way,  the  comets, 
nebulse,  etc.  He  is  professor  of  practical  as* 
tronomy,  Chicago  University,  and  astronomer 
at  Yerkes  Observatory,  Williams  Bay,  Wiv 
since  1895.  He  accompanied  the  United  States 
naval  total  eclipse  expedition  to  Sumatra 
(1901)  ;  received  the  Lalande  gold  medal  of 
the  Paris  Academy  in  1892,  the  Arag;o  gold 
medal  in  1893  the  Janssen  gold  medal  (1900), 
the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Astronomical 
Society  of  Great  Britain  ^907),  and  the 
Janssen  prite  from  the  Societf  Astronomique 
de  France  (1906).  He  is  F.A.A,  (vice-orcM- 
dcnt,  1898)  Astronomical  and  Astrophysics 
Society  of  Ameiica ;  associate  fellow,  Ameri- 
can Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences;  fellow  of 
the  American  Philosophical  Society ;  honor 
member.  Royal  Astronomical  Society  (Can- 
ada); former  associate  and  fellow,  Royal  As- 
tronMnical  Society ;  member,  Societe  Astro- 
nomique de  France ;  and  member  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  published 
'Micrometrical  Observations  of  Eros  made 
during  Opposition  of  1900-01'   (1902). 

BARNARD,  Frederick  Augiistus  Porter, 
American  educator:  b.  ShefHcld,  Mass.,  5  May 
1809;  d.  27  April  1889.  He  was  graduated  at 
Yale  College  in  1828;  instructor  there  in  1830; 
professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  philoso- 
phy in  the  University  of  Alabama,  1837-48,  and 
afterward  of  chembtry  and  natural  history'  ''H 
1$54;  professor  of  matbenutics  and  astronomy 


)gle 


BARNARD  — BARNARD  COLLBOB 


in  tbe  University  of  Mississippi,  1854-61 ;  its 
president  in  1856-58,  and  its  chancellor  in 
1858-61.  He  was  president  of  Columbia  Col- 
lege, New  York,  in  1864-88.  In  1860,  he  was 
appointed  a  member  of  the  expedition  to  ob- 
serve the  eclipse  of  the  sun  in  Labrador;  was 
engaged  in  1862  in- reducing  observations  of  the 
stars  in  the  southern  hemisphere;  had  charge  of 
the  publication  of  charts  and  maps  of  the  United 
Stales  Coast  Survey  in  1863 ;  was  named  one  of 
the  original  incoiporators  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  in  1863 ;  was  one  of  the  United 
Slates  commissioners  to  the  Paris  Exposition 
in  1867;  member  of  the  American  Philosophical 
Society,  corresponding  member  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Lif^e,  ana  member  of  many  other 
scientific  and  Uterary  associations.  Among  his 
publications  are  'Letters  on  College  Govern- 
ment' (1854);  'Report  on  Collegiate  Educa- 
tion'  (1854);   'Art  Culture*   (1854);  'Histoiy 


of  the  American  Coast  Survey*   (!857) 

versity  Education'    (1858):    'Undulatoiy 

ory  of  Light*    (1862) ;  'Machinery  and  Proc- 


versity  Education*  (1858):  'Undulatoiy  The- 
t  Light*  (1862) ;  'Machinery  and  Pro. 
of   the   Industrial   Arts,   and   Apparati 


of  Exact  Science*  (1868);  'Metric  System 
Weights  and  Measures'  (1871) ;  'Recent 
Progress  of  Science,'  etc  Barnard  College, 
affiliated  with  Columbia  University,  was  named 
in  his  honor. 

BARNARD,  George  Grer,  American 
sculplor :  b.  Bcllefontc,  Pa.,  24  May  1863.  He 
studied  at  the  Chicago  Art  Institute  and  the 
6cole  Nationale  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris,  1884-87. 
He  first  exhibited  at  the  salon  of  1894.  In  1900 
he  received  a  gold  medal  at  the  Paris  Exposi- 
tion. Was  for  many  years  professor  of  sculp- 
ture in  the  Art  Students'  Leag\ie,  New  York 
city.  His  chief  works,  largely  symbolical  in 
character,  are  'Brotherly  Love'  'The  Two 
Natures'  (in  the  Metropolitan  Museum),  'The 
God  Pan*  (Central  Park),  and  'The  Hewer.» 
His  studio  IS  in  Paris. 

BARNARD,  Htary,  American  educator: 
b.  Hartford.  Conn.,  24  fan.  1811 ;  d.  5  July  190a 
He  was  presidenl  of  the  University  of  Wiscon- 
sin (1856-59),  and  Saint  John's  College,  An- 
napolis, Md.  il86S-66)  ;  founded  the  'American 
Journal  of  Education'  (1855) ;  was  the  first 
United      States     commissioner     of     education 


(1867-70).  Among  his  numerous  writings  are 
'Hints  and  Methods  for  Teachers*  (1857); 
'Pestalozii  and  Pestalozzianism'  (1861);  'Ger- 
man Educational  Reformers'  (1862);  etc.  Id 
1886  he  began  to  publish  the  'American  Library 
of  Schools  and  Education,*  a  collection  of  SCO 
of  his  own  writings,  reports,  etc. 


Ury 


BARNARD,  John  GroBS.  American  mili- 
y  engineer;  b.  Sheffield,  Mass.,  19  May  1815; 
_  14  May  1882;  brother  of  F.  A.  P.  Barnard 
(q.v.).  He  was  graduated  at  the  United  States 
Military  Academy  in  1833;  served  from  1835 
to  1852  on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico; 
and  was  brevetted  major  in  the  Mexican  War. 
In  ihc  Mexican  War  he  fortified  Tampico  and 
became  chief  of  the  Tehuantepec  Survey,  In 
185S-S6  he  was  superintendcnl  of  the  West 
Point  Military  Academy.  In  the  Civil  War  he 
was  successivel)^  chief  engineer  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Washington,  chief  engineer  of  the 
army  of  the  Potomac,  and  chief  engineer  of 
the  staff  of  General  Grant.  He  subsequently 
had  charge  of  the  fortifications  of  San  Fran- 
cisco and  New  York  harbors.     His  published 


works  include  'Phenomena  of  the  Gyroscope* 
(1858) ;  'Dangers  and  Defenses  of  New  York' 
(1859)  ;  'Notes  on  Sea-Coast  Defense'  (1861)  ; 
'The  Confederate  States  Army  and  the  Battle 
of  Bull  Run*  (1862).  Consult  'Biographical 
Memoirs  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences' 
(1905). 

BARNARD  CASTLE,  England,  market 
town  of  Durham  County,  on  the  Tees.  17  miles 
west  of  Darlington,  on  a  branch  of  me  North 
^stem  Railway.  It  is  beautifully  situated  on 
the  steep  left  bank  of  the  river,  contains  a 
fine  town-hall,  dating  from  1747,  also  a  museum 
and  a  number  of  industrial'  establishments.  It 
has  a  large  grain  market.  It  contains  a  num- 
ber of  interesting  ruins,  the  chief  of  which  is 
the  castle  built  in  the  13th  century  I^"  Guy 
Baliol  Bernard,  an  ancestor  of  John  Baliol, 
King  of  Scotland.  The  castle  is  the  principal 
scene  of  Walter  Scott's  'Rokeby.'     Pop.  4,757. 

BARNARD  COLLEGE,  the  undergradu- 
ate college  for  women  of  Columbia  University. 
In  1889  a  group  of  men  and  women  who  wishra 
to  provide  for  women  in  New  Yoii  dty  a  col- 
lege education  fully  equal  to  that  oflTered  to 
men  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  sanction  of  the 
trustees  of  Columbia  for  the  establishment  of 
ui  affiliated  women's  college.  A  charter  was 
Iftanled  by  the  State  of  New  York,  and  prom- 
ises of  subscriptions  for  the  support  of  tbe 
college  during  the  first  four  years  of  its  exist- 
ence were  secured.  Because  President  Fred- 
erick A.  P.  Barnard  of  Columbia  College  had 
for  many  years  been  an  ardent  advocate  of 
the  admission  of  women  to  C^ilumbia,  the 
founders  of  the  new  college  gave  it  his  name. 
With  seven  instructors  selectea  from  the  teach- 
ing staff  of  Columbia  and  with  26  students, 
Barnard  opened  in  the  fall  of  1889.  In  19O0, 
when  tbe  original  informal  arrangement  for 
instruction  had  been  outgrown,  an  aereement 
was  made  between  the  trustees  of  Columbia 
College  and  of  Barnard  College  by  which  Bar- 
turd  was  incor^rated  in  the  eaucational  system 
of  tbe  university.  Bv  the  provisions  of  this 
agreement,  the  president  of  Columlua  is  ex 
oSicio  president  of  Barnard,  Barnard  profess- 
ors are  appointed  by  the  university  on  the 
nomination  of  the  dean  of  Barnard  with  the 
approval  of  the  president  and  trustees ;  in  ex- 
chan^  for  instruction  given  by  them  at  Co- 
lumbia, Columbia  instructors  give  courses  at 
Barnard.  The  graduates  of  Barnard  receive 
their  de^ees  from  Columbia.  The  University 
library  is  open  to  women  on  the  same  terms 
as  to  men.  Various  opportunities  in  the  pro- 
fessional and  post-graduate  schools  of  the  uni- 
versity have  also  been  opened  to  Barnard  stu- 
dents. On  the  other  hand,  Barnard  has  its 
separate  corporate  and  financial  organixation ; 
it  retains  its  own  internal  administration,  con- 
ducted by  the  dean  and  the  provost,  who 
are  appointed  by  the  president  with  the  ap- 
proval of  the  trustees  of  Barnard.  Two  liberal 
courses  of  undergraduate  instruction  are 
offered,  each  of  tour  years*  duration  —  a  lit- 
erary course  leading  to  the  degree  of  bachelor  . 
of  arts  and  a  scientific  course  leading  to  the 
degree  of  bachelor  of  science.  A  general  two- 
year  course  not  leading  to  a  Barnard  degree 
IS  arranged  to  give  the  cultural  basis  for  work 
in  certain  professional  schools  of  the  university. 
The  college  is  situated  on  Broadway  between 


BARHASDO  —  BARNB  Y 


116th  and  120th  streets,  west  of  Columbia.  Mil- 
bank  quadrangle,  the  section  extendine  from 
116th  to  119tli  street,  was  given  in  1903  by  Urs. 
A.  A.  Anderson.  The  buildings  include  Mil- 
banli;  Fiske  and  Brinckerhoff  halls,  the  gifts 
of  Mrs.  Anderson,  Mrs.  Josiah  T.  Fiske  and 
Mrs.  Van  Wyclc  Brinckerhoff,  respectively,  which 
contain  the  administrative  offices,  lecture- rooms 
and  laboTstories;  Brooks  Hall,  the  hall  of  resi- 
dence; and  a  new  Students  Hall,  given  by  Jacob 
H.  Schiff,  which  contains  the  gymnasium,  swim- 
ming-pool, reading-room,  lunch-room,  etc.  On 
the  Quadrangle  are  tennis  courts  and  a  prac- 
tice field  for  basketball  and  athletics.  Barnard 
owned  in  1916  equipment,  buildings  and  grounds 
of  an  estimated  value  of  over  $2,000,000  and 
held  productive  funds  providing  »  net  income 
of  $60,000.  Barnard  has  about  /OO  students,  a 
staff  of  over  80  professors  and  other  officers 
of  instruction,  and  shares  in  the  services  of 
23  others  who  come  from   Columbia  to  give 


BARNAKDO,  Thomas  John,  English 
philanthropist:  b,  Ireland  1845;  d.  London,  Eng- 
land, 19  Sept  1905.  He  founded  the  Bamardo 
Homes  for  homeless  children,  his  attention 
beinp  turned  in  this  direction  while  studying 
medicine,  by  the  condition  of  a  boy  in  a 
ragged  school  in  East  London  in  1866.  Follow- 
ing up  the  subject,  he  began  lo  rescue  chil- 
dren who  found  their  only  shelter  at  night 
under  archways,  or  in  courts  and  alleys.  These 
were  introduced  to  his  homes,  where  they 
received  an  industrial  training,  were  saved  from 
a  ^ssible  career  of  crime,  and  enabled  to 
achieve  an  honorable  position  in  life.  At  the 
lime  of  hil  death  Dr.  Bamardo  had  under 
his  direcdoQ  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  the 
colonies  112  mission  branches  and  distinct 
homes  dealing  with  every  age  and  class  of 
needly  and  destitute  childhood,  including  an  im- 
migration depot  in  Ontario,  an  induslnal  farm 
in  MiUiitoba,  a  home  for  iKibiei  and  a  hospital 
for  sick  children,  while  over  60,000  trained  and 
tested  boys  and  girls  had  passed  through  his 
institutions. 

BARNATO,  BARNXY,  or  BASNETT, 
South  African  speculator,  whose  real  name  is 
believed  to  have  been  Bernard  Isaac:  b.  Lon- 
don, England,  about  1845,  of  Hebrew  parents; 
d.  14  June  1897.  He  began  business  as  a  dealer 
in  diamonds,  and  in  five  years  earned  enough 
to  buy  shares  in  the  Kimberley^  diamond  mines. 
He  established  a  partnership  with  Cecil  Rhodes, 
and  when,  in  188^  gold  was  discovered,  secured 
possession  of  a  great  pari  of  the  region.  He 
committed  suicide  by  jumping  from  the  deck  of 
the  steamer  Scot,  bound  from  Cape  Town  to 
Southampton.  Consult  Isaac's  "Life  of  Bar- 
nett  Barnato'  (1897). 

BARNAUL,  bar-nonf,  Siberia,  a  imning 
town  in  the  government  of  Tomsk,  and  230 
miles  southwest  of  the  town  of  that  name,  and 
Z,046  miles  east' southeast  of  Moscow,  on  the 
Bamaulski,  near  its  junction  with  the  Otu.  It 
is  well  built^  and  the  streets  are  regular  and 
spacious.  The  chief  edifices  are  of  wood. 
There  is  a  mining-school,  an  observato^,  a 
pubKc  libraiy,  a  museum,  a  mint,  etc.  Lead 
■s  smelted  from  the  mines  in  the  neighbor- 
hood ;  there  are  lime  and  brick  kilns,  a  mint 
for  copper  coins  and  manufactories.  It  is 
tbe  chief  town  and  the  administrative  seat  of 


the  personal  domains  of  the  Tsar  in  the  Altai, 
and  contains  tbe  imfterial  smelting  works,  the 
annual  output  of  which  exceeds  13,000  pounds 
of  gold  and  5,000  pounds  of  silver  (troy). 
Pop.  about  30,000. 

BARNAVE,  biir-n^v,  Antome  Pierre 
Joseph  Marie,  French  orator:  b,  Grenoble, 
1761;  d.  Paris  29  Nov.  1793.  He  was  chosen 
a  deputy  of  the  tiers  flat  to  the  assembly  of 
the  States- General,  and  showed  himself  an  open 
enemy  to  the  court.  The  Constituent  Assembly 
appointed  him  their  president  in  January  1791. 
After  the  flight  of  tbe  King  he  defended  Lafay- 
ette against  the  charge  of  being  privy  to  this 
step,  and,  upon  tbe  arrest  of  the  royal  family, 
was  sent,  with  Pelion  and  Lalour-Maubourg, 
to  meet  them,  and  to  conduct  ihem  to  Paris. 
When  the  correspondence  of  the  court  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  victorious  party,  10  Aug.  1792, 
they  pretended  to  have  found  documents  which 
showed  him  to  have  been  secretly  connected 
with  it,  and  he  was  guillotined  See  Salvandy, 
'Life  of  Bamave' ;  Lamartine,  'History  of 
the  Girondists.' 

BARNAY,  Lndwi^,  German  actor:  b. 
Pesth  1842.  He  made  his  first  stage  appearance 
at  Trautenau  in  1860,  and  thereafter  appeared 


the  Stadt-Theater  of  Frank  fort- on-the- 

Main,  and  from  1875  to  1880  at  the  Stadt- 
Thcater  of   Hamburg.     He   visited   London   in 

1881  as  leading  actor  of  the  Meiningen  Court 
Company,   and   canie   to   the   United   States   in 

1882  where  he  had  a  very  successful  tour.  He 
managed  the  Berliner  Theater  in  Berlin 
1887-M>  and  then  took  up  his  residence  at 
Wiesbaden.  He  excels  as  a  tragedian.  His 
principal  roles  are  Essex,  Uriel  Acosta,  Othello, 
Antony,  Tell  and  E^nonL  He  helped  organize 
the  stage  congress  at  Wdmar  in  1871,  which 
led  to  the  formation  of  the  Buhnengenossen- 
schaft,  which  has  been  of  great  service  to 
members  of  the  German  theatrical  profession. 

BARNBURNERS,    a    nickname    for    the 

K>gressive  section  of  the  New  York  State 
mocracy  from  about  1844  to  1852,  which 
retaliated  by  calling  the  other  party  "Hunkers.* 
They  were  essentially  the  same  party  which 
from  183S  onward  had  favored  extension  of 
the  canal  system,  while  their  opponents^  were 
the  same  who  wished  it  restricted  to  imme- 
diately profitable  canals ;  but  under  these  names 
the  division  was  on  the  slavery  question  (see 
Free-Sou.  Party),  in  which  the  Barnburners 
were  the  Van  Buren  or  Free-Soil  wing.  They 
also  stood  for  the  local  control  by  the  'Albany 
Regency,*  as  against  the  Polk  'machine' 
which  the  new  administration  was  trying  to 
build  up  in  New  York,  and  which  favored  (he 
extension  of  slavery  into  the  Territories. 
About  1852  the  nicknames  changed  into  "Softs* 
and  'Hards,*  corresponding  with  new  issves 
lo  the  later  "Half-breeds"  and  "Stalwarts.* 
The  origin  of  the  name  is  usually  derived  from 
the  familiar  campaign  story  of  the  man  who 
burned  his'  bam  to  free  it  from  rats. 


__  JanT  1896.  He  was  chorister  in  York  Min^ 
Ster;  organist  Saint  Andrew's,  Wells  Street, 
London,  1863-71 ;  precentor  and  choirmaster 
Saint  Ann's,  Soho,  1871 ;  precentor  and  director 


BARNEOAT  BAY— BARNES 


of  musical  instruction  in  Eton  Collcse,  187S, 
and  head  of  the  Guildhall  School  of  Music  in 
London  from  1892.  His  cantatas  of  'Rebekah," 
a  sacred  idyll,  and  "The  Lord  Is  King»; 
numerous  highly  interesting  services  and  an- 
thems (such  as  *King  All  Glorious"),  for  the 
Church,  as  well  as  several  secular  choruses  and 
songs,  rendered  him  famous  both  in  England 
and  the  United  States.     He  was  knighted  in 

BARNEGAT  BAY,  a  bay  on  the  east 
coast  of  New  Jersey,  about  25  miles  in  length, 
and  separated  from  the  ocean  by  Squan  and 
Island  beaches.  Bamegat  Inlet  connects  it 
with  the  Atlantic.  On  the  south  side  of  the 
inlet  is  a  lighthouse  150  feet  high. 

BARNES,  Albert,  American  thcol<»ian:  b. 
Rome,  1  Dec.  1798;  d.  Philadelphia,  24  Dec. 
187a  Until  the  age  of  17  he  was  employed  by 
his  father,  who  was  a  tanner,  in  his  own  occu- 
pation. At  the  age  of  22  he  [graduated  at 
Hamilton  Collegt  and  after  studymg  theology 
at  Princeton  was  licensed  to  preach  in  1824,  and 
ordained  pastor  to  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Morrisiown.  N.  J.,  in  February  1825.  In  1830 
he  was  removed  to  the  pastoral  charge  of  the 
First     Presbyterian     Church     in     Phiiadelphi_a 


published  in  11  volumes  between  1832  and  1848; 
and  his  'Notes  on  [he  Old  Testament,'  com- 
pleted In  1870,  which  are  favorite  works  with 
Sunday-school  teachers  and  others  engaged  in 
biblical  tuition.  Other  works  of  his  are  'The 
Church  and  Slavery*  (1857)  ;  'The  Atonement 
in  Its  Relations  to  Law  and  Moral  Govern- 
ment* (1859) ;  'Evidences  of  Christianity* 
(1868)  ;  'Life  at  Threescore  and  Ten*  (1869). 
He  was  tried  for  heresy  on  account  of  his 
belief  in  unlimited  atonement,  and  though  ac- 
quitted, the  eventual  result  of  the  trial  was  to 
divide  the  Presbyterian  body  in  the  United 
States  into  the  Old  and  New  School  branches 
in  1837, 

BARNES,  Charles  Reid,  American  botan- 
ist: b.  Madison,  Ind.,  7  Sept.  1858;  d.  1910.  He 
was  educated  at  Hauover  (Ind.)  College  1877, 
and  pursued  graduate  studies  at  Harvard.  He 
held  professorships  in  Purdue  University  and 
Ihe  University  of  Wisconsin,  1880-98,  and  in 
the  latter  year  became  professor  of  plant  physi- 
ology in  the  University  of  ChicMo.  He  is 
the  author  of  'Outlines  of  Plant  Life'  (1900) ; 
joint  author  of  'Plant  Dissection*  (1886):  and 
'Keys  lo  Ihe  Genera  and  Species  of  North 
American  Mosses'  (1890-97);  'Text  Book  of 
Botany,*  in  collaboration  with  J.  Coulter  and 
H.  C.  Cowlcs  (1910).  He  contributed  many 
papers  to  the  Botanical  Gasetle,  of  which  he 
was  an  editor  after  1883.  He  was  appointed 
vice-president  of  the  American  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science  in  1899  and  presi- 
dent of  the  Botanical  Society  of  America  in 
1903, 

BARNES,  Dune  Juliana.  See  Bekneks, 
Dame  Juliana, 

BARNES.  Earl,  American  educator  and 
lecturer:  b.  Marlville.  N,  Y.,  IS  July  1861.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  Oswego  Normal  School 
in  1884,  received  the  degree  of  A.B.  from  In- 
diana University  in  1389,  and  that  of  M.S.  from 
Cornell  in  1891.    He  was  professor  of  Euro- 


pean history  at  Indiana  University,  1890-92,  and 
from  then  until  1897  professor  of  education  at 
Stanford  University,  He  has  since  devoted 
himself  to  lecturing  and  writing.  He  has  pub- 
lished 'Studies  in  Education'  (VoL  I,  1889; 
Vol.  n,  1902);  'Where  Knowledge  Fails* 
(1911);  'Woman  in  Modem  Society*   (1913). 

BARNES,  Howard  Turner,  American  edu- 
cator: b.  Wobum,  Mass..  21  July  1873.  He 
went  to  Canada  with  his  parents  m  1879,  and 
was  graduated  at  McGill  University  in  1893. 
While  doing  post-graduate  work  he  alternated 
his  studies  with  work  as  demonstrator  in  the 
physics  department  of  the  university.  In  1893 
he  was  awarded  the  Joul£  student&hip  by  the 
Royal  Society.  After  further  research  work  in 
heat  he  submitted  the  results  to  the  Royal  So- 
ciety at  a  special  session  of  that  body;  these 
were  made  the  basis  of  a  report  to  a  confer- 
ence of  physicists  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of 
1900.  In  that  year  he  was  appointed  lecturer 
in  physics  at  McGill  University;  became  as- 
sistant professor  there  in  1902,  associate  pro- 
fessor in  1906  and  Macdonald  professor  of 
jihysics  in  1908.  He  has  given  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  formation  of  ice  in  flowing  water, 
and  particularly  the  form  of  ice  known  as 
•frazil"  and  anchor  ice.  Having  read  a  paper 
on  the  'Ice  Problem  in  Engineering  Work  in 
Canada*  before  the  British  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science  in  1907,  he  subse- 
quently published  a  work  on  'Ice  Formation 
and  Frazil,*  which  is  the  first  authoritative 
volume  on  the  subject.  He  has  also  made  im- 
provements in  the  construction  of  thermome- 
ters, and  has  perfected  a  pyrometer,  which  is 
coming  into  use  in  the  regulation  of  furnaces 
and  manufactories. 

BARNES,  James,  American  soldier:  b. 
Boston,  Mass.,  1306;  d.  Springfield,  Mass.,  12 
Feb.  1869.  Appointed  to  West  Point  from 
Massachusetts,  he  was  graduated  there  in  1829, 
standing  fifth  in  a  class  which  included  R,  E, 
Lee,  J.  E.  Johnston  and  a  number  of-  others 
who  afterward  became  distinguished.  In  1829~ 
30  he  was  assbtant  instructor  In  French  at  the 


Military  Academy.  Resigning  from  the  army 
after  seven  years  service,  he  became  a  railroad 
engineer  and  built,  either  wholly  or  in  part, 
the  Rome  &  W.,  Sacketts'  H.  &  E.,  the  Buffalo, 
C,  &  N,  v.,  the  Terre  Haute,  A.  k  St.  L.,  and 
the  Potsdam  &  W.  railroads  between  1848  and 
1857.  During  the  Civil  War  he  was  colonel  of 
the  18lh  Massachusetts  Volunteers  1861-62,  and 
brigadier-eeneral  of  United  States  Volunteers 
1862-65.  He  was  present  at  the  battles  of  An- 
tietam,  Fredericksburg,  Chancellors  ville  and 
Gettysburg,  where  he  was  severely  wounded. 
Exposure  and  wounds  so  impaired  his  constitu- 
tion that  he  was  unable  to  engage  actively  in 
his  profession  after  the  war.  In  1865  he  was 
brevet  ted  major-general  of  volunteers  for  meri- 
torious s 


BARNES,  James,  American  writer  for 
boys:  b.  Annapolis,  19  SepL  1866.  He  was 
educated  in  Saint  Paul's  School,  Concord, 
N.  H.,  and  after  two  years  spent  as  civil  engi- 
neer in  construction  work  with  the  Missouri 
Pacific  Railway,  he  entered  Princeton  Univer- 
sity, and  was  graduated  thence  in  1891,  While 
there  he  was  editor  of  the  Natsau  Literary 
Magasine.    After  his  gradiu  ' 


Google 


B  ARNB5  —  BASNETT 


dated  with  Scribner's  Magaatnt ;  was  asustant 
editor  Harper^s  Weekly  (1894-95) ;  special  cor- 
respondent of  the  Outlook  during  the  Boer 
War,  %nd  in  1903  at  the  Venezuela  blockade; 
and  editor  of  Appleton's  Magazine.  He  is  au- 
thor of  'For  King  or  Gmntry'  (1895)  ;  <Naval 
Actions  of  1812'  (1896);  'A  Princetonian' 
(1896);  'Midshipman  Farragut>  (1896);  ^A 
Loyal  Traitor'  (1897);  'Commodore  Bain- 
bridgc'  (1897)  ;  "Yankee  Ships  and  Yankee 
Sailors'  (1898);  'David  G.  Farragut'  (18W) ; 
'Drake  and  His  Yeoman'  (1899);  'The  Great 
War  Trek'  (1901);  'With  the  Flag  in  the 
Channel'  (1902)  ;  'The  Giant  of  Three  Wars^ 
(1903);  'The  Unpardonable  War'  (1904) 
'The  Son  of  Light  Horse  Harry'  (1904) 
'The  Blockade'  (1905);  'Outside  the  Law' 
(1906)  ;  'The  Outch  of  Cirt:uinstance'  (1908) ; 
'Commodore  Perry'  (I9I2)  ;  'Rifle  and  Cara- 
van' (1912);  'Through  Central  Africa  from 
Coast  to  Coast'  (1915).  In  1913-14  Mr.  Bames 
crossed  the  continent  of  Africa  at  the  head  of 
an  expedition. 


BARNES,  JoBenh  K.,  American  surgeon: 
.  Philadelphia,  21  July  1817;  d  Washington, 
D.  C,  S  A^ril  1883.    He  was  educated  at  Har- 


vard and  m  the  medical  department  of  the 
University'  of  Pennsylvania;  became  assistant 
surfceon  in  the  army  in  1840,  and  served  at 
vanous  posts  throng  the  Mexican  War.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  Gvil  War  he  was  sum- 
moned from  Oregon  and  assigned  to  duh"  in 
the  office  of  the  surgeon-general.  In  1863  he 
was  appointed  a  medical  iifspector,  with  the 
rank  of^  colonel,  and  in  Sejitember  of  the  same 
year  was  promoted  to  bripadier-generaL  In 
1865  he  was  brevetted  major-general.  United 
States  amw.  To  him  was  due  in  great  meas- 
ure the  emciency  of  the  medical  department 
during  the  war.  He  was  surgeon-general  of 
the  army  from  1864  till  1882,  when  he  was 
retired.  He  attended  Presidents  Lincoln  and 
Garfield  on  their  deathbeds.  He  founded  the 
Army  Medical  Museum  and  the  library  of  the 
surgeon-general's  office. 

BARNES,  Joahna,  English  classical 
scholar:  b.  London,  10  Jan.  16S4;  d.  3  Aug. 
1712.  He  became  R^us  professor  of  Greek 
at  Cambridge  in  1695.  He  published  'Gerania; 
or,  A  New  Discovery  of  a  Little  Sort  of  Peo- 
ple Called  Pygmies'  (1675),  from  which  Swift 
is  said  to  have  drawn  material  for  his  'Voy- 
age to  Lilliput' ;  '  AiXitoniTimTpov  >  (1679),  a 
paraphrase  of  the  biblical  story  of  Esther ; 
'History  of  that  Most  Victorious  Monarch, 
Edward  III'  (1688);  editions  of  Euripides 
(1694) ;  of  Anacreon  (1705) ;  of  Homer 
(1711).     These  editions  are  no  longer  used. 

BARNES,  WUliun,  English  dialect  poet 
and  philologist :  b.  Rushay,  Dorsetshire,  20 
March  1801;  d.  7  Oct.  1886.  Of  humWe  birth, 
he  first  entered  a  solicitor's  office,  then  tau^t 
a  school  in  Dorchester.  He  took  orders,  and 
became,  in  1862,  rector  of  Wintcrboume  Came 
in  his  native  county,  and  died  there.  He  ac- 
quired a  knowledge  of  many  languages,  and 
published  'An  Anglo-Saxon  Delectus' ;  'A 
Philological  (irammar,  grounded  upon  Eng- 
lish' (1854)  ;  'Grammar  and  Glossary  of  the 
Dorset  Dialect'  (1863),  etc.,  but  is.  best  known 
by  bis  'Poems  of  Rural  Life  in  the  Dorset 
Dialed'  (1844).  and  'Poems  of  Rural  Life,  in 


mon  English'  (1868),  As  a  phUologist,  he 
distinguished  by  an  intense  dislike  of  Lat- 
inized forms.  His  dialect  ^ems  reveal  a  bi^ 
order  of  genius,  placing  bim  in  the  first  flight 
of  English  pastoralpoets,  and  have  earned  for 
liim  the  title  of  "The  Dorsetshire  Bums."  A 
collected  edition  of  these  appeared  in  1879,  and 
hb  'Life,'  edited  by  his  oaugbter,  Lucy  Bax- 
ter, was  published  in  London  in  1887. 

BARNES,  William,  Tr.,  American  politi- 
cian and  publisher;  b.  Albany,  N.  Y.,  17  Nov. 
1866,  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  Univer- 
si^  in  188&  and  in  1889  became  owner  and 
editor  of  the  Albany  Journal.  He  took  an 
active  interest  in  Republican  politics  and  soon 
became  prominent  in  that  party  in  New  York 
State.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Republi- 
can State  Committee  in  1892,  and  was  its  chair- 
man in  1911-14.  He  has  never  held  an  elective 
office  but  virtually  directed  his  party  in  New 
York  until  1912,  when  it  split  into  the  pro- 
gressive and  conservative  sections.  Bames  led 
the  conservative  element  at  the  Chicago  con- 
vention (1912)  in  opposing  the  candidacy  of 
Theodore  Roosevelt  for  the  presidency, 

BARNESBORO,  Pa.,  borou(^  of  Cam- 
bria County,  40  miles  northwest  of  Altoona, 
on  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad.  It  has  exten- 
sive coal-mining  interests  and  contains  limiber 
yards,  an  ice-cream  factory,  bottling  works,  a 
theatre  and  numerous  churches  and  hotels. 
The  waterworks  are  borough  property.     Pop. 

BARNBSVILLE,     Ga..     town     of     Pike 

County,  60  miles  southeast  of  Atlanta,  on  the 
Central  of  Georgia  Railroad.  It  has  manufac- 
tories of  w^ons  and  bu^es  and  has  a  large 
trade  in  cotton.  There  i3  a  Carnegie  Ubrary 
located  here.  It  is  also  the  seat  of  Gordon  In- 
stitute.   Pop.  3,068. 

BARNESVILLE.  Minn.,  city  in  Qay 
County,  in  the  Red  River  valley,  24  miles  from 
Moorhead,  the  county-seat,  on  the  Great  North- 
ern Railroad.  It  has  a  flour  mill,  creamery, 
cigar  factory,  post  office  and  two  banks  wiui 
a^regale  resources  of  $865,000.  The  value  of 
the  taxable  property  amounts  to  $331,357.  The 
city  has  a  fine  school  building  which  cost  $65,- 
000.  The  city  owns  the  electric-light  plant,  the 
waterworks  and  the  telephone  system.  Fop. 
I,55a 

BARNESVILLE,  Ohio,  town  in  Belmi»it 
County,  on  the  B.  &  O.  Railroad,  32  miles  west 
of  Wheeling.  It  is  the  centre  of  an  extensive 
tobacco  and  fruit  r^on  and  manufactures 
glass,  carwheels,  cigars,  bottles,  shirts  and  over- 
alls. It  was  settled  in  1800,  and  was  incor- 
porated in  1836.  The  government  is  vested  in 
a  mayor,  elected  biennially,  and  a  council.  The 
waterworks  are  owned  and  operated  by  the 
city.  It  has  a  national  bank,  siJiools,  churches 
and  several  newspapers.  Pop.  4,233. 
"BARNET,  or  HIGH  BARNET,  England, 
town  in  Hertfordshire,  11  miles  from  London. 
Near  the  town  is  the  site,  marked  by  an  obelisk, 
of  the  famous  battle,  fought  14  April  1471, 
between  the  Yorkists  and  Lancastrians,  in 
which  the  latter  were  routed,  and  their  leader, 
Warwick,  "the  king-maker,"  slain.    Pop.  10,440. 

BARNETT,  JohD,  English  composer :  b. 
Bedford  1802;  d.  16  April  ia9a     He  y/^  the 

I  .Google 


B  ASNETT — BARHI 


son  of  a  Prussian  named  fiemhard  Beer,  who 
changed  his  name  on  settling  in  England  as. a 
jeweler,  Bamett  sai«  on  the  stage  of  the  Lon- 
don Lyceum  at  the  age  of  11.  His  good  voice 
led  to  his  being'  given  a  musical  education  under 
various  masters,  and  he  soon  began  writing 
songs  and  lighter  pieces  for  the  stage.  In  1834 
he  published  a  collection  of  'Lyrical  Illustra- 
tions of  the  Modem  Poets.'  Mis  'Uountain 
Syl(di'  was  accorded  a  warm  welcome  when 
produced  at  the  London  Lyceum  in  1834  as 
the  first  modem  English  opera.  It  was  fol- 
lowed by  another,  'Fair  Rosamond'  in  1837, 
which  was  not  so  successful,  and  by  'Farinelli' 
in  1839.  He  was  long  popular  as  a  singing 
master  at  Cheltenham,  and  published  'Systems 
and  Singing-masters'  (1842),  and  'School  for 
the  Voice'    (1844). 

6ARNETT,  John  Francis,  English  musi- 
cian and  composer :  b.  London,  16  Oct.  1837. 
He  is  a  nephew  of  John  Barnett.  He  studied 
at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music  and  at  the 
Leipzig  Conservatory.  He  performed  the  con- 
certo in  D  minor  of  Mendelssohn  at  the  New 
Philharmotuc  Concert  of  1852,  played  at  a 
Gewandhaus  Concert  at  Leipzig  in  1861  and 
at  the  London  Plulharmonic  Society  1863.  He 
came  into  notice  as  a  composer  with  his  syni- 
I^ony  in  A  minor  (1864J  and  followed  this 
with  a  number  of  compositions  for  orchestra, 
strings  or  pianoforte.  His  cantata,  'The  An- 
cient Mariner'  was  produced  at  Birmingham 
in  1867,  and  'Paradise  and  the  Peri>  in  1870. 
His  most  important  work  is  the  oratorio,  'The 
Raising  of  Lazarus'  produced  at  Hereford  in 
1876;  Many  other  cantatas,  pianoforte  pieces, 
etc.,  were  composed  by  him.  He  is  professor 
at  the  Royal  College  of  Music  and  the  Guild- 
hall School  of  Music,  and  examiner  for  the 
Associated  Board. 

BARNBVELD,  N.  Y.    See  Trenton,  N.  Y. 

BARNEVBLDT,  bar-nS-vtlt.  Jan  van 
Olden,  Dutch  statesman:  b.  1549;  d.  13  May 
1619.  He  early  showed  himself  zealous  for 
the  independence  of  the  United  Provinces,  and 
as  advocate-general  of  the  province  of  Hol~ 
land  displayed  profound  views  and  great  skill 
in  business.  He  preserved  his  country  against 
the  ambition  of  Leicester;  penetrated  the  secret 
plans  of  Maurice  of  Nassau,  whom  his  fellow- 
citizens  had  elevated  to  the  post  of  stadtholdcr; 
and  his  marked  distrust  of  this  prince  placed 
him  at  the  head  of  the  Republican  party,  which 
aimed  to  make  the  stadtholder  subordinate  to 
the  legislative  power.  Spain  at  that  time  made 
proposals  for  peace  through  the  archduke,  gov- 
ernor of  the  Netherlands,  Bameveldt  was  ap- 
pointed plenipotentiary  on  this  occasion,  and 
evidenced  alike  the  stall  of  a  statesman  and  the 
firmness  of  a  republican.  Maurice  of  NassaiL 
whose  interest  ted  him  to  prefer  war,  labored 
to  prevent  the  establishment  of  peace ;  and 
Bameveldt  was  induced  only  by  the  most  ur- 
gent solicitations  of  the  states  to  retain  the 
office  which  had  been  assigned  to  hitn,  conclud- 
ing in  1609  an  armistice  with  Spain  for  the 
term  of  12  years,  in  which  the  mdependence 
of  Holland  was  aclinowledged.  His  influence 
now  became  still  greater,  and  he  was  more  and 
more  an  object  of  jealousy  to  the  house  of 
Nassau.  The  hostile  sptnt  of  the  opposite 
parties  in  the  state  was  further  increased  by 
theological  difficulties.     In  order  to  prevent  a 


civil  war  Bameveldt  proposed  an  eccle^aslical 
council,  which  resolved  upon  a  general  tolera- 
tion in  respect  to  the  points  in  question.  The 
states  acceded  at  first  to  this  wise  measure, 
but  at  a  later  period  the  Nassau  party  per- 
suaded them  to  adopt  other  views.  This  rarty 
represented  the  Arminians  as  secret  friends  of 
Spain.  Maurice  insisted  upon  a  general  synod, 
with  a  viewj  as  he  pretended,  of  putting  an  end 
to  all  religious  quarrds;  but  Barncvddt  per- 
suaded the  states  to  oppose  this  measure. 
Troons  were  now  levied,  without  the  consent 
of  Maurice;  to  re-establish  order  in  the  dties 
where  the  Gomarists  had  excited  disturbances. 
On  the  other  side,  the  Nassau  party  redoubled 
its  attacks  upon  Bameveldt,  who,  in  answer  to 
them,  published  that  celebrated  memorial  in 
which  he,  warns  the  United  Provinces  of  the 
danger  which  threatened  them  from  the  other 

Eirty.  Maurice,  however,  procured  the  assem- 
ling  of  a  synod  at  Dort,  in  1618,  to  which 
almost  all  the  Calvintstic  churches  of  Europe 
sent  deputies.  They  condemned  the  Arminians 
ith  the  most  unjust  severity,  and  Maurice  was 


leading  men  of  the  Arminians  to  be  arrested; 
and  26  bribed  judges  condemned  to  death  as 
a  traitor  the  man  to  whom  his  country  owed 
its  political  existence.  The  old  man  of  72 
ascended  the  scaffold,  and  suffered  death  with 
the  same  firmness  which  he  had  evinced  under 
all  the  circumstances  of  bis  life.  His  two 
sons  formed  a  ccnspirac^  against  the  tyrant; 
WilHam  escaped,  but  Reinier  was  taken  and 
executed.  His  mother,  after  his  condemnation, 
threw  herself  at  the  feel  of  Maurice  to  beg 
for  mercy,  and  to  his  question  why  she  hum- 
bled herself  thus  for  the  sake  of  her  son 
when  she  had  not  done  it  for  her  husband,  made 
the  memorable  reply :  *I  did  not  ask  pardon 
for  my  husband,  because  he  was  innocent;  I 
ask  it  for  my  son,  because  he  is  guilty.*  Con- 
sult Motley,  'John  of  Bameveldt'   (IS'4). 


He  was  captured  by  the  British  in  Mart^  L778, 
but  exchanged  in  August  of  the  same  year;  was 
captured  ^ain  and  held  a  prisoner  tilt  he  es- 
caped in  1781.  In  April  1782,  he  took  the  Brit- 
ish ship  General  Monk,  off  Cape  May;  in  No- 
vember 1782,  he  carried  dispatches  to  Dr.  Frank- 
lin in  France,  and  brought  t«ck  a  sum  of  money 
lent  1^  the  French  government.  In  1794  he 
went  with  Monroe  to  France,  and  for  six 
years  served  in  the  French  nav^r-  In  1814  he 
commanded  the  fleet  stationed  in  Chesapeake 
Bay, 

BARN7IELD,  Richard,  English  poet;  b. 


Sweet  Poetry  Agree,*  were  long  ascribed  t- 
Shakespeare  and  were  included  m  'The  Pas- 
sionate   Pilgrim'     (1599).      Bamfield's    works 


of  Cassandra'  (1595)  ;  'The  Encomion  of  Lady 
Pecunia'  (1598). 

BARNI,  bar-ne,  Jules  Ronuin,  French 
scholar  and  critic:  b.  Ulle,  1  June  1818;  d.  . 
Mers,  4  July  1878.  His  efTortS  to  propagate 
the  Kantian  philosophy  throuf^  the  medium  of 
'Observations  on    the   Sense  of   the   Sublime 


Google 


BASHSLE  Y  —  BAHNUH 


aee 


and  BcautifuP  (1836)  ;  'Foundations  of  Ethical 
MeUphysic'  (1848),  and  'Kantian  Piiilosophy* 
(1850),  earned  him  distinction;  as  did  also,  in 
another,  but  conti^ous  field,  a  'History  of 
Moral  and  Political  Ideas  in  France  in  the 
Eighteenth  Centnry'    (1866). 

BAKNSLBY.  England  town  in  the  west 
riding  of  Yorkshire,  23  miles  south  by  east  of 
Leeds.  It  occupies  the  siunmits  and  slopes  of 
two  hills  and  is  well  built  Among  die  chief 
btiildinn  are  the  public  hall,  built  at  a  cost  of 
over  ^,000,  and  furnishing  accommodations 
for  various  societies ;  the  ofnces  of  the  miners' 
association,  the  Beckett  Hospital,  the  County 
Court,  the  offices  of  the  Bamslc^  Banldni' Com- 
pany, the  parish  church.  Saint  George's  Church, 
the  Congregational  Church,  a  beautiful  edifice 
and  several  other  places  of  worship.  Its  staple 
industry  is  the  manufacture  of  linen  in  a  variety 
of  iorms,  which  is  carried  on  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, both  hand-looms  and  power-looms  being 
used ;  linens  are  also  printed  here  in  a  style 
sitnilar  to  the  cottons  of  Lancashire.  There 
are  numerous  collieries  in  the  neighborhood, 
among  which  the  Oaks  Colliery  has  Deen  made 
memorable  by  several  disastrous  explosions. 
The  town  possesses  a  beautiful  public  park 
containinf!  several  monument!.  It  is  on  four 
railway  hnes  and  a  canal,  which  facilitates  its 
export  of  coal,  mainly  'to  Hull  and  London. 
A  United  States  consul  is  Stationed  here. 

BARNSTABLE,  Mass^  town,  port  of 
entry_  and  county-seat  of  Barnstable  Coun^, 
72  miles  southeast  of  Boston,  on  the  New  YorK, 
New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad.  Within  its 
corporate  limits  are  !2  villages,  several  of 
which,  such  as  Hyannis,  OsterviDe  and  (Totuit, 
are  well-known  summer  resorts.  The  town  has 
several  public  libraries  and  a  State  normal 
school.  Farming,  fishing  and  cranberry  culture 
are  the  principal  industries.  The  town  is  gov- 
erned under  the  town  meetings  system.  Fop. 
5,000. 

BARNSTAPLE,  Et^land.  a  town  in  Dev- 
onshire, 34  miles  northwest  from  Exeter,  on  the 
rif^t  bank  of  the  Taw,  here  crossed  by  a  hand' 
some  bridge  of  16  arches.  It  is  locally  styled 
Barum,  and  among  its  public  edifices  are  a 
large  14th  century  church,  a  guildhalL  and 
market  buildings,  the  bridge  buildings,  Albert 
clock-tower,  etc.  Before  the  silting  of  the 
river  Barnstaple  was  a  seaport  of  some  import- 
ance. Its  manufactures  consist  chiefly  of  pot- 
tery, known  as  "Barum  ware,*  lace,  paper,  fiir- 
niture,  toys,  leather,  gloves  and  collars ;  and 
ships  ana  boats  are  built  The  trade  diiefly 
depends  on  the  surrounding  district.  Barnstaple 
has  existed  since  the  reign  of  Athelstan  in 
the  10th  century,  who  built  a  castle  here.  It 
was  incorporated  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I. 
Previous  to  1885  the  town  returned  two  mem- 
bers to  Parliament.  Pop.  14,485. 
"  BARNUH,  Prmacea  Courtenajr  (Baylor), 
American  novelist:  b.  Fayetlcville,  Ark.,  1848. 
She  has  written  'On  Both  Sides,*  an  interna- 
tional novel  (1886) ;  <Behind  the  Blue  Rid^' ; 
'Juan  and  Juanita,'  a  story  for  boys  and  girls; 
'Claudia  Itrde"  (1894);  »The  Ladder  of  For- 
tune>  (1899).  She  has  also  been  a  frequent 
contributor  to  magazines,  and  a  writer  of  short 
stories.  Since  her  marriage  she  has  lived  in 
Savannah,  Ga. 


BARNUH,  PhiaeM  Taylor,  American 
showman:  b.  Bethel,  Conn.,  5  July  1810;  d. 
Bridgeport,?  April  1891.  He  was  die  son  of  a 
tavern-keeper  and  in  his  boyhood  displayed  a 
remarkable  propensity  for  practical  jokes  upon 
his  father's  customers,  as  well  as  a  decided 
turn,  for  trade.  Having  accumulated  a  small 
sum  of  money,  he  opened  a  little  miscellaneous 
store.  Here  he  was  very  successful,  and,  tak- 
ing advantage  of  the  mania  for  lotteries  which 
then  prevailed  throughout  the  country,  he  vis- 
ited New  York  and  obtained  some  insight  into 
their  management.  Returning  to  his  store,  he 
immediately  entered  into  this  business  upon  a 
large  scale,  established  agencies  in  various 
cities  and  towns,  and  realized  considerable 
sums  from  the  immense  sales  of  tickets  which 
he  was  thus  enabled  to  make.  The  predominat- 
ing trait  in  his  character  would  not,  however, 
permit  him  to  settle  down  as  a  country  store- 
keeper, and  we  soon  hear  of  him  as  the  editor 
of  the  Herald  of  Freedom,  published  in  Dan- 
bury,  Conn.  In  this  undert^ng  he  was  also 
very  successful  from  a  pecuniary  point  of  view, 
but  his  freedom  of  speech  and  the  boldness  of 
his  opinions  soon  gained  him  many  enemies, 
and  he  was  several  times  sned  for  libel,  ana 
once  confined  in  prison  for  60  days.  In  1834 
he  removed  with  his  family  to  New  York,  hav- 
ing  become  much  reduced  in  circumstances. 
Here  he  tried  many  ways  to  obtain  a  livelihood, 
but  without  much  success,  until  1835,  when 
hearins  of  Joice  Heth,  a  colored  woman,  the 
reputed  nurse  of  (Jeorge  Washington,  he  vis- 
ited her  owners,  and  becoming  satisfied  that 
here  was  an  opportunity  of  retrieving  his 
broken  fortunes,  he  became  her  purchaser  for 
the  sum  of  $1,000,  which  he  had  obtained  from 
various  friends.  By  widely  advertising  this 
curiosity,  considerable  excitement  was  created, 
and  the  receipts  soon  amounted  to  $1,500  per 
week.  This  was  Bamum's  first  attempt  as  a 
public  showman,  and  finding  the  business  profit- 
able, he  collected  a  small  company  and  trav- 
eled through  the  country,  realizing  large  sums 
wherever  he  halted.  In  1836  Joice  Heth  diei 
and  a  post-mortem  examination  proved  her  to 
have  been  but  75  or  80  years  old,  instead  of 
161[  which  was  her  reputed  age.  From  1836 
until  1839  Mr.  Baraum  continued  in  the  exhibit- 
ing business,  but  was  then  obliged  to  return  to 
New  York,  again  reduced  to  poverty.  He  now 
barely  subsisted  t^  writing  occasional  articles 
for  Sunday  papers,  and  by  petty  jobs.  In  1841, 
the  establishment  known  as  Scudder's  American 
Museum  was  announced  for  sale;  and  with  a 
boldness  almost  unparalleled  in  mercantile 
transactions.  Mr.  Bamum  negotiated  for  its 
purchase;  without  owning  a  dollar,  he  made 
satisfactory  arrangements  with  its  holders  and 
took  possession.  Here  his  fortune  turned;  at 
the  end  of  a  year  he  was  able  to  pay  all  the 
obligations  which  he  had  entered  into  on  ac- 
count of  the  museum.  In  1848  he  had  added  to 
it  two  other  extensive  and  valuable  collections, 
beside  several  minor  ones,  and  single  curiosities 
without  number.  It  now  became  ue  most  pop- 
ular place  of  amusement  in  the  United  States. 
In  1842  he  heard  of  Charles  S,  Stratton,  of 
Bridgeport,  then  5  years  old,  less  than  2  feet 
high  and  weighing  only  16  pounds.  The  boy 
became  known  to  the  world  as  Gen.  Tom 
Thumb,  and  was  exhibited  in  tbs  United  States 


.Google 


2T0 


BASHWBLL  —  BARODA 


with  astOnisfamK  success  until  1844  when  Mr. 
Bamnm  sailed  with  him  for  Eiijgland  Through' 
out  Great  Britain  he  was  received  with  a  pop- 
ularity surpassing  even  that  of  America,  and 
for  four  months  the  receipts  averaged  $500  per 
day,  Tom  Thumb  was  presented  to  the  roya! 
families  of  England,  France  and  Belgium, 
courted  and  caressed  by  the  nobtli^  and  pre- 


animats,  for  which  he  paid  i2,hOQ.  In  1847  he 
returned  to  America,  where  the  *General"  was 
again  exhibited  for  a  year  with  increased  suc- 
cess, the  receipts  in  the  United  States  and 
Havana  amounting  to  $150,000.  Bamum  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  inducing  Ulle.  Jenny  Lind 
to  visit  America,  and  entered  into  an  agree- 
ment  with   her,   by  which   he   engaged  her 


_..  America   for   150  nights  at  $1,000  per 

night,  the  expenses  of  herself  and  troupe  to  be 
defrayed  by  nim.  Jenny  Lind  arrived  in  New 
York  1  Sept.  1850.  The  excitement  upon  this 
occasion  has  perhaps  never  been  equalled  in 
America.  She  gave  her  first  concert  at  Castle 
Garden,  and  from  that  time  until  June  1851, 
gave  93  concerts,  which  were  a  succession  of 
triumphs,  the  gross  receipts  for  the  whole 
amounting  to  over  $700,000.  The  tickets  were 
generally  sold  at  auction,  the  highest  price  paid 
for  one  ticket  being  in  Providence,  R.  I., 
namely,  $650.  He  continued  before  the  public 
with  varying  success  until  1855,  when  having 
built  himself  an  extensive  villa  at  Bridgeport 
Conn.,  he  retired  from  business  and  published 
kis  life,  giving  a  full  account  of  the  various 
enterprises  in  which  he  had  been  engaged-  He 
also  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  fanning,  and 
made  many  improvements  in  Bric^eporL  Two 
museums  of  his  were  burned  in  1865  and  1868, 
and  in  1871  he  established  "The  Greatest  Show 
on  Earth,*  a  combination  of  traveling  circu* 
and  menageries.  He  was  defeated  for  Con- 
gress in  1866,  but  was  four  times  a  member  of 
the  Connecticut  legislature.  Besides  his  'Auto- 
biography' (1854),  he  published  'The  Hum- 
bugs of  the  World'  (1865),  and  'Struggles  and 
Triumphs'    (1869). 

BARNWELL,  Robert  Woodward,  Ameri- 
can statesman ;  b.  Beaufort,  5.  C,  10  Aug. 
1801;  d.  25  Nov.  1882.  He  was  graduated 
from  Harvard  University  in  1821 ;  became  a 
lawyer;  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  South 
Carolina  in  1829-33;  a  United  States  senator 
from  that  State,  1850-51;  commissioner  from 
South    Carolina    to    confer    with    the   Federal 


visional  (^federate  Congress,  1861-62;  a  Con- 
federate senator  in  1862-^;  and  then  presi- 
dent of  the  University  of  South  Carolina  (an 
office  he  had  held  in  183S-41)  till  1873. 

BARNWELL,  Robert  Woodward,  Ameri- 
can bishop  of  the  Episcopal  Church ;  b.  Beau- 
fort, S.  C.,  27  Dec.  1849;  d  Selma,  Ala.,  24 
July  1902.  He  prepared  for  the  Episcopal 
ministry  at  the  General  Theological  Seminary 
in  New  York,  and  was  rector  of  Trinity 
Church,  Demopolis,  Ala.,  1876-80;  and  of  Saint 
Paul's,  Selma,  Ala.,  1890-1900.  In  1900  he  was 
consecrated  bishop  of  Alabama. 

BAROCCI,  ba-r5ch'«,  or  BAROCCIO, 
Federigo,  Italian  painter;  b.  Urbino,  1^;  d 


1612.  He  received  instruction  from  Ins 
father,  who  was  a  sculptor,  and  from  Battista 
Franco.  He  visited  Rome,  where  the  genius 
of  Raphael  inspired  him,  and  there  he  nainted 
in  fresco  and  was  commended  tQ>  Michelangelo. 
He  spent  his  life  at  Urbino,  where  he  executed 
maiw  paintings,  several  showing  the  inSucnce 
of  Correggio.  Most  of  his  woric  is  preserved 
in  the  churches  of  Urbino,  the  most  important 
being  his  'Saint  Sebastian*  in  the  cathedral. 
On  a  second  visit  to  Rome  he  was  employed  on 
the  decorations  of  the  Belvedere  in  the  Vatican, 
where  jealous  rivals  tried  to  poison  him.  He 
suffered  from  the  effects  of  the  poison  during 
the  rest  of  his  life.  His  'Burning  of  Troy'  is 
in  the  Borghese  Palace  at  Rome.  Others  are 
inthe  Vatican  and  in  the  Florentine  galleries. 
His  'Christ  Crucified,'  now  in  tiic  Genoa 
cathedral  is  considered  his  greatest  work.  Con- 
sult Krommes,  R.  H.,  'Studien  zu  Federigo 
Barocci'    (Leipzig  1912). 

BAROCCO,  or  BAKOQUB,  technical 
term,  chiefly  applicable  to  architecture  and 
household  decoratioa  The  term  is  derived 
from  the  Spanish  barrueco,  a  large,  irregularly- 
shaped  pearl,  and  was  for  a  time  confined  to 
the  jeweler's  ciaft  It  indicates  the  more  ex- 
travagant fashion*  of  design  that  were  com- 
mon ui  the  t7tfa  and  18th  centuries,  chief^  in 
Italy  and  France,  in  which  everything  is 
fantastic,  grotesque,  fiorid  or  incongruous  — 
irregular  shapes,  meaningless  forms,  and  a  lack 
of  restraint  and  simplicity.  The  style  may  be 
said  to  have  begun  with  Michelangelo,  and  was 
continued  by  Lorenzo  Bernini,  Carlo  Mademo, 
Delia  Porta,  Fontana,  Longhena,  Galilei  and 
others.  The  baroque  later  developed  into  the 
fantastic  style  of  interior  detail  known  as 
rococo.  (See  Ahchitecture,  History  of).  Con- 
sult Gurlitt,  'Geschichte  des  Barockstiles  in 
Italien'  (Stuttgart  1887),  and  Ricci,  'Baroque 
Architecture  and  Sculpture  in  Italy'  (Lonoon 
1912). 

BAKOCHE,  ba-rosh,  Pierre  Jolea,  French 
statesman:  b.  Paris  1802;  d.  Jersey  1870.  In. 
1847  he  was  elected  member  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  for  the  department  of  Charente-In- 


ii'on,  drawn  up  by  Odillon  Barrot  23  Feb.  1848, 
in  which  they  were  accused  of  violating  the 
rights  of  citizens,  and  of  systematic  corrup- 
tion. On  2  Dec.  1851,  Baroche  was  nominated 
president  of  the  Council  of  State,  an  office  in 
which  he  exhibited  much  ability  and  tact,  and 
subsequently  filled  the  offices  of  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs  (1860),  and  Minister  of  Jus- 
tice (1863).     He  was  made  a  senator  in  1864. 

BARODA,  Hindustan,  city  in  the  province 
of  Gujerat,  capital  of  the  native  state  of 
Baroda,  240  miles  north  of  Bombay,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Viswamitra,  here  spanned  I^ 
four  stone  bridges.  The  city  proper  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall,  outside  of  whicii  are  large 
suburbs.  The  houses  in  general  are  very 
mean,  but  there  are  several  palaces,  some 
handsome  houses  belonging  to  the  wealthy  in- 
habitants, government  diices,  a  high  school  and 
numerous  temples.  Baroda,  because  of  its  im- 
portance as  a  railroad  centre  between  the  coast 
and  the  interior,  has  considerable  trade  in  die 

Sroduce   of    the   surrounding   districts,   gTai% 
ax,   cotton  and   tobacco.     The   town   has  a 


t,zcd=y  Google 


BAROHBTBR 


-  itmcEiinl  dfltalli 


lizcdbjGooi^le 


BAKOMBTES 


art 


^endid  modem  system  of  waterwoHcs  since 
1892,  supplied  front  a  distance  of  18  miles  by 
the  artificial  lake  covering  471  square  miles. 
Baroda  is  the  residence  of  the  Ghacicwar,  a 
protected  Mahratte  prince.  Pop.  (1911)  99,345. 
The  state  of  Baroda,  which  has  been  tributary 
to  Great  Britain  from  180^  has  an  area  of  8,100 
square  miles  and  a  popuuition    (1911)   of  2,- 

BAROHBTBR  (Greek, « weight-measure*), 
an  instrument  invented  by  the  Italian  idiyiicist 
Tomcelli,  and  used  for  detcrmininK  the  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere.  (For  an  account  of  its 
early  history  see  Atmospksse).  In  its  sim- 
pleat  form  the  mercurial 
haromeler  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  vertical  glass 
tube  about  a  yard  in 
length,  closed  .at  the  top 
and  open  at  the  bottom, 
and  partially  filled  with 
mercury,  into  a  vessel  of 
which  Its  lower  end  also 
dips. /In  preparing  the  in- 
strui&ent  for  use,  the  tube 
is  first  completely  filled 
with  mercury ;  but  as  soon 
as  it  is  free  to  do  so 
the  column  of  mercury 
in  the  tube  sinks  (leavinK 
a  vacuous  space  at  the  top 
of  the  tube)  until  it 
stands  at  a  height  (usually 
about  30  inches)  such  that 
the  pressure  of  the  col- 
umn exactly  balances  that 
of  the  atmosphere.  A 
_  graduated  scale  of  metal 

flt^  or  glass  is   provided,  by 

■  t  *  means  of  which  the  difEer- 

ence  in  level  between  the 
top  of  the  column  and  the  surface  of  the 
mercury  in  the  open  vessel  (called  the  ''cistern') 
at  the  bottom  can  be  measured  with  precision. 
In  the  Fortin  instrument  (the  design  commonly 
adopted  for  all  bnt  the  most  refined  work)  the 
cistern  is  closed  below  by;  a  piece  of  fleicible 
leather,  which  can  be  raised  or  towered  by 
means  of  a  screw,  in  order  to  bring  the  sur- 
face of  the  mercury  in  the  cistern  to  a  certain 
fixed  level,  before  the  reading  is  taken.  A 
pointed  inaex,  k,  preferably  of  ivory,  projects 
downward  into  the  cistern  from  the  iqiper 
cover,  the  position  of  its  tip,  with  respect  to 
the  scale  on  the  barometer  tube  above,  being 
known.  The  mercu^  in  the  cistern  being  first 
brought  accurately  mto  contact  with  the  ex- 
tremity of  k,  the  Dosition  of  the  upper  end  of 
the  barometric  column  is  read  from  the  scale. 
The  "apparent'  hei^t  of  the  barometer  is  then 
known ;  but  in  order  to  deduce  the  "true* 
height,  certain  corrections  must  be  applied.  The 
most  important  of  these  is  the  correction  for 
temperature.  The  scale  from  which  the  he^ht 
of  the  column  is  read  is  longer  when  the  tem- 
perature is  high  than  when  the  temperature  is 
low ;  and  the  mercury  in  the  column  is  also  less 
dense  at  higher  temperatures  than  at  lower  ones. 
These  two  sources  of  error  partially  compen- 
sate each  other;  for  at  a  high  temperature  the 
reduced  density  of  the  mercury  tends  to  make 
the  column  stand  too  high,  while  the  greater 
length    of    the    scale    at    such    a    temperature 


tends  to  make  the  reading  too  small.  The  com- 
pensation is  not  perfect,  however,  and  when  the 
coefficient  of  expansion  of  the  scale  is  known,  a 
table  of  temperature  corrections  must  be  cal- 
culated, to  reduce  the  direct  reading  to  what  it 
would  have  been  if  it  had  been  taken  at  some 
fixed  standard  temperature.  The  temperature 
of  melting  ice  is  adopted,  by  universal  consent, 
a.i  the  standard  to  which  the  ^'apparent*  read- 
ing is  to  be  reduced.  Another  important  cor- 
rection must  be  applied  in  order  to  allow  for 
the  variations  of  gravity  with  the  latitude  and 
elevation  of  the  place  of  observation.  Where 
gravity  is  relatively  weak,  a  longer  column  of 
mercury  will  be  required  to  balance  a  given  at- 
mospheric pressure  than  would  be  required  to 
balance  the  same  pressure  in  a  region  wbere 
gravity  is  stronger.  All  the  barometric  read- 
uigs  taken  at  the  International  Bureau  of 
Weights  and  Measures,  near  Paris,  are  reduced 
to  the  values. the^  would  have  if  made  at  the 
level  of  the  sea,  ui  latitude  45° ;  and  this  prac- 
tice is  growing  in  favor  among  physicists  gen- 
erally. To  reaucc  a  barometric  reading  to  sea-- 
level  and  to  latitude  45°,  it  is  merely  necessary 
to  multiply  die  observed  height  of  the  column 
(after  applying  the  correction  for  temperature) 
by  the  expression  (1— .00259  cos  L)  (1  — 
OaOOOOQb  H),  where  L  is  the  Utitude  of  the 
place  of  observation,  and  H  is  its  height  above 
the  seiL  in  feet.  Several  secondary  corrections 
have  also  to  be  considered,  when  great  refine- 
ment is  desired.  Prominent  among  these  is 
the  correction  for  'capillarity,'  which  is  made 
necessary  by  the  fact  that  the  mercury  does  not 
stand  as  high  in  a  small  barometric  tube  as  it 
does  in  a  larger  one,  on  account  of  the  surface 
tension  (qv.)  of  the  liquid.  No  simple  formula 
for  this  correction  can  be  given,  and  it  varies 
somewhat  according  as  the  Darometer  is  rising 
■  falling  at  the  time  of  the  observation.   Tables 


published  under  tiie  direction  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  at  Washington.  An  excellent 
tsble  is  also  given  in  Guillaume's  'Thermomi- 
trie  de  Precision,*  where  the  elaborate  precau- 
tions taken  in  filling  the  modern  precision 
barometer  are  also  described. 

The  barometer  is  a  simple  instrument,  and 
of  the  greatest  use  in  all  kinds  of  scientific 
work.  The  greatest  fault  of  the  mercurial  in- 
strument is  the  difliculty  of  transportinj?  it  with- 
out breakage  and  without  destroying  the 
vacuum  in  flie  upper  part  of  the  tube  by  the 
admission  of  air  bubbles.  Instruments  like  the 
Fortin  type  may  be  transported  by  screwing  up 
the  leather  bottom  until  both  the  cistern  and  the 
tube  are  completely  filled  with  mercury,  dien 
revising  the  barometer,  and  carrying  it  to  its 
destination  bottom  side  up.  The  "aneroid* 
barometer,  althouE^  not  nearly  so  accurate  as 
the  mercurial  instrument,  possesses  the  advan- 
tage of  portability,  since,  as  its  name  signifies, 
it  does  not  contam  any  liquid;  and  it  is  there- 
fore used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  deter- 
mination of  the  heights  of  places  above  the 
sea.  (See  Hvpsomethy) .  Various  forma  of 
the  aneroid  exist.  One  of  these  consists  of  a 
cylindrical  metal  box,  exhausted  of  air,  and 
having  a  tid  of  thin,  corrugated  metal.  The  lid, 
which  is  highly  elastic,  yields  to  every  change 
of  atmospheric  pressure,  and  delicate  multiply- 
ing levers  transmit  its  motions  to  an  index  that 


■.Google 


BAROHBTRIC  LIGHT  —  BAR0NIU8 


moves  over  a  graduaUd  scale,  whose  divisiont 
are  nurked  on  the  dial  empirically,  by  compari- 
son with  a  mercurial  barometer.  For  further 
information  concerning  the  barometer  and  its 
use,  consult  Stewart  and  Gee,  'Elementary  Prac- 
tical Physics' ;  Glazebrook  and  Shaw,  'Practical 
Physics' ;  Abbe,  'Meteorological  Apparatus  and 
Methods';  Guillaume,  'Therroom^tric  de  Prfc- 
cision.'     See  also  MmiOKOLOGV. 

BAROHBTRIC   LIGHT,  a  name  some- 
times ^ven  to  the  faint  glow  (first  observed  ly 


_S  agitated.    The  light  is  pven  off  by 

the  mercurial  vapor  (or  other  highly  attentuated 
gas)  diat  is  present,  under  the  influence  of  the 
electricity  generated  by  the  friction  of  the  mer- 
cury against  the  gl&ss.  Advantage  has  been 
taken  oi  this  phenomenon  in  the  constructioa  of 
■self- acting"  Geissler  tubes,  the  electricity  re- 

Suired  to  excite  them  being  generated,  when 
ley  are  inverted  or  shaken,  by  the  friction  of 
a  small  quantity  of  mercury  introduced  before 
the  exhaustion.  No  very  brilliant  results  can 
be  obtained  in  this  way,  however. 

BAROHETZ.    See  CtBonuu. 

BARON,  hi-riit,  Michel,  or  BOYRON, 
French  comedian :  b.  1653,  and  long  attached  to 
MoU^re's  company.  For  nearly  30  years  he 
played  with  great  success,  and  retired  from  the 
stage  in  1691  without  any  apparent  reason.  In 
1720,  however,  he  again  returned,  and  was  re- 
ceived with  immense  enthusiasm,  playing,  with 
great  success,  even  the  most  youthful  parts.  In 
1729  he  was  taken  ill  while  on  the  boards,  and 
(Ued  shortly  after. 

BARON.  In  the  feudal  system  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  the  immediate  tenant  of  any  su- 
perior was  ori^nally  called  his  baron.  In  old 
records  the  citizens  of  London  are  so  styled, 
and  the  members  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
elected  by  the  Cinque-Ports,  were  called  barons. 
This  title  was  introduced  into  England  by  Wil- 
liam the  Conquerer  to  signify  an  immediate 
vassal  of  the  Crown,  who  had  a  seat  and  vote 
in  the  royal  court  and  tribunals,  and  subse- 
quenily  in  the  House  of  Peers.  It  was  the 
second  rank  o(  nobility,  until  dukes  and  mar- 
quises were  created  and  placed  above  the  earli, 
and  viscounts  also  set  above  the  barons.  It  is 
now  the  lowest  rank  of  the  peerage,  and  is  held 
by  prescription,  patent  or  tenure.  The  barons 
were  anciently  divided  into  greater  barons,  or 
such  as  held  their  lands  of  (nc  kin^  in  cafiU; 
and  lesser  barons,  such  as  held  their  lanos  of 
the  greater  barons  by  militaiy  service.  In  Ger^ 
many  the  ancient  barons  of  the  empire  were 
die  immediate  vassals  of  the  Crown.  They  ap- 
peared in  the  imperial  court  and  diet,  and  be- 
longed to  the  hif^  nobility.  But  these  ancient 
feudatories  were  early  elevated  to  the  rank  of 
counts  or  princes.  Abaron  of  the  United  King- 
dom has  the  title  of  "right  honorable  lortC' 
etc.,  and  should  be  addressed  as  *my  lord"  or 
'your  lordship,'  His  wife  claims  also  the  title 
of  'right  honorable,*  and  may  be  addressed  as 
'madam,"  or  "your  ladyship."  The  coronation 
robes  of  a  baron  differ  from  those  of  the  other 
peers  in  having  but  two  rows  of  spots  on  the 
mantle  1  and  the  parliamentary  robes,  in  having 
but  two  guards  of  white  fur,  with  rows  of  goto 
lace.    The  right  of  wearing  a  coronet  was  first 


conferred  on  barons  by  Chaiics  II.  it  is 
adorned  with  six  pearls,  set  at  tqfiai  distances, 
of  which  four  are  usually  shown.  Until  the 
passing  of  the  Judicial  Act  of  1873 — tmder 
which  the  Courts  of  Exchequer  were  consoli- 
dated in  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature— 
certain  judges  in  England  or  Ireland  were  called 
barons,  the  chief  baron  being  president  of  the 
Court  of  Exchequer,  the  title  is  thus  now  ex- 
tinct as  applied  to  the  judiciary. 

BARONET,  Oie  lowest  of  the  hereditaf^ 

Snities  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  origi- 
ly  instituted  by  James  I,  22  May  1611.  The 
first  person  to  receive  tne  honor  was  Sir 
Nicholas  Bacon  of  Redgrave,  whose  successors 
in  the  title  have  ever  since  held  the  rank  of 
premier  baronet  of  the  kingdom.  Baronets  are 
created  by  letters  patent  under  the  great  seal, 
and  the  honor  is  generally  given  to  the  grantee 
and  the  heirs  male  of  his  body  lawfully  be- 
gotten, though  sometimes  it  is  entailed  on  col- 
laterals and  even  to  heirs  female.  The  order 
was  created  nominally  to  assist  in  the  plantar 
tion  of  Ulster  —  all  baronets  are  thus  entitled 
to  bear  on  their  coats  of  arms  the  ■bloody 
hand*  of  Ulster  —  but  really  in  order  to  raise 
money  for  the  king,  and  each  baronet,  on  his 
creation,  was  obliged  to  pay  into  the  treasury 
a  sum  amounting  to  a  little  less  than  $S,SOO. 
According  to  the  terms  of  its  foundation  the 
dignity  could  be  conferred  only  on  those  who 
had  the  right  by  inheritance  frc«n  at  least  a 
^ndfather  to  wear  coat-armor,  and  whose 
mcome  from  lands  was  not  less  than  $5,000  per 
annum.  In  1622  there  were  200  baronets  in 
Endand,  this  being  the  number  to  which  the 
order  was  originally  limited.  Charles  I  and 
subsequent  sovereifcns  disr^arded  altogedier 
the  original  limitation  of  the  number.  Pre- 
cedence is  given  to  baronets  before  all  knights, 
except  those  of  the  Garter,  bannarets  created 
on  the  field  and  privy-councillors.  An  order  of 
Baronets  of  Ireland  vras  also  instituted  by 
James  1.  for  the  same  purpose  and  with  the 
same  privileges  as  the  baronets  of  England. 
Since  die  union,  in  1801,  none  have  been  created 
otherwise  than  as  baronets  of  the  United  King- 
dom, Charles  1  instituted  an  order  of  baronets 
of  Scotland  and  Nova  Scotia  in  1625  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  intentions  of  his  father, 
James  I,  who  had  granted  (1621)  the  territory 
of  Acadia  to  Sir  William  Alexander,  after- 
ward Earl  of  Stirling,  to  be  held  by  htm  as  a 
feudal  colony;  the  number  was  fixed  at  150^ 
and  in  10  years  107  were  created  —  34  baroiues 
in  what  is  now  New  Brunswick,  IS  in  Nova 
Scotia.  IS  in  Cape  Breton  and  34  in  Anticosti. 
The  colony,  theoretically  a  part  of  the  kingdom 
of  Scotland,  was  an  entire  failure,  and  the  ter- 
ritory formally  ceded  to  the  French  by  the 
Treaty  of  Breda  in  1667.  Since  the  union  of 
the  parliaments  in  1707  no  new  baronets  spe- 
cially   connected    with    Scotland    have     been 

BARONIUS,  Cnaar,  Italian  eccIetiaMscal 
historian:  b.  Sora  1538;  d.  30  Jnne  1607.  He 
was  educated  at  Naples;  in  1SS7  went  to  Rome; 
was  one  of  the  first  popils  of  Saint  Philip  of 
Neri,  and  member  of  the  oratory  founded  by 
him;  afterward  cardinal  and  librarian  of  tlw 
Vatican  Library.  He  owed  these  ^gnities  to  the 
services  which  he  rendered  the  Church  by  his 


:,  Google 


BARONS'  WAR~BARR 


S73 


edition  of  the  Roman  Martyrology,  'Ecclesiasti- 
cal Annals,*  in  reply  to  the  Protestant  'Uagde- 
burg  Centuries,'  comprising  valuable  docu- 
ments from  the  papal  archives,  on  which  he 
Ubored  from  the  year  1S80  until  his  death. 
They  were  continued,  though  with  less  power, 
by  other  writers,  of  whom  Raynaldus  takes  the 
first  rank.  He  has  been  called,  after  Eusetuus, 
'die  Father  of  Ecclesiastical  History." 

BARONS'  WAR,  the  war  carried  on  for 
several  years  by  Simon  de  Montfort  and  other 
barons  of  Heniy  III  against  the  King,  begin- 
ning in  1263.     See  also  Montfort,  Simon  se. 

BARONY,  the  lordship  or  fee  of  a  baron, 
either  temporal  or  spiritual.  Originally  every 
peer  of  superior  rank  had  also  a  barony  an- 
nexed to  tus  other  titles.  But  now  the  rule 
is  not  universal.  Baronies  in  their  first  creation 
emanated  from  the  king.  Baronies  appertain 
also  to  bishops,  as  fortnerly  to  abbots,  Wil- 
liam tbe  Conquerer  having  changed  ihe  ^ritual 
tenure  of  frank-almoyn,  or  free  alms,  by  which 
they  held  their  lands  under  the  Saxon  govern- 
ment, to  the  Norman  or  feudal  tenure  by 
baronv.  It  was  in  virtue  of  this  that  they  ob- 
tainea  seats  in  the  House  of  Lord^.  The  word 
is  connnonly  applied  in  Ireland  to  a  subdiviHon 
of  a  county. 


.1  instrument  for  showing 
(hat  bodies  are  supported  by  the  buoyancy  of 


BAROSCOPS,  : 


BAROTSB,  ba>r&t's«,  a  south  African 
people  inhabiting  a  ragion  hi  the  west  of  Rho- 
desia, extending  from  tbe  Chode  River  north- 
ward to  ihe  Kabompo.  They  are  a  branch  of 
the  Bechuanas  who  have  migrated  northward, 
and  it  would  appear  that  they  were  long  sub- 
ject to  a  Basuto  tribe  called  the  Makololo. 
About  18W,  however,  they  threw  off  the  yoke 
of  their  oppressors  and  almost  exterminated 
them,  but  Uiey  still  speak  the  language  of  the 
Makololos.  From  1890  King  Lawanika  ac- 
knowledged the  virtual  suiK-emacy  of  Great 
Britain,  and  in  1898  the  British  South  African 
Company  obtained  complete  administrative 
powers.  Thdr  country,  a  treeless  alluvial  plain 
called  Barokeland  or  northwestern  Rhooesia, 
was  amalganwted  4  May  1911  with  northeastern 
Rhodesia  nnder  the  title  of  northern  Rhodesia. 
Area  290,000  square  miles.  Pop.  870,000,  in- 
cluding 2^250  Europeans. 

_  BAROUCHE,  a  four-wheeled  carria^ge 
with  a  falling  top,  There  are  usually  two  in- 
side scats  in  which  four  persons  can  sit. 

BARQUESIMBTO,  bar-k?-s?-ma-tO,  Ven- 
ezuela, city,  capital  of  the  state  of  Lara; 
is  "iituatcd  in  a  high  plain,  on  tbe  Bar- 
que si  meto  River.  It  was  founded  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1552.  The  town  is  well  buiftj  and 
bas  mde  streets,  and  among  its  prominent 
buildings  are  the  government  palace,  barracks, 
market  and  cathedral.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
college  and  other  educational  institutions.  It  is 
the  centre  of  a  fertile  at^ricultural  district  and, 
owing  to  its  excellent  transportation  facilities, 
controls  important  commercial  interests.  Coffee 
of  excellent  quality  is  grown  here,  and  with 
cocoa,    sugar   and    rum,    forms    the    principal 

V0»-3  — 18 


article  of  trade.  It  was  almost  completed  de- 
stroyed by  the  great  earthquake  of  1812  and 
suffered  severely  during  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence and  the  later  avil  wars.  From  1830 
to  1881  it  was  the  capital  of  the  state  of  the 
same  name. 

BARR,  AinelU  Edith  ~(Hdddusion), 
American  novelist:  b.  Ulverston&  Lancashire, 
29  March  1S31.  Educated  at  the  Glasgow  High 
School,  Scotland,  she  married  Robert  Barr  in 
1850.  In  1854  (he  family  moved  to  Texas  and 
there,  in  1867,  her  husband  and  three  sons  died 
of  yellow  fever  at  Galveston.  Soon  after  this 
event  she  removed  to  New  York  where  she 
b^n  writing  for  the  Christian  Union,  and 
other  magaanes.  Her  first  bool^  'Romance  and 
Reality'  (1872)  was  the  earliest  of  more  than 
60  volumes  from  her  pen.  She  is  the  author  of 
yan  Vedder's  Wife'  (1885)  ;  <A  Daughter. of 
Fife'  (1885);  (A  Bow  of  Orange  Ribbon' 
(1886);  'A  Border  Shepherdess'  (1887); 
'Friend  Oliiria'  (1890);  <A  Sister  of  Esau* 
(1891)  ;  'Remember  the  Alamo'  (1893)  ;  'Pris- 
oners of  Conscience'  (1897) ;  '1,  Thou  and  the 
Other  One'  (1899);  'Trinity  Bells'  (1899); 
'The  Uaid  of  Maiden  Lane'  (1909);  'The 
Lion's  Whelp'  (1901);  'Souls  of  Passage' 
(1901);  'Fleet  of  Clay'  (1901);  'Bcmiaa' 
(1895);  'The  Bbck  Shiileys'  (1903);  'The 
Bdle  of  Bowling  Green*  (190*);  'Master  of 
His  Fate'  (1901)  i  'The  Song  of  a  Single  Note' 
(1902) ;  'Cecilia's  Lovers'  (1905) ;  'The  Heart 
of  Jessy  Laurie'  (1907)  ;  'The  Strawberry 
Handkerchief  (1908)  ;  'The  House  on  Cherry  . 
Street'  (190B)  ;  "The  Hands  of  Compulsion' 
(1909) ;  'The  Reconstructed  Marriage'  (1910) ; 
'Sheila  Vedder>  (1911)  ;  'A  Maid  of  Old  New 
York'  (19U);  'All  die  Days  of  My  Life' 
0912);  'Playing  with  Fire'  (1913);  'The 
Winning  of  Lucia'  (1914);  'The  Measure  of 
a  Man'  f  1915) ;  Three  Score  and  Ten'  (1915), 


A  Fife 


Girl'  (1917). 


BARR,  Jttmea,  Canadian  author:  b.  Wal- 
lacetown,  Ontario,  1862.  He  engaged  in 
journalism  in  that  province,  the  United  States 
and  in  London ;  and  under  the  pen-name  of 
Angus  Evan  Abbott  has  contributed  much  to 
magazine  fiterature.  Among  his  separate  pub- 
lications are  'American  Humorous  Verse' 
(1891),  and  the  American  volume. in  the  'In- 
ternational Humorous  Series'  (1S93),  the  last 
containing  a  biographical  index  of  nearly  200 
American  and  Canadian  humorists,  and  several 
novels.  He  is  a  brother  of  the  late  Robert  Barr 
(qv.) 

BARR,  Robert,  Scottish  novelist;  b. 
Glasgow^  16  Sept.  1850;  d.  22  Oct.  1912.  He 
spent  his  childhood  in  Canada,  drifted  into 
journalism  and  in  1876  joined  the  staff  of  De- 
troit Free  Press,  and  wrote  under  the  name  of 
Luke  Sharp.  He  went  to  London  in  1881  and 
in  1892  founded  The  Idler  with  Jerome  K. 
Jerome,  but  retired  in  1895  to  devote  himself 
to  fiction.  He  is  author  of  'In  a  Steamer 
(Tiair'     (1892);    'In    the    Midst    of    Alarms' 


(1901);  'A  Prince  of  (iood  Fellows'  (1902); 

.mz.d.,  Google 


B  ARRA  —  BARRACKS 


•The  Tempestuous  Petticoat*  (1905-12): 
'StranleiEh's  Millions*  (1909) ;  »The  Sword 
Maker'  (1910)  t  'The  Palace  of  Logs'  <1912)  ; 
•The  0'Ruddy,>  with  Stephen  Crane  (pos- 
thumous, 1913). 

BARRA,  a  small  Mandingo  kingdom  of 
western  Africa,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia, 
with  an  estimated  population  of  200,000,  its 
men  being  remarkable  for  their  fine  propor- 
tions. The  surface,  which  is  fertile,  but  r^Uber 
mar^ty,  is  well  cultivated.  The  territory  is  a 
British  protectorate.  The  English  have  built 
the  port  of  Albreda  on  the  south  bank,  from 
which  considerable  trade  is  carded  on-  The 
chief  town  is  Barrinding,  where  the  sc>-called 
king  resides. 

BARRA,  Scotland,  an  island  forming  part 
of  the  Outer  Hebrides,  Inverness- shire,  eight 
miles  long  and  from  two  to  five  wide,  and  al- 
most entirely  composed  of  gneiss,  which  on  the 
west  coast  forms  huge  rod^  barriers.  On 
these  the  Atlantic,  beating  with  all  its  force, 
has  hollowed  out  vast  caves  and  fissures.  In 
the  interior  not  merely  the  hollows  and  valleys, 
but  many  of  the  loftiest  hills  are  clothed  with 
fine  pasture,  on  which  large  herds  of  cattle  and 
flocks  of  sheep  are  reared.  The  coasts  abound 
widi  fish,  and  the  island  fonns  a  fishing  centre 
of  some  importance.  There  are  many  standing 
stones  and  other  antiquities.  The  inhabitants, 
about  2,500,  all  speak  Gaelic.  South  of  Barra 
is  the  islet  of  Bcmeray,  with  the  highest  li^t- 
bouse  in  Great  Britam,  683  feet  above  high 
water  and  visible  for  33  miles. 

BARRACAN,  strictlv,  a  thick,  strong 
fabric  made  in  Persia  ana  Armenia,  of  camel  s 
hair  but  the  name  has  been  applied  to  various 
wool,  flax  and  cotton  stuffs. 

BARRACK-ROOH  BALLADS.  Mr. 
Kioling's  'Ballads  and  Barrack-Room  Ballads' 
(1892)  is  on  the  whole  a  highly  ori^nal  as  well 
as  significant  volume.  Far  surpassing  his  'De- 
partmental Ditties,*  it  established  his  fame  as  a 
poet,  and  contains,  indeed,  those  of  his  poems 
which,  with  the  •Recessional*  and  a  few  others, 
have  remained  the  greatest  popular  favorites. 
The  collection  Is  made  of  the  Barrack-Room 


E.  Henley:  of  other  poems  which 
printed  from  Mofmilliati't  Magazint,  The  Saint 
Jamet'  Gaaette,  etc. ;  and  of  still  others  which 
now  were  printed  for  the  first  time.  The  21 
Barrack- Room  Ballads  proper  bear  somewhat 
the  same  relation  to  'Soldiers  Three*  aa  is 
borne  by  'The  Departmental  Ditties'  to  'The 
Plain  Tales  from  the  Hills.'  Written  mainly 
in  Cockney  dialect,  salted  with  slang  and 
soldier-lingo,  they  voice  the  sentiments  and  ex- 
periences of  "Tommy  Atkins*  as  he  figures  in 
various  parts  of  the  empire.  Here  the  poet's 
magic  has  transferred  nis  material,  and  has 
added  a  new  province  to  poetry.  All  are  sing- 
ing ballads,  with  catchy  choruses  and  jingling 
refrains  that  contribute  largely  to  their  spirited 
effect.  Their  sentiment  ranges  throurfi  the 
rollicking  fun  of  •Oonts*  and  'Fuzzy-Wuzzy,' 
the  satire  of  'Tommy,"  the  grim  tragedy  of 
■Danny  Deever,"  and  the  romantic  longing  of 
•Mandalay."  These  five,  at  least,  have  Been 
suiK  throu^out  the  English-speaking  world. 
The  narrative  ballads  ot  the  collection  and 


the  other  poems  in  ordinary  English  are  as  a 
whole  less  successful.  Though  much  of  their 
subject  matter  is  fresh,  they  often  follow  con- 
ventional and  even  outworn  methods  and  styles. 
■The  Ballad  ot  East  and  West"  which  avers 
that  "the  East  is  East  and  the  West  is  West,  and 
never  the  two  shall  meet*  rather  too  strongly 
suggests  Macaula^.  The  highly-mannered 
"English  FIag,»  which  asks  'What  should  th^ 
know  of  England  who  only  England  know?*  is 
interestiiw  as  perhaps  the  first  of  Kipling's 
poems  ot  imperial  sentiment.  The  poetry  of 
the  engine-room,  which  this  poet  has  since  ex- 
tensively cultivated,  appears  in  the  ■Qampher- 
down*  and  the  ■Bolivar,*  the  latter  truly  ex- 
cellent, and  probably  the  best  of  the  narrative 
ballads.  But  more  famous,  perhaps,  is  ■Tomlin- 
soiL*  a  stinging  satire,  with  its  galaxies,  comets 
and  suns,  its  glimpses  of  heaven  and  hell,  all 
of  which  teleological  and  astronomical  acces- 
sories have  since  figured  prominently  in  Mr. 
Kipling's  verse.  Yet,  with  all  its  limitations, 
'Barrack-Room  Ballads'  is  a  brilliant,  original 
and,  on  the  whole,  delightful  volume,  which 
cannot  safetjr  be  n^ected  by  any  lover  of 
poetry.    Criticism  has  run  the  gamut  fra~  — 


lil%.>      Explanatorr   notes   on    the   poems    i 
given  by  Durand,  'Handbook  to  the  Works  __ 
Rudyard  Kipling'  (pp.  26-92). 

MABION  TVCKER. 

BAHRACKPUR,  bi-riik-poor'.  India,  a 
town  and  cantonment  in  Bengal,  on  the  Hugli, 
13  miles  north  of  Calcutta  and  on  the  East 
Bengal  Railway.  In  the  vicinity  is  the  subur- 
ban residence  of  the  Viceroy  of  India,  within  a 


place  here  in  February  1857.  A  mutiny 
had  previously  taken  place  in  1824.  Barrackpur 
is  also  known  as  North  Barrackpur  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  South  Barracl^ur  or  Akst- 
para,  midway  between  it  and  Calcutta.  It  is 
the  capital  of  a  sub-district  which  was  formed 
in  1904.  Many  inhabitants  are  employed  in  the 
mills,  which  are  just  outside  the  towns.  From 
the  salubrity  of  its  air  Barrackpur  is  a  favorite 
retreat  for  Europeans  from  Calcutta.  Pop. 
18.000. 

BARRACKS,  a  name  originally  given    lo 
temporary  accommodation  for  tro<^^  but  now 


tions,  in  whicb  troops  «re  k>dged.  The  intro- 
duction of  barracks  into  England  vas  opposed 
as  dangerous  to  liberty,  by  estranging  the 
soldier  from  the  citizen,  and  fitting  him  to  be- 
come a  tool  of  despotism;  but  the  biUetii^  of 
soldiers  upon  citizens  had  grown  to  be  so  bor- 
densome  to  communities  that  after  the  ck>9e  of 
the  18th  century  extensive  barracks  were  built 
at  convenient  stations  all  over  the  United  King- 
dom. Much  improvement  has  been  effected  in 
the  construction  and  arrangement  of  English 
barracks  during  the  last  half-century ;  and 
separate  quarters  are  now  provided  for  mar- 
ried soldiers.  The  construction  and  repair  of 
barracks  is  part  of  the  duty  of  the  royal  engi- 
neers; their  equipment  and  allotment  is  en- 
trusted to  a  barracks  section  of  the  army  serv- 
ice corps.  In  the  United  States  the  term  i^ 
officially  used  to  designate  important  militarv 
posts,    such   as   the  Columbus    Barracks,    San 


,y  Google 


BARRACOON  ~  BARRAS 


STB 


Diego  Barrackt,  Wftdungton  Bariscks  and 
others. 

BARRACOON,  a  oegro  barrack  or  slave 
dmot,  foimerly  ;^entiful  on  the  coasts  of 
Africa,  Cuba  and  BraiiL 

BARRACUDA,  bir-ra-koo'da,  an  oceanic 
Gsh  of  the  family  Sphyrtmida,  of  which  about 
20  species  inhabit  the  warm  seas  of  the  whole 
world  All  are  eloncate,  pike-like  fishes,  with 
long,  pointed  jaws  filled  with  Aarp  teeth.  They 
are  often  of  lar^  size,  arc  powerful  iwimmers, 
active  and  Toractout.  and,  like  the  bluefish,  prey 
upon  school;  of  smaller  fishes.  Several  species 
occur  on  the  American  coasts.  The  great  bar- 
racuda "picuda,"  or  •becuna"  (SphyriBHa  picu- 
da),  is  common  throi^hool  the  West  Indies 
and  northward  to  South  Carolina,  and  reaches 
a  len^h  of  six  feet.  It  is  the  largest  and  most 
voracious  of  the  garni,  is  ss  fierce  as  a  shark 
and  is  sometiines  dangerous  to  bathers.  Other 
West  Indian  species  are  those  called  gua- 
guanche  and  picudilla.  These  are  smaller,  as  is 
a  diird  species  also,  whidl  is  common  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States.  Two  or 
three  ^>ectes  aie  found  on  the  Pacific  coast 
from  California  southward.  One  of  these  {S. 
argentea)  is  a  long  and  slender  species,  known 
as  the  Caiifomia  'barracouta,*  and  higbly 
valued  for  food.     It  closely  resembles  the  typs- 


portant  food  fishes  of  the  Medite 

BARRAGE,  Tir  de  (Fr.),  curtain  fire:  in 
artillery  attack  a^nst  a  Dosition,  as  a  trench, 
the  enemy  position  is  nrst  "prepaiedj*  i.e., 
heavily  bomtrardcd  The  cannon  range  is  then 
extended  to  behind  the  trench,  a  curtain  of  fire 
preventing  the  survivors  of  the  bombardment 
from  retreating,  and  also  preventing  reinfoice- 
menls  from  reaching  them  from  the  rear. 
Under  cover  of  the  barrage  the  attacker's  in- 
fantry is  thrown  forward  to  complete  the  cap- 
ture  of  the  position. 

BARRAMUNDA,  bfir-ra-min'dt,  or 
BURHETT  SALUOH,  names  in  Australia 
for  a  mud-fish  {Crratodtu),  remarkable  as  a 
survival  of  the  very  ancient  graup  Dipnoi.    See 

LUNOTISH. 

BARRANDB,  b»-rfi<^d,  JoschIm,  French 
geologist :  b.  Sangues  in  the  department  of 
Haute  Loire,  11  Aug.  1799:  d.  Vienna,  S  Oct 
1883.  His  specialh'  was  the  Silurian  fonna- 
ticMis  in  Bohemia,  nis  writings  including  'Sys- 
teme  silurien  du  centre  de  la  Boheme'  (1852 
and  1887);  'Colonie  dans  le  bassin  silurien  de 
la  B(4ieme>  (I860);  'Documents  sur  ta  faune 
primordiale  et  la  Systime  Taconique  en  Amer- 
iqnc'  p661);  'Representation  de  colonies  de 
la  BiAeme  dans  le  bassin  silurien  du  nordouest 
de  la  France'    (1853);    'C^halapodes,  etudes 

BARRANOUILLA,  ba-ran-kelj^  Colom- 
bia, the  chief  nuvial  port  of  Colombia  and  the 
capital  of  the  department  of  Atbntico,  with  its 
harbor  at  Puerto  Colomtna,  sometimes  called 
Savanilla.  Situated  on  the  Magdalena  River, 
near  its  mouth,  and  in  latr  10*  29*  N.,  Barran- 
quilla  is  connected  with  Puerto  Colombia  by 
railway.  The  climate  is  hot  and  damp;  never- 
theless it  is  a  busy,  well-built  city,  possessing  a 
covered  market,  theatre,  hospital^  five  churches, 
two   banks,  two   large   flour  nulls  and  sugar. 


chocolate  and  textile  factories,  etc.  The  town 
has  electric  light  and  tramways,  telephone  serv- 
ice and  good  water  supply.     Pop.  49,000. 

BARRANTES  Y  UORSNO,  ba-r^n'tu- 
c-m6-ra'n5,  Vincente,  Spanish  writer:  b. 
Badajoi,  24  March  1829;  d  Poiuelo  (Madrid), 
16  Oct.  1898.  He  l^rst  studied  theology,  but  in 
1848  settled  in  Madrid  to  pursue  literature;  held 
responsible  Eovernmeni  oflices,  and  became  a 
member  of  Uie  Academy  in  1872.  Among  his 
worics  are  the  stories,  'Always  Late*  (1851); 
'Juan  de  Padilla,'  'The  Widow  of  Padilla.' 
and  a  series  of  historical  studies,  dealing  with 
local  Philippine  and  Estremaduran  topics. 


Jhen  the  Revolution  broke  out  he  im- 
mediately showed  himself  an  opponent  of  the 
court  and  had  a  seat  in  the  tiers  itat,  while  his 
brother  was  sitting  among  the  nobility.  He 
took  part  in  the  attacks  upon  the  Bastile  and 
the  Tuileries,  was  elected  a  juryman  at  the 
tribunal  of  Orleans,  and  in  September  a  mem- 
ber of  the  national  convention,  where  he  voted 
for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  Although  he  had 
estabhshed  his  reputation  as  a  patriot,  yet  he 
was  distasteful  to  Robespierre  whom  he  sus- 
pected as  a  half-bearted  revolutionary,  and  he 
resolved  to  involve  him  in  the  great  proscription 
which  be  then  meditated  Barras  therefore 
joined  those  determined  to  overthrow  Robes- 
pierre, and  took  an  important  part  in  tibe  events 
of  the  9th  Thermidor  (27  July  1794).  He  was 
entrusted  with  the  chief  command  of  the  forces 
of  his  part};,  repelled  the  troops  of  Henriot, 
and  made  himself  master  of  Robespierre.  On 
4  Feb.  1795  he  was  elected  presicfait  of  the 
convention.  The  13th  Vendemiaire  (5  Oct 
1795),  when  the  troops  of  the  sections  which 
favored  the  royal  cause  approached  the  conven- 
tion, Barras  for  a  second  time  received  the  chief 
command  of  the  troops,  and  employed  Bona- 
parte in  the  adoption  of  rigorous  repressive 
measures.  In  his  report  he  attributed  the 
victoiy  to  this  young  general,  and  procured  for 
him  tne  chief  command  of  the  army  of  the  in- 
terior. His  iinportant  services  promoted  him 
to  the  Directory.  Barras  soon  perceived  that 
Bonaparte  would  give  a  decisive  superiority  to 
him  who  should  obtain  an  influence  over  him; 
and  therefore  he  displaced  Camot  from  the  War 
Department  and  took  possession  of  it  himself. 
This  separated  them,  and  (Zamot  for  some  time 
took  part  with  the  council,  where  a  party  had 
been  formed  to  restrain  the  power  of  the 
Directory,  and  particularly  that  of  Barras. 
The  rupture  could  only  terminate  with  the  rain 
of  one  of  the  parties:  that  of  the  council  fell 
bythe  events  of  the  18th  Fructidor  (4  Sept. 
1797),  in  which  Barras  took  a  leading  part.  He 
arranged  the  marriage  of  Bonaparte  vrith  the 
widow  Beauhamais.  From  this  period  he 
governed  absolutely  until  13  June  1799,  when 
Si^yis  entered  the  Directory.  Meverthclest 
Barras  succeeded  in  preserving  his  seat,  but  he 
became  a  victim  of  the  18th  Brumaire  when 
Bonaparte  overthrew  the  Directory  by  means  of 
the  coup  d'ttal  (9  Nov,  1799).  He  afterward 
retired  to  Brussels,  where  he  lived  for  several 
years;  but  finally  received  permission  to  repair 
to  the  south  of  France.  His  memoirs  (in- 
valuable for  the  inner  history  of  the  Revolii- 


(Google 


ftte 


BARRATRY  —  BARRBt 


tion)    were  published  in  French  and  English 
(1895-96). 

BARRATRY,  a  law  term  applied  to  (1) 
the  offense  committed  by  the  master  of  a  vessel 
of  embeiiling  or  injunng  goods  committed  to 


hii  charge  for  a  voyage  and  against  which 
surance  mav   be   enected.    Barratry  has   aiso 
been  defined  to  be  an  unlawful  or  fraudulent 


their  duty  as  such,  and  directly  prejudicisl  to 
the  owner,  and  without  his  consent;  (2)  the 
offense  of  frequently  exciting  or  stirring  up 
law  suits  or  quarrels  amon^  one's  neighbors  or 
ki  sociefy  generally.  An  indictment  for  this 
offense  must  charge  the  offender  wkh  being  a 
common  barrator,  and  the  proof  must  show  at 
least  three  instances  of  offending.  It  must  be 
dj^itinguished  from  "maintenance" — the  officiout 
intermeddling  with  suits  which  do  not  concern 
the  party,  by  lending  personal  or  other  assitt- 
ance-  and  on  the  other  hand  from  *chaniperhr* 
an  illegal  bar^in  made  between  one  of  the 
parties  to  a  suit  and  a  third  party  whereby  it 
IB  agreed  that  the  latter  shall  share  in  the 
proceeds  of  the  action,  in  return  for  financial 
support  in  its  pursuit  An  attorney  is  not 
liable  to  indictment  for  maintainhu  another  in 
a  groundless  action.  In  New  Vorl^  and  in 
some  other  States,  t»rratry  Is  defined  to  be  the 
practice  of  exciting  groundless  judictal  pro- 
ceedings, and. is  a  misdemeanor. 


4  May  1688.  He  was  appointed  governor  of 
Guiana  in  1661  and  retook  Cayenne  from  the 
Dutch.    In  1667  he  defeated  the  Ei^Iish  in  the 


to  ^e  govemorshii)  of  Canada,  taking  Uie  place 
of  the  Count  de  Frontcnac.  He  was,  however, 
recalled  in  1684,  for  having  by  hts  irresolutioa 
caused  the  failure  of  the  expedition  to  treat 
with  the  savages. 
"~BARRA,  Isaac,  British  officer:  b^  Dublin 


fell,  and  figures  in  West's  picture  of  'TTie 
Death  of  Wolfe.>  He  entered  Parliament  in 
1761,  and  held  ofEce  successively  under  Lord 
Bute.  Pitt,  Rockingham  and  Ixjrd  Sheibume. 
In  Fitl'a  second  administration  he  exposed  the 
corruptions  of  the  ministry^,  was  a  strong  op- 
ponent of  Lord  North's  ministry  and  oj^tosed 
the  taxation  of  America.  The  town  of  Barre, 
Mass.,  was  named  in  his  honor. 

BARRB,  biir'rft,  a  group  of  Arawakan 
ttibes  dwelhng  along  the  upper  Rio  Negro  in 
northwestern  Brazil  and  the  adjoining  districts 
of  Venentela.  They  are  extremely  a^rressive, 
and  their  lafignage  is  extending  rapidly  Uirough- 
out  that  region. 

BARRE,  bir're,  Uass.,  town  in  Worcester 
Covnty,  on  the  Ware  River  and  on  the  Boston 
and  Maine  and  New  Yori(  Central  railroads,  21 
miles  northwest  of  Worcester.  An  institute  for 
feeble-minded  children,  and  the  Stetson  home 
for  poor  boys  arc  established  here,  and  there 
arc  cotton,  woolen  and  straw  factories,  munic- 
ipal watcrworics,  a  ''hrary  and  museum, 
Barre  was  settled  about  1775  and  was  named 
after  Col.  Isaac  Barre  (q.v.).    Pop.  3,000. 


of  the  granite  industry  in  the  united  Sutes, 
engaging  88  of  the  city's  mdnstrial  establish- 
ments. It  ointains,  besides  granite  quarries, 
several  industrial  plants  connected  dterewitli. 
The  United  States  census  of  manufactures  for 
1914  recorded  110  industrial  eilablishraetits  of 
factory  grade,  employing  2,668  persons;  of  whom 
2,357  were  wage  earners,  receiving  f  1,904,000  in 
wages  annual^.  The  coital  invested  ^gre- 
gated  $2,598,0^  and  the  value  of  the  year's 
output  was  fy2X,000i  of  this,  f2,95(^000  was  the 
value  added  by  manufacture.  There  are  also 
a  national  and  two  savincrs  banks;  a  public 
Ubraiy;  opera  house;  Goddard  Seminary;  a 
home  school  for  young  men  imd  women,  with 
four  courses  of  study:  Spaulding  High  School; 
Bums  Monument;  aailv  and  weddy  news- 
papers. It  was  settled  atiout  1788,  organized  as 
a  town  in  1793  and  received  a  aty  charter  in 
1894,  under  which  die  govenunent  is  vested  in 
a  mayor  elected  annually  and  a  city  council- 
The  waterworks  and  sewage  system  are  owned 
and  operated  by  tka  dty.  Pop.  <19I0)  10^734; 
(1914)  11.706. 

BARRBIRO,  ba-rft't-rfi,  Juan  Baptista 
Hernandez,  Cuban  lawyer:  b.  Havana  about 
1S42.     He   acquired   a    liberal   education,    and 


profession.  He  was  professor  of  Roman  law 
in  the  University  of  Havana  for  30  yean;  and 
later  became  dean  of  the  law  facat^  in  di« 
university.  In  February  190(^  while  acting  as 
first  assistant  nsayor  of  Havana,  he  was  af>- 
pointed  a  member  of  the  new  Cuban  Civil 
Cabinet,  and  giveu  the  poitfolio  of  poblic 
education. 

BARRKL,  a  hollow  vessel  made  of  stave^ 
set  on  end,  arranged  around  a  drcle,  ana 
bound  togedier  wiu  hoops.  By  each  stave 
being  made  wider  in  Ae  middle  and  tapering 
a  little  toward  the  ends,  die  barrel  is  of  laiver 
diameter,  or  bidges,  in  the  nuddle.  'Iise 
bevelled  edges  of  the  staves  cause  thcai  to  lit 
closely  toother,  making  a  tlljlt  i«lat  along 
their  leivUi.  The  ends  are  dosed  by  drcular 
heads,  the  edges  made  thin  t»  fit  into  a  groove 
cut  to  recdve  them  near  the  ends  of  the  staves, 
in  which  they  are  held  fast  by  driving  the 
hoops  upon  the  swell  of  the  barrel.  The  catt~ 
structiou  of  the  barrel  is  ingeniously  adapted 
for  combining  great  strength  with  lightness. 
It  resists  pressure  from  wiuioul  bv  the  arched 
arrangement  of  the  slaves;  and  the  hoops 
secure  it  from  the  expansive  force  of  .gases 
often  generated  in  its  contents.  Its  form  is  the 
most  convenient  for  transportation,  admittias 
of  the  vessel  being  rolled  or  rapidly  swung  by 
hooks  placed  under  the  chine  or  ends  of^die 
staves.  In  the  form  of  kegs,  firkins,  liquor 
casks,  butts,  hogsheads,  etc,  iney  are  met  with 
everywhere.  Yet  the  Chinese,  with  all  their 
ingenuity,  it  is  said,  have  never  made  a  barrd. 
Formerly  barrels  were  constructed  entirely  by 
hand,  the  cooper  shaving  the  staves  with  the 
draw  knife,  and  shaping  them  Igr  clamps.  But 
machines  are  now  applied  to  ifis  pun>ose,  by 
which  the  work  is  done  much  more  expedi- 
tiously.   See  CoopEXAO, 


t,zcd=y  Google 


BAItRSH  GKOUND8  — BARRETT 


As  a  measure  of  capacity,  the  barrel  U  of 
viable  dimensions,  dilTerlnK  in  size  with  the 
materi^s  it  is  designed  to  hold.  In  wii\e  meas- 
ure the  barrel  must  contain  31^  gallons.  A 
barrel  of  beer  in  England  is  equal  to  Ibyi  im- 
perial gallons.  In  the  United  States  a  barrel 
of  flour  must  contain  196  pounds;  and  a  barrel 
of  beef  or  pork.  200  pounds.  The  measure  of 
capacity  cafled  barrel  bulk  is  five  cubic  feet. 
Barrel  is  also  used  to  express  any  thing  long 
and  faoUow,  ai  a  gun-barrel.  It  is  also  applied 
to  the  cylinder  in  a  watch,  about  vhich  the 
spring  is  coiled;  and  in  analoiiqr,  to  the 
"cavity  of  the  tjrmpanmn'  of  the  ear, 

BARRBN  GROUNDS,  ^e  name  given  to 
a  large  tract  in  flie  Northwest  Territories  of 
Canada,  extendiog  northward  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean  between  Great  Bear  and  Great  Stave 
lakes  and  Hudson  Bay.  It  consists  largely  of 
swamps,  lakes  and  bar  rock,  and  a  commr- 
atively  small  |)art  of  it  is  yet  welt  known.  The 
vegetation  chiefly  consists  of  dwarf  birches 
and  willows,  mosses  and  lichens.  The  animals 
include  the  rdndeer,  musk-ox:,  beaver,  pol^r 
bear,  wolves,  foxes,  etc 

BARREN  ISLAND,  a  volcanic  island  in 
the  Andaman  Sea,  about  lat  12°  15'  N. ;  long. 
93*  54'  E.  Its  diameter  is  about  two  mjles,  wiOi 
submarine  slopes  plunging  rapidly  to  a  depth 
of  more  than  800  hklboms.  There  is  an  kticient 
crater  over  a  mile  in  diatneter,  from  the 
centre  of  which  a  newer  cone  rises  to  »  heiriit 
of  1,015  feet  The  volcano  was  active  in  1^ 
and  1803,  but  is  now  dormant.  A  small  island 
near  Con^  Island,  New  York,  is  also  known  as 
Barren  Island. 

BARRBN  HEASURB8,  the  name  given 
to  certain  groups  of  strata  associated  with  the 
coal  measures,  but  which  contain  no  workable 
deposits.  In  the  United  States  there  are  two 
so-called  barren  stages,  a  lower  intervening 
between  the  lower  productive  and  the  upper 
productive  measures,  and  an  upper  lying  at 
the  base  of  the  Penniaa  System. 

BARR^,  bf-ris,  Maorke,  French  novel- 
ist: b.  Cbarmcs-sur-MoseUe,  18iS2.  His  earlier 
writing  as  exempEfied  in  his  'Sous  Ini]  dcs 
barbares>  (1888):  <Un  homme  l)bre>  (1689); 
and  'Le  iardin  de  JUihace'  (1891),  is  more 
or  less  oecadent  in  dnracter,  but  his  later 
work  is  much  more  forceful,  and  iaculcalcs  a 
healthful  spirit  of  nationalism.  'Les  diracin£s' 
(1897);  'L'appel  au  soldat>  (1900);  <Leurs 
figures'  (1902);  <Au  service  de  I'AHemagne* 
(1505);  ^Ce  que  j'ai  vu  i  Rcnnes'  (1904); 
*Le  voyage  de  Sparte'  (1906)  ;  'La  maitresse 
servante>  (1911);  <£n  Italie'  (1912)  ;  and,  his 
autobiogra^ical  'Vingt-cinq  ann^es  de  vie  lit- 
tiraire'  (1908)  are  among  tne  best  of  bis  later 
writings.  In  1889  he  was  elected  as  a  National- 
ist to  the  (Hiamber  of  Deputies.  In  1906  he  was 
re-elected  and  was  also  admitted  to  membership 
in  the  French  Academy.  Consult  Huncker, 
J.  G.,  <Egoists,  a  book  of  Supermen*    (New 

BARRIETT,  Benjamin  IHsk,  American 
Swedenbor^n  clergyman :  h.  Dresden,  Me., 
1808;  d.  Germantowti,  Pa  6  Aug.  1892.  He 
was  graduated  from  Bowdoin  Coflege  in  1832, 
and  aeld  Swedenboman  pastorates  in  New 
Yor^  Gncinnati  and  Philadelphia.  He  was  a 
voluminous  writer  and  industrious  editor  of 
books    and    periodicals    relating    to    Sweden- 


BweaenDorg'  (.iMij ;  'L,etiers  on  me  uivinc 
Trinity*  (1860;  4th  cd,  1873)  ■  'Catholicity  of 
the  New  Church*  (1863)  ;  'Episcopaliamsm' 
(1871);  <New  View  of  Hell*  {1870;  !th  ed.. 
1886);  'Swedenborg  and  Channing*  (1878); 
'Heaven  Revealed'   (1885)-. 

BSSIiETTr'Cbu-leB    Simon,     American 

Sriculttirist :  b.  Pike  County,  Ga.,  28  Jan.  1866. 
>  received  a  normal  school  education  at 
BowHng  Green,  Ky.,  Lebanon.  Ohio,  and  Val- 
paraiso, Ind.  He  vras  evgased  in  general  farm- 
ing and  teaching  until  1903,  when  he  began 
organicins  faimers.  In  1905-06  he  was  presi- 
dent of  the  Georgia  Farmers'  Uiuon,and  since 
Uien  has  been  national  president  of  the 
Farmers'  Union,  which  has  a  memberriiip  of 
2.500,000  in  31  Stales.  He  was  a  member  of 
Roosevelt's  Country  Life  Commisston  and  was 
BMKiinted  by  Governor  Hoke  Smith  to  repre- 
sent the  State  of  Gcot^  at  the  6r»t  govemoni' 
conference  held  in  Washington,  D,  C  He  was 
appointed  delegate  to  the  International  A^- 
cultural  Institute  Rome,  by  Secretan'.  of  State 
Bryan.  He  is  eoitor  of  the  National  Field,  the 
official  organ  of  the  National  Farmers'  Union. 
He  is  auukor  of  'Mission,  History  and  Times 
of  the  Farmers'  Union*    (1909). 

BARRETT,  George  Hooksr,  American 
actor:  b.  Exeter,  ^land,  9  June  1794;  d.  S 
Sept.  186a  He  left  EiKland  with  his  motlier. 
an  actress  of  some  celebrity,  and  arrived  at 
Boston  in  October  1796;  he  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance the  same  year  in  the  pari  of  Cora  s 
child,  in  'PLxam^'  at  the  age  of  two  years.  He 
toiniDenced  playing  in  New  York  in  1806,  at 
the  Park  "TheaUe,  in  the  part  of  'Young 
Norva^*  and  became  manager  of  the  Bowciy 
Theatre,  New  Yorlc.  in  1826,  in  company  with 
E.  Gilbert.  He  afterward  visited  England,  and 
in  1837  perfonned  at  Drury  Lane  ^lieatre, 
Lmdos^  under  the  management  of  Alfred 
Buna.  He  was  also  manager  of  the  Tremont 
Theatre,  Boston,  and  in  1847  opened  the  Broad- 
way Theatre,  New  York,  but  he  did  not  retire 
from  the  stage.  His  favorite  characters  were 
in  genteel  comedy,  but  he  also  acted  in  farqe 
and  low  comedy  with  great  success.  From  his 
elegance  and  stalelincss  he  was  known  by  the 
sobriquet  of  '(ientleman  George." 


Attended  Vermont  Academy,  Saxton's  River, 
Vt. ;  Worcester  (Mass.)  Academy,  and  was 
graduated  from  Dartmouth  College,  Hanover, 
N.  H.,  1889,  having  in  the  meantime  taken  one 

Sar's  course  (18^),  at  VanderbiU  University, 
ashville;  Tenn.  Professor  of  English,  Hop- 
kins' Acadeitiv,  Oakland,  Cal.,  1889-90,  and 
connected  with  newspapers  of  San  Francisco, 
SeaHle,  Tacoma,  and  Portland^  Ore.,  1890-04. 
When  assistant  editor  Evening  Telegram,  Port- 
land Ore.,  he  was  appointed  United  States 
Minister  to  Siam,  18<4,  where  he  settled  the 
famous  Cheek  case  involving  several  millions 
of  dollars  and  interpretation  of  United  States 
treaties  in  Asia,  for  which  he  was  specially 
thanked  by  the  President  of  the  United  States. 
He  also  made  special  official  visits  to  Japan, 
Korea  and  China,  but  resigned  as  Ministor  in 
1898  to  go  as  special  correspondent  to  the 
Philippines  during  the  Spanish -American  War. 
Appointed  delegate  United  States  Second  Pan- 


3gle 


BARRETT  —  BARRICADE 


American  G^nference,   Mexico,   1901;  Cominis- 


o  Argentina,  1903-04;  United  States  Min- 
ister to  Panama,  190M)5 :  United  Sutes 
Minister  to  Colombia,  1906.  In  1907  was 
elected  by  unanimous  vote  of  21  Ameri- 
can ^vernments  Director-General  of  the  Pan- 
American  Union  (q.v.),  "the  official  inter- 
national organization  maintained  in  Washing- 
ton by  the  American  republics  for  the  develop- 
ment of  commerce,  friendship  and  peace.  He 
was  elected  first  honorary  member  American 
Asiatic  Society,  New  York,  was  founder  of 
Pan- American  Society  of  the  United  States, 
and  has  been  given  special  degrees  by  universi- 
ties in  the  United  States  and  Latin  America  for 
work  in  behalf  of  Pan-Americanism.  Is  author 
of  'Admiral  George  Dewey'  (1899);  'Pan- 
American  Union  —  Peace,  Friendship,  Com- 
merce' <1911);  'Panama  Canal'  (1913),  also 
of  books  on  Asiatic  and  Latin  American  sub- 
jects. 

BARRETT,  Lawresce,  American  actor:  b. 
Paterson,  N.  J.,  4  April  1838;  d.  21  March  1891. 
His  first  appearance  on  the  stage  was  in  1853, 
in  'The  French  Spy.'  In  1856  ne  appeared  as 
Sir  Thomas  Oifford  in  'The  Hunchback'  at 
Chambers  Street  Theatre,  New  York^  and  in 
1857  he  supported  Burton,  Charlotte  Cushman, 
Edwin  Booth  and  other  eminent  actors.  He 
served  as  a  captain  in  the  28th  Massachusetts 


and  at  Winter  Garden,  in  New  York,  where  he 
was  engaged  by  Mr.  Booth  to  play  Othello  to 
his  lago.  After  this  he  became  an  associate 
manager  of  the  Varieties  Theatre  in  New 
Orieans,  where  for  the  first  time  he  played  the 
parts  of  Richelieu,  Hamlet  and  Shylock.  In 
1864  he  secured  'Rosedalc*  from  Lester  Wal- 
lack,  and  after  appearing  in  its  leading  char- 
acter at  New  Orleans,  began  his  first  tour  as  a 
star  actor.  In  1867  he  played  at  Maguire's 
Opera  House  in  San  Francisco,  and  was  then 
manager  of  the  California  Theatre  till  1870. 
Late  in  1870  he  went  with  Mr.  Booth,  playing 
in  alternate  characters  in  Booth's  Theatre.  In 
1871-72  he  was  manager  of  the  New  Varieties 
Theatre  in  New  Orleans,  and  in  December  1872 
acted  Casiius  to  Booth's  Brutus  in  New  York. 
During  1873-74  he  made  lours  through  the 
United  States.  In  1875  he  appeared  as  Cassius 
in  'Julius  Cesar,'  in  Booth's  Theatre,  and 
later  as  King  Lear.  He  was  the  first  actor  to 
appear  as  Daniel  Druce  in  the  United  States 
in  Mr.  Gilbert's  play.  In  18S2  he  brought  out 
^Francesca  da  Rimini,'  at  the  Chestnut  Street 
Theatre  in  Philadelphia.  In  1883  this  play  ran 
for  nine  weeks  at  the  Star  Theatre,  in  New 
York.  In  1887  he  began  his  first  joint  engage- 
ment with  Edwin  Booth  in  Buffalo.  Mr.  Bar- 
rett's last  productioD  of  anew  play  was  'Guido 
Ferranti*  by  Oscar  Wilde,  brought  out  in  1890, 
at  the  Broadway  Theatre,  New  York.  His  last 
appearance  was  on  18  March  1891,  in  the  char- 
acter of  Adrian  du  Mauprat  to  the  Richelieu 
of  Mr.  Booth.  He  wrote  'Lite  of  Edwin 
Forrest' 

BARRETT,  Sir  WUIiam  Fletcher,  English 
scientist;  b.  Jamaica.  West  Indies,  10  Feb. 
1844.  He  assisted  Professor  Tyndall  at  the 
Royal  Institution,  London,  1863-66,  and  was  pro- 


fessor of  experimental  physics  in  the  Royal  OA- 
Itm  of  Science,  Dublin,  1873-1910.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Society  for  Psydiical 
Research,  and  is  widely  known  for  his  original 
researches  in  magnetism  and  radiant  heat  He 
has  published  'Lessons  in  Science*  (1880): 
'Early  Chapters  in  Science'  (1899);  <A  Mon- 
(Mtraidi  on  the  So-called  Divining  Rod*  (1897. 
IMO),  etc    He  was  knighted  in  191i 

BARRETT,  Wilson,  EngUsh  dnniatist  and 
actor;  b.  Essex,  18  Feb.  1846;  d.  Lon<lon,  22 
July  1904.  He  went  upon  the  stage  in  1863. 
In  1874  he  became  manager  of  the  Amphi- 
theatre in  Leeds,  and  later  lessee  of  the  Grand 
Theatre  in  Leeds;  in  1^  manager  of  the  Court 
Theatre,  London;  and  in  1881,  of  Princess" 
Theatre,  London.  He  visited  the  United  States 
in  1886,  and,  returning  to  England  in  1887, 
became  manager  of  tne  Globe  Theatre ;  re- 
visited the  Umted  States  in  1888,  and  again  in 
1889;  in  1896  became  maimger  of  the  Lyric 
Theatre,  London;  and  in  1899,  of  the  Lyceum. 
His  dramas  include  'The  Sign  of  the  Cross'; 
'Pharaoh';  'Now-a-days' :  'The  Dau^ters  of 
Babylon*;  'In  Old  New  York,'  etc.;  and  he 
adapted  for  stage  purposes  such  well-known 
novels  as  'The  Deemster' ;  'The  Bondman* ; 
'The  Manxman' ;  and  'Quo  Vadis.' 

BARRHEAD,  Scotland,  manufactormg 
town  of  Renfrewshire,  seven  miles  soirthwesl 
of  Gbsgow.  The  chief  industries  are  the 
printing  of  cottons,  the  spinning  of  cotton  yarn, 
dyeing,  bleaching,  troit  and  brass  founding,  and 
the    making    of    machinery    and    sanitary   ap- 

Eliances.    Its  engineering  and  other  worlcs  com- 
ine  with  its   railway  facilities  to  make  it  a 
busy  and  thriving  town.     It  was   founded  in 
1773.    Pop.     (1911)  lOiOOO. 
US,  b^-r 

painter;   b.   Paris,    1_ ,_ ,    _.    . 

pupil  of  Leon  Cogniet  His  most  successful 
works  are  'Cincinnatus*  (1644) ;  'Sappho' 
(1847) ;  'Death  of  Chopin*  (1885)  and  his 
mural  decoraiioiH  in  the  Hotel  da  Louvre  the 
Grand  Opera  Housc^  the  churches  of  Saint 
Eustache  and  La  Tnnitt  Paris,  and  at  Groi- 
venor  House,  London.  He  was  awarded  the 
(}rand  Prix  da  Rome,  1844;  Legion  of  Honor, 
1859 ;  first  medal  at  the  Paris  E^msition,  1889. 

BARRICADE.  A  hastily  improvised  ob- 
struction intended  to  defend  streets,  bridges 
and  other  narrow  passages,  and  to  retard  the 
enemy  in  his  movements.  Carriages,  casks, 
chests,  fumitur^  beams,  chaiijs,  and,  in  short 
everything  which  is  at  hand,  is  used  for  this 
purjwse,  either  in  defending  a  town  ^jainst 
besiegere,  or  in  suppressing  popular  tumiSts. 

Barricades  have  been  made  use  of  in  street- 
fights  since  the  Middle  A^es,  but  they  are  best 
known  in  connection  with  the  insurrections 
in  Ihe  city  of  Paris.  As  _early  as  1358  the 
streets  of  Paris  were  barricaded  against  the 
Dauphin  afterward  Charles  V.  A  more  note- 
worthy barricade-fight  was  that  in  1588.  when 
4,000  Swiss  soldiers,  marched  into  Paris  by 
Henry  III  to  overawe  the  Council  of  Sixteen, 
would  have  been  utterly  destroyed  by  the 
populace,  firing  from  behind  barricades,  had 
the  court  not  consented  to  negotiation ;  and  the 
result  was  that  the  King  fled  next  day. 

The  next  barricade-fight  of  importance  in 
Paris  was  that  of  1830,  which  resnltcd  in  the 


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BARRICADES  —  BARRILI 


07S 


1  i>i]G&  an«  „,^  w.^w»^»  w-  — ,  — ^_,-  ^^ — „, 
Louis  Philippe.  During  the  three  days  which 
this  revolution  tasted,  the  number  of  barricades 
erected  across  the  streets  amounted  to  several 
^ousands.  They  were  fonned  of  the  most 
heterogeneous  materials  —  overturned  vehicles, 
trees,  scaffolding-poles,  planks,  builtUng-mate- 
lials  and  street  paving'Stones ;  men,  women  and 
childrm  taking  part  in  their  erection.  In 
Febniaf7  1848,  the  insurrection  a^nst  Louis 
PhiHppe  commenced  with  the  erection  of  barri- 
cades :  but  the  most  celebrated  and  Uoody 
barricade-fight  was  that  between  the  populace 
and  provisional  government,  which,  commenc- 
ing on  the  night  of  the  23  June  1848.  lasted 
throueiiout  the  three  foUowing  days,  when 
the  pec^le  had  to  surrender.  The  national 
losses  by  this  fight  were  estimated  at  30,000,000 
francs ;  16^000  persons  were  killed  and 
wounded,  and  8,000  taken  prisoners.  The 
Emperor  Napoleon  III  so  widened  and  macad- 
amiied  the  principal  streets  of  Paris  after  he 
ascended  the  throne  as  to  render  the  success- 
ful erection  of  barricades  next  to  impossible. 
There  was  a  remarkable  barricade-erection  in 
London  in  1821.  The  nunistry  desired  that  the 
body  of  Queen  Caroline  should  be  conveyed 
out  of  the  country  to  Germany,  for  interment, 
without  the  populace  having  the  opportunity  of 
making  any  demonstration.  On  the  matter  be- 
coming known,  a  vast  barricade  was  erected 
at  the  point  where  the  Hampstead  road  joins 
the  new  road;  and  as  nothing  but  the  use  of 
artillery  could  have  forced  the  way,  the  officer 
in  charge  of  the  funeral  cortege  deemed  it 
prudent  to  change  bis  course  and  pass  through 
a  more  central  part  of  the  metropolis.  During 
the  revolutions  of  1844  barricades  were  suc- 
cessfully carried  in  Paris,  Berlin,  Vienru  and 
other  places,  by  abandoning  the  attack  in  front 
and  breaking  through  the  houses  of  contiguous 
streets,  taking  their  defenders  in  the  rear. 

BARRICADES,  Th«  Days  of  the,  a  phrase 
employed  to  denote  popular  Parisian  revolts. 
BARRIE,  Sn  James  Matthew,  British 
novelist  and  dramatist:  fa.  Kirriemuir,  Scotland, 
9  May  1860.  He  was  graduated  at  Edinburgh 
University  in  1882.  His  sketches  and  stones 
of  country  life  in  Scotland  soon  brought  him 
to  the  attention  of  the  British  public  and  within 
a  few  years  he  was  the  recognized  master  in 
his  field.  Me  published  <Auld  Licht  Idylls> 
(1888):  'A  Widow  in  Thnnns*  (1889);  <The 
Little  White  Bird'  (1892);  'Sentimental  Tom- 
my* (1892).  These  four  books  assured  the 
success  attained  earlier  by  his  work  in  papers 
and  periodicals  and  gained  him  a  vast  hosi  of 
readers.  He  is  unexcelled  in  his  portraj^l  of 
Scottish  peasant  life,  with  its  tricksy  wit  and 


such  as  'My  Lady  Nicotirie'  (1890);  'The 
Little  Minister*  (1891);  'Margaret  Ogilvy' 
(1896);  'Tommy  and  GriieP  (1900);  'Peter 
Pan  in  Kensington  CaiAem'  (1906);  'Peter 
and  Wendy>  (1911).  In  1892  he  won  his  first 
success  in  another  field  with  his  farce,  "Walker, 
London.'  This  was  followed  by  many  other 
plays,  several  of  which  were  based  on  his  work 
in  fiction.  These  include  'The  Professor's 
Love  Stofy'  C189S) ;  'The  Little  Minister' 
(1897)  :   'TTie  Wedding  Guest*  (1900) ;  'Qual- 


ity Street* ;  'The  Admirable  Crichton'  and 
'Utile  Mary*  (1903);  'Peter  Pan'  (1904); 
'Alice-Sit-by-the-Fire'  (1905);  'What  Every 
Woman  Knows'  (1908);  'The  Legend  of 
Leonora';  'The  Will';  'The  Adored  One' 
(1913);  'Halt  Hours'  (1913);  'Der  Tag' 
(1914)  ;  'Rosy  Rapture'  (1915).  His  dramas 
are  apart  from  the  problem  type  of  his  day, 
dealing  with  the  comedy  of  manners  and  the 
fantasy  in  which  his  humor,  satire  and  engag- 
ing personality  have  given  him  a  hi^  place. 
He  was  made  a  baronet  in  1913.  A  lO-volume 
edition  of  Barrie's  'Works'  was  issued  in  Lon- 
doninl913.  (See  LittleMinister,The.)  Oin- 
sult  Hammerton.  A.  J.,  'Barrie  and  his  Books' 
(New  York  1900),  containing  a  list  of  articles 
on  Barrie  and  his  work.  Por  bibliography  of 
his  work  to  1903  consult  English  lllustraUd 
Magazine  (Vol.  XXIX,  New  Series,  p.  208). 

BARRIE,  Canada,  town  and  county- seat 
of  Simcoe  County,  Ontario,  on  the  Grand 
Tmnk  Railway,  at  the  western  extremity  of 
Lake  Simcoe,  64  miles  north- northwest  of 
Toronto.  Barrie  was  founded  in  1832  and  in- 
corporated in  1871.  It  is  a  popular  and  beau- 
tiful summer  resort,  and  the  starting  point  of 
the  Lake  Simcoe  steamers.  The  chief  industrial 
establishments  are  i>laning  and  grist  mills,  car- 
riage works,  breweries,  brick-yards,  engine  and 
boiler  works,  and  wicker  works.  The  water- 
works and  electric-light  plant  are  owned  by  the 
corporation.  In  1896  Allandale,  a  railway 
centre,  was  annexed  to  the  town,  and  the  Grand 
Trunk  Railway  has  here  a  '^'^e  roundhouse, 
machine  shops,  etc.  A  United  States  consular 
agent  is  staUoned  here.    Pop.  (1911)  6,420. 

BARRIER  REEF,  The  Great,  a  coral  reef 
or  line  of  reefs  extending  for  1,260  miles  off 
the  northeast  coast  of  Australia,  at  a  mean  dis- 
tance from  land  of  30  miles.  It  has  a  breaddi 
varying  from  10  to  90  miles,  though  little  of  it 
rests  above  water  level.  The  channel  sepa- 
rating it  from  the  mainland  rarely  exceeds  250 
feet  in  depth,  but  on  its  outer  slope  the  reef 
rises  precipitously  from  a  great  depth,  no  bot- 
tom having  been  foimd  at  some  places  with  a 
line  of  285  fathoms. 

BARRIER  TREATY.  When,  by  the 
Peace  of  Utrecht  in  1715,  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands were  ceded  to  Austria,  this  cession  was 
agreed  to  by  the  Dutch,  who  had  conquered 
these  provinces  in  alliance  with  Ei^land,  only 
on  condition  that  thej[  should  have  the  right 
(in  order  to  secure  their  borders  and  give  them 
a  barrier  against  their  powerful  nei^bor, 
France)  to  garrison  several  fortresses  of  the 
country,  and  that  Austria  should  engage  to  pay 
yearly  to  Holland .  $350,000  for  the  sup- 
port of  these  garrisons.  The  treaty  which  was 
concluded  between  Austria,  England  and  Hol- 
land was  called  the  Barrier  Treaty.  In  1781 
the  Emperor  Joseph  II  declared  it  void. 

BARRIERS,  Battle  of  the,  an  engage- 
ment between  the  French  and  the  Allies  in 
front  of  Paris,  March  1814,  in  which  the  former 
were  defeated.  Its  immediate  result  was  the 
abdication  of  Napoleon. 

BARRILI,  barrel;,  Antonio  GInlio, 
Italian  novelist:  b.  Savona,  14  Dec.  1836;  d 
1909.  Enga^ng  in  journalism  at  18,  he  assumed 
the  management  of  //  Movimenio  in  1860,  and 
became  proprietor  and  ctUior  of  II  Caffaro  in 


.Google 


B  ASRING-OUT  —  BARRIOS 


of  1859  and  1866  (with  Garibaldi  in  TyroI_)  and 
in  the  Roman  expedition  of  1867,  and  sat  m  ibe 
Chamber  of  Deputies  in  1876-79;  He  was  one  o£ 
tihe  most  prolific  writers  of  modem  Italy,  and 
among  Ills  numerous  stories  are  'Ebn  Tree  and 
Ivy'  (1868)  ;  'The  Vale  of  Olives'  (1871);  <As 
in  a  Dream,»  <The  Devil's  Portrait*  (1882): 
'The  Eleventh  Commandment,'  *A  Whimsical 
Wooing.'  He  has  published  several  volumes 
of  criticism,  araon^  which  may  be  named 
'II  Rinnovamento  Litlerario  Italiano'    (1890). 

BARRING-OUT,  a  practice  once  common 
in  some  English  schools  and  rendered  familiar 
to  many  from  forming  the  subject  of  one  of 
the  tales  in  Miss  Edgeworth's  'Parent  Assist- 
ant.' It  generally  took  place  a  few  days  before 
the  holidays,  when  the  bovs  barred  the  doors  of 
the  school  and  defied  the  masters  from  the 
windows.  It  was  commonly  understood  that 
the  pupils  might  dictate  terms  a>  to  holidays 
for  the  ensuing  year  if  they  could  prevent  the 
masters'  entrance  for  three  successive  days.  The 
origin  of  the  practice  is  not  known;  but  its 
observance  is  enjoined  in  the  statutes  of  Wit- 
ton  School,  Cheshire,  founded  in  1S88,  by  Sir 
John  Deane. 

BARRINGTON,  Dainea,  English  lawyer, 
antiquary  and  naturalist:  b.  1727;  d.  14  March 
1800.  After  preparatory  studies  at  Oxford  ajid 
the  Inner  Temple,  he  was  called  to  the  bar. 
He  was  successively  appointed  a  Wel^  judge 
(1757),  recorder  of^  Bristol  (1764)  and  second 
justice  of  C:hester  (1778-85).  His  publications 
were  numerous,  but  his  name  is  now  best  known 
as  a  correspondent  of  White  of  Selbome, 
whose  famous  tetters  on  natural  histoty  he  i» 
said  to  have  suggested.  He  was  an  eager,  curi- 
ous antiquary,  uncritical  and  the  subject  of 
many  hoaxes. 

BARRINGTON,  George,  Irishman,  noted 
author  and  thief,  whose  real  name  was 
Waldron:  b.  1755;  d.  about  1840.  His  most 
notable  act  of  thieving  was  the  robbing  of  a 
Russian  prince  in  Covent  Garden  Theatre.  He 
took  from  him  a  gold  snuff-box  said  to  be 
worth  $150,000;  but,  as  the  prince  refused  to 

Srosecute,  he  was  dismissed  from  triaL  In  1790 
e  was  sentenced  to  seven  years'  penal  servitude 
at  Botany  Bay;  but  having  given  information 
of  an  intended  mutiny  of  me  other  convicts  on 
the  voyage,  at  the  end  of  two  years  he  was  dis- 
charged, on  the  first  warrant  of  emancipation 
ever  issued  He  was  made  superintendent  of 
convicts,  and  later  high  constable  at  Paramatta. 
He  was  a  wit,  and  of  some  literary  genius ;  one 
.  couplet  in  a  prologue  he  wrote  for  Young's 
play  'Kcvenge,' produced  by  the  convicts  on  the 
opening  of  the  Sydney  Tlfeatre,  remaiijs  an  en- 
during classic; 

"True  ntrioti  we;  for  be  it  nndtntood, 
■ffe  Wt  our  cooBtrv  for  oui  country'i  e'Kfi" 

Hew 

'Hisi 

tory  of  New  Holland,'  i.e.,  Austraha  (1808). 

BARRINGTON,  John  Shute.  EngUsh 
lawyer  and  theologian :  b.  London  1678;  d. 
Bccket,  Berkshire,  14  Dec.  1734.  From  1715 
to  1723  he  was  a  member  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons and  was  created  first  Viscount  Barring- 
ton  in  1720.  He  was  a  disciple  and  friend  of 
L,ocke,  a  friendship  which  is  thought  to  have 


(Barringlon's)  work.  "The  Interests  of  Eng- 
land,* etc.  He  was  devoted  to  theology  and 
wrote  extensively  in  that  science.  His  chief 
works  have  been  collected  under  the  title  'The 
Theological  Works  of  the  First  Viscount  Bar- 
rington.' 

BARRIOS,  bir'rc-^  G«rudo,  Central 
American  statesman :  b.abont  1810;  d.  1865.  He 
became  President  of  Salvador  in  1860.  During 
his  administration,  education,  CMnmerce  and 
public  works  prDgressed  remaitably,  his  prcd- 
dcntial  management  b«ng  mrasuaUy  liberal.  He 
was  deposed  by  Duenas  as  &e  outcome  of  the 
war  with  Guatemala,  and,  while  endeavoring 
to  bring  about  a  revolution  in  order  to  become 
President  ^ain,  was  captured  and  executed. 

BARRIOS,  JUBto  Riifino,  son  of  the  fore- 
going, Guatemalan  statesman,  of  Spanish- Indian 
blood :  b.  San  Lorenzo,  Guatemala,  17  July 
1835;  d.  aalchuapa,  2  April  1885.  He  was 
educated  for  the  law,  but  the  political  punish- 
ment of  his  father  led  him  to  become  a  guer- 
rilla revolutionist,  and  finally  chief  lieutenant 
of  Garcia  Granados,  who  by  his  help  ousted 
Vicente  Cema  (the  decisive  battle  being  foueht 
29  June  1871)  and  became  President,  Barnos 
being  commander-in-chief.  The  revolution  was 
a  democratic  and  anti-clerical  one,  and  the  new 
government  began  by  expelling  the  Jesuits;  to 
which  Barrios  added  the  suppression  of  reli- 
gious orders  during  an  acting  prcsidenCT,  and 
after  he  had,  on  4  June  1873  succeeded  Grana- 
dos as  President.  There  had  been  incessant  re- 
volts of  the  reactionists,  which  shortly  after  his 
accession  he  quelled  once  for  all,  establishing 
a  system  of  terrorism  and  espionage  which  at 
least  gave  the  country  quiet  and  enabled  him  to 
carry  out  his  wonderful  reforms  and  improve- 
ments. He  maintained  internal  peace  and 
supremacy  in  Central  America  by  a  thorough 
system  of  militia  drill  for  all  but  the  purt- 
blooded  Indians ;  keeping  an  army  of  some 
XJOOO  men  in  constant  reserve,  witfa  3,dD0  to 
4,000  in  the  capital,  which  he  made  one  of  the 
best  ordered'  cities  of  Spanish  Aaienca.  He 
organised  the  postal  and  telegraphic  service  oo 
the  reports  of  men  sent  to  exannne  the  United 
States  systems.  He  built  the  first  Iclegntpli 
and  the  first  railroad  in  Guatemala,  and  started 
a  line  to  the  coast,  compelling  every  citiien 
earning  over  $8  a  month  to  hold  stock  in  it; 
constructed  street  railway  Unes  in  the  capital; 
improved  the  roads  and  buih  solid  bridges. 
He  remodeled  the  educational  ^sten^  estab- 
lished collegiate  institutes,  norrnal  and  indus- 
trial schools,  and  made  laiowledgc  of  French 
and  English  a  condition  of  license  to  practise 
law  or  medicine.  He  built  two  modern  peniten- 
tiaries. In  a  word,  he  transformed  Guatemala 
into  one  of  the  most  habitable  and  progressive 
countries  south  of  the  United  States.  But  the 
foremost  purpose  of  his  life  was  to  form  Cen- 
tral America  into  one  united  state,  for  power 
and  prosperity  and  the  ending  of  the  misei^le 
wars  that  wasted  its  vitality.  On  IS  Jan.  1876 
he  assembled  a  diet  from  all  the  states  in 
Guatemala  ci^  to  frame  a  plan  of  consolida- 
tion; but  as  It  could  not  agree  npon  one,  he 
therefore  determined  to  set  up  governments  in 
the  other  states  favorable  to  his  plans.  Hon- 
duras was  racked  t^  a  cinl  war  and  offered  no 
difliculties,  Salvador  was  too  small  to  resist  the 


digitized  by  GOOI^IC 


BARRISTXR  —  BARR08 


union  of  the  twoi  and.  thenceforward  till  18S4 
Barrios  disposed  of  the  resources  of  all  three 
republics.  On  1  March  1880,  the  first  Constitu- 
tion of  Guatemala  went  into  operation,  and 
Barrios  was  re-elected  for  a  six-year  temj.  On 
24  Feb.  1883  he  issued  a  circular  to  the  Liberal 
party,  pledging  himself  to  effect  the  unification 
only  by  peaceful  means  a.nd  with  the  consent  of 
all  the  republics.  In  March  1S84  he  called  a 
meeting  of  five  delegates  from  each  republic, 
but  Costa  Rica  and  Nicaragua  still  held  back. 
Finally,  on  28  Feb.  1885,  he,  with  his  assembly, 
issued  a  decree  proclaimins  the  union  of  the 
five  stales,  relying  on  Honduras  and  Salvador 
to  help  him  ^ut  down  resistance  in  the  others. 
But  the  President  of  Salvador  refused  to  em- 
ploy force,  and  on  Barrios  persisting,  joined 
Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica  in  a  league  to  resist 
him,  appealing  to  Mexico  and  the  United  States 
for  help.  President  Dial  of  Mexico  remon- 
strated with  Barrios,  and  the  United  States 
viewed  the  movement  with  disfavor;  but  on  the 
Salvadorean  troops,  which  expected  Mexican 
help,  invading  Guatemala,  Barrios  drove  them 
back  into  Salvador,  and  while  entertug  Chal- 
chuapa  was  struck  down  by  a  shaniMooCer's 
bullet.  Hb  widow  removed  to  New  Vort  and 
his  son  became  a  cadet  in  the  United  States 
army. 

BARKI5TBR,  ia  England,  sn  advocate  or 

fleadetv  who  baa  been  achnitted  by  one  of  the 
iMis  of  Court  namelv,  the  Inner  Temple,  Mid- 
dle  Temple,  Lincoln  s  Jnn   or  Gray's  liin  to 
plead  at  the  bar.    Before  a  student  can  be  ad* 
mitled  to  the  bar  he  must  have  been  a  member 
of  one   of   diosc   societies  and  have  kept   12 
terms  there  by  dining  sufficiently  often  in  the 
hall  of  the  society  to  which  he  belongs,  and 
must  also  pass  a  public  examination.    The  ex- 
aminations,   whidi    had    dwindled    into    mere 
forms,  have  in  recent  years  been  made  more 
stringent.        Barristers    are    sometimes    called 
utter    or  outer   banisters,  to   distinguish   them 
from    queen's   <or  king's)     counsel,    who    sit 
within    the  bar  in   tke  courts,   and  are  distin- 
gtiisbed   by  a  silk  gown.    Barristers  sre  also 
spolcen  of^as  counsel,  as  in  the  phrase  "opinion 
of  counsel,"  that  ts  a  written  opinion  obtained 
from   a   barrister  before  whom  the  facts  of  a 
case  have  been  laid.    The  duties  of  a  barrister 
are  noniinalty  honorary,  and  he  can  maintain  no 
action   for  his  fees.    Yet  there  are  few  higher- 
paid  professions  than  that  of  a  successful  bar- 
rister.    It  is  the  barristers  who  speak  before 
all  the  hi^er  courts,  being  instrocCcd  in  regard 
to  the   facts  of  the  case  they  have  in  hand  by 
means  o£  die  brief  which  they  receive  from  ^e 
solicitor  engaging  their  services.    In  the  Unhed 
States    there  is  no   distinct  order  of  counsel 
correspoading    to    the    English    barrister,    the 
same  person  perf  omune  the  duties  of  attorney, 
solicitor,  counsel  or  advocate.    Sec  also  Advo- 
cate. 

BARSON,  Jsmes,  American  naval  officer: 
b.  ViTginU  1769;  d.  21  April  18S1.  He  entered 
the  navy  in  1708,  and  commanded  the  Chesa- 
pfoke  in  180?,  when  it  was  attacked  by  the 
Britisfa  ship  Leopard  as  a  result  of  his  refusal 
to  allovir  the  Chesapeake  to  be  searched  for  de- 
serters. The  Chesapeake,  which  was  quite  un- 
prepared, discharged  one  gun  previous  to  strik- 


court-martialed  for  neglect  of  duty,  thou^  only 
partially  to  blame  for  the  surrender  of  his  ves- 
sel, and  suspended  for  five  years.  The  court 
closed  its  finding  on  the  subject  of  the  personal 
conduct  of  the  accused,  in  the  following  lan- 
guage: *No  transposition  of  the  specifications, 
or  any  other  modification  of  the  charges  them- 
sdves,  would  ^ter  the  opinion  of  the  court  as 
to  tfac  firmness  and  courage  of  the  accused ;  the 
evidence  on  ttiis  pcdat  is  clear  and  satisfactory.* 
Sach  was  the  fate  of  Conuaodore  Bamm,  but 
it  is  note  titan  probable  Out  under  the  state  of 
public  feehnt,  aemanding  a  victim,  those  who 
were  really  respousihle  for  theincffidencyof  the 
Cketaptama  esonped  unpunished.  Upon  his 
restoration,   as   the   outcome  of   a   long  corre-, 

rndence  with  his  personal  enemy,  Commo- 
e  Decatuii  a  duel  was  fought  and  Decatur 
was  killed.  Barron  became  senior  officer  in  the 
nav);  in  1839,  though  never  again  in  active 
service  and  never  regained  fuU  public  esteem. 
See  Cbesapcake  and  Leopard. 

BARRON,  Samuel,  American  naval  of-, 
officer:  b.  Hampton,  Va.,  1763;  d.  29  Oct  1810. 
In  1805  he  coromaaded  a  squadron  of  10  ves- 
sel) in  the  expedition  against  "TripoU,  On  his 
return  to  the  United  States  he  waA  appointed 
commatidant  oi  the  Gospon  navy  yard,  but  died 
iamediately  afterward 

BARROS,  bar-Tds,  Antia  Diafo,  Chilean 
scholar  and  historian:  b.  Santiago,  16  Aug. 
1830.  Ill-health  obliging  him  to  give  ttp  l^^l 
studies,  he  early  devoted  himself  entirely  to  his- 
torical and  literary  pursuits,  and  soon  became 
an  authority  on  the  history  of  his  native  coun- 
try. The  favor  with  which  his  historical  sketch 
of  the  campaigns  of  1818-21  was  received  en- 
couraged him  to  begin  an  extensive  'History 
of  Chilean  Independence'  (1854-58);  He  spent 
several  years  investigating  die  government 
archives  and  private  libraries  of  South  America 
and  Etirope  in  search  of  material  bearing  on  the 
history  of  Soudi  America^  In  Sitnancas  he  dis- 
covered the  manuscript  of  the  'Pur^  Indom- 
ito,>  an  historical  poem  on  the  Araucanian 
War,  and  publiBhed  an  edition  of  it  at  Leipzig 
in  1860.  His  chief  works  in  addition  to  the 
above  are  'Vida  y  viajes  de  Hernando  de 
Ma^llanet^  (1864);  'Histoire  de  ta  guerre  du 
Pacifiaue*^  (1881),  written  by  order  of  the 
government:  and  his  montmiental  *Htstoria 
general  de  Chile*  (12  vols.,  1884-93). 

BASROS,  Jolo  de,  eminent  Portuguese 
historian:  b.  Vlzeu  1496;  d.  Pomtal  1570.  His 
first  work,  an  historical  romance,  entitled  the 
'EJnperor  Clarimond,'  appeared  in  1520.  Bat- 
ros  presented  it  to  the  King,  who  urged  him  to 
undertake  the  history  of  the  Portuguese  in  In- 
dia, which  was  issued  1552~i2.  King  John  HI 
appointed  Barros  govornor  of  the  Portuguese 
settlements  in  Guinea,  and  afterward  general 
agent  for  these  colonies,  in  which  cajtacitics  he 
proved  a  capable  and  clean  administrator.  In 
1530  he  presented  Barros  with  the  province  of 
Maranham  in  Brazil  for  the  purpose  of  coloni- 
zation. Barros  lost  a  great  irart  of  his  fortune 
by  the  enterprise  and  returned  the  province  to 
[fie  King,  who  indemnified  him  for  his  losses. 
His  work  'L'Azia  PortD^gneza,'  is  much  ad- 
mired for  its  style,  erudition  and  orderly  ar- 
rangement; but  he  lacked  the  critxal  facultr 
necessary  to  place  personalities  and  events  in 
thrir    true    perspective.    He   wrote   besides    a 


digitized  byGoOgle 


B  ARROS  A  —  BARROW 


moral  dialogue,  'Rhopicancuma,'  in  which  he 
^ows  the  pernicious  consequences  of  accom- 
modating principles  to  circumstances.;  but  this 
work  was  prohibited  by  the  Inquisition.  He 
wrote  also  a  dialogue  on  false  modesty,  and  a 
Portuguese  grammar,  the  first  ever  published. 

BARROSA,  or  BOROSA,  Spain,  a  village 
near  the  southwest  coast  of  Andalusia,  16  miles 
southeast  of  Cadiz.  On  a  tcnoll  to  the  east  of 
it  a  battle  was  fought  in  1811,  in  whidi  the 
British  under  General  Graham,  when  aban- 
doned by  the  Spaniards,  defeated  a  superior 
French  force  under  Victor. 

BARROT,  b^-rd,  Camille  Hradnthe 
Odilon,  French  statesman:  b.  Villefort,  Loiire, 
19  July  1791;  d.  Boucival,  near  Paris,  6  Aug. 
1873.  At  19  he  pleaded  before  the  ordinary 
tribunals,  and  at  23,  by  a  special  dispensation, 
before  the  Court  of  Cassation,  Paris,  and  early 
acquired  a  hiith  reputation  for  eloquence.  In 
the  political  arena  his  oratory  soon  made  him 
one  of  the  most  influential  leaders  of  the  liberal 
opposition.  He  became  president  of  the  *Aidc- 
toi"  Society  in  1830,  ana  at  the  July  revolution 
in  that  year  was  one  of  three  commissioners  ap- 
pointed to  conduct  the  dethroned  Charles  X  to 
Cherbourg,  on  his  way  to  England.  Returti' 
ing,  he  was  appointed  prefect  of  the  department, 
of  the  Seine  and  member  of  the  Council  of 
State,  but  in  a  few  months  resigned  his  offices 
to  lead  the  opixtsilion  to  Casimir  Pirier  and  the 
reactionary  ministers  who  followed  him.  He 
supported  Thiers  from  his  accession  to  offica 
in  March  1840,  to  his  fall  in  October,  when  he 
resumed  his  opposition  to  the  nunistry  of 
Gutzot.  He  tooK  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
reform  movement  of  1847,  and  spoke  eloquently 
at  several  of  the  provincial  rcfonn  b^quett 
which  led  to  the  revolution  of  February  1848. 
Made  president  by  Thiers  in  his  short-lived 
ministry,  he  advised  the  King  to  withdraw  his 
troops  and  thus  remove  the  last  obstacle  to  the 
downfall  of  his  throne.  In  the  last  sitting  of 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  he  supported  the 
claim  of  the  Comte  de  Paris  to  the  throne  and 
the  regency  of  the  Duchess  of  Orleans.  The 
February  revolution  considerably  abated  his 
ardor  for  public  liberty.  He  held  office  for 
some  time  under  the  presidency  of  Louis 
Napoleon,  but  retired  from  active  political  life 
after  the  coup  d'itat,  2  Dec  1851,  and  accepted 
no  office  under  the  Second  Empire.  In  July  1872 
he  was  made  a  councillor  of  state  and  vice- 
president  of  the  council,  6  Aug.  1873.  His 
'Mimoires  Posthumes'  appeared  at  Paris 
(1875-76). 

BARROW,  or  BARROWE,  Henry,  Eng- 
lish ecclesiastical  reformer,  often  considered  as 
one  of  the  founders  of  CongresattonaUsm :  d. 
1593,  He  was  a  member  of  Grays  Inn,  London, 
in  1576  and  there  became  interested  in  tiie  writ- 
ings of  Thomas  Browne,  the  founder  of  the 
Brownists.  On  account  of  his  advocacy  of 
church  reform  he  was  imprisoned  and  with  his 
coreformer.  Greenwood,  was  hanged  at  Ty- 
burn. He  was  the  author  of  'Brief  Discourse 
of  the  False  Church'  (1590).  See  Dexter, 
'Congregationalism  of  the  Last  Three  Hundred 
Years'  (1880)  ;  <Dictionary  of  National  Biog- 
raphy'   (London  1885 — ). 

BARROW,  Ibmc.  English  mathematician 
and  theologian:  h.  London  1630;  d.  May  1677. 


At  the  Charterhouse,  where  he  was  educate<l 
he  was  chiefiv  remarkable  for  fighting  and 
neglect  of  stuay,  but  being  removed  to  a  school 
at  Felsted,  in  Essex,  he  began  to  show  some 
earnest  of  his  future  great  reputation.  He  was 
subsequently  entered  a  pensioner  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  in  1643,  of  which  he  was 
chosen  a  scholar  in  1647.  Finding  that  opinions 
in  church  and  State  opposite  to  his  own  now 
prevailed,  he  proceeded  some  length  in  the  study 
of  anatomy,  botany  and  chemistry,  with  a  view 
to  the  medical  profession.  He,  however, 
changed  bis  mind,  and  to  the  study  of  divinity 
joined  that  of  mathematics  and  astronomy.  In 
1652  he  graduated  M.A.  at  Oxford,  and  being 
disappointed  in  his  endeavor  to  obtain  tbe 
Greek  professorship  at  Cambridge  in  1654,  en- 
gaged in  a  scheme  of  foreign  travel.  He  set 
out  in  1655,  and  during  his  absence  his  first 
work,  an  edition  of  Euclid's  'Elements,'  was 
published  at  Cambridge.  He  visited  France 
and  Italy,  where  he  embarked  for  Smytna,  and 


returning  in  1659  by  way  of  Germany  and  V 
land,  and  was  soon  after  ordained  by  Bishop 
Brownrigg.  In  1660  he  was  elected  Greek  pro- 
fessor at  the  University  of  Cambridge;  in  1663 
professor  of  geometry  in  Gresham  College;  and 
m  1663  the  Roval  Society  elected  him  a  mem- 
ber of  that  booy  in  the  first  choice  after  their 
incorporation.  The  same  year  he  was  appointed 
the  first  Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Cunbridge.  In  16o9,  on  a  conscientioas  prin- 
ciple of  duty,  he  determined  to  give  up  mathe- 
matics and  adhere  exclusively  to  divimty.  Ac- 
cordiiigly,  after  publishing  his  celebrated  'Lec- 
tiones  Opticse,'  ne  resigned  his  chair  to  the 
great  Newton.  In  1673  the  King  nominated 
him  to  the  membership  of  Trinity  College,  ob- 
serving that  he  had  bestowed  it  on  the  best 
scholar  in  England.  He  had  before  this  refused 
a  living,  given  him  witti  a  view  to  secure  his 
services  as  a  tutor  to  the  son  of  the  gemleman 
who  had  it  to  bestow,  because  he  deemed  such 
a  contract  simoniacal-  aaA  he  now,  with  similar 
conscientiousness,  had  a  clause  in  his  patent  of 
master  allowing  him  to  marry  erased,  because 
incompatible  -with  the  intentions  of  the  founder. 
In  1675  he  was  chosen  vice-chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Cambridge;  but  the  credit  and 
utilitj'  expected  from  his  labors  were  frustrated 
by  hts  untimely  death. 

The  works  of  Barrow,  both  mathematical 
and  theological,  are  of  the  highest  class.  Of 
the  former  the  fallowing  are  the  principal: 
•Euclidis  Elementa'  (1655) ;  'EucMs  Data* 
(1657);  'Lectioncs  Optics'  (1669):  'Lectiones 
Geometrica:'  (1676) ;  'Archimeois  Opera' 
(1675)  ;  "Apollonii  Conicorum,  lib.  iv> ;  'Theo- 
doaii  Sphencorum,  lib.  iii,  novo  melhodo  illos- 
Irata  et  succincte  demonstrata'  (1675);  'Lectio 
in  qua  Theoremata  Archimedis  de  Sphaera  et 
Cylindro  per  Methodum  Indivisibilium  Invcs- 
tigata*  (1678) ;  '  Mathematicse  Lectiones' 
(1683).  All  his  English  works  are  theological; 
they  were  left  in  manuscript,  and  published  I? 
Dr.   Tillolson    (1685).     'Isaad   Barrow   Opiu- 


deemed  inferior  only  to  Newton;  as  a  divine 
he  was  singularly  distinguished  for  depth  and 
copiousness  of  thought.  A  fine  specimen  of  his 
characteristic  copiousness  is  quoted  by  Addison 
from  his  sermon  on  'Vain  and  Idle  Talking,' 


BARROW  —  BARROWS 


in  which  the  various  forms  and  guises  of  wit, 
—  a  faculty  for  which  Dr.  Barrow  was  himself 
celebnted, —  are  enumerated  with  a  felicity  of 
exprEssion  which  it  would  he  difficult  to  parallel. 

BARROW,  Sir  John,  eminent  English 
traveler  and  geographer:  b.  near  Ulverston, 
Lancashire,  1764;  d.  23  Nov.  1848.  When  14 
years  old  he  entered  an  iron  foundry  in  Liver- 
pool as  timekeeper.  Two  years  afterward  he 
g:ave  up  this  situation  and  made  a  voyage  in  a 
whaler  to  Greenland.  He  was  subsequently 
employed  as  a  teacher  of  mathematics  in  a 
school  at  Greenwich,  and  in  that  capacity  at- 
tracted die  attention  of  Sir  George  Stauntoi^ 
who  appointed  him  nominally  comptroller  ot 
the  household  to  Lord  Macartney  in  his  em- 
bassy to  China  in  1792,  thoi^h  his  real  employ- 
ment was  to  take  charge  of  the  philoso[Jiica] 
instruments  carried  out  as  presents  to  the 
Chinese  Emperor.  Of  this  journey  he  afterward 
published  an  account  under  the  title  of  ^Travels 
in  China*  (1804).  On  Lord  Macartney  being 
appointed  governor  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
in  1797,  he  made  Mr.  Barrow  his  private  sec- 
retary; and  on  quitting  the  Cape  in  1798  left 
him  auditor-general  of  public  accounts.  Dur- 
ing his  residence  there  he  made  several  ioume^KS 
bto  tbe  interior  of  south  Africa,  and  on  hi) 
return  to  England  published  an  account  of  them 
under  die  title  of  'Travels  in  Southern  Africa.' 
in  1804  Barrow  was  appointed  second  secretary 
to  the  admiralty;  which  post,  with  a  brief  in- 
terval, he  occupied  continuously  for  40  years. 
The  duties  of  tnis  post  he  discharged  mth  tbe 
most  exemplary  industry  and  activity,  and  he 
took  an  ardent  interest  in  promoting  geographi- 
cal and  scientific  discovery,  and  more  especially 
the  expeditions  to  the  Arctic  Seas.  His  leisure 
hours  were  employed  in  literary  work,  and  the 
numerous  volumes  published  by  him  attest  the 
profitable  use  he  made  of  his  time.  These  in- 
clude, in  addition  to  the  books  of  travel  already 
mentioned,  the  'Life  of  Earl  Macartney* ;  'Life 
of  Lord  Anson' ;  'Lite  of  Lord  Howe' ;  'Voy- 
ages of  Discovery  and  Research  within  the 
Arctic  Regions' ;  Autobiographical  Memoir' 
(1847).  In  1835  he  was  created  a  baronet  He 
originated  the  Royal  Gei^aphical  Society  ia 
IS30  and  was  its  vice-president  at  the  time  of 
his  death.  Barrow  Strait,  Cape  Barrow  and 
Point  'Barrow,  in  the  Arctic  r^ons,  were 
named  in  his  honor. 

BARROW,  a  navigable  river  of  Ireland, 
province  of  Leinster.  Its  course  is  generally 
southward,  and  after  about  900  miles  it  joins 
the  Suir  to  form  the  estuary  called  Waterford 
Harbor.  It  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  200  tons 
to  New  Ross,  25  miles  from  the  sea,  and  for 
bafges  to  Athy  in  Kildare  County,  where  it  is 
joined  by  a  branch  of  the  Grand  Canal. 

BARROW,  the  name  which  was  given 
to  three  prominent  localities  of  the  Arctic 
repon,  in  honor  of  Sir  John  Barrow.  (1)  Point 
fiarrow,  on  the  north  coast  of  Alaska,  in  laL 
71°  23*  N.,  and  long.  156°  31'  W.,  long  considered 
3!  the  most  northerly  spot  on  the  American 
mainland.  (2)  Cape  Barrow,  on  the  coast  of 
Canada,  or  Coronation  Gnli,  is  in  lat  68°  N, 
long,  lir  W.  (3)  Barrow  Strait,  the  earliest 
of  Panys  discoveries,  leading  to  the  west  out 
of  Lancaster  Sound,  which  Parry's  immediate 
predecessor.  Captain,  afterward  Sir  John,  Ross, 
had  pronounced  to  be  landlocked  in  that  direc- 


tion. Besides  its  main  course  to  Melville 
Sound,  Barrow  Strait  throws  off  Prince  Re- 
gent's Inlet  to  the  south  and  Wellington  (Chan- 
nel to  the  north.  The  passage  averages  about 
50  miles  in  breadth,  extending  nearly  along  the 
parallel  of  74°  N.,  from  85°  to  100°  W. 

BARROW,  an  artificial  mound  or  tumulus 
of  stones  or  earth,  piled  up  over  the  remains 
of  the  dead.  Such  erections  were  frequently 
made  in  ancient  times  in  our  own  land,  and 
they  3're  met  with  also  in  many  other  countries 
both  in  die  Old  and  New  World.  In  Scotland 
they  are  called  cairns.  When  opened  they  are 
often  found  to  contain  stone  cysts,  calcined 
bones,  etc-  Burial  in  barrows,  commencing 
amid  the  mists  of  remote  antiquity,  seems  to 
have  been  practiced  as  late  as  the  8th  century 
A.D.  One  of  the  finest  barrows  in  the  world  is 
Silbury  Hill,  Wiltshire,  near  Marlborough.  It 
is  170  feet  in  perpendicular  height,  316  along 
the  slope,  and  covers  about  five  acres  of  ground. 
See  also  Mound  Buiuieis. 

BARROW-IN-PURNBSS,  England,  sea- 
port, parliamentary  and  county  borough,  in  the 
district  of  Purness,  situated  opposite  to  and 
including  the  island  of  Waloey,  Lancashire, 
SO  miles  northwest  of  Livei^ol.  In  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century  it  was  a  fishing 
village  with  300  inhabitants;  in  1911  its  popula- 
tion was  63,770.  This  extraordinary  prosperity 
is  due  to  the  workinf[  of  the  rich  mines  of  red 
hematite  iron-ore  which  abound  in  the  district, 
and  to  the  extension  of  the  railway  to  Barrow, 
by  which  its  excellent  natural  position  ana 
capabilities  of  development  as  a  seaport  have 
been  taken  advantage  of,  There  are  now  four 
docks  completed,  and  the  depth  of  water  is  suf- 
ficient to  admit  the  largest  ships  at  present 
afloat  Much  timber  is  imported  from  the 
north  of  Europe  and  from  Canada  and  Nor- 
way, large  numbers  of  cattle  are  brought  from 
Belfast,  preserved  provisions  are  brought  from 
the  United  States,  and  an  extensive  trade  is 
done  in  grain  and  flour.  Iron-ore  and  pig-iron 
are  largely  shipped  from  the  port.  There  is  a 
large  passenger  traffic  with  the  Isle  of  Man  and 
Belfast,  The  chief  industrial  occupations  are 
the  manufacture  of  iron  and  Bessemer  steel, 
ship-building,  iron- founding,  rolling  stock,  and 
the  making  of  ropes,  sails,  bricks,  and  large 
jute  works,  paper-pulp  works  and  salt  works 
nave  been  established.  Barrow  owes  a  great 
deal  of  its  prosperity  to  the  discovery  of  the 
Bessemer  process  of  steeUmaldng  and  to  the 
fact  that  me  hematite  ores  of  the  district  are 
specially  adapted  to  this  process.  Messrs.  Vick- 
crs,  Sons  &  Maxim,  Limited,  employ  thou-V 
sands  of  hands,  and  have  built  some  of  the  \ 
largest  merchant  and  war-vessels  afloat.  Iliey 
also  manufacture  ordnance  and  armor  plate. 
The  town  is  laid  out  on  a  regular  plan,  mostly 
in  rectangles,  is  substantially  built  and  well 
drained  and  supplied  with  gas,  water  and  elec- 
tricity. It  contains  a  free  public  library,  work- 
men's institute  and  a  town-hall,  built  at  a  cost 
of  over  £60,000.  The  Redistribution  Act  of 
188S  erected  it  into  a  parliamentary  borough 
returning  one  member.  The  interesting  ruins 
of  Fumess  Abbey,  which  was  founded  in  1127, 
lie  within  two  miles  of  the  town.  Consult  Rich- 
ardson, 'Fumess,  Past  and  Present*  (1880). 

BARROWS,  Divid  Prencott,  American 
ethnologist  and  educator :  b.  Chicago,  27  '~ 


e&ogle 


BARROWS  —  B  AJMtY 


1873.  He  was  graduated  at  Pomona  College, 
aaremont,  Cal.,  in  IffiM,  and  later  studied  at 
the  universities  of  California,  Columbia  and 
Qiicago.  He  became  superintendent  of  schools- 
at  Manila,  P.  I^in  1900,  chief  of  the  Bureau  of 
Non-Christian  Tribes  1901  and  director  of  edu- 
cation in  the  Philippine  Islands  1903-09.  He 
was  appointed  professor  of  education  and  dean 
of  the  Graduate  School  of  the  University  of 
California  in  1910  and  in  the  following  year 
became  professor  of  political  science  at  that 
institution.  He  has  nubKshed  'The  Ethno- 
Botany  of  the  Coahuila  Indians'  (1900);  *A 
History  of  the  Philippines'  (1903) ;  'A  Decade 
of  American  Goveniment  in  the  Philippines' 
(1915) ;  also  reports  on  ethnology  of  the  Phil- 
ippines and  six  reports  on  the  progress  of  edu- 
cation in  the  Philippines. 

BARROWS,  Elijah  Porter,  American 
clei^yman  and  educator:  b.  Kansficld,  Conn., 
1807;  d.  1888.  He  was  professor  of  sacred  lit- 
erature in  Western  Reserve  CoUwe,  Ohio, 
1837-52,  and  of  Hebrew  in  Andover  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  1853-66.  In  1872  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  at  Oberiin  CoUe^,  Ohio*, 
Besides  many  contributions  to  the  'Bibliotheca 
Sacra,'  he  published  'Companion  to  the  Bible* 
(1867);  'Sacred  (geography  and  Antiquities' 
(1872) ;  'Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Jews* 
(1884). 

BARROWS,  (Kathariiu)  Itabel  Majres, 
American  editor  and  penologist:  b.  Irasburg; 
Vt.,  17  April  1845 ;  d.  25  Oct.  1913.    She 


Leipzig  and  Vienna.  She  was  married  to  Wil- 
Uam  Wilberforce  Chapin  in  1863.  He  died  in 
1865  and  in  1867  she  was  married  to  Samuel 
June  Barrows.  She  was  employed  as  a  stenog- 
rapher by  the  Department  of  State  at  Wash- 
ington, being  the  first  woman  to  hold  such  a 
position.  She  edited  for  20  years  the  'Procced- 
mgs*  of  the  National  Conference  of  Charities 
and  Corrections,  and  was  for  about  16  years 
assistant  editor  of  the  Christian  Register.  She 
was  also  phonographic  secretary  to  the  National 
Prison  Association  and  to  the  Lake  Mohonk 
conferences,  to  each  of  which  she  rendered 
invaluable  services.  She  also  contributed  fre- 
quently to  The  Indepftident.  The  Outlook.  Tht 
Survey  and  other  periodicals.  She  published 
'The  Shaybacks  in  Camp,'  with  S.  J.  Barrows; 
'A  Sunny  Life:  The  Biography  of  Samuel  June 
Barrows*   (1913). 


College,  Union  and  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inaries and  at  Gottingen;  was  pastor  of  the 
First  Presbyterian  Church,  in  Chicago,  for  14 
years ;  organized  and  was  president  of  the 
World's  Parliament  of  Religions  at  the  World's 
Columbian  Exposition  in  (jhicago  in  1893.  He 
delivered  a  course  of  lectures  on  Christianity  in 
the  principal  universities  in  India,  under  the 
patronage  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  189fr- 
97,  and  became  president  of  Oberiin  College  in 
189a  He  published  'The  Gospels  are  True 
Histories'  (1891) ;  'Life  of  Henn-  Ward 
Beecher'   (1893);  'Christianity  the  World  Re- 


Kymar 
d.  190 


ligioti' ;  'The  World  Pilgrimage' ;  'History  o( 
the  Parliament  of  Religions^  (ISW) ;  'The 
Christian  Conquest  of  Asia"  C1S»).  Consult  the 
biography  by  M.  E.  Barrows  (New  YorV  1905). 

BARROWS,  Sunnel  June,  American  der- 

man  and  author:  b.  New  York,  26  May  1845; 

1909.  After  a  varied  early  career  he  oecame 
private  secretary  to  William  H.  Seward  in 
1867,  went  to  Utah  in  1870  with  Chaplain  New- 
man of  the  United  SUtes  Senate,  and  re- 
ported the  debate  with  the  Mormons.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  Divinity  School  in 
1875,  and  while  an  undergraduate  accompanied 
as  correspondent  of  the  New  York  Tribune 
General  Stanley's  Yellowstone  expedition  in 
1873,  and  CJeneral  Custer's  Black  Hills  expe- 
dition in  1874,  taking  part  in  the  battle  of 
the  Big  Horn.  He  was  pastor  of  the  First 
Unitanan  Church  Dorchester,  Mass.,  I876-.81; 
editor  of  the  Christian  Register  (1881-97); 
secretary  of  the  United  States  delegation  to  the 
International  Prison  Congress,  Pans,  1895,  and 
United  States  representative  on  the  Interna- 
tional Prison  Commission,  1896.  tn  1897  he 
was  elected  to  Congress  from  the  10th  Massa- 
chuseUs  district.  He  wrote  'The  Doom  of  the 
Majority  of  Mankind'  (18&3) ;  'The  Shay- 
backs in  Camp,'  in  collaboration  with  Isabel 
H.  Barrows  (1887)  ;  'A  Baptist  Meeting  House' 
(1885)  ;  'Isles  and  Shrines  of  Greece'  (1898). 

BARRUNDIA,  bar-roon'df-^,  Joa«  Fran- 
ciaco.  Central  American  statesman :  b.  Guate- 
mala 1779;  d.  New  York,  4  Aug.  1854.  He  was 
sentenced  to  death  for  treason  in  1813,  but 
escaped,  and  became  leader  of  the  Revolution- 
ary party  in  1819.  In' 1823-24,  as  a  member  of 
the  Constitutional  Convention  of  Central 
America,  be  brought  forward  the  decree  for  the 
abolition  of  slavery.  He  became  President  of 
the  Central  American  republic  in  1829,  retain- 
ing o£fice  for  over  a  year,  and  in  1852  was  again 
elected  President  He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1854,  as  Minister  from  Honduras,  to 
propose  the  annexation  of  that  territory  to  the 
United  States,  but  died  suddenly  before  any- 
thing was  accomplished. 

BARRY,  Alfred,  Endish  prelate:  b.  Lon- 
don, 15  Jan.  1826;  d.  1  ^>iil  19ia  He  was  a 
son  of  the  architect  Sir  Claries  Barry,  and  was 
educated  at  Cambridge.  He  was  headmasler 
of  Leeds  grammar-school  18S4-62;  princitial 
of  Cheltenham  College,  1862-^  and  of  IGng's 
College,  London,  18^-83.  He  was  c«non  of 
Worcester,  1871-81,  of  Westminster  1881-84. 
He  became  bishop  of  Sydney  and  primate  of 
Australia  in  1884,  but  resigned  his  see  in  1889 
and  returning  to  England  was  rector  of  Saint 
James,  Piccadilly,  London,  189S-1900,  and  canon 
of  Saint  George's,  Windsor,  1901-10.  He  ha* 
published  'Introduction  to  tne  Old  Testament* 
(1856)  ;  <Life  of  Sir  C.  Barry'  (1867)  ;  'Boyle 
Lectures'  (1876-78);  '(Christianity  and  Social- 
ism' (1890) ;  'England's  Mission  to  India' 
(1895);  'Hulscan  Lectures*  (1895);  'Do  We 
Believe?'  (1908).  He  was  a  brother  of  Sir 
John  Wolfe-Barry. 

BARRY,  Sir  Charles,  distinguished  Eng- 
lish architect:  b.  London,  23  May  1795:  d  12 
May  I860.  At  a  very  early  age  be  diapla^^ed  a 
taste  for  drawing  and  design,  and  wUle  a 
youth  exhibited  at  the  Royal  Academy.  Hav- 
ing resolved  to  devote  his  energies  to  art^hiiec- 
ture,  he  employed  the  little  means  left  him  in 


of  three  years.  After  his  return  he  entered  . 
bis  ]m}fessional  career.  He  executed  numeniui 
important  liuildiiiKs,  such  aa  the  Travelers'  and 
Reform  Chib-houses,  London ;  King  Edward's 
School,  '  Birnnngfafttn,  etc;  and  in  1836  was 
appointed  ardiitect  of  the  new  Houses  of  Par- 
iiament  at  Westminster.  On  this  building  his 
fame  as  an  ariJiiMct  rests,  and  with  its  execu- 
tion he  was  etnplo3^  almost  unintermittently 
to  the  day  of  his  death,  extenditiK  over  a  period 
of  more  than  24  vears.  In  1852  he  received  the 
honor  of  Icniefathood.  He  had  Ixen  adtnitted 
a  Royal  Academician  in  1841.  As  an  architect 
he  belonged  to  the  eclectic  school,  and  adopted 
iixtifierently  the  Gothic  or  classic  styles  ac- 
according  as  he  mi^t  be  required  or  circum- 
stances rendered  it  expedient  Consult  his 
'life  and  Works,'  by  his  son. 

BARSY^  Edward  lUddlCton,  English 
architect,  third  gon  of  Sir  Charles  ^ny  <q.v.)  : 
b.  1830;  d.  1880.  He  hod  already  distuffitubed 
himself  in  his  profesuon,  and  tucceetmg  to 
his  father's  busine&s,  completed  his  great  work, 
the  Houses  of  Parliameot  He  designed  a 
lar^  number  of  building),  nuay  of  tbem  of 
natioaal  tmportaoc^  Mich  as  the  Covent  G&rden 
Theatre,  the  opciB  house  at  Malta  and  the 
New  National  Galleiy  in  London.  He  was 
elected  a  Royal  Acaaemician  in  1869,  and  in 
1873  succeeded  Sir  G.  G.  Scott  -as  professor  of 
architecture  in  the  Academy. 

BARRY.  EliMbcth.  EngUsh  acireM:  b. 
1658;  a.  London,  7  Nov.  1713.  She  was  said  tO' 
be  the  daughter  of  Colonel  Barry,  a  proiinnent 
royalist  in  the  civil  war.  She  tnade  her  debut 
on  the  stage  mder  the  patronage  of  the  Earl 
of  Rochester;  and  her  first  performance  is 
said  to  have  been  witnessed  by  Charles  II  and 
the  Duke  and  Duchess  of  Yorlc  Her  rfltnita- 
tion  was  won  chiefly  in  the  line  of  tragedy,  in 
the  roles  of  Monimia  in  *Thc  Orphan'  and 
Belvidera  In  'Venice  Preserved'  She  was 
known  as  'the  great  Mrs.  Barry*;  and  Is  said 
10  have  created  orer  100  r61cs.  Consult  Gait, 
<Uves  of  the  PUyere'  (1831);  and  Baker, 
'Eoglish  Actors  from  Shakespeare  to  Macready' 

{la;^). 

BARRT,  JamM,  Irish  painter  and  writer 
on  his  art:  b.  Cori^  11  Oct,  1741;  d.  22  Feb. 
1806.  Bpr  one  of  his  first  paintings  in  oil,  <The 
Conversion  of  Saint  Patrick,'  exhibited  at 
Dublin,  he  attracted  the  attention  of  Burke, 
who  carried  him,  in  his  23d  year,  to  London. 
The  brothers  Burke  provided  him  with  the 
means  for  visiting  Pans  and  Rome,  whence  he 
went  to  Florence,  Bologna  and  Naples.  He 
remained  about  fotu:  j^ears  in  Italy,  returning 
in  1770.  Having  exhibited  some  inmortant  pic- 
tures he  was  elected  an  associate  ot  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1772  and  a  full  academician  the 
foIlowiiiK  year.  In  1777-^  he  executed  his 
chief  Vforlc,  the  six  tiaiatings  illustrating  the 
development  of  'Human  Culture'  which  adorn 
the  great  hall  of  the  Society  of  Arts.  In  1775 
he  published  'An  Inquiry  into  the  Real  of 
Ima^nary  Obstructstns  to  the  Increase  of  the 
Arts  in  £ne^d.'  He  was  appointed  profes- 
sor of  painting  in  the  Academy  in  1782 ;  but 
in  1799  after  be  h^d  alienated  the  respect  of 
his  fellow- academicians  by  his  peculiar  man- 
ners  and  by  his  savage  attacks  upon  them,  he 


was  expelled  on  the  occasion  of  a  violent  pam- 
phlet issued  by  him  under  the  title  of  a  'Let- 
ter to  the  Society  of  Dilettanti.'  He  was  dis- 
tinguished more  by  vigor  of  conception  than 
by  accuracy  of  execution  and  his  paintings 
have  not  maintained  their  reputatioiL 

BARRY,  John,  the  first  American  commo- 
dore: b,  Wexford,  Ireland,  1745;  d.  PhiUdel- 
phia,  13  Sept  1803.  He  early  displayed  a  great 
partiality  for  the  sea  and  at  tpe  age  of  11 
adopted  America  as  his  home  and  made  a 
number  of  voyages  in  merchant  ships  until  the 
commencement  of  the  Revolution.  He  at  once 
embraced  the  cause  of  the  colonies,  offered  his 
services  and  was  one  of  the  first  officers  com- 
missioned by  CiHigress  in  the  naval  service. 
After  a  successful  cruise  in  the  Lfxiitgli^n,  he 
was  transferred,  in  the  latter  part  of  1776,  to 
the  E^nghantj  one  of  three  large  frigates  built 
in  Philaddphia.  When  the  American  vessels 
of  war  wer«  lying  near  Whitehill.  whither  they 
had  been  sent  when  the  dty  and  the  forts  of 
the  river  had  fallen  into  the  power  of  the 
British,  Commodore  Barry  conceived  the  dar- 
ing plan  of  amioying  the  enemv  by  means  of 
small  boats,  properly  armed,  which  being  sta- 
tioned down  the  river  and  bay  might  intercept 
'supplies  and  in  caie  of  danger  t^e  refuge  in 
the  creeks.  He  aecordiruily  manned  the  boats 
of  the  frigates,'  descended  the  river  with  muf- 
fled oars  under  cover  of  the  nif[ht  and  ap- 
peared unexpectedly  before  the  city.  He  ef- 
fected  his  object  by  intercepting  a  large  stock 
of  provisions  an»f  capturing  several  vessels 
laden  with  mijitai^  munitions  and  valuable 
stores  for  the  British  officers.  He  was  after- 
ward transferred  to  the  Alliance,  a  frigate  of 
36  guns,  which  was  placed  under  his  orders. 
The  AtUance  sailed  from  Boston  25  Dec.  1781 
with  the  Marquis  de  la  Fayette  and  Count 
de  Noailles  on  board,  who  were  proceed- 
ing to  France  on  public  business.  During  the 
rest  of  the  war  Barry  served  with  cremt  to 
himself  and  benefit  to  his  country  and  after  the 
cessation  of  hostilities  was  appointed  to  super- 
intend the  building  of  the  frigate  United  States 
in  Philadelphia,  which  was  designed  for  his 
command.  He  retained  the  command  of  the 
United  Stales  until  she  was  laid  up  in  ordinary. 


BARRY,  John  Arthur,  Australian  Joumal- 

;  and  novelist:    b.  Tonway,  Devon,  England, 

1850;  d  23  Stpt.  1911.    He  entered  the  British 


merchant  service  at  tfie  agw  of  14;  Tr«  .n  iub 
Australian  gold  fields  in  1870  and  later  became 
a  stock  drover  in  Queensland  and  New  South 
Wales.  From  1877  to  1SS0  he  relumed  to  sea- 
faring Kfe;  after  which  he  began  to  write  for 
Aostralian,  English,  and  American  magazines 
and  newspapers  wmle  he  carried  on  the  busi- 
ness of  stock  drover  and  manager.  In  1896  he 
joined  the  stafi  in  Sydney  of  the  Toum  and 
Country  Journal,  which  he  left  in  1900  to  be- 
come editorial  writer  on  the  Evening  News. 
Among  his  published  works  arc  'Steve  Brown's 
Bunyip'  (1893);  'In  the  Great  Deep'  (1895); 
'The  Luck  of  the  Native  Born'  (1898);  <A 
Son  of  the  Sea'  (1899):  'Against  the  Tides 
of  Fate"  (1899);  'Red  Lion  and  Blue  Star* 
(1902):  'Old  and  New  Sydney'  (1903);  and 
'Sea  Yams'   (1910). 

BARRY,  Tohn  Daniel,  Mierican  journalist 
and  author:  b.  Boston,  31  Dec.  1866.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  University  in  1888.  Sjwe  , 

Cooglc 


graduation  he  has  devoted  himself  to  joumal- 
"tn,   writing   novels   and    ptays    and    lecIurinB 


He  v 


i  (or  a 


;  critic  for  Harper's  Weekly  and 
later  for  Collier's.  He  was  appointed  instruc- 
tor in  diction  and  interpretation  at  the  Ameri- 
can Academy  of  Dramatic  Arts  and  lecturer  for 
the  New  York  dty  Board  of  Education.  He 
has  written  a  daily  essay  for  the  San  Francisco 
Bulletin  since  1910,  His  published  works  in- 
clude 'The  Princess  Margaret,'  *The  Intri- 
guers,* 'Mademoiselle  Blanche,'  'A  Daugh- 
ter of  Thespis,'  'The  Congressman's  Wife' 
(1903);  'Our  Best  Society'  (1905);  'Intima- 
tions,' essays;  'Ouilands,'  a  volume  of  short 
stories  (1914)  ;  'The  City  of  Domes.'  an  illus- 
trated description  of  the  Panama-Pacific  Ex- 
position (19lS);  'Beactiona,'  a  volume  of  es- 
says (1915). 

BARRY,  Sib  John  Wolfe-Wolfe,  English 
engineer  of  eminence,  youngest  son  of  Sir 
Clharles  Barry;  b.  London,  7  Dec  1836.  He 
built  the  present  Blackfriars  Bridge  in  London, 
the  Tower  Bridge,  the  Barry  Dock  at  Cardiff, 
Immingham  Dock,  New  Alexandria  Docks, 
Newi)ort,  Natal  Harbor,  and  planned  the  rail' 
way  in  Arsentina  from  Buenos  Aires  to  San 
Rosario.  He  has  published  'Railway  Appli- 
ances' (1876) ;  'Lectures  on  Railways  and 
LocomoUves'  (1862);  'The  Tower  Bridge' 
(18M);  'Barry  Genealogy  in  England  and 
Wales.' 

BARRY,  Martin,  English  pfaysioli^st:  b. 
Frat ton  Hampshire,  1802;  d.  Beccles,  Suffolk, 
April  185S.  He  studied  at  the  medical  schools 
of  London  and  at  several  on  the  Continent 
and  tO(rf[  his  degree  of  M.D.  tn  Edinburgh  in 
1833.  He  wrote  much  on  physiological  sub- 
jects and  especially  on  animal  development 
and  embryology.  In  1843  he  made  the  (fiscov- 
ery  of  the  presence  of  spermatazoa  within  the 
ovum,  which  he  communicated  to  the  Roval 
Society.  His  means  being  ample,  he  gave  njs 
professional   services   largely  to   the  poor. 

BARRY,  Sprmnger,  Irish  actor,  the  great 
rival  of  Garrick:  b.  Dublin  I7l9;  d.  London,  10 
Jan.  1777.  He  was  brought  up  as  a  silver- 
smith; but  was  attracted  to  the  stage.  He  first 
appeared  (1744)  at  the  Theatre  Royal,  Smock 
alley,  Dublin;  and  in  1746  was  enraged  at 
Drury  I-ane,  London,  as  alternate  to  torrick 
in  'Hamlet'  and  'Macbeth.'  Having  aroused 
(^rrick's  jealousy  by  his  success  as  Romeo,  he 
was  engaged  (1/50)  at  Covent  Garden,  where 
his  supremacy  in  'Romeo  and  Juliet'  was  gen- 
erally conceded.  He  spent  1754-66  trying  to 
found  a  theatre  at  Dublin.  In  1767  he  reap- 
peared at  London  in  the  part  of  Othello.  From 
1774  till  his  death  he  acted  at  Covent  Garden. 
Consult  Pollock,  'Actors  and  Actresses  of 
Great  Britain'    (1886). 

BARRY,  Thomas  Henry,  American  sol- 
dier: b.  New  York,  13  Oct  18S5.  He  was 
graduated  at  West  Point,  1877,  and  passed 
ihrough  the  various  grades  of  the  service  to 
his  appointment  as  brigadier-general,  United 
States  volunicers,  18  June  1900.  From  August 
1898  to  February  1900  he  was  adjutant -general 
of  the  8th  army  corps  in  the  Philippines  and 
became  chief  of  staff,  division  of  the  PhiLp- 
pines,  1900-01;  brigadier-general,  19(B;  major- 


general.  1908;  commanded  in  Cuba,  1907-09; 
and  1910-12  was  superintendent  of  the  United 
States  Military  Academy. 
■  BARRY,  WiUiun  Fuqnhar,  American 
ffiilitary  officer:  b.  New  York.  18  Aug.  1818; 
d.  18  July  1879.  He  first  saw  acUve  service 
in  the  Florida  W'ar  ( 1852-53)  and  in  the  Mex- 
ican War  acted  as  aide-de-camp  to  (icneral 
Worth.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he 
was  made  chief  of  artillery  and  organized  the 
artillery  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  He 
subsequently  became  chief  of  artillery  to  Sher- 
man and  took  part  in  the  march  to  the  sea. 
In  1865  he  was  brevetted  major-general.  In 
1867  he  had  charge  of  die  Artillery  School  at 
Fort  Monroe.  He  was  part  author  with  J,  G. 
Barnard  of  'Engineer  and  Artillery  Opeiatioiu 
of  the  Army  oi  the  Potomac,  1861^'  and 
of  'Tactics  for  the  Field  Artillery  of  tbe 
United  States.' 

BARRY,  WniluB  Pmds,  English  Cath- 
olic clergyman  and  author:  b.  London,  21 
April  1849.  From  Oscott  he  passed  to  the 
English  (^lleee  at  Rome,  where  he  had  Car- 
dinals Franzetin  and  Tarnuini  for  masters  in 
divinity.  He  was  ordained  in  Rome,  where  be 
witnessed  the  sittings  of  the  Vatican  Council 
and  the  entry  of  the  Italian  troops  by  the  Pom 
Pia.  A  vice-presidency  of  Birmingham  Sem- 
inary was  followed  by  his  appointment  to  the 
chair  of  divinity  at  Oscott:  later  he  was  en- 
gaged in  mission  work  at  Wolverhampton  and 
his  subsequent  charge  at  Dorchester  gave  him 
such  leisure  for  literary  labors  as  freed  him 
from  giving  up  to  a  parish  talents  that  were 
meant  for  mankind.  Dr.  Bariy  has  lectured 
in  America  and  at  the  Royal  Institution  and 
was  the  deliverer  of  the  centenary  address  on 
Edmund  Burke,  both  in  Dublin  and  London, 
in  1897.  His  first  novel,  'The  New  Antigone.' 
was  published  anonymously  in  1887  and  in 
success  has  since  been  repeated  by  'The  Place 
of  Dreams' ;  'The  Two  Standards' ;  and 
'Arden  Massiter.'  He  contributed  'A  His- 
tory of  the  P^wl  Monarchv'  to  the  'Stories 
of  the  Nations'  series,  and  nas  written  stucUes 
of  Newman  and  Renan.  In  'Heislds  of  Re- 
volt' he  has  collected  some  of  his  essays; 
while  fais  'Tradition  of  Scripture'  and  other 
work)  have  been  translated  mto  various  lan- 
guages. He  is,  perhaps,  the  most  brilliant 
Quarterly  reviewer  and  Dublin  reviewer  of  his 
generation.  In  19(P  he  became  canon  of  Bir- 
mingham and  is  now  rector  of  Saint  Peter's, 
Leamington. 

BARRY,  WilUam  Taylor,  American  states- 
man: b.  Lunenburg,  Va.,  5  Feb.  1784;  d.  Liver- 
pool, England,  30  Aug.  1835.  He  was  graduated 
at  William  and  Mary  Cxillege  (1803),  and  was 
soon  after  admitted  to  the  bar.  In  1810  he 
became  a  member  of  Congress  from  Kentucky. 
He  served  in  the  War  of  1812;  and  from 
1814-16  was  United  States  senator  from  iCen- 
tucky.  In  1828  he  was  appointed  Postmaster- 
(jeneral  under  Jackson ;  and  waa  on  his  way 
abroad  as  Minister  to  Spain  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  He  was  the  first  Postmaster-General 
who  had  a  scat  in  the  Cabinet 

BARRY,  an  urban  district  and  seaport  of 
south  Wales,  county  of  Glamorgan,  on  the 
British  Cliannel,  eight  miles  southwest  of  Qu- 
dJfF-     It  has  been  practically  brought  into  ex- 


,  Google 


BARRY  CORNWALL— BARTIBR 


aS7 


isience  by  the  const  ruction  (I884-S9)  of  a  dodc 
of  70  acres  area  here,  between  Barry  Island  and 
the  mainland,  at  a  cost  of  about  £850,000,  the 
entrance  being  between  two  breakwaters  re- 
spectively 2,600  and  700  feet  in  length.  Barnr 
possesses  churches  and  chapels,  market-hall, 
public-hall,  seamen's  institute  etc.,  and  carries 
on  a  lar^  export  trade  in  coal  As  a  munid- 
pali^  it  15  markedly  progressive.    Pop.  (1911) 

'  BARRY  CORNWALL.  See  Proctob, 
Bkyah  Wallek. 

BARRY   LYNDON,   The   Memoirs   of. 

'Barry  Lyndon,'  which  b^an  in  the  January 
number,  1844,  of  Fraser's,  is  perhaps  tne  most 
important  of  the  works  of  Thackeray  before 
the  publication  of  the  great  masterpieces  be- 
ginning with  'Vaniw  Fair,>  in  1847,  which 
broi^ht  Thackeray  his  great  renown.  The 
theme  of  'Barry  Lyndon'  is  the  adventures 
of  a  thorough  scoundrel  and  blackguard,  who 
readily  adapts  himself  to  a  life  of  courtly  and 
variegated  rascality  and  finally  ends  in  destitu- 
tion. In  this  resDect  it  belongs  to  the  class 
of  which  Fielding's  'Jonathan  Wild'  is  one  of 
the  best  examples,  Barry  Lyndon,  as  the  title 
impUes,  tells  his  own  story  and  in  whatever 
situation,  whether  breaking  his  wife's  heart, 
pmbling  on  a  large  or  small  scale,  or  engag- 
ing in  an^  of  his  countless  villainies,  is  al- 
ways treating  himself  as  if  he  were  a  gentle- 
man and  as  if  whatever  he  were  doing  were 
in  the  highest  degree  ■genteel,*  The  charac- 
ter is  thoroughly  well- sustained,  from  this 
point  of  view,  throughout  die  large  variety  of 
adventures.  In  workmanship  the  novel, 
though  comparatively  short,  is  regarded  as  one 
of  the  most  consistent  and  pointed  stories 
that  Thackeray  ever  wrote.  Thackeray's  chief 
motive  is  lar^ly  satirical.  He  probab^  had 
in  mind  certain  stories,  like  'Eugene  Aram' 
and  'Paul  Clifford'  of  Bulwer-Lytton,  which, 
according  to  Thackeray's  view,  held  up  as 
heroic  types  really  detestable  characters. 
Barry  is  one  of  these  pseudo-heroes  far  more 
viRainons  than  most  '  TroUope's  'Life  of 
Thackeray'  (in  the  'English  Men  of  Letters 
Series')  gives  a  good  shotf  account  of  'Barry 
Lyndon'   among  Thackeray's  works. 

William  T.  Brewsteb. 

BAKRYHORB,  Ethel  (Mrk.  Russeu. 
GsiswoLD  Colt),  American  actress:  b.  Phila- 
delphia, IS  A.  ^.  1879.  She  was  educated  at 
the  Convent  of  Notre  Dame,  Philadelphia.  She 
made  her  d^but  in  John  Drew's  company  in 
1896.  She  came  into  general  notice  in  Qyde 
Fitch's  'Captain  Jinks'  in  1900,  played  Pris- 
cilla  in  'Secret  Service,*  London,  where  she 
appeared  also  in  'Cynthia'  in  1904.  She  starred 
in  <A  Doll's  House'  in  1905,  and  in  Barrie's 
'Alice-Sit-by-the-Fire'  (1906),  played  Mrs. 
Jones  in  'The  Silver  Box'  in  1907,  Zoe  Blundell 
m  ■  Uid-Channe]'  in  1910,  and  Stella  Ballantyne 
in  'The  Witness  for  the  Defense'  in  1911.  In 
1912  she  appeared  in  Barrie's  'The  Twelve- 
Pound  Look,'  Mid  in  Chambers'  "Tante'  in 
1913. 

BARRTHORB,  Mmrice  (HEiraeRT 
Blythe)  American  actor:  b.  India  1847;  d. 
Amityville,  L  I.,  25  March  1905.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Cambridge.  Having  gone  upon  the 
stage  he  came  to  America  and  made  his  first 
appearance  in   1875.     Since  then  he  has  been 


most  of  the  time  in  this  country,  acting  as  lead- 
ing man  with  Modjeska,  Mrs.  Langtry,  Mrs. 
Bernard  Beere  and  Olga  Nethersole.  He  has 
also  written  several  plays,  among  them  'Nad- 
jeska.' 

BARSABAS,  the  son  of  Alpheus,  brother 
of  James  the  Less  and  of  Jude,  and  one  of  the 
candidates  nominated  for  the  apostolical  ollice 
left  vacant  by  the  treafhery  and  suicide  of 
Judas.  According  to  tradition  he  was  afterward 
appointed  bishop  of  Eleutheropolis,  a  town  of 
Palestine,  about  20  miles  from  Jerusalem,  and 
suffered  martyrdom.  Another  Barsabas,  sur- 
named  Judas,  and  supposed  to  be  the  brother 
of  the  above,  is  mentioned  in  the  Acts  as  one 
of  the  companions  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  when 
they  went  to  preadi  the  gospel  at  Antioch.  He 
is  supposed  to  have  returned  to  Jerusalem,  and 
died  at  a  very  advanced  age. 

BARSUMA,  or  BARSUMAS,  Nestorian 
bishop  who  flourished  in  the  5th  century.  He 
became  bishop  of  Nisibis  and  metropolitan  in 
435.  He  established  a  theological  school  which 
sent  out  many  missionaries,  and  is  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  the  Nestorian  faith  in  Persia 
and  eastern  Asia. 

BARTA3,  bar-t4,  Goillanme  de  Sslluste 
dn,  French  soldier,  diplomatist,  and  man  of 
letters:  b.  Montfort  1544;  d.  1S90  of  wounds 
received  at  the  battle  of  Ivry,  His  chief  poem, 
'The  Divine  Week,'  gives  an  account  of  the 
creation,  and  is  said  to  have  had  considerable 
influence  on  Milton's  'Paradise  Lost.'  Thirty 
editions  of  the  work  passed  through  the  press 
in  six  years.  Joshua  Sylvester  (1563-1618) 
translated  into  English  'Du  Bartas,  His  Divine 
Weeks  and  Works'  (1598).  Mrs.  Anne  Brad- 
street,  the  earliest  American  .woman  of  letters, 
was  an  ardent  admirer  of  his  strained  pedantic 
style  and  modeled  her  own  verse  upon  it. 

BARTKNSTEIN,  bar-ttn-stin,  Treaty  of, 
a  treaty  between  Prussia  and  Russia  against 
France,  concluded  at  Bartenstein,  Prussia,  26 
April  1807,  soon  after  the  battle  of  Eylau.  The 
objects  of  the  alliance  were  to  re-establish  Prus- 
sia within  the  limits  of  1805;  to  dissolve  the 
Rhine  Confederation ;  to  restore  Tyrol  and 
Venice  to  Austria;  to  secure  the  co-operation 
of  England. and  Sweden;  to  aggrandize  Han- 
over at  the  expense  of  France-  to  restore  the 
House  of  Orange:  and  to  obtain  from  France 
indemnities  to  the  kin^s  of  Sardinia  and  Naples. 
The  terms  of  this  alliance  are  chiefly  important 
for  their  similarity  to  the  terms  offered  Napo- 
leon at  Prague  (1813).  The  town  of  Barten- 
stein is  situated  in  east  Prussia,  on  the  AUe, 
35  miles  south  of  Konigsberg.  There  are  manu- 
factures of  stoves  and  wagons,  machine  shops, 
iron  foundries,  breweries  and  saw  mills,  and 
considerable  trade  in  grain.     Pop.  (1910)  7,343, 

BARTER,  B  term  used  in  commerce  and 
political  economy  to  express  the  exchange  of 
one  commodity  for  another,  as  contrasted  with 
the  sale  of  commodities  (or  money.  It  is  simp^ 
a  primitive  form  of  exchange  carried  on  in 
countries  in  which  the  use  of  money  has  not 
yet  been  introduced,  or  is  not  prevalent  It 
was  an  economic  Stage  throu^  which  all  com- 
munities must  have  passed.  Even  yet  in  many 
lude  countries  barter  is  very  common;  and  Eu- 
ropean travelers  And  it  convenient  to  take  wiA 
them  weapons  tools  and  ornaments  to  exchange 
with  the  natives  for  their  commodities.    Ia«iik  . 

Liooglc 


ass 


BARTPBLD  —  B  AKTH 


ilized  cotninuiiities  barter  is  a  very  exceptional 
thing,  havttij;  been  superseded  by  the  use  of 
money  in  various  forms. 

In  law,  barter,  or  exchange,  as  it  is  now 
more  generally  called  in  law  books,  is  a  con- 
tract for  transferring  property,  the  considera- 
tion being  some  other  commodity;  or  it  may 
be  described  as  a  contract  for  the  exchan^  of 
two  subjects  or  commodities.  It  thus  differs 
from  sale,  which  is  a  contract  for  the  trans- 
ference  of  property  in  consideration  of  a  price 
in  money.    See  also  Sale. 

BARTFELD,  birt'filt,  Hungary,  a  town 
156  miles  northeast  of  Budapest,  on  a  rising 
ground  near  the  banks  of  the  Tepla  and  Lauka. 
It  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  Hungary,  and 
is  well  built ;  has  several  Roman  Catholic 
churches,  a  Lutheran  church  and  school,  a 
Franciscan  monastery,  military  academy,  hos- 
pital, theatre,  paper-mills,  potteries,  etc.  Some 
acidulous  chalybeate  sprineg  and  baths,  near  the 
town,  are  mucli  frequented.  The  trade  in  wine, 
hemp,  linen  cloth  and  woolen  yarn  is  consider- 
able.    Pop.  &,000,  mostly  Slovaks. 

BAIiTH,  Meinrich,  di.stinguished  geogra- 
pher and  African  traveler:  b.  Hamburg,  16  Feb. 
1821 ;  d  25  Nov.  1865.  He  received  his  education 
partly  in  his  native  town  and  partly  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Berlin,  and  having  determined  to 
explore  all  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Medi- 
terranean, set  out  with  this  intention  in  the 
beginning  of  1845.  After  his  return  in  the  end 
of  1847  he  wrote  an  accqunt  of  his  travels, 
which  he  published  with  the  title  'Wander- 
ungen  durch  die  KustenlinderdesMittelmeeres' 
(Berlin  1849),  In  less  than  two  years  after 
his  return  from  his  first  travels  he  was  invited 
by  the  English  government  to  join  Dr.  Overweg 
in  accompanying  the  expedition  that  was  about 
to  proceed  under  James  Richardson  to  central 
Africa.  The  eigjedition  having  landed  at 
Tripoli  in  the  end  of  1849,  set  out  thence  for 
the  interior  of  Africa  in  February  1850.  His 
explorations,  which  extended  over  an  area  of 
about  2,CXX),000  square  mites,  from  Tripoli  in 
the  north  to  Adamawa  in  the  son^,  and  from 
Bagfairml  in  the  east  to  Timbucloo  in  the  west, 
an  area  hitherto  almost  entirely  unknown,  were 
ConKnued  for  more  than  five  years,  in  spite  of 
the  death  both  of  Richardson  and  Overweg, 
and  he  did  not  return  to  Tripoli  till  the  autumn 
of  18SS.  The  chief  Keographical  results  of  these 
travels  consist  in  the  light  they  throw  on  the 
true  nature  of  the  Desert  of  Sahara,  in  show- 
ing that  the  eastern  upper  branch  of  the  Niger, 
the  Bcnuwc,  is  not  connected  with  Lake  Chad, 
and  in  the  determination  of  the  course  of  the 
Niger  between  Say  and  Timbuctoo.  The  result 
of  these  travels,  entitled  'Travels  and  Discov- 
eries in  North  and  Central  Africa,'  was  pub- 
lished in  English  (1857-58).  Immediately  after 
its  pubUcation  he  set  out  upon  a  new  series  of 
travels  through  Greece,  Turk^,  Asia  Minoran'd 
other  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean, 
the  last  of  which  occupied  the  summer  of  1865. 
Besides  the  works  mentioned,  he  published 
'Sammlung  und  Verarbeitung  Centraf-afrLkan- 
ischer  Vokabularien)  (1862-66) :  <Reise  von 
Trapezunt  durch  die  nordtiche  Halfte  Klein- 
asicns  nach  Scutari'  (1860);  'Rdse  quer  durch 
das  Innerc  der  Europiischen  Tnrkei*  (1864). 


1702.  He  was  the  son  of  a  fisherman,  and  at 
an  early  age  evinced  a  love  of  adventure,  which 
led  him  to  follow  the  sea.  He  entered  the 
Dutch  navy,  but  on  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
between  France  and  Holland,  1672,  he  entered 
the  service  of  France,  and  commanded  a  priva- 
teer. In  this  position  opportunities  soon  oc- 
curred for  distinguishing  nimself,  and  his  name 
became  known  to  Louis  XIV,  who  commis- 
sioned him  to  cruise  in  the  Mettiterranean.  His 
bravery  soon  raised  him  in  the  favor  of  the 
King,  and  he  was  appointed  captain  of  the 
squadron  in  1697.  On  one  occasion,  a  famine 
existing  in  France.  Barth  recaptured  from  the 
Dutch  IX-  sail  of  vessels,  loaded  with  grain. 
At  another  time  when  Dunkirk  was  blockaded, 
taking  advantage  of  a  fog,  be  sailed  through 
the  English  and  Dutch  fleets  and  destroyed  86 
merchantmen;  then  making  a  descent  near  New- 
castle, Northumberland,  he  destroyed  200  houses, 
and  returned  safely  with  property  valued  at 
500,000  crowns.  He  was  on  one  occasion  made 
prisoner  by  a  superior  English  force,  and  taken 
to  Plymouth,  but  succeeded  in  escafnng  in  a 
fishing  boat.  Barth  was  rough  in  manners,  and 
entirely  uneducated;  indeed,  he  could  with  diffi- 
culty scrawl  his  own  name;  but  he  was  as 
simple-minded  and  honest  as  he  was  brave.  A 
statue  to  bis  memory,  by  David  d'Aiwers,  was 
erected  at  E)unkirk  in  1845.  See  Bacfin,  <Jean 
Bart'  (1867);  Landelle,  <Jean  Bart  et  son  fils> 
(1874). 

BARTH,  Paul,  German  sociologist :  b. 
Baruthe,  Silesia,  1  Aug.  1858.  He  is  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  University  of  Lopzig  and  in  addi- 
tion to  his  much-valued  'Plmosophie  dcr  Ge- 
schichte  als  Sodoloeie,'  the  first  volume  of 
which  was  published  in  1897,  is  the  author 
of  'Geschichtsphilosophie  Hegcls  und  die 
Hegclianer  bis  auf  Marx  nod  Hartmami" 
nSSO)  ;  'Beweggriinde  des  sittlichen  Handebu* 
(1899);  'Tibenus  Gracchus'  (2d  ed,  1S93); 
'Erziehungs-  und  Unterrichtslehre'  (1906) ; 
'Geschichte  der  Erziehung  in  Sociobmisdier 
und  geistesgeschichtlicher  Beleuchtung*  (1911). 

BARTH,  Theodor,  German  journalist  and 
politician:  b.  Duderstadt  1844;  d.  1909.  He 
studied  law  at  the  universities  of  Heidelberg, 
Leipzig  and  Berlin,  and  in  1871  established  his 
practice  at  Bremen.  He  was  a  magistrate 
in  Bremerhaven  for  four  years  and  after- 
ward until  1683  was  secretaiy  of  the  Chamber 
of  Commerce  in  that  citv.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Reichstag  as  Liberal  Unionist  member  from 
Gotha  in  1881  and  later  represented  other  dis- 
tricts until  1898.  He  founded  Die  Nation  in 
Berlin  in  1883  and  remained  its  e<UtDr  until  it 
ceased  publication  in  1907.  He  was  an  advocate 
of  free  trade  and  opposed  the  protectionist  pol- 
icy of  Bismarck  and  the  Junkers.  In  1898  he 
joined  the  Deutschfreisinnig  par^  and  became 
a  member  of  the  Landtag.  He  was  again  in  the 
Reichstag  in  1901-03,  and  was  again  an  opponent 
of  the  reactionists  in  German  politics.  He  vis- 
ited flie  United  States  in  1907.  He  published 
<Gegen  den  Slaats-sozialismus'  (1884)  ;  'Amer- 
ikanisches  Wirt»cliaftslebeo>  (1887);  'Ameri- 
kanische  Etndriicke'   (1896). 

BARTH,  Germany,  a  seaport  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Pomerania,  Prussia,  norfliwest  of  Stral- 
sund.  Its  chief  industries  are  shipbuilding,  Rsh 
curing  and  packing,  beer  brewing,  and  sugar. 


BARTHBL — B  ARTHtLBH  Y-S  AINT-HILAIRE 


leatfier  and  cigar  manufactories.  There  are  also 
iron  foundries,  machine  works  and  saw  mills. 
It  has  a  fine  harbor  and  contains  a  school  of 
navigation  and  a  home  for  spinsters  of  high 
rank,  and  it  has  also  a  good  trade  in  grain  and 
wool.  Its  church  dates  from  the  13th  century. 
BARTHEL,  Melchior,  German  sculptor :  b. 
Dresden  1625;  d.  1672.  He  studied  under  his 
father  and  under  Johann  Boehme.  He  spent 
many  years  in  Italy,  including  17  in  Venice, 
and  on  his  return  to  Dresden  was  made  court 
sculptor.  His  chief  works  are  the  tomb  of  the 
Doge,  Giovanni  Pesaro  in  Santa  Maria  dei 
Frari,  Venice;  the  statue  of  John  die  Baptist 
in  the  Oratory  of  Santa  Mana,  Nazareth,  and 
a  tomb  in  the  church  of  SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo, 
Venice.  There  are  nmnerous  ivory  carvings  by 
htm  in  the  Green  Vault  at  I>resden,  whi<±  are 
regarded  as  superior  to  his  larger  works. 

BARTHELEMY,  bar-ta-l'-me,  Auenste 
Marseille,  French  poet  and  politician :  b.  Mar- 
seilles 1796;  d.  there,  23  Aug.  1867.  Educated 
ai  the  Jesuit  College  of  Juilly,  he  went  to  Paris 
in  1822,  and  soon  made  himself  famous  by  a 
series  of  vigorous  and  painted  political  satires 
in  verse,  directed  against  the  Bourbons,  and 
full  of  suggestive  regrets  for  the  glories  of  the 
empire.  In  'Napoleon  in  Egypt'  (1828),  and 
still  more  in  his  elegy  for  Napoleon's  son,  'The 
Son  of  the  Man'  (1829),  he  spoke  out  his  im- 
perialism more  boldlj',  and  the  publication  of 
the  latter  poem  occasioned  his  imprisonment  on 
the  eve  of  the  revolution  of  July.  His  libera- 
tion was,  of  course,  immediate;  and  with  his 
friend  Mery,  he  celebrated  the  victory  of  the 
people  in  a  poem  dedicated  to  the  Parisians, 
entitled  'The  Insurrection.'  During  all  the 
changes  which  followed,  Barthelemy  was  in- 
defatigable as  a  brilliant  versifier  on  the  political 
events  of  the  tUy;  ttiough  in  his  later  years 
his  popularity  somewhat  declined.  He  was  from 
the  first  a  warm  supporter  of  the  second  Na- 
poleonic regime.  Some  of  his  sayings  are 
memorable,  as  the  oft-quoted  *L'homme  absurde 
est  celui  qui  ne  change  jamais,'  He  died  in 
Marseilles,  oi  which  dty  he  was  librarian. 

BARTHELEMY,  Fran^oiB,  Marquis  de, 
French,  diplomatist:  b,  Aubagne  (Provence), 
20  Oct.  1747;  d.  Paris,  3  Apnl  1830.  He  was 
brought  up  by  his  uncle,  the  author  of  '  Anaehar- 
sis '  ■  and  the  protection  of  the  Duke  of  Choiseul 
estantished  him  in  diplomacy.  The  Revolution 
did  not  hinder  his  success  in  life;  in  1793  he 
was  Minister  plenipotentiary  to  Switzerland. 
He  successively  negotiated  the  Peace  of  Basel 
ivith  Prussia.  Spain  and  the  Elector  of  Hesse, 
(he  first  treaties  concluded  by  the  French  re- 
public. This  won  for  him  an  enviable  reputa- 
tion ;  but  he  was  especially  popular  among  the 
Clichven  or  RoyaJist  party,  by  which  he  was, 
in  1797,  elected  member  of  the  Directory; 
consequently  on  the  Republican  coup  d'itat  of 
the  I8th  Fnictidor  he  was  ejected  from  the 
Rovemment,  arrested  and  transported  with 
Pichegni  and  Ramel  to  Guiana,  whence  he  es- 
caped to  the  United  States.  Shortly  afterward 
he  was  in  England,  and  after  the  18th  Brumaire 
was  recalled  by  the  Rrst  Consul,  who  made  him 
a  senator.  On  the  establishment  of  the  empire 
he  received  the  title  of  cotmt  and  showed  great 
devotion  to  Napoleon  during  the  course  of  his 
prosperity,  but  as  soon  as  misfortune  threatened 
Ilarthelcmy  sided  i 


\vith  his 


was  made  Minister  of  State  and  a  marquis  by 
Louis  XVIIl,  and  m  I8I9  proposed  the  restric- 
tion of  the  electoral  franchise.  Consult  his 
*Papiers>      (ed.     by     Kaulek,     4    vols.,     Paris 


1716;  d.  30  April  1795.  He  received  a  good  edu- 
cation from  the  fathers  of  the  oratory  at  Mar- 
seilles, and  was  about  to  prepare  himself,  under 
the  Jesuits,  for  holy  orders,  but  becoming  dis- 
gusted with  his  teachers  declined  all  offers  of 
clerical  promotion,  and  only  accepted  the  title 
of  abbi  in  order  to  show  that  he  belonged  to 
this  class.  He  became  deeply  interested  in  the 
study  of  Oriental  lan^ages  and  antiquities, 
and  his  indefatigable  mdustry  and  acuteness 
soon  enabled  him  to  communicate  to  the  learned 
new  discoveries  in  this  Oriental  study,  among 
which  the  'Alphabet  of  Palmyra,'  published 
1754,  holds  a  principal  place.  In  1747  he  was 
chosen  member  of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions 
at  Paris.  About  this  time  he  became  acquainted 
with  the  Count  Stainville  (afterward  the  minis- 
ter Choiseul),  who  was  on  the  point  of  depart- 
ing as  Ambassador  for  Rome,  and  who  invited 
Barthelemy  to  accompany  him.  Having  been 
appointed  director  of  the  Cabinet  of  Medals  in 
1753,  he  accepted  the  offer  and  went,  in  1754,  to 
Rome.  He  traveled  through  Italy,  collected  an- 
tiquities, and  occupied  himself  after  his  return 
with  learned  works  and  with  the  arrangement  of 
the  cabinet  which  had  been  entrusted  to  his 
care,  and  to  which  he  added  a  great  number  of 
costly  and  rare  medals.  Among  his  works  none 
are  so  distinguished  for  learning  and  beauty  of 
description  as  the  'Travels  of  the  Younger 
Anacharsis  in  Greece,'  on  which  he  bad  labored 
30  years,  and  which  was  translated  into  £jig- 
lish,  German  and  other  languages.  He  himself 
was  modest  enough  to  call  this  an  unwieldy 
compilation,  but  all  the  learned  men  of  France 
and  forei^  countries  recdved  it  with  the  great- 
est enthusiasm.  Barthelemy  in  his  advanced  age 
resolved  to  compose  a  complete  catalogue  of 
the  Royal  Cabinet  of  Medals,  but  was  inter- 
rupted in  1788  by  the  storms  of  the  Revolution. 
In  1789  he  received  a  place  in  the  Acad^ie 
Francaise  In  1793  he  was  arrested  on  a  char)^ 
of  aristocratic  leanings,  but  was  soon  after  set 
at  liberty.  When  the  chief  librarian  of  the 
National  Library,  the  notorious  Carra,  was  ex- 
ecuted, 31  Oct  1793,  Barlh£lemy  received  the 
offer  of  his  place  but  decUned  it. 

BARTHELEMY-SAINT-HILAIRE, 
Jnles,  French  politician  and  philosopher :  b. 
Paris,  19  Aug.  1805;  d.  there,  24  Nov.  1895. 
On  completing  his  studies  he  received  an  ap- 
pointment in  die  Ministry  of  Finance,  being  at 
that  time  also  on  the  staff  of  Le  Globe  news- 
paper. After  the  revolution  of  1830  he  founded 
a  journal  called  Bon  Sens,  and  continued  to 
support  the  Liberal  party  in  the  press.  In  1834 
he  became  examiner  in  French  literature  at 
the  ficole  Polytechnique,  and  four  years  later  ■ 
he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Greek  and 
Latin  philosophy  in  the  College  de  France.  He 
played  a  part  on  the  side  of  die  Moderate  party 
in  the  revolution  of  1848,  and  was  elected  to 
the  Constituent  Assembly  for  Seine -ct-Oise,  The 
coup  d'ilal  of  December  1852  caused  him  to 
forsake  political  life  for  a  considerable  time 
and  to  resign  his  professorship.  From  this 
retirement  he  emerged  in  1860,  the  year  of.  his         , 

Lioogle 


890 


BABTHZZ  —  BARTHOLOMB 


election  as  deputy  for  the  first  drcumscription 
of  Seine-et-Oise.  He  was  shortly  afterward 
sent  to  the  National  Assembly  as  the  representa- 
tive of  that  department,  and  during  the  disas- 
trous times  of  1870-71  he  was  closely  associated 
with  M.  Thiers.  In  1875  he  became  a  life 
senator,  and  in  the  Cabinet  of  M.  Jules  Ferry, 
constituted  1880,  be  was  appointed  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs.  The  chief  event  of  his  tenure 
of  this  office  was  the  occupation  of  Tunis.  In 
1881  he  again  abandoned  public  life  for  study 
and  literary  work.  His  greatest  work  is  his 
complete  French  version  of  Aristotle  (1837-93). 


bee.  1734;  d.  15  Oct.  1806.  He  was  thefounder 
of  a  medical  school  at  Montpellier  which 
acquired  a  reputation  throughout  all  Europe. 
Later  he  received  hi^  honors  at  the  hands  of 
Napoleon.    Among  his  numerous  writings  may 

BARTHOLDI,  bar'tol'de',  Fridiric  Au- 
guste,  distinguished  French  sculptor :  bL  Qil- 
mar,  Alsace,  2  A;iril  1834;  d.  Paris,  4  OcL  1904. 
While  a  student  ui  painting  under  the  celebrated 
Ary  Scheffer,  he  showed  a  greater  bent  and 
aptitude  for  sculpture,  and  devoted  his  eneri^es 
to  this  branch  of  art,  exhibiting  numerous 
works  at  the  salons.  After  the  Franco-German 
War  of  1870-71,  in  which  he  fought  on  the  staff 
of  Garibaldi,  he  came  into  prominence  by  the 
gigantic  'Lion  of  Belfort*  carved  out  of  the 
red  rock  on  the  hill  which  towers  over  the 
Alsatian  city  and  commemorates  its  celebrated 
siege  and  defense.  His  statue  of  'Laf^ette 
Arriving  in  Ajnerica,'  now  in  Union  Square, 
New  York  city,  was  preiented  to  the  metrojiolis 
by  France  as  a  mark  of  gratitude  to  Americans 
for  sympathy  and  service  during  the  Franco- 
German  War.  During  the  days  of  the  Com- 
mime,  when  unable  to  pursue  his  studio  work 
in  Paris,  Bartholdi  visited  the  United  States, 
and  when  arriving  in  the  beautiful  harbor  of 
New  York,  concaved  the  idea  of  the  colossal 
■tatue  of  'Liberty  Enlightening  the  World,' 
erected  on  one  of  the  islands  of  the  harbor  to 
welcome  with  its  flaming  torch  all  arrivals  in 
the  Land  of  Liberty.  On  his  return  to  France 
he  divulged  his  plan,  and  a  body  of   distin- 


devoted  effort  to  the  work,  personally  super- 
intending the  raisiiw  of  the  subscription  of 
$400,000  with  which  the  French  nation  gave  the 
statue  to  the  United  States.  The  donations 
came  mainly  from  the  pence  of  the  poor,  re- 

Suiring  in  their  collection  enormous  attention  to 
etail,  and  when  subscriptions  lagged,  Bartholdi 
pledged  his  own  private  fortune  to  defray  the 
running  expenses  and  practically  impoverished 
himself  over  the  work.  Patiently  overcoming 
all  difficulties  and  obstacles,  he  had  the  satisfac- 
tion to  see  the  statue,  erected  on  Bedloe's 
Island,  dedicated  with  imposing  ceremonies  by 
President  Oeveland  28  Oct.  1886  (see  Liberty, 
Statite  of).  Bartholdi  was  a  prolific  sculptor, 
and  among  the  more  notable  of  his  oUier  works 
are  the  figures  of  Washington  and  Lafayette  on 
the  Place  des  Etats-Unis  in  Paris ;  the  Bartholdi 
fountain  of  the  Botanical  Gardens  in  Washing- 
ton ;  the  bronie  group  of  the  'Lyre  Among  the 
Berbers,  a  Souvenir  of  the  Nile,*   exhibited  at 


the  Salon  of  1857;  'Genius  in  the  Talons  of 
Misery,*  Salon  of  1859;  'Portrait  of  General 
Schramm,  the  Modem  Martyr'  (1864);  'Por- 
trait of  Laboulaye*  (1866);  'The  LeUures  of 
Peace*  (1868) ;  'Young  Alsatian  Grape 
Grower*  (1869)  ;  an  equestrian  statue  of  Ver- 
cingetorix  (1870)  ;  portraits  of  Messieurs  Elrck- 
mann-Chatrian ;  ins  well-lojown  'Curse  of 
Alsace'  (1872);  and  'Switzerland  Asstiaging 
the  Sorrows  of  Strassburg,  Siege  of  1870' 
(1873). 

BARTHOLDY,  Jakob  Salomo,  German 
diplomat:  b.  1779;  d.  182S.  He  was  of  Jevtisb 
parentage,  and  received  his  education  at  the 
UniversiU-  of  Halle.  He  joined  the  Austrian 
army  and  fought  against  Napoleon,  and  later 
entered  the  Prussian  diplomatic  service.  He 
was  in  Paris  with  the  Allied  armies  in  1814,  and 
soon  after  was  sent  to  Rome  as  Qinsul-General 
of  Prussia.  He  was  a  great  patron  of  the  arts, 
and  he  had  a  great  influence  on  the  revival  of 
fresco  painting.  The  Berlin  Museum  of  Art 
secured  his  remarkable  collection  of  antiques 
and  the  frescoes  of  his  mansion  in  Rome,  the 
Casa  Zuccari,  were  transferred  to  the  Berlin 
National  Gallery  in  1887. 

BARTHOLIN,  ThomM,  Danish  physician, 
b.  Copenhagen,  20  Oct.  1619;  d.  4  Dec.  1680. 
After  traveling  throughout  Europe,  he  became 
professor  of  anatomy  in  the  University  of  Co- 
penhagen, and  made  several  discoveries  in  tiai 
science.  He  revised  his  father's  'Anatomy' 
and  was  a  firm  believer  in  Harvey's  theory  of 
the  circulation  of  the  blood.  His  son,  Kaspar 
(1654-1704),  was  a  famous  anatomist,  and  his 
son  Thomas  (1650-90)  was  an  antiquarian 
writer  whose  'Antiquitatum  Danicarum  Libri 
Tres'  (1689)  is  of  much  value. 

BARTHOLIN'S  GLANDS  (named  after 
their  discoverer,  Kaspar  Bartholin)  are  the 
vulvo-vaginal  glands,  two  in  number,  situated 
inside  the  va^nal  opening.  They  secrete  a 
mucous  secretion  and  are  subject  to  infection, 
forming  abscesses. 

BARTHOLOMAB,  ber-t&-U-n)9,  Chri*. 
tiui,  German  philologist ;  b.  Bayreuth,  21  June 
1855.  He  was  graduated  at  the  Bayreuth  Gym- 
nasium in  1872,  and  afterward  studied  philology 
and  general  philosophy  at  Munich,  Leipzig  and 
Eriangen.  In  1874  lie  returned  to  Leipzig  to 
devote  himself  to  comparative  philology  and 
Oriental  studies.  He  became  a  professor  at 
Halle  in  1879,  and  in  1835  was  nominated  to  an 
extra  professorship  at  Minister.  In  1898  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  Sanskrit  and  Indo- 
Germanic  philology  at  Giessen,  and  took  the 
same  chair  at  Heidelberg  in  1909.  He  has 
made  several  valuable  contributions  in  the  field 
of  Aryan  language  and  literature,  including 
'Das  attiranische  Verbum'  (Munich  1878); 
'Handbuch  der  altiranische  Dialekte*  (Leipzig 
1883)  ;  'Arische  Forschungen'  (3  vols.,  Halle 
1882-87) ;  'Studien  zur  indogermanischen 
Sprachgeschichte*  (Halle  1891);  articles  in 
Geiger  and  Kuhn's  'Grundriss  der  iranischcn 
Philologie'  (Strassburg  1896);  'Altiranisches 
Worterbuch'  (Jb  1904) ;  'Die  Galhas  dei 
Awesta'  (1905) ;  'Ueber  da  Sassanides  Recht- 
buch*   (1910). 

BARTH0L0H£,  Paul  Albert,  French 
sculptor:  b.  Tbiverval,  Sdne-et-Oise,  1848  At 
first  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  law, 
but  in  1869  abandoned  it  for  painting,  which  he 


BASTHOLOMSW 


__ I  seclusion  and 

nn  to  study  sculpture  without  a  master.  Id 
1877  he  erected  a  Beautiful  monument  to  his 
wife  in  the  cemetery  of  Bonillant,  Oise,  the 
first  example  of  his  sculpture.  His  next  work 
was  the  monument  'Aux  Morts,'  desigticd  to 
represent  the  grief  of  humanity  for  the  dead, 
the  model  of  whkh  was  exhibited  aX  tlie  Salon 
of  1895.  At  the  expense  of  the  state  and  the 
dty  of  Paris  it  was  carved  In  limestone  and 
erected  in  1899  at  the  entrance  of  Fire  La- 
chaise  Cemeteiy,  Pari*.  It  is  one  of  the  greatest 
sculptural  monnmenti  of  modem  times.  His 
other  potable  woibs  indude  the  bronze  «Weep- 
ing  Cbiltl,*  in  the  Luxembourg;  a  series  oi 
female  nudes,  inchiding  that  adonung  the  faun- 
tain  in  the  Miuie  des  Arts  Decoratifs,  Paris, 
'The  Soct«t,'  Lcipiig;  and  'Girl  Plaiting  Her 
Hair,*  in  the  Albertinum  Museum,  Dresden. 
He  is  represented  in  the  musenma  of  Brussels, 
Diisseldorf,  Dresden,  Utifalhausen  and  Uar~ 
sdllcs,  and  has  carved  sereral  heautiful  hosts 
and  monuments  in  the  Parisian  cemeteries.  He 
excels  in  delineatiiv  the  nude  in  the  attitude  of 

r'ef.  Consult  Demaison,  <U.  Bartholomi  ct 
monument  Aux  Uorts*  (Paris  1900.) 
BARTHOLOHBW,  of  the  Martyrs,  areh- 
Inshop  of  Braga  in  Portugal:  b.  1527;  d.  1590. 
He  wrote  several  treatises  on  spiritual  subjects, 
was  an  intimate  friend  of  Saint  Charles  Bor- 
romeo,  and  did  for  the  Chnrdi  in  Portugal 
¥diat  Saint  Charles  did  for  religion  in  Italy. 
.  He  was  one  of  the  most  influential  members  of 
the  Coimcil  of  Trent,  and  the  enactment  of 
most  of  the  reformatory  decrees  in  that  Coun- 
dl  was  dtte  to  his  leal  and  perseverance.  Con- 
sult his  'Life'  translated  by  Lady  Herbert 

BARTHOLOMEW,  Edward  Shc(GeI<[, 
American  sculptor:  b.  Colchester,  Conn.,  1822: 
d.  2  May  185a  He  studied  in  New  York  and 
in  Rome,  where  he  lived  during  the  latter  part 
of  his  life.  Among  his  works  are  'Blind 
Homer,  Led  1^  His  Daughter,'  'Eve,'  'Youth 
and  Old  Age,'  'Ganymede  and  'Evening 
Star.' 

BARTHOLOMEW,  Jolui  George,  Eng- 
lisfa  geographer:  b.  EJlinburgh^ 22  March  I860. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Edinburgh  High 
School  and  University.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Geographical 
Society  in  1884.  and  hai  since  acted  as  its  sec- 
retary. He  introduced  the  layer  system  of  con- 
tour coloring  for  topographical  maps.  He  was 
appointed  geographer  ano  cartographer  to  the 
King,  and  is  chief  of  the  Edinburgh  Geographi- 
cal Institute.  He  has  published  'Survey  Atlas 
of  Scotland'  (1895-1912);  'Citizens'  Atlas' 
(189&t1912);  'Atlas  of  Meteorology'  (1899); 
'Survey  Gazetteer  of  the  British  Isles'  (1904)  ; 
'Survey  Atlas  of  England  and  Wales'  (1903)  ; 
'Atlas  of  World's  Commerce'  (1907) ;  'Im- 
perial Indian  Gazetteer  Atlas'  (1908);  'Atlas 
of  ZoogeoKTaphy'  (1911),  and  nimierous  edu- 
calional  atlases  and  special  maps. 

BARTHOLOMEW,  Saint  (son  of  Tol- 
mai),  the  apostle,  probably  the  same  person  as 
Nathanael,  mentioned  in  the  Gospel  of  Saint 
Jobn  as  an  upri^t  Israelite,  and  otte  of  the 
first  disciples  of  Jesus.  The  name  ■Tholmai' 
was  not  3  patronymic  but  a  surname  given  to 
the   apostle,  a  coaunMi  practice,  owing  to  the 


well-known  scarcity  of  Hebrew  family  aaiata. 
He  is  said  to  have  taught  Christianity  in  the 
south  of  Arabia,  into  which,  according  to 
Eusebius,  he  carried  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Mat- 


Asia  Minor,  and  tradition  tells  that  he  was 
flayed  alive  and  crucified  head  downward. 
His  day  is  the  24th  of  August 

BARTHOLOMEW,  Saint,  archbishop  of 
Nakschiwan,  'Apostle  of  Armenia' ;  b.  Bo- 
logna; d.  1333.  Having  learned  of  his  mis- 
sionary zeal,  Pope  John  XXII  consecrated  him 
Irishop  of  Maraga  in  Armenia.  He  belonged 
to  the  Dominican  Order  and  established  a  prov- 
ince of  the  same  in  Armenia.  With  the  assist- 
ance of  confreres  he  translated  into  Armenian 
the  Psalter,  the  Missal,  the  moral  tracts  of 
Saint  Augustine  and  Saint  Thomas'  four  books, 
'Contra  Gentiles.' 

BARTHOLOMEW.  Saint,  a  small  island 
of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  French  West  Indies,  130 
miles  to  the  northwest  of  Guadeloupe,  nine 
square  miles  in  area  and  rising  to  the  height 
01  about  1,000  feet.  It  produces  tobacco,  sugar, 
cotton,  indigo,  cassava,  drugs,  etc.  with  some 
excellent  woods  (including  lignum  vitEe)  and 
limestone.  All  the  fresh  water  which  can  be 
procured  is  saved  in  cisterns,  as  there  are  no 
springs.  The  climate  is  healthy.  The  island  is 
encompassed  by  formidable  rocks^  which  ren- 
der it  dangerous  of  access  to  shipping.  The 
only  town  is  Gustavia  or  Saint  Bartholomew. 
It  was  first  colonized  by  the  French  in  1648, 
was  ceded  to  Sweden  in  1784,  and  again  came 
into  possession  of  France  in  1877.  Pop.  (1911) 
2,545.  In  the  south  Pacific  Ocean  are  two  other 
islands  of  the  same  name. 

BARTHOLOMEW,  Saint.  Mawacre  of, 
the  slaughter  of  French  Protestants  in  Paris 
and  other  cities  in  France  on  various  dates  be- 
tween 24  Aug.  and  3  Oct  1572.  After  the 
death  of  Francis  11,  Catherine  de'  Medici  had 
assumed  the  regency  for  her  son,  Charles  IX, 
tlien  only  10  years  old,  and  in  spite  of  the 
opposition  of  me  Guises  she  issued  an  edict  of 
toleration  in  favor  of  the  Protestant  pariy, 
1562,  which  she  had  favored  in  many  ways. 
The  party  of  the  Guises  now  persuaded  the 
nation  ttut  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  was 
in   the   greatest   danger.      Religious   dissension 

Sew  rife,  and  each  party,  Roman  CathoUc  and 
ugueno^  under  pretext  of  religion,  treated 
the  other  with  cruelty.  Prince  Condi  took  up 
arms;  the  Guises  had  recourse  to  the  Span- 
iards, Condi  to  the  Ejiglish,  for  assistance. 
Both  parties  were  guilty  of  the  most  atrocioui; 
cruelUes,  but  finally  a  peace  was  patched  Up. 
The  Queen-mother  caused  the  King,  who  had 
entered  his  14th  year,  to  be  declared  of  »gc, 
that  she  mi^t  govern  more  absolutely  under 
his  name.  Duke  Francis  de  Guise  had  been 
assassinated  bjf  a  Huguenot  at  the  siege  o£ 
Orleans;  but  tus  spirit  continued  in  his  family, 
which  considered  the  Admiral  Coligny  as  the 
author  of  his  murder.  The  King  hafl  been  per- 
suaded that  the  Huguenots  had  designs  on  bis 
life,  and  had  conceived  an  implacable  hatred 
against  them.  Meanwhile  the  court  endeavored 
to  gain  time,  in  order  to  seixe  the  persons  of 
the  prince  and  the  admiral  by  stratagem,  but 
was  disappointed,  and  hostibties  were  renewed 
in  1565,  and  still  again  after  the  Peace  of  ixn-_  I  _ 

tToogIc 


BARTHOLOMEWS   HOSPITAL  —  BASTLET 


jomeau,   1568,   this  time  with  greater  cnieltr  BARTHOLOHEWS  HOSPITAL,  Sdnt, 

'     ■ '  """   "  London,  England,  formerly  the  priory  of  Saint 

Bartholomew,  founded  in  1123,  and  made  a  hos- 
pital by  Henry  VIH  in  1547.  It  contains  750 
beds,  and,  on  an  average,  8.000  patients  are  an- 
nually  admitted  to  the  hospital, 


;  prisoner  and  stlot  t>y  Capt: 
Uontesquiea  Coligny  collected  the  ri 
of  the  routed  army;  the  young  Prince  Henry 
de  Biam  (afterward  Henry  IV,  King  of 
Navarre  and  France),  the  bead  of  the  Protes- 
tant party  after  the  death  of  Cond^  was  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief,  and  Coligny  com- 
manded in  the  name  of  the  Prince  Henry  de 
Cond£,  who  swore  to  avenge  the  murder  ol  his 
father.  The  advantageous  offers  of  peace  at 
Saint  Germain- en-Lay e  (8  Aug.  1570)  satisfied 
the  chiefs  of  the  HuguenotSj  particularly  Ad- 
miral Coligny,  who  was  weaned  with  civil  war. 


his  mother;  he  invited  the  old  Coli^y,  the 
main  support  of  the  Huguenots,  to  his  court, 
and  honored  him  as  a  father.  The  sister  of 
the  King  was  married  to  the  Prince  de  Bfam 
(18  Aug.  1572) ;  this  union  opened  u^  a  field 
for  the  most  distinguished  Huguenots  in  Paris. 
Meanwhile  [he  Queen  had  allied  herself  to  the 
Guise  family,  and  jealous  of  the  influence  of 
Coligny  with  the  King,  determined  to  have 
him  assassinated.  On  22  August  a  shot  from  a 
window  wounded  the  admiral.  The  King  has- 
tened to  visit  him  and  swore  to  punisa  the 
author  of  the  villainy;  but  on  the  same  day  he 
was  induced  by  his  mother  to  believe  that  the 
admiral  had  desi^s  on  his  life,  °^God's  death!* 
he  exclaimed;  "kjll  the  Admiral;  and  not  only 
him,  but  all  the  Huguenots ;  let  none  remain 
to  disturb  us  I"  The  following  night  Cather- 
ine held  the  bloodv  council  which  iixed  the 
execution  for  the  night  of  Saint  Bartholomew, 
24  Aug.  1572.  After  the  assassination  oi 
Coligny  a  bell  from  the  tower  of  the  royal  pal- 
ace at  midnight  gave  to  the  assembled  com- 
panies of  2,000  burghers  the  signal  for  the  gen- 
eral massacre  of  the  Huguenots.  The  Prince 
of  Conde  and  die  King  of  Navarre  saved  their 
Kves  by  choosing  the  mass  rather  than  death, 
and  pretending  to  embrace  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion.  Roman  Catholics  as  well  as  Hugue- 
nots fell  victims  to  the  political  and  personal 
hatred  q(  the  slayers.  By  the  King's  orders 
the  massacre  was  extended  through  the  whole 
kingdom ;  and  if,  in  some  provinces,  the  offi- 
cers had  honor  and  humanity  enou^  to  dis- 
obey the  orders  to  butcher  their  innocent  fel- 
low citizens,  yet  instruments  were  always  found 
to  continue  the  bloody  work.  This  horrible 
slaughter  continued  over  40  days ;  the  victims 
are  calculated  at  from  10,000  to  100,000.  The 
Calvinist  martyrology  cites  786  names ;  2,000  is 
the  number  computed  by  late  historians.  At 
Rome  the  massacre  was  given  out  as  a  victory 
over  a  great  Huguenot  conspiracy  against  the 
King;  it  was  for  this  reason  the  Pope  ordered 
the  "Te  Deoni*  to  be  chanted  and  a  medal 
struck  commemorating  the  event.  Those  ot  the 
Huguenots  who  escatid  fled  into  the  mountains 
and  to  Rochelle,  The  Duke  of  Anjou  laid 
siege  to  that  city  but,  during  the  siege,  received 
the  news  that  the  Poles  had  elected  him  their 
king.  He  concluded  a  treaty,  6  July  1573,  and 
the  King  granted  to  the  Huguenots  the  exer- 
cise of  their  religion  in  certain  towns.  (Seealso 
Huguenots).  Consult  Lavisse,  'Hisioirc  de 
France'  (Vol.  VI,  Paris  1904)  ;  Loughnan, 
•The  Monih>  (1892);  White,  *The  Massacre 
of  Saint  Bartholomew'    (1867). 


medical   college   is   attached   1 
and  a  resident  college  for  students. 

BARTHOLOinTES.     See  Basiuans. 

BARTHOU,  bir'-too',  Louis,  French  states- 
man: b.  Oloron-Sainte- Marie  1862.  He  re- 
ceived his  education  at  the  Lyc^  of  Pan,  en- 
tered public  life  and  held  various  important 
evemment  positions.  He  was  several  timci 
inister  of  Public  Works,  chief  in  the  cabinet 
of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior  and  Minister 
of  the  Interior,  In  1913  he  became  Minister  of 
Justice  under  the  premiership  of  Aristide  Bti- 
and  in  President  Poincare's  first  (linnet  la 
March  of  the  same  year  he  was  appointed 
Premier  with  the  portfolio  of  Minister  of  Pub- 
lic Instruction.  He  resigned  his  office  the  fol- 
lowing December.  His  publications  include 
«L'acgon  syndicale'  (19(H) ;  and  'Life  of 
Mirabeau'   (1913). 

BARTIM.ffiUS  (son  of  Tiuads),  one  of 
the  blind  b^^rs  healed  by  Jesus  at  the  gale 
of  Jericho.  He  appears  to  have  attracted  lh« 
attention  of  the  writers  of  the  (rtispel  narratives 
from  the  fact  that  he  was  the  sjmkesraan  of  the 
beggars  healed  on  that  occasion  and  because 
he  addressed  Jesus  with  his  Messianic  title, 
•Thou  Son  of  David.» 

BARTIZAN,  a  battlement  on  the  top  of  a 
house  or  castle;  a  small  overhanging  torret 
projecting    from    the   angle   on    the   top   of   a 


BARTLESVILLE,  Okla.,  dty  and  county- 
seat  of  Washington  County,  on  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  &  Santa  F^  and  the  Missouri,  Kansas 
&.  Texas  raUroads,  about  125  miles  from  OUja- 
homa  City.  It  has  a  county  courthouse,  a  city 
hall  costing  $75,000,  Elks  Home  and  a  Carnegie 
library  costing  $20,000.  BartlcsviUe  is  the  centre 
of  the  mid-continent  oil  field,  with  16.000  pta- 
ducin^  wells,  and  has  imporlant  oil  interests. 
Washington  County  produces  about  20.000  bar- 
lels  a  oay,  a  third  of  the  output  of  the  entire 
region.  There  are  also  deposits  of  natural  gas 
and  zinc  ore  smelting  interests.  The  annual 
payroll  is  $3,500,000.  There  are  four  banks  with 
deposits  of  over  $4,000,000.  The  value  of  cil>' 
property  as  assessed  is  $7,000,(X)0,  and  the  post- 
ofRce  receipts  in  1915  were  $40,350.  The  city 
has  a  fine  school  system,  with  eight  excellent 
buildings  worth  $30,000,  and  more  than  2,700 
school  children,  Bartlesvitle  has  12  miles  ol 
asphalt  and  brick  pavement,  30  miles  of  sewers 
and  six  miles  of  Street  railways.  The  city 
adopted  the  commission  form  of  government  in 
1910.    Pop.  (1910)  6,181;  (1916)  15,000. 

BARTLET,  James  Vereon,  English  author 
and  educator:  b.  Scarborough,  IS  Aug.  1863. 
He  was  educated  at  Exeter  (Allege,  Oxford. 
After  studying  for  several  years  imder  Df.  Fair- 
bairn  and  serving  as  fellow  and  lecturer  he  be- 
came first  fellow  of  Mansfield  College,  and 
began  lecturing  on  church  history  with  tm 
opening  of   the   college   buildings   in   1889.  re- 


BARTLETT 


888 


mainine;  senior  tutor  in  residence 'till  1900.  He 
has  published  'Early  Church  Hbtory'  (1894; 
1897);  'The  Apostolic  Age*  (1900);  'Studies 
in  the  Synoptic  Problem'  (1911) ;  'Evangelical 
Chrislianity'  (1912);  and  contributions  to  re- 
views and  works  of  refereoce. 

BARTLETT,  Edwin  Julius,  American 
chemist:  b.  Hudson, Ohio.  16  Feb.  1851.  Hewas 
graduated  A.B.,  Darlmouth  College,  1872;  A.M., 
1875;  M.D.,  Rush  Medical  CoUege,  1879;  ap- 
pointed associate  professor  of  chemistry  at 
Dartmouth  College  in  1878  and  professor  in 
1883;  is  at  present  head  of  the  department 
of  chemistry.  Professor  Bartlett  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  American  Chemical  Society,  fellow 


shire  Historical  Society,  honorary  member  of 
the  New  Hampshire  Medical  Society,  member 
of  Dartmouth  Scientilic  Association  and  Dart- 
mouth Graduate  Club,  moderator  of  the  town 
of  Hanover,  1906-12,  and  sat  in  the  New  Hamp- 
shire legislature.  1913,  He  has  traveled  widely 
in  Europe  aiid  the  Levant,  has  been  expert  in 
many  legal  cases,  and  is  the  author  of  many 
-        -«..--  .  .    ■    .  ^^ J  other 


papers  and  addresses 
subjects. 

BARTLETT,  EUeha,  American  physician 
and  author:  b.  Smithfield,  R.  I..  1805;  d.  there, 
18  July  1855.  He  was  graduated  from  the  med- 
i<^  dotartment  of  Brown  University  in  1826, 
and  d^ivcred  the  course  of  lectures  on  patho- 
logical anatomy  at  the  Berkshire  Medical  Insti- 
tute in  Fittsfield,  Mass.,  in  1832.  In  1836  or 
1837  he  was  elected  the  first  mayor  of  Lowell, 
He  subsequently  lectured  at  Dartmouth  College, 
and  in  Transylvania  University  and  the  univer- 
sities of  Maryland  and  New  York.  In  1851  he 
became  professor  of  materia  medica  and  medi- 
cal jurisprudence  in  die  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons  in  New  York,  which  place  he 
held  until  his  death.  He  published  'Essay  on 
the  Philosophy  of  Medical  Science'  (1844) ; 
'Fevers  of  the  United  States'  (1850);  and  a 
volume  of  poems,  entitled  'Simple  Settings  in 
Verse  for  Portraits  and  Pictures  in  Mr.  Dick- 
ens' Gallery'  (1855). 

BARTLETT,    Sir   BDis   Aahmead.     See 

As  II M  EAI>-B  ASTI^TT. 

BARTLETT,  Homer  Newton,  American 


composer  and  onanist :   h.  Olive,  N.  Y.,  28  Elec 

1846;  d.  190S.    He  began  his  pubhc  career  when 

;  years  of  _  age,  and  at  10  composed  violin 


music,  piano  duos,  songs  and  vocal  duets.  He 
wrote  a  large  number  of  anthems,  quartets  and 
g-lees  for  vocal  rendering,  and  pieces  for  the 
flute,  stringed  instruments  and  military  bands 
and  orchestras.  His  best  compositions  include 
a  three-act  opera,  'La  Valliere' ;  a  cantata,  'The 
Last  Chieftain';  an  oratorio,  'Samuel,'  etc 

BARTLETT,  Ichabod,  American  lawyer: 
b.  Salisbury,  N.  H,,  1786;  i.  19  Oct.  18S3.  He 
was  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1808, 
commenced  the  practice  of  the  law  in  Durham 
but  removed  to  Portsmouth,  where  his  skill  and 
ability  soon  commanded  success.  He  is  cele- 
brated as  an  opponent  of  Webster  and  Mason. 
He  was  frequently  a  member  of  the  State  legis- 
lalure,  and  of  the  United  States  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives for  three  terms,  1823-29. 

BARTLETT,  John.  American  author  and 
publisher:    b.  Plymouth.  Mass.,  14  June  1820; 


d.  Cambridge,  Mass.,  3  Dec.  1905,  He  entered 
the  university  book-store,  became  a  publisher  in 
Cambridge  in  1836,  and  senior  partner  in  the 
house  of  Little,  Brown  &  Company  in  1878,  His 
works  include  'Fartiiliar  Quotations'  (1854; 
9th  ed,.  1891);  'New  Method  of  Chess  Nota- 
tion' (1857);  'The  Shakespeare  Phrase- Book' 
(1882);  'Catalogue  of  Books  on  Angling,  In- 
cluding Ichthyology,  Pisciculture,  etc'  (1882) ; 
'The  Complete  Concordance  to  Shakespeare's 
Dramatic  Works'   (1894);  and  'Poems.' 

BARTLETT,  John  R.,  American  naval 
officer:  b.  New  York  1843;  d  Saint  Louis,  22 
Nov.  1904.  He  was  appointed  an  acting  mtd- 
ihipntan  in  the  navy  from  Rhode  Island  in 
1859;  entered  the  United  States  Nava!  Acad- 
emy, where  he  remained  till  the  beginning  of 
the  Civil  War,  when  he  was  assigned  to  the 
West  Gulf  blockading  squadron.  He  took  part 
in  the  bombardment  and  passage  of  Forts  Saint 
Philip  and  Jackson,  and  the  Chalmette  batteries, 
_  and  the  capture  of  New  Orleans  and  attack  on 
■  Vicksburg  in  June  1862.  He  was  promoted 
lieutenant  in  1864;  took  part  in  the  bombard- 
ment of  Fort  Fisher  in  December,  and  the  as- 
sault on  its  works  in  January.  Subsequently  he 
was  on  surveying  duty  in  Nicaragua  and  on  the 
United  States  Coast  Survey;  was  promoted  to 
captain.  1  July  1892;  and  retired  12  July  1897, 
After  the  declaration  of  war  against  Spain,  in 
1898,  he  was  recalled  to  active  service,  and  on 
9  July  succeeded  Rear-Admiral  Erben  as  com- 
mander of  the  auxiliary  naval  squadron, 
organized  for  the  protection  of   the  Atlantic 

BARTLETT,  John  Rnsaell.  American 
author:  b.  Providence,  R.  L,  23  Oct  1805; 
d,  28  May  1886.  He  was  educated  for  a  mercan- 
tile career,  and  after  1837  entered  the  book- 
importing  trade  in  New  York.  In  1850  he  was 
ai^inted  one  of  the  commissioners  to  deter- 
muie  the  Mexican  boundary.  In  1855  he  was 
made  secretary  of  State  of  Rhode  Island.     He 

tiubiishcd  various  valuable  records,  genealogies, 
ocal  histories,  etc.,  but  his  best  known  work  is 
his  'Dictionary  of  Americanisms'   (1850). 

BARTLETT,  John  Sherren,  Anglo-Amer- 
ican journalist,  founder  of  the  Albton  news- 
faper  in  New  York:  b.  Dorsetshire.  England, 
790;  d,  24  Aug.  1863.  He  was  educated  as  a 
physician  in  London ;  was  appointed  surgeon  in 
the  royal  navy  in  1812 ;  sailed  to  the  West  Indies 
on  board  the  packet  Svallow:  was  captured  by 
the  American  frigates  President  and  Congress, 
under  Commodore  Rodgers,  and  remained  a 
prisoner  at  Boston  until  discharged  in  1813, 
At  the  close  of  the  war  he  married  a  lady  of 
Boston  and  established  himself  there  as  a 
physician.  The  Albion  commenced  by  him  in 
New  York,  22  June  1822,  as  an  English  organ 
of  conservative  politics,  gained  a  wide  and 
profitable  circulation.  Bartlett  subsequently 
commenced  one  or  two  other  papers  of  a  simi- 
lar character  at  a  cheaper  price,  and  on  the 
beginning  of  Atlantic  steam  navigation  also 
established  at  Liverpool  the  Enropean,  a  weekly 
compendium  of  the  latest  news  for  American 
circulation.  Owing  to  the  failure  of  his  health, 
he  withdrew  from  the  Albion  in  1848.  He  sub- 
sequently published  the  Anglo-Saxon,  a  weekly 
paper  at  Boston,  which  he  continued  about  two 
years.  In  1857  he  served  as  English  consul  at 
Baltimore.  , 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


BARTLBTT 


d.  Boston,  27  Oct.  1827.  He  began  the  study 
of  law  at  Salem,  but  sooo  gave  it  up  for  a 
voyage  to  England.  Here  lie  pursued  the  career 
of  an  adventurer,  gambled,  spent,  got  into 
prison,  wrote  a  play  for  his  release  and  went 
upon  the  stage  himself.  From  an  actor  he  be- 
came a  mercfianl,  and  having  sailed  for  America 
with  a  large  smiply  of  goods  on  credit,  was 
shipwrecked  on  Cape  Cod.  In  1799  he  delivered 
a  poem  on  'Physiognomy'  before  the  Phi  Beta 
Kappa  Society  of  Harvard,  satirical  and  clever, 
and  said  to  touch  upon  the  traits  of  individuals 
a.1  the  time.  To  the  edition  of  this  poem,  pub- 
lished in  1823,  were  appended  a  number  of 
'Aphorisms  on  Men,  Principles  and  Things,* 
the  results  of  his  various  experience.  The  same 
year  he  delivered  a  Fourth  of  July  oration  at 
Boston,  and  afterward  recited  a  poem,  entitled 
the  'New  Vicar  of  Bray,*  which  obtained  con^ 
siderable  celebrity.  He  next  attempted  the 
practice  of  law  and  of  politics  in  Maine,  was' 
elected  to  the  State  legislature,  and  nearly  se- 
cured an  election  to  Congress  by  his  active 
exertions  as  a  speaker  and  newspaper  writer. 
He  then  practised  law  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
and  finally  closed  his  improvideut  life,  a  burden 
to  his  friends,  at  Boston.  Consult  Duyddnck't 
'Cyclopaedia  of  American  Literature.* 

BARTLETT,  Josiah,  American  statesman: 
b.  Amesbury,  Mass.,  November  1729;  d.  19  May 
1795.  He  commenced  the  practice  of  medicine 
in  1750,  at  Kingston,  and  established  a  reputa- 
tion, during  the  prevalence  of  the  angina  ma-- 
ligna  in  17S4,  by  treatment  with  Peruvian  bark, 
ill  opposition  to  the  usa^e  of  other  physicians. 
He  received  several  appointments  from  the  royal 
governor,  John  Wentworth,  but  lost  them  in 
1775,  for  iwing  a  zealous  Whi^.  Being  chosen 
delegate  to  the  Continental  Congress,  he  wu 
the  first  who  voted  for,  and  the  first,  after  the 
President,  who  signed  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence, his  name  being  first  called  as  repre- 
sentative of  the  most  easterly  province.  He  ac- 
companied Stark  in  1777  to  Bennington.  He  was 
a^^inted  chief  justice  of  the_common  pleas 


chief  justice  in  1788.    ___     

of  the  convention  called  to  adopt  the  Federal 
Constitution  in  1783.  In  1790  he  was  president 
of  New  Hampshire,  and  in  1793  was  chosen 
the  first  governor  under  the  new  State  fTonsti- 


society  established  in  1,__.  _,  

all  his  various  of^ces  his  duties  were  ably  and 
faithfully  discharged. 

BARTLETT,  Paul  Wayland,  American 
sculptor :  b.  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1865.  He  «n- 
tered  the  £cole  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris,  1880, 
and  won  a  medal  at  the  Paris  Salon  of  18S7. 
His  principal  works  are  an  equestrian  statue  of 
General  McClellan,  'The  Dying  Lion'  and  the 
*Ghost  Dancer,'  in  Philadelphia;  the  equestrian 
statue  of  Lafayette  in  Paris  (presented  to 
France  by  the  school  children  of  the  United 
States) ;  a  statue  of  Gen.  Joseph  Warren  in 
Boston;  a  statue  of  Benjamin  Franklin  at 
Waterbury,  Conn.;  statues  of  Cotambus  and 
Michelangelo  in  the  Library  of  Congress; 
'The  Bear  Tamer,>  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
of  New  York;  and  the  six  colossal  figures  over 
the  central  entrance  of  New  York  Public  Li- 


brary.   In  1^  he  was  appointed  officer  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  and  was  selected  as  a  corre- 

Ending  member  of  the  Institute  of  France, 
became  director  of  sculpture  in  the  Sdiool 
of  Fine  Arts,  Glasgow,  in  1913. 

BARTLBTT,  Suimel  Colcord,  American 
educator:  b.  SaUsbnty,  N.  H.,  25  Nov.  1817; 
d  16  Nov.  1896.  He  vras  educated  at  Dartmoulh 
College,  and  became  a  teadier  there  and  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary.  He  had  charge 
of  a  church  at  Monson,  Mass. ;  subseauentl>- 
becoming  professor  of  philosoi^y  in  Westrm 
Reserve  University,  Ohio.  He  afterward  be- 
came pastor  of  a  church  in  Manchester,  N.  H., 
and  bter  of  the  New  England  Church  in  Chi- 
cago. In  1858  he  was  made  professor  of  biblical 
literature  in  the  Chicago  Theological  Seminary, 
where  he  remained  until  1873,  when  he  spent 
a  year  in  travel  in  the  East  In  1877  he  beCTne 
president  of  Dartmouth  College,  a  post  he  hcM 
until  1892,  when  he  resigned.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  number  of  works,  including  'From 
Egypt  to  Palestine'  (W79J  ;  'Sketches  of  Mis- 
sions of  the  American.  Board';  .'Sources  oi 
History  in  the  Pentateuch* :  and  'The  Veracity 
of  the  Hexateuch* ;  and  also  wrote  a  part  of 
the  American  edition  of  'Smith's  Dictionar)-  of 
the  Bible.' 

BARTLETT,  WOUain  Fraada,  American 
military  offKer:  b.  Haverhill.  Mass.,  6  Jan.  1840; 
d.  17  Dec  1876.  He  was  a  student  at  Harvard 
University  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Ovil  War, 
but  left  to  eater  the  army.  He  was  wounded 
in  the  battle  of  Ball's  Bluff,  suffering  the  kiss 
of  a  leg,  but  continued  io  the  service;  u,-at 
twice  wounded  at  Port  Hudson;  and  in  the 
battles  of  the  Wilderness,  while  leading  the  57tfa 
Massachusetts  regiment,  was  again  wounded, 
taken  prisoner  and  sent  to  Lib^  Prison.  At 
the  close  of  the  war,  he  was  made  a  major- 
general  of  volunteers  for  ^stinguished  servkei 
in  the  field. 

BARTLETT,  William  Henry,  Engliih 
topographical  draughtsman:  b.  Kentish  Towti, 
London,  29  March  1809;  d.  13  Sept  1854.  Hr 
served  an  apprenticeship  with  the  distinguished 
architectural  antiquary,  John  Britton,  who  em- 
ployed him  to  make  drawings  for  his  'Cathedral 
Anti(jui(ies'  and  'Picturesque  Antiquities  of 
EngUsh  Cties.'  Bartlett  suDsequently  traveled 
extensively  abroad,  paying  four  visits  to  ihe 
United  States  and  Canada,  and  the  works  which 
he  published,  descriptive  of  the  countries  visited 
by  nim,  obtained  great  success  with  the  public 
Tlicy  include  'American  Scenery'  (1840) ; 
•Canadian  Scenery'  (1842);  'Walks  About 
Jerusalem*  (1844) ;  'Forty  Days  in  the  Desert' 
(1848) ;  'The  Nile  Boat,  or  Glimpses  o£  Egypt' 
(1849)  ;  'Footsteps  of  Our  Lord  and  His 
Apostles'  (1851);  'The  Pilgrim  Fathers' 
(1853);  'Jerusalem  Revisited'   (1855). 

BARTLETT,  William  Holmes  Chambers, 
American  soldier  and  scientist :  b,  Lancaster 
County,  Pa.,  1809;  d.  11  Feb.  1893.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  West  Point,  and  as  lieutenant  of  en- 
gineers was  assistant  professor  there,  1827-29. 
He  was  engaged  on  the  construction  of  Fort 
Monroe  and  Fort  Adams;  was  assistant  engi- 
neer at  Washington,  1832-^;  and  again  at  West 
Point  as  assistant  professor,  1834-36.  When  he 
resigned  his  lieutenancy  in  1836,  he  was  made 
full  professor  of  philosophy  at  West  Point,  and 
held  this  position  until  he  retired  in  1871.    He 


:,  Google 


B  AKTLEY — B  AKTOLOHUBO 


was  .a  member  of  the  Natural  Academjr  of 
Sciences  and  other  scientific  societies,  and  wrote 
several  scientific  bcx^cs,  including  'Treatise  on 
Optics>  (1839>  ;  'Synthetical  Mechanics'  (18S0- 
SB);  'Acoustics  and  Optics'  (1852-59);  'Ana- 
lytical Mechanics'  (1853-59);  and  'Spherical 
Astronomy'   (1858-59). 

BARTLET,  Bllu  Hudson,  American 
chemist :  b.  Bartleyville,  N.  J..  6  Dec.  1849.  He 
was  graduated  at  Cornell  University  in  1873; 
was  an  instructor  there  in  1874-75;  professor 
of  chemistry  at  Swarthinore  College,  1875-78; 
lecturer  at  the  Franklin  Institute,  Philadel- 
phia, in  1877-7&  He  removed  to  Brooklyn  in 
1879;  graduated  at  Long  Island  College  Hos- 
pital in  1879;  was  lecturer  there  on  physiolog- 
ical and  practical  chemistry  in  1880-85 ;  and 
then  became  professor  of  chemistry  and  toxi- 
cology. He  was  made  chief  chemist  of  the 
health  department  of  Brooklyn  in  1882.  He 
is  the  author  of  several  articles  in  Wood's 
'Household  Practice  of  Medicine'  (1885)  and 
of  'A  Text-Book  of  Medical  Chemistry.' 

BARTOL,  C3mia  AngastlU,  American  Uni- 
tarian clergytnan ;  b.  Freeport,  He.,  30  April 
1813;  d.  irOec.  1900.  He  was  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  College  in  1832  and  at  Cambridge 
Divini^  School  in  1835 ;  became  colleague  pas- 
tor with  Dr.  Charles  Lowell  of  the  West 
Church  (Unitarian)  in  Boston,  1837.  and  full 
pastor  in  1861.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Tran- 
scendental club.  His  works  include  'Dis- 
courses on  the  Christian  Spirit  and  Life' 
(1850)  ;  'Discourses  on  Christian  Boc^  and 
Form'  (1854):  'Pictures  of  Europe  Framed 
in  Ideas'  (18S5) ;  'History  of  the  West 
Church  and  Its  Ministers'  (1858);  'Church 
and  Congregation'  (1858)  ;  'Word  of  the 
Spirit  of  the  Clurch'  (1859)  ;  'Radical  Prob- 
lems' (1872);  'The  Rising  Fwth'  (1874); 
'Principles  and  Portraits'    (1880). 

BARTOLI,  bar'to-le,  Adolfo,  lUlian  his- 
torian: b.  Fivwiano,  19  Nov.  1833;  d.  1894. 
He  has  long  been  a  recogniied  arbiter  of  taste 
and  the  elegancies  in  connection  with  his  coun- 
try's literature;  his  'First  Two  Centuriei  of 
Italian  Literature'  (1870-80)  and  'History  of 
Italian  Literature'  (1878-89)  being  the  first 
histories  of  Italian  literature  conceived  in  a 
critical  sjurit  From  1874  till  his  death  he  was 
professor  of  Italian  literature  in  the  Institute 
of  Florence. 

BAKTOLI,  Daniello,  a  learned  Italian 
Jesuit:  b.  Ferrara.  12  Feb.  1608;  d.  Rome,  12 
Ian.  16S5.  He  was  the  author  of  a  celebrated 
history  of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  published 
at  Rome  in  six  volumes  (1650-73).  BartoU 
had  access  to  many  curious  manuscripts  in  the 
Vatican,  of  which  he  availed  himself.  This 
gives  to  his  work  peculiar  interest  and  portions 
of  it,  as  for  instance  that  on  Asia,  passed 
ihroogfa  several  editions.  The  first  edition  of 
1667  contains  also  an  interesting  account  of 
the  missioD  to  Mongolia  and  a  sketch  of  the  life 
of  Father  Acquaviva.  He  also  wrote  on  phys- 
ics and  philology.  His  works  are  marked  by 
erudition,  el^ance  and  purity  of  style.  A  new 
edition  of  his  complete  works  in  SO  volumes 
appeared  at  Florence  in  1826. 

BARTOLI,  Pietro  Santi,  sometimes  called 
Pekucio,  Italian  painter  and  engraver :  b. 
about  1635;  d.  Rome  1700.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Nicolas    Poussin.     His    engravings,    originally 


over  1,000,  are  scarce  and  valuable.  His  skill 
as  a  comist  was  so  arcat  that  he  could  coun- 
terfeit the  effects  of  time  on  the  colors  of 
pictures.  The  'Admiranda  Romanorum  Anti- 
quitatem  Vestijia,'  a  collection  of  en^n^vings 
much  esteemed  archxologically,  is  his  most 
important  work. 

BARTOUNI,  bar-t6-H'ne,  Lorenzo,  cele- 
brated Italian  sculptor;  b.  Vemio  1777;  d. 
Florence  1850.  In  his  youth  he  was  a  pupil  of 
Desmarets,  a  French  painter,  and  made  consid- 
erable progress;  but  the  bent  of  his  genius 
leading  him  rather  to  handle  the  chisel  than 
the  brush,  he  proceeded  to  Paris  and  entered 
in  1797  the  studio  of  the  sculptor  Lemot  Na- 
poleon entrusted  him  with  a  multitude  of 
works,  among  others  a  colossal  bust  of  the  Em- 
peror placed  above  the  entrance  of  the  French 
Institute  and  a  magnificent  statue  of  him, 
which,  in  consequence  of  the  events  of  the 
restoration,  was  never  ddivered  to  government 
and  is  now  in  America.  On  the  tall  of  the 
empire  he  returned  to  Florence,  where  he  con- 
tinued to  exercise  his  profession.  Among  his 
greater  works  may  be  mentioned  his  groups  of 
Charity,  and  Hercules  and  Lycas,  and  the 
beantiful  monument  in  the  cathedral  of  Lau- 
sanne, Switzerland,  greeted  in  memory  of  Lady 
Stratford  Canning,  who  died  there  in  1817. 
Bartolini  ranks  next  to  Canova  among  modem 
Italian  sculptors.  Consult  Canova,  '  Sdiools 
and  Masters  of  Sculpture'   (1898). 

BARTOLOMMEO,  bar-to-Ifim-ml'o,  Fra, 
or    BACCIO    DELLA    PORTA,    Florentine 

Sinter:  b.  Savignano  1469;  d.  Florence  1517. 
e  learned  in  Florence  the  first  principles  of 
painting  from  Cosimo  Roselli  and  acquired  a 
more  perfect  knowledRe  of  art  by  studying  the 
works  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  The  most  im- 
portant of  his  early  productions  is  the  fresco 
of  the  Last  Judgment,  in  which  he  was  assisted 
by  his  friend  Albertinelli.  He  was  an  admirer 
and  follower  of  Savonarola,  on  whose  death, 
in  consequence  of  a  vow  made  during  the  peril 
of  persecution,  he  took  the  Dominican  habit  in 
1500  and  assumed  the  name  of  Fra  Bartotom- 
meo.  For  the  space  of  four  years  he  did  not 
touch  a  pencil  and  employed  it  afterward  only 
on  devotional  subjects.     Raphael  visited  Flor- 


lessons  in  coloring  and  handling  of  drapery. 
Some  years  afterward  the  latter  visited  Michel- 
angelo and  Raphael  at  Rome.  After  his  re- 
turn to  Florence  he  executed  several  religious 
pictures,  among  which  were  a  Saint  Mark  and 
Saint  Sebastian,  which  are  greatly  admired. 
Ijis  style  is  severe  and  elevated,  but  very 
graceful  in  youthful  figures ;  his  coloring,  in 
vigor  and  brilliancy,  .comes  near  to  that  of 
Titian  and  Gior^one.  But  be  particularly  ex- 
cels in  drapery,  which  none  before  him  repre* 
sented  with  equal  truth,  fulness  and  ease. 
Many  of  his  drawings  survive  in  the  print  col- 
lections of  the  Ufiizi,  Louvre,  Munich,  British 
Museum  and  Weimar  Museum.  Among  his 
iraintings  excellent  examples  are  'Christ  at 
Emmaus*  (1507)  in  San  Marco;  'Madonna 
with  Saints  John  and  Stephen'  (1509)  and 
'Saints  Mary  Magdalen  and  Catherine'  (1509), 
both  in  Lucca  Cathedral.  Others  are  'The 
Madonna  and  Six  Saints'  (1509)  in  San  Mar- 
co, Florence;  'The  Betrothal  of  Saint  Catber- 


Google 


BARTOLOZZI  — BAKTON 


ine'  (1511)  in  the  Louvre;  'Madonna  della 
Misericordia'  (1515)  at  Lucca;  'Salvator 
Mundi,'  'Pteti,'  and  the  famous  'Saint 
Mark,*  all  in  the  Ptiti  Palace.  Consult  Jameson, 
'Memoirs  of  the  Early  Italian  Painters' 
(1887)  ;  Symonds,  'The  Renaissance  in  Ilaly> 
(1885);  Radcliffe,  'Schools  and  Masters  of 
Painting'  (1898);  Cartwright,  'The  Painters 
of  Florence'  (1901).  Consult  also  the  biog- 
raphies of  Frantz  (Regensburg  1879),  Gruycr 
(Paris  1886),  Knapp  (Halle  1903)  and  Scott 
(London  1881). 

BARTOLOZZI,  bar-t6~lot's^  Francesco, 
Italian  engraver:  b.  Florence,  21  Sept.  1728;  d. 
Lisbon,  Purtueal,  April  1815.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  goldsmith  and  studied  at  the  Florentine 
Academy,  where  he  excelled  particularly  in 
anatomy  and  drawing.  In  Venice,  in  Flor- 
ence, Rome  and  Milan  he  etched  several  ^eces 
on  sacred  subjects  and  then  on  the  invitation  of 
Dalton,  librarian  to  George  III,  went  to  Lon- 


tional  taste,  so  as  even  to  work  in  the  popular 
red  dotted  manner.  His  pieces  were  so  uni- 
versally sought  for  that  a  compile  collection 
of  them  was  valued  at  £1,000.  He  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts  in 
London.  After  40  years'  residence  in  London 
he  went  to  Lisbon  to  engrave  on  copper  the 
portrait  of  the  Regent,  where  he  received,  in 
1807,  Ihe  Order  of  C3irist,  and  became  director 
of  the  National  Academy,  With  accuracy  of 
design  he  united  great  delicacy  of  execution. 
Among  his  best  engravings  is  the  'Death  of 
Lord  Chatham,'  after  Copley,  and  the  'Virgin 
and  Ciild.'  His  works,  among  which  are  imi- 
tations in  etching  of  drawings  of  the  great 
masters,  amount  to  more  than  2,000.  Consult 
Brinton,  'Bariolozzi  and  his  Pupils  in  Eng- 
land' (London  1904)  ;  Bailly,  'Bartolozii' 
(ib.  1907)  :  "Bartoloizi  and  Other  Sti^iple  En- 
gravers," in  'Great  Engravers  Senes'  (ib. 
1906);  Clement.  'Painters,  Sculptors  and  En- 
gravers' (ib.  1899);  Tucr,  'Bartolozzi  and  His 
Works'   (lb.  1882). 

BARTOLUS,  Duo,  or  BARTOLUS  DB 
SAXOFERRATO,  a  celebrated  luUan  ju-: 
rist;  b.  Sasso  Ferrato.  in  the  Marches  of  An- 
cona,  about  1313;  d.  Perugia  1356.  He  took 
hia  degree  of  LL.D.  at  Bologna,  became 
professor,  first  at  Pisa  and  then  at  Perugia, 
was  ennobled  and  honored  with  other  is- 
(inction  and  privileges  by  the  Emperor  Charles 
IV  and  not  only  pubhshed  many  important 
works  such  as  treatises  'On  Procedure,*  'On 
Evidence'  and  commentary  on  the  'Code  of 
Justinian,'  but  distinguished  himself  in  various 
other  branches   of  Imowlct^. 

BARTON,  Andrew,  Scottish  naval  com- 
mander, who  flourished  during  the  reign  of 
James  IV  and  belonged  to  a  family  which  for 
two  generations  had  produced  able  and  suc- 
cessful seamen.  In  1506  he  cleared  the  Scot- 
tish coasts  of  the  Flemish  ^urates  with  which 
they  were  infested,  and  as  a  proof  of  the 
thoroughness  of  his  wort,  sent  the  King  three 
barrels  full  of  their  heads.  In  1508  he  was 
sent  to  assist  Denmark  against  Liibeck,  The 
damage  he  inflicted  on  Portuguese  ships  en- 
gaged in  the  English  trade  aroused  great  re- 
sentment in  England  and  in  an  engagement 
between    Iris    ship,    the   Lioti,    and    two    ships 


specially  fitted  out  against  him,  he  was  killed 
(2  Aug.  ISU). 

BARTON,  Beniaroin  Smith,  American 
naturalist:  b.  Lancaster.  Pa.,  10  Feb.  1766;  d. 
Philadelphia,  19  Dec  1815.  He  studied  the 
natural  sciences  and  medicine  in  Philadelphia. 
Edinburgh  and  London  and  took  his  degree 
at  Gottingcn.  He  practised  medicine  in  Fliit- 
adelphia  and  held  successively  the  chairs  of 
botany  and  natural  history,  materia  medica  and 
theory  and  practice  of  medicine  in  the  univer- 
sity there.  He  became  president  of  many 
learned  societies,  was  a  correspondent  of  Hum- 
boldt, and  among  other  works,  wrote  'Elements 
of  Botany'  (1812-14)  ;  'Collections  for  an  Es- 
say toward  a  Materia  Medica  of  the  United 
States'  (3d  ed.,  1810);  and  'Flora  Virginica' 
(1812). 

BARTON,  Bernard,  English  poel.  often 
styled  the  Qviaker  poel :  b.  London,  31  Jan. 
1784;  d.  19  Feb.  1849.  In  1806  he  removed  to 
Woodbridge,  in  Suffolk,  where  he  entered  into 
a  business  in  coals  and  com;  but  subseqnenily 
gave  up  his  occupation,  and  in  1610  became 
clerk  in  a  bank  at  Woodbridge,  a  situation 
which  he  held  till  shortly  before  his  death. 
In  1824  a  reading  society  founded  by  him  at 
Woodbridge  presented  him  with  £1,200,  and  he 
afterward  received  a  pension  of  ilCK)  through 
Sir  Robert  Peel.  His  first  appearance  as  an 
author  was  in  1812,  when  he  published  a  small 
volume  of  poems  under  the  title  of  'Metrical 
EfTusions,*  which  led  to  a  correspondence  with 
the  poet  Southey.  This  was  followed  in  1818 
by  'Poems  by  an  Amateur,'  and  in  1820  by  a 
volume  entitled  simply  'Poems,'  which  became 

Eipular,  and  gained  him  the  friendship  of 
amb  and  Byron.  Of  his  other  productions 
the  chief  were  'Napoleon  and  other  Poems' 
(1822);  'Poetic  Vigils*  (1824);  'Devotional 
Verses'  (1826)  ;  'A  New-Year's  Eve,  and  other 
Poems'  (1828);  besides  many  contributions  to 
the  annuals  and  magazines.  His  last  work 
was  'Household  Verses'  (1345).  His  daugh- 
ter, Lucy,  published  'Selections  from  the 
Poems  and  Letters  of  Bernard  Barton.'  in  1849. 
His  poetry,  though  deficient  in  force,  is  pleas- 
ing, fluent  and  graceful,  animated  by  a  love  of 
nature  and  by  a  mire  religious  spint.  Consult 
Lucas,  'Bernard  Barton  and  His  Friends.' 

BARTON,  Claia,  American  philanthropist: 
b.  Oxford,  Mass.,  1821;  d,  12  April  1912,  She 
early  became  a  teacher  and  founded  at  Bor- 
dentown,  N.  J.,  a  free  school.  In  1854  it  had 
grown  to  600,  when  she  became  a  clerk  in  the 
patent  office  in  Washington.  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  she  resigned  her  cleikship 
and  became  a  volunteer  nurse  in  the  army  hos- 
pitals and  on  the  battlefield.  In  1864  she  was 
appointed  to  the  charge  of  the  hospitals  at  the 
front  of  the  Army  of  the  James.  She  was 
present  at  several  battles,  and  in  1865  was  placed 
by  President  Lincoln  in  charge  of  the  search 
for  missing  men  of  the  Union  armies,  having 
already  devoted  much  time  to  that  work  at  her 
own  expense.  In  connection  with  this  work 
she  identified  and  marked  the  ^ves  of  more 
than  12,000  soldiers  in  the  National  Cemetery 
at  Andersonville,  Ga.  On  the  breaking  out  of 
the  Franco-Prussian  War  in  1870,  she  aided  the 
Grand  Duchess  of  Baden  in  preparing  niilitarr 
hospitals,  assisted  the  Red  Cross  Society,  and, 
at  the  request  of  the  authorities,  superintended 


the  distribution  of  work  to  the  poor  of  Strass- 
burg  in  1871.  after  the  siege,  and  in  1872  did  a 
Ulce  work  in  Paris.  At  the  close  of  the  war  she 
was  decorated  with  the  Golden  Cross  of  Baden 
and  the  Iron  Cross  of  Germany.  On  the  orgaii' 
ization  of  the  American  Red  Cross  Society  in 

1851  she  was  made  its  president,  and  in  that 
capacity  in  1884  had  charge  of  the  measures  to 
relieve  sufferers  from  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio 
floods.  In  1883  she  was  appointed  superinten- 
dent of  the  Reformatory  Prison  for  Women 
ai  Sherborn,  Mass.  In  1884  she  was  the  United 
Slates  representative  at  the  Red  Cross  Confer- 
ence in  Geneva.  It  was  her  suggestion  that  led 
to  an  amendment  of  the  rules  of  the  Red  Cross 
Society  permitting  relief  not  only  in  war 
but  in  times  of  such  other  calamities  as  fam- 
ines, floods,  earthquakes  and  pestilence.  In  1889 
she  had  charge  of  movements  in  behalf  of  suf- 
ferers  from   the  floods   at  Johnstown,  Pa. ;   in 

1852  distributed  relief  to  the  Russian  famine 
sufferers ;  in  1896  personally  directed  relief 
measures  at  the  scenes  of  the  Armenian  massa- 
cres; in  1898,  at  the  request  of  President  Mc- 
Kinley,  took  relief  to  the  Cuban  reconcentrados, 
and  performed  field  work  during  the  war  with 
Spain ;  and  in  1900  undertook  to  direct  the  re- 
lief of  sufferers  at  Galveston,  but  broke  down 
physically.  She  resigned  from  the  Red  Cross 
Society  in  1904.  She  published  'History  of  the 
Red  Cross>  (1883)  ;  'History  of  the  Red  Cross 
in  Peace  and  War'  (1898)  ;  'Story  of  the  Red 
Cross'  (1904) ;  "Story  of  My  Childhood' 
(1907).  Consult  Adams  and  Foster,  'Heroines 
of  Modem  Progress'   (1913). 

BARTON,  Sir  Edmimdl,  Australian  jurist 
and  statesman :  b.  Glebe,  Sydney,  18  Jan.  1849. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Sydney  Grammar 
School  and  the  University  of  Sydney.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1871,  He  became  a  member 
of  the  legislative  council  and  was  speaker  of 
the  legislative  assembly  of  New  South  Wales 
1883-87.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Federal 
conventions  of  1891  and  '  1897-^.  He  was 
leader  of  the  delegation  to  London  with  the 
Australian  Commonwealth  Bill  in  1900.  He 
became  first  Prime  Minister  and  Minister  for 
Foreign  Affairs  in  the  first  Federal  Catunet  of 
the  new  Commonwealth,  and  retired  in  1903 
to  become  puisne  judge  of  the  High  Court  of 
Australia.     He  was  knighted  in  19(C. 

BARTON,  Elizabeth,  English  religious  im- 
postor (commonly  called  the  Holy  Maid  of 
Kent)  :  b.  about  1506;  d.  20  April  1534.  She 
was  used  as  an  instrument  by  the  adherents  of 
Queen  Catherine  to  excite  the  English  nation 
against  the  proposed  divorce  of  Henry  VIII 
from  bis  first  wife,  and  the  apprehended  separa- 
tion of  the  English  Church  from  Rome,  with 
which  the  King  then  threatened  the  Pope.  Her 
delirious  utterances,  in  a  nervous  illness,  were 


named  Bocking,  to  nersuade  her  that  she 

prophetess  inspired  by  God.  Among  other 
things  she  prophesied  that  Henry,  if  he  per- 
sisted in  his  purnose  of  divorce  and  second 
marriaKC,  would  die  a  shameful  death  and  be 
succeeded  by_  Catherine's  daughter.  Her  rev- 
elations, published  and  distributed  bj;  the  monk 
Dering,  produced  such  a  fermentation  among 
the  people  that  Henry  ordered  the  apprehen- 
sion and  examination  of  Elizabeth  and  her  ac- 


complices before  the  star-chamber.    After  they 

had  there  confessed  the  imposture  they  were 
condemned  to  make  a  public  confession  and  to 
imprisonment;  and  the  Maid,  Bocking,  Maistcr, 
Dering   and   mree   others   were  afterward   ad- 


Bishop    Fisher    and    Sir    Thomas    More    ■. 

among  those  accused  of  holding  correspondence 
with  the  Holy  Maid;  and  the  former  was  pro- 
nounced guilty  of  misprision,  or  concealment, 
of  treason  in  consequence. 

BARTON,  George  Aaron,  American  edu- 
cator and  author:  b.  East  Famham,  Quebec, 
12  Nov.  1859.  He  was  educated  at  Haverford 
College,  where  he  W3»  graduated  in  1882,  and 
at  Harvard  University.  He  was  appointed  min- 
bter  of  the  Society  of  Friends  in  1879,  was 
teacher  of  higher  mathematics  and  classics  at 
the  Friends'  School,  Providence,  1884-89,  and 
has  been  professor  of  biblical  literature  and 
Semitic  bnsuagcs  at  Bryn  Mawr  College  since 
1891.  In  19te-03  he  was  director  of  the  Ameri- 
can School  of  Oriental  Study  and  Research  in 
Palestine.  He  is  a  member  of  the  American 
Oriental  Society,  the  Archasotogica!  Institute  of 
America  and  many  other  learned  societies,  both 
American  and  foreigyi.  He  has  published  'A 
Sketch  of  Semitic  Origins,  Social  and  Religious' 
(1902);  'Roots  of  Christian  Teaching  as 
Found  in  the  Old  Testament'  (1902) ;  'A  Year's 
Wandering  in  Bible  Lands'  (1904) ;  'The  Hav- 
erford Library  Collection  of  Cuneiform  Tablets, 
or  Documents  from  the  Temple  Archives  of 
Telloh'  (3  parts,  1905-14);  'TTie  Heart  of  the 
Christian  Message'  (2d  ed.,  1912) ;  'The  Origin 
and  Development  of  Babylonian  Writing' 
(1913) ;  'Sumerian  Business  and  Administrative 
Documents  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the 
Dynasty  of  Agade'  (1915)  ;  'Archeology  and 
the  Bible'  (1916);  'Commentary  on  Ecclesias- 
tes'  (in  The  International  Critieal  Commentary, 
1908);  'Commentary  on  Job*  (in  'Bible  tor 
Home  and  School,'  1911)  ;  and  contributions  to 
'Encyclopedia  Biblica,'  'Jewish  Encyclopedia,' 
etc. 

BARTON,  George  Hunt,  American  geol- 
ogist: b.  Sudbury,  A^ss.,  8  July  1852.  He  was 
assistant  on  Hawaiian  Government  Survey, 
1881-83 ;  assistant  in  geology  in  the  Massachu- 
setts Institute  of  Technology  in  1883-84;  then 
assistant  professor  of  geoloKy  there;  he  also 
occupied  the  corresponding  chair  in  Boston  Uni- 
versity and  the  Teacher?  School  of  Science; 
and  was  assistant  geologist  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey.  In  1896  he  was  a  member 
of  the  6th  Peary  expedition  to  Greenland.  He 
is  a  member  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural 
History,  the  National  (^logical  Society  and 
the  Geological  Society  of  America;  director  of 
Teachers'  School  of  Science  from  1904;  and 
member  of  many  other  posts  of  technical  ob- 
servation. He  has  traveled  extensively  in  the 
United  States,  British  America,  Hawaii, 
Newfoundland,  Labrador,  Greenland  and  in 
Europe.  He  is  the  author  of  'Outline  of  Ele- 
mentary Lithology'  (1900)'  'Outline  of  Dy- 
namical and  Structural  Geology.' 

BARTON,  William,  American  military  of- 
ficer: b.  Warren,  R.  I.,  26  May  1748;  d. 
Providence,  R.  L,  22  Oct.  1831.  He  joined 
the  Revolutionary  army  soon  after  Bunker 
Hill,  and  on  the  night  of  10  July  1777,  he  per- 


tizcri.v  Google 


BARTON  —  BARUCH 


boats,  across  Narragansctt  Bay,  he  surprised 
and  captured  the  British  general,  Prescott,  at 
bis  headquarters,  and  hurried  him  away  to 
Washington's  ramp  in  New  Jersey.  Barton 
received  a  sword  from  Congress,  and  was 
brcvetted  colonel.  He  was  afterward  a  mem- 
ber of  the  State  convenlion.  which  adopted  the 
Federal  Constitution. 

BARTON,  WUliam  Eleuar,  American 
clergyman  and  author:  b.  Sublette,  IlL  28  June 
1861.  He  was  graduated  at  Bcrea  Callege  in 
1885  and  at  Oberlin  Theological  Seminary  in 
1890.  He  was  ordained  to  the  Congregational 
ministry  in  1885,  and  held  several  pastorates  in 
Tennessee  and  Ohio,  then  in  Shawmut  Congre- 
gational Church.  Boston,  1893-99,  and  since 
1899  the  First  Church  of  Oak  Park,  111.  He 
was  also  associate  editor  of  Bibliotheca  Sacra, 
and  editor  of  the  pastors'  department  of  the 
Advance  1904-12,  and  editor-in-chief  since 
1913.  He  has  been  lecturer  on  applied  theology 
at  the  Chicago  Theological  Seminary  since  1911, 
and  on  the  staS  of  the  Youths'  Companion 
since  1900,  He  has  been  delegate  to  several 
national  Congregational  councils.  He  has 
written  over  40  volumes,  including  <A  Hero  in 
Homespun'  (1897) ;  "When  Boston  Braved 
die  King?    (1899) ;    'What   Has   Brought   Us 


(1906);  ''Into  All  the  World' 
(1911);  »Day  by  Day  with  jesus'  (1913); 
*The  Law  of  Congregational  Usage*    (191S). 

BARTON,  William  Paul  CriUon,  Ameri- 
can botanist:  b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  17  Nov.  1786; 
d.  29  Feb.  1856,  a  nephew  of  Benjamin  Smith 
Barton  (q.v.).  He  was  educated  at  Princeton 
College,  and  in  the  medical  school  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania;  was  surgeon  in  the 
United  States  navy.  He  succeeded  his  uncle 
as  professor  of  botany  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  became  professor  of  botany 
and  materia  medica  in  Jefferson  Medical  Col- 
lege, in  1815.  He  organized  the  naval  bureau 
of  medicine  and  surgery  of  the  United  States, 
and  was  senior  surgeon  of  the  navy  at  the  time 
ol  his  death.  He  was  author  of  'Flora  of 
North  America'  (1818-24);  'Vegetable  Ma- 
teria Medica  of  the  United  States'  (1817-25)  ; 
•Compendium  Flora  PbiUdelphiae'  (1818). 

BARTOW,  Fla,,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Polk  County,  45  miles  east  of  Tampa,  on  the 
Atlantic  Coast  Line  and  Seaboard  Air  Line 
railroads.  The  city's  principal  features  are  a 
Carnegie  library,  county  jail,  courthouse,  opera 
house  and  Summerlin  Institute.  Phosphate 
production  is  a  leading  industry.  Fruit-grow- 
ing is  also  important.  The  ctty  has  marble 
works,  cigar  and  concrete  factories,  bottling 
works,  planing  and  shingle  mills  and  wagon 
works.  The  electric-lighting  plant  and  the 
waterworks  are  the  property  of  the  municipal- 
ity.    Pop.  2,662. 

BARTRAM,  John,  an  eminent  American 
botanist:  b.  Chester  County,  Pa.,  23  March 
1699;  d,  22  Sept.  1777.  He  is  frequently  called 
the  'father  of  American  botany,*  and  he 
founded  at  Kingsessing  the  first  botanical  gar- 
den in  America.  Linnxus  termed  him  'the 
greatest  natural  botanist  in  the  world.*     He 


published  *  Observations  of  the  Inhabitants, 
Climate,  Soil,  Diverse  Productions,  Animals, 
etc..  Made  in  His  Travels  from  Pennsylvania 
to  Lake  Ontario,'  and  a  similar  volume  on 
eastern  Florida  (1766).  He  -was  in  constant 
correspondence  with  European  botanists,  to 
whom  he  sent  large  collections  of  American 
plants,  and  would  readily  undertake  a  journey 
of  a  hundred  miles  to  see  a  new  plant. 

BARTRAM,  WiUiam,  American  botanist 
and  ornithologist :  b.  Kingsessing,  Pa.,  9  Feb. 
1739;  d  there,  22  July  1823,  a  son  of  John 
Bartram.  He  spent  five  years  in  the  Southern 
States  studying  natural  history,  and  published 
the  results  in  'Travels  Througli  North  and 
South  Carolina  and  East  and  West  Florida.' 
He  compiled  a  list  of  American  birds,  which 
was  the  best  of  its  kind  up  to  the  time  of 
Wilson. 

BARTSCH,  bartsh,  Adam  von,  Austrian 
engraver  and  art  writer:  b.  Vienna,  17  Aug 
1757;  d.  there  21  Aug.  1821.  At  the  age  of  16 
he  brought  himself  into  the  notice  of  the  Aus- 
trian government  by  a  series  of  engravings  of 
the  gold  and  silver  medals  issued  during  the 
reign  of  Maria  Theresa,  and,  in  1781,  was  ^- 
pointed  keeper  of  the  prints  of  the  royal  col- 
lection. In  1803  he  produced  the  first  volume 
of  his  well-known  and  authoritative  work,  <Le 
Peintre-Graveur,*  in  21  volumes,  giving  a  de- 
scription of  the  principal  engravers  of  Europe 
and  criticisms  on  their  works.  He  etched  up- 
ward of  5(X}  pieces,  and  published  several  cata- 
logues of  worics  of  art. 

BARTSCH,  Karl  Frledrich  Adolf  Kon- 
rad,  German  philologist:  b.  Sprottan,  Siletia, 
25  Feb.  1832;  d.  19  Feb.  1888.  He  was  pro- 
fessor at  Rostock,  where  he  established  the 
cariiest  Germanic  seminary  in  (^rmany  1858- 
71,  and  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  head 
of  the  department  of  German  and  Romance 
philology  at  the  University  of  Heidelberg.  He 
was  an  extremely  ■  brilliant,  versatile,  indus- 
trious scholar  whose  attention  was  chiefly  given 
to  Middle  High  German  and  Proveni^l  poetry, 
and  was  an  original  poet  also,  publishing  a  vol- 
ume of  lyrics  in  1874,  Beside  an  important 
study  of  the  'Nibclungenlied'  (1865),  he  pub- 
lished 'The  Song  of  Roland'  (1874)  ;  a  trans- 
lation of  Bums  (1865) ;  and  of  Dante's 
'Divina  Commedia'  (18W),  as  well  as  intro- 
ductions to  the  study  of  Provencal  and  old 
French,  etc, 

BARU,  b^-roo',  Philippines,  a  town  of 
Lej^e,  3]  mites  from  the  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince, Taclobam.    Pop.  about  lijOOO. 

BARU  (Malay),  a  woolly  material  found 
at  the  base  of  the  leaves  of  a  sago  nalm-tree, 
laguerus  saccharifer.  It  is  much  usca  in  stuff- 
ing cushions  and  calking  ships. 

BARUCH,  ba'rfik  (Hebrew,  "the  blessed"), 
the  name  of  several  individuals,  of  whom  the 
most  celebrated  was  the  son  of  Neriah,  scribe 
and  assistant  to  the  prophet  Jeremiah.  The 
brother  of  Baruch,  Scraiah,  was  chief  cham- 
berlain to  King  Zedckiah.  During  the  reign 
of  Jehoiakim,  about  607  b.c,  Jeremiah  while  in 
prison,  having  been  divinely  commissioned  to 
put  all  his  prophecies  in  wnting,  dictated  them 
to  Baruch,  who  inserted  them  in  a  roll,  which 
he  was  ordered  to  read  both  within  and  at  the 
the  temple.     Possibly  BamKh  was 


.Google 


BARUCH  — BARYB 


author  of  the  LamentatioDs*spaJce  unto  Baroch 
.  .  .  sedkest  thou  great  thines  for  tlqrself  ? 
Seek  them  not  .  .  .  *  Jehoiucim  on  heuiug 
its  commencement  cut  it  in  pieces  and  threw 
it  iDto  the  fire.  At  the  captivity,  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Jeretniah  and  Barach 
were  permitted  to  remain  in  Palestine,  but  were 
afterward  carried  into  Egypt  S88  B-c    Accord- 


jubsequent  life  of  Barucb  is  little  known.  A 
Hebrew  tradition  has  it  that  both  died  in  Egypt 
at  about  the  same  lime,  while  yet  another  storr 
runs  that,  after  the  death  of  Jeremiah,  Baruch 
went  to  Babylon  and  died  there  574  a.c  One 
of  the  apocryphal  books  bears  the  name  of 
Baruch.  The  Council  of  Trent  gaVe  it  a  place 
in  the  canon,  but  its  authenticity  was  not  ad~ 
mitted  either  by  the  ancient  Jews  or  the  early 
Christian  fathers.     See  Baruch,  Books  of. 

tiXRUCH,  Books  of.  In  the  Apocrypha, 
the  book  of  Baruch  may  be  said  to  be  the  only 
apocryphal  book  written  in  the  style  of  the 
Hebrew  prophets.  While  savoring  strongly  of 
an  attempt  at  imitation,  and  possessing  but  tit' 
tie  originality,  it  nevertheless  contams  some 
Striking  passages  of  considerable  force.  It  dis- 
penses advice  and  consolation  to  the  distressed 
Israelites  in  a  hopeful  and  encouraging  tone, 
with  a  promise  for  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem. 
An  apocryphal  letter  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah 
is  usually  given  as  chapter  6,  addressed  to 
tbe  exiled  Jews  in  Babylon,  llie  book  is  un- 
doubtedly by  more  than  one  author;  the  differ- 
ent styles,  of  which  there  are  four,  and  the 
names  for  God  lead  to  that  belief.  The  early 
part  is  supplicatorjr^  and  the  later,  hortatory, 
.AAiong  experts  in  Bible  criticism  much  diver- 
gence of  opinion  exists  as  to  authorship  and 
period,  part  apparently  originating  from  He- 
brew and  part  bearing  the  stamp  of  original 
Greek.  Some  commentatort  believe  in  a  He- 
brew original  for  both  parts,  and  attribute  the 
Gredsms  to  a  skilful  translator;  others  again, 
hold  the  theory  of  an  Atamaic  original  up  to 
a  certain  ^rt,  or  that  the  book  was  entirely 
composed  in  Greek.  Tbe  traditional  author- 
ship by  Baruch  is  rarely  supported  except 
among  Roman  Catholic  writers.  The  statement 
in  tbe  Greek  Apostolic  Cotutitittitm,  v.  20, 
that  Baruch  was  read,  with  Lamentations,  in 
the  synagogues  on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  ii 
said  to  oe  unsupported  by  evidence.  Baruch 
was  generally  regarded  as  a  continuation  or 
appendage  to  Jeremiah  by  a  large  part  of  the 
early  Christian  Church,  and  writers  were  natu- 
rally atiracted.by  iiL  37,  which  they  quoted  as 
a  prophecy  of  the  Messiah.  The  book  was  de- 
clared canonical  1^  tbe  Council  of  Trent 
(154S-^),  though  not  without  much  hesita- 
tion and  debate. 

The  Apocalypse  of  Baruch  is  a  distinct 
extra- Biblical  work,  a  6th  century  document, 
written  in  Syriac,  and  was  discovered  about 
1866  ifi  the  Biblioteca  Ambrosiana  in  Milan  by 
Antonio  Ceriani,  the  famous  Italian  orientalist. 
He  published  translations  of  the  document  in 
Latin  and  Italian.  It  contains  at  the  end  a 
letter  addressed  to  the  nine  and  a  half  tribes 
of  Israel  carried  into  cajittvity  across  the  Eu- 
phrates. Consult  Ceriani,  A.,  'Le  edizione  e  i 
inss.  delle  versloni  Siriache  del  Vecchio  Testa- 


mento'  (1869),  and  'Canonical  Histories  and 
Apocryphal  Legends  relating  to  the  New  Tes- 
tament' (London  ISJ3)  ;  Charles'  'Apocrypha 
of  Baruch'  (1806);  Kneucker,  'Das  Buch 
Baruch>  (Ldpiig  1879) ;  Schurer,  'Geschichte 
dea  judisdien  Volks  im  Zeitalter  Jesu  Christi> 
'Dictic 
opedia.' 

BARUS,  Carl,  American  physicist:  b.  Qn- 
cinnati  Ohio,  19  Feb.  1856.  He  stuiKed  at 
Columbia  College  and  the  University  of  Wiin- 
burg;  was  physicist  of  the  United  States  Geo- 
logical Survey  in  1880^;  professor  oE  meteor- 
oIc«y  in  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau, 
l^>2-93;  and  plnrsicist  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, in  1891-95.  In  1895  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  physics  at  Brown  University.  He  is 
a  member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences; was  vice-president  and  chairman  of  the 
section  of  physics  in  the  American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science  in  1897;  and 
is  a  corresponding  member  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Science.  He 
contributes  to  the  American  lourtuU  of  Science 
and  has  written  also  valuable  monographs  for 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey.  He  is 
an  faonorar^  member  of  the  Royal  Institute  of 
Great  Britain  1899:  Rumford  medalist,  Amer- 
ican Academ/  ot  Uedicine  (1900);  presi- 
dent of  Amencan  Physical  Society  (1905-10); 
honorary  member  International  Congress  of 
Radiolo^,  as  well  as  of  many  other  scientific 
tiwmberships,  both  foreign  aitd  domestic.  He 
hat  put  forth  many  and  various  professional 
papers,  one  of  the  latest  being  'Diffusion  of 
Gases  Through  Liquids'    (1913). 

BARWECL,  RlcharVEnglisb  suiKeon:  b: 
1826;  d.  January  1917.  The  oldest  ■fetlow»  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  Barwell  was 
for  33  years  on  the  active  surgical  staff  of 
Charing  Cross  Hospital  in  London.  In  the  pre- 
antiseptic  days  he  introduced  important  hygienic 
reforms  in  hospital  procedure.  He  interested 
himself  in  the  ligature  of  the  large  blood 
vessels,  at  that  time  a  most  important  question 
in  surgery,  and  devised  a  ligature  material  from 
the  aorta  of  an  ox  which,  though  satisfactory, 
has  been  displaced  by  more  modem  materials. 
Barwell  was  one  of  the  first  to  treat  curvature 
of  the  spine  by  exercises,  in  place  of  the  heavy 
spinal  supports  then  in  vo^e.  He  made 
niuiKrous  contributions  to  surgical  literature. 

BARY,  ba're,  Heinricb  Anton  de,  German 

Shysician  and  botanist :  b.  Frankfort-on-the- 
iain,  26  Jan.  1831;  d.  19  Jan.  1888.  He  is 
coted  for  his  investigations  in  cryptogamic  bot- 
any, and  was  professor  of  botany  at  Freiburg 
in  1855,  at  Halle  in  1867  and  at  Scrassbur^  in 
1872.  Among  his  works  are  'Die  Uyoetozen* 
(1859);  'Ver^leicheode  Morphologic  und  Bi- 
olone  der  FiUe,  Mycetozeu  und  Bacterien* 
(1^);  'Vorlesungen  iiber  Bacterien>  (1885). 
BARYB,  bq-re,  Antofaie  Lonla,  noted 
French  sculptor:  b.  Paris,  25  Sept.  1795;  d. 
there,  25  J[une  187S.  He  studied  engraving 
with  Fourrier  and  a  goldsmith  named  Betnnais ; 
in  1812  was  a  topographical  engineer  and  is 
supposed  to  have  modeled  a  number  of  relief 
maps  now  in  the  French  war  office.  In  1816  he 
studied  drawing  with  the  painter  Gros.  and 
sculpture  with  Basio ;  and  in  1819  took  the 
second  prize  for  a  'Milo  di  Crotona,'  which 


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soo 


BAKYTA '—  B  AS-RBLIEF 


W8S  awarded  him  at  a  Concours  of  the  Beaux 
Arts.  From  1823  till  1831  he  worked  under 
Fauconnier,  jeweler  to  the  Duchease  d'Angou- 
leme.  In  1831  he  exhibited  the  celebrated 
'Tiger  Devouring  a  Crocodile,'  and  was  then 
employed  b^  M.  Lefuel  to  make  tour  groups 
for  the  pavilion  on  the  Place  du  Carrousel.  He 
was  an  officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Institute  and  a  professor  of  the  Jar- 
din  des  Plantes.  Consult  Browncll,  'French 
Art'   (1892). 

BARYTA,  barium  monoxide.    See  Bawum. 

BARYTBS,  a  common  name  for  Barite 
(q.v.). 

BARYTON  (viola  di  Bardone),  a  chamber 
instrument,  very  popular  in  the  18th  century, 
but  flow  obsolete.  It  was  somewhat  like  the 
viol  di  gamba  in  tone,  but  had  a  broader  finger- 
board, with  six  or  seven  i^l-slrings,  while  un- 
der the  neck  there  were  from  9  to  24  strings  of 
brass  wire,  which  were  pinched  with  the  point 
of  the  thumb  to  produce  a  sound,  while  the  gut- 
strings  were  acted  on  by  a  bow. 

BARYTONE.    See  Baritone. 

BAS,  or  BATZ,  a  French  island  in  the  de- 

Rrtment  of  Finisterre,  two  and  one-half  miles 
3m  the  coast  in  the  English  Channel.  Al- 
though but  three  miles  loDg  and  two  miles  wide 
it  is  defended  by  two  forts  and  four  batteries. 
It  has  a  lighthouse  at  an  elevation  of  212  feet, 
and  three  fishing  villages. 

BAS-RBLIEF,  ba'r?-tef'  (in  Italian,  bas- 
so-rilievo,  or  low  relief),  as  applied  to  sculp- 
ture, a  representation  of  one  or  more  figures, 
raised  on  a  flat  surface  or  background,  in  such 
a  manner,  however,  as  that  no  part  of  them 
shall  be  entirely  detached  from  it.  AttC'rilievo, 
or  high  relief,  is  that  in  which  the  figures  pro- 
ject half  of  their  apparent  circumference  from 
the  background.  Meiao-riiievQ,  or  middle  re- 
lief, is  a  third  species,  between  the  two.  But 
generally  speaking,  the  first  term  is  made  to 
comprehend  both  the  others.  The  term  itself 
was  invented  in  Italy  about  the  11th  or  I2th 
century  on  the  arrival  of  the  arts;  for  the 
Greeks  called  such  works  simply  carved  {ana- 
glypta)  ■  and  to  what  is  now  called  high  relief 
they  only  applied  the  term  rounded  ((orcufife*). 

Bas-relief  is  particularly  allied  to  architec- 
ture and  under  its  dominion,  since  any  consid- 
erable work  of  this  kind  must  be  made  for  the 
pediment,  frieie  or  panel  of  a  building,  or  for 
sotoc  other  architectural  work,  such  as  a  tomb, 
sarcophagus,  pedestal  or  column.  Bas-reliefs 
seem  to  have  been  invented  in  the  earliest  ages 
by  the  Egyptian  people,  for  very  many  of  their 
ancient  monuments  are  covered  with  themj  be- 
ing executed  in  tiic  same  way  as  die  hiero- 
glyphics on  their  sepulchral  chambers,  obelisks 
and  tetnples.  This  has  been  finely  illustrated 
by  the  drawings  and  piodels  of  tiie  tomb  of 
Sethi  I,  originally  discovered  near  the  ancient 
Thebes  by  3eIzoni,  and  which  has  since  become 
familiar  lo  many  persons;  all  the  walls  of  that 
extraordinaiy  excavation  bein^  covered  with 
thousands  of  figures  in  low  rehef,  colored,  and 
exhibiting  the  religious  and  warlike  ceremonies 
of  that  wonderful  people.  Bas-reliefs,  loo,  are 
found  in  India,  decorating  the  subterraneous 
temples  of  Ellora  and  Elephanta  in  an  aston- 
ishing profusion.  The  subjects  arc,  of  course, 
sacred,  and  in  the  style  of  drawing  resemble 


very  strongly  those  of  the  Egyptian  monu- 
ments, but  arc  evidently  inferior,  having  larger 
heads  and  disproportioned  bodies  and  limbs. 
Both  these  temples  have  been  well  illustrated 
and  described  by  Thomas  Daniell,  R.A.,  and 
Captain  Scaley ;  and  for  further  information 
their  respective  works  may  be  consulted.  The 
Persians,  too,  like  other  ancient  nations,  em- 
ployed bas-relief  as  a  figured  writing,  therein 
recording  and  representing  the  symbols  of  the 
power  and  energy  of  the  Divinity,  their  own  re- 
ligious ceremonies  and  warlike  achievements. 
The  sculptures  still  existing  on  the  ruins  of  the 
palace  of  Persepolis  and  the  royal  tombs  accord 
ni  many  striking  particulars  with  those  taken 
lo  England  iy  Beltoni.  In  both  the  figures 
are  arranged  in  lines,  either  horizontal  or  iier- 
pcndicular,  to  suit  the  double  purpose  of  deco- 
ration and  description.  In  both  of  them  the 
natives  of  Egypt  are  distinguished  by  the  hood 
with  lawels,  the  mitre,  the  full  hair  artificially 
curled,  the  close  tunic,  the  apron  of  papyrus; 
the  Hindus,  by  the  necklaces,  bracelets  and 
anklets ;  the  Hebrews,  by  their  long  beards 
and  hair  in  spiral  ringlets,  their  caps,  full 
tunics,  with  re^lar  folds  and  large  sleeves; 
the  Medes,  again,  by  their  close  tunics ;  while 
the  Persians  ttiemselves,  in  many  particulars  re- 
semble the  Hebrews.  The  comparison  mgy  be 
easily  made  by  looking  over  the  prints  in  Sir 
Robert  Ker  Porter's  'Travels  in  Persia,'  and 
those  in  Le  Bruyn's  'Travels,*  and  then  the 
engravings    of    Denon's    and    Belzoni's    lai^e 

Since  it  has  been  well  observed  that  the 
Greeks  commenced  in  works  of  art  precisely 
where  the  Eg>ptians  left  off,  we  find  that  the 
early  bas-relicfs  of  Greece  resemble  prettj- 
accurately  those  of  Egypt.  The  objects  are 
represented  in  the  same  hard  and  simple  man-- 
ner,  and  the  marbles  taken  to  England  from 
the  temple  of  jEgina  serve  to  fill  up  the  his- 
tory of  sculpture,  in  the  interval  between  its 
first  introduction  into  Greece  and  its  full  de- 
velopment under  Phidias  at  Athens,  when  that 
glorious  work,  the  Parthenon,  was  produced 
under  the  auspices  of  Pericles. 

The  draperies  in  these  early  bas-relicfs  are 
thin  and  meagre,  showing  the  forms  of  the  body 
and  limbs;  the  folds  regular,  smalt  and  distinct, 
consisting  chiefly  of  perpendicular  and  zigiag 
lines.  S(»ne  of  the  head-dresses  consist  of 
small  curls,  very  like  the  fashions  of  barbarous 
nations;  and  in  a  bronze  patera  in  the  British 
Museum  the  club  of  Hercnies  is  ornamented 
with  spiral  flutes,  like  one  brought  by  Captain 
Cook  from  the  Sandwich  Islands. 

The  best  examples  of  bas-relief  now  in  ex- 
istence arc  to  be  found  within  the  walls  of 
the  British  Museum  —  those  of  the  Elgin 
marbles,  which  are  executed  in  this  manner. 
In  the  same  collection  are  the  tombstones 
of  Xanthippus,  and  a  man  curbing  a  horse, 
both  conjectured  to  be  of  the  age  of  Phidias 
and  which  formed  part  of  the  Townley  collec- 
tion. In  the  collection  of  the  Marquis  of 
Lansdowne  is  a  Gredc  bas-relief  of  Calchas, 
the  size  of  life.  At  Wilton  there  is  a  beautiful 
representation  of  the  'Death  of  MeleaMr,'  and 
a  small  but  curious  'Hercules  and  vGgtj' ;  a 
bas-relief  composed  of  mosaic  in  natural  colors 
which  is  supposed  to  be  unique.  The  celebrated 
Barberini  vase,  formerly  in  the  possession  of 
the  Duke  of  Portland,  is  of  dark-blue  glass, 


vCiOogIc 


BASAITI  — BASB 


801 


bearing  figures  in  bas-relief  of  white  eiuunel 
or  glass  of  admirable  workmanship.  Fragments 
of  bas-reliefs  of  similar  materials  have  been 
found  in  the  min  of  Cxsar's  palace  at  Rome, 
where  they  had  been  fixed  in  the  walls.  The 
two  triumphal  columns  of  Trsjan  and  Anto- 
nme  are  covered  with  bas-rehefs  containinK 
several  thousand  figures  (the  first,  indeed,  has 
2,500  human  figures,  according  to  Vasi),  with- 
out  reckoning  horses,  elephants,  mules  and  the 
implements  of  war. 

BASAITI,  ba-sa-e'ti,  Marco,  celebrated 
painter  of  Greek  extraction :  b.  Priuli  about  the 
middle  of  the  15ch  century.  Me  settled  in 
Venice,  where  several  of  his  paintings,  remark- 
able for  the  brilliancy  of  their  coloring,  and 
distinguished  by  other  excellences,  are  seen. 
His  masterpiece,  now  in  the  Venetian  Academy, 
is  'The  Calling  of  St.  Andrew  and  St.  Peter." 
He  ¥ras  tiie  contemporary^  and. not  infrequently 
the  successful  rival,  of  Gian  Bellini. 

BASALT,  a  class  of  rocks  belonging  to  (he 
volcanic  series  and  characterized  by  augite  and 
plagioclase  feldspar  as  essential  constituents, 
and  by  iron  ores  (magnetite  and  ilroenite)  as 
accessory  minerals.  OJiviae  is  also  present  in 
tj-pical  basalts;  among  the  rarer  mineisls  arc 
orthorhombic  pyroxene,  black  mica,  hornblende, 
quartz,  Icucite  and  nepheline.  Those  varieties 
which  contain  notable  quantities  of  olivine  arc 
known  as  olivine  basalts,  while  the  presence  of 
Uucite  and  nepheline  characterizes  the  leucite 
basalts  and  the  nepheline  basalts.  In  texture 
the  basalts  vary  from  a  finely  crystalline  appar- 
ently homogeneous  mass  to  coarsely  crystalline 
aggregates-  but  the  normal  type  is  a  fine- 
grained, black  rock,  in  which  olivine  is  the 
only  mineral  that  can  be  recognized  without 
the  microscope.  The  ground  mass  of  the 
denser  varieties  contains  more  or  less  glass,  due 
to  the  rapid  cooling  of  the  magma  from  the 
molten  state.  Basalts  are  extremely  abundant 
especially  in  those  regions  which  have  under- 
gone volcanic  disturbance  within  geologically 
recent  times;  in  fact  most  of  the  volcanoes  of 
the  present  day  erupt  basaltic  materials.  lu 
the  United  States  th^  occur  mostly  in  the 
region  west  of  the   Mississippi   River,  where 


UOQS.    Tlie  tendency  of  basalt  to  assume 

umnar  structure  often  lends  a  characteristic 
appearance  to  scenery,  as  is  illustrated  by  the 
famous  Giants*  Causeway  on  the  north  coast 
of  Ireland. 

BASCINKT,  or  BASNET,  a  light  helmet, 
sometimes  with  but  more  frequently  without  a 
visor,  and  worn  by  kni^ts  at  times  when, 
tbou^  danger  was  indeed  not  actually  immi- 
nent, it  might  not  have  been  safe  to  be  alto- 
gether unarmed.  It  resembled  a  basin,  aad 
hence  its  name.  It  was  in  general  use  for  Eng- 
lish infantry  in  the  reigns  of  Edward  II  and 
HI,  and  Richard  II,  and  is  frequently  men- 
tioned   in    Parliamentary    and    other    public 

BASCOU,  Florence,  American  geologist: 
b.  Willi amstown,  Mass.  She  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Wisconsin  and  Johns  Hopkins 
University,  receiving  from  the  first  the  degree 
of  B.A.  and  B.L.  in  1882,  B.S.  in  1884,  and 
UJk.  m  1887;  and  from  the  latter  that  of 
Ph.D.  in  1892.     She  was  the  first  woman  to 


whom  Johns  Hopkins  granted  a  degree  and  the 
first  to  receive  a  Ph.D.  from  any  American 
college.  She  had  much  difficulty  in  securing 
admission  to  Johns  Hoiddns  as  graduate  stu- 
dent, the  only  concession  to  her  sex  being  that 
she  might  attend  the  lectures  on  geology,  and 
use  the  laboratory  apparatus  in  that  branch. 
Her  thesis  on  receiving  her  Ph.D.  was  on  in- 
organic geology,  palieontology  and  chemistry 
bemg  minor  subjects.  Subsequently  she  en- 
gaged in  teachin^i,  was  assistant  editor  of  the 
American  Geologist^  became  professor  at  Biyn 
Mawr  College,  and  m  1899  was  chosen  to  super- 
vise ihe  geological  surv^  of  Chester  County, 
Pa.  She  has  written  many  papers  for  technical 
journals  and  been  engaged  in  the  preparation 
of  the  United  States  Geological  folios  which 
treat  of  the  Piedmont  Plateau  of  Pennsylvania. 

BASCOH,  Henrv  Bidleman,  American 
clereyman:  b.  Hancock,  N.  V..  27  May  1796;  A 
Louisville,  Ky.,  8  Sept.  1850.  He.  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1813,  and  made  chaplain  to  Con- 
gress in  1823;  president  of  Madison  College, 
Pennjj-lvania  (1827-29);  agent  of  the  Amer- 
ican Colonisation  Society  (1829-32) ;  professor 
in  Augusta  College, Kentucky  (1832-42), and  of 
the  Transylvania  University,  Kentudcy  (1842). 
When  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  was 
divided  in  1844  he  went  with  tne  Southern  por- 
tion of  theChnrch,  He  was  one  of  the  leaders 
in  the  debate  which  led  to  the  division  and  also 
became  a  leader  in  the  organization  of  the  new 
body.  In  May  1850  he  was  made  a  bishop  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  South.  He 
was  the  first  editor  of  Quarterly  Review  of 
Louisville,  now  at  Nashville  (1846-50).  Hia 
writings  were  published  in  1^  (4  vols.,  Nash- 
ville). Consult  bis  life  written  by  U.  M. 
Henkle  (Nashville  1856). 

BASCOM,   John,   American   educator  and 


educated  at  Williams  College  and  became  pres- 
ident of  the  University  of  Wisconsin  1874-87, 
and  from  1887-1907  professor  of  political 
science  in  Williams  College.  He  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  philosophical  works,  among  them 
'Philosophy  of  English  Literature>  (1874); 
lectures  liefore  the  Lowell  Institute;  'Com- 
parative Psychology'  (1878) ;  'Sociology* 
(1887)  ;  'An  Historical  Interpretation  of 
Philosophy'  (1893);  'Growth  of  Nationality  in 
the  Uniled  States'  (1899)  ;  and  <(Jo<i  and  His 
Goodness'    (1901). 

BASE.  In  archileclure:  (a)  The  part  of  a 
column  between  the  bottom  of  tiie  shaft  and 
the  top  of  Ihe  pedestal.  In  cases  in  which 
there  is  no  pedestal,  then  the  base  is  the  part 
between  the  botlom  of  the  column  and  the 
plinth,  (6)  A  plinth  with  its  moldings  consti- 
tuting the  tower  part  (that  which  slightly  pro- 
jects)  of  the  wall  of  a  room. 

/n  botany,  a  term  applied  to  the  part  of  a 
leaf  adjoining  the  leaf-atalk,  to  that  portion  of 
a  pericarp  which  adjoins  the  peduncle,  or  to  ' 
anything  similarly  situated. 

In  chemistry,  a  body  capable  of  replacing 
the  hydrogen  of  an  aad  so  as  to  produce  a 
new  compound  called  a  *salt,'  which  contains 
the  base  and  all  the  elements  of  the  acid  ex- 
cept the  displaced  hydrogen.  The  name  was 
given  -by  Rouelle  in  1744,  and  is  now  loosely 


.Google 


BASE   HOSPITAL  — BASEBALL 


used  to  signify  a  metal,  a  salt-foiming  oxide  or 
hydroxide,  or  an  organic  body,  such  as  an  ailca- 
loid,  an  amide,  an  amine,  pyridine,  quinoline, 
etc.,  which  is  capable  of  combining  with  an  acid 
to  form  a  sah.  When  oxides  combine  with  acids 
their  oxygen  unites  with  the  liberated  hydro- 
gen of  the  acid  to  form  water.  A  body  (like 
caustic  potash  KOH),  is  said  to  be  strongly 
basic  when  it  forms  salts  that  are  very  stabfe 
and  are  not  altered  by  hot  or  cold  water. 

In  fortification,  the  exterior  side  of  a  poly- 
gon, or  the  imaginan^  line  connecting  the 
salient  angles  of  two  adjacent  bastions. 

!n  geometry:  (a)  The  base  ot  an  ordinary 
triangle  is  its  Uiird  side,  not  necessarily  the  one 
drawn  at  the  bottom  of  the  diagram,  but  the 
one  which  has  not  yet  been  mentioned,  while 
the  two  others  have  (Euclid,  book  I,  prop.  4, 
Enunciation).  (6)  The  base  of  an  isosceles  tri- 
angle is  the  side  which  is  not  one  of  the  equal 
two  (Ibid.  prop.  5,  Enunciation),  (c)  The  base 
of  a  parallelogram  is  the  straight  line  on  which 
in  any  particular  proposition  the  parallelogram 
is  assumed  to  stand  (Ibid.  prop.  35).  It  also 
is  not  necessarily  drawn  the  lowest  in  the  hg- 
ure  (Ibid.  prop.  47.  (d)  The  base  of  a  cone 
is  the  circle  described  by  that  side  contaiDing 
the  right  angle  which  revolves  (Euclid,  book 
xi,  def.  20).  (<r)  The  bases  of  a  cylinder  are 
the  circles  described  by  the  two  rotary  opposite 
sides  of  the  parallelogram,  by  the  revolution  of 
which  it  is  {ormed  (Ibid.  def.  23). 

In  heraldry,  the  lower  part  of  a  shield,  or, 
more  specifically,  the  width  of  a  bar  parted  off 
from  the  lower  part  of  a  shield  by  a  horizontal 
line.  It  is  called  also  base-bar,  baste  and  plain 
point   ('Glossary  of  Heraldry')- 

/«  military  affairs,  see  TACTICS. 

In  ordnance,  the  protuberant  rear  portion  of 
a  gun  between  the  Imot  of  the  cascabel  and  the 
base- ring. 

In  sculpture,  the  pedestal  of  a  statue. 

In  trigonometry,  turveyinp  and  mapmakina, 
a  base  or  base-line,  is  a  straight  line  measured 
on  the  ground  from  the  two  extremities  of 
which  angles  will  be  taken  with  the  view  of 
laying  down  a  triangle  or  series  of  triangles, 
and  so  mapping  out  the  country  to  be  surveyed. 

In  zoology,  that  portion  of  anythinf;:  by 
which  it  is  attached  to  anything  else  of  higher 
value  or  signification   (Dana). 

BASE  HOSPITAL.    See  Hospitals,  Mil- 

ITAKV. 

BASEBALL,  a  popular  sport  in  the  United 
States,  of  such  general  interest  as  to  be  known 
as  *tbe  national  game.'  It  had  its  origin  in  the 
old  English  game  of  "rounders,"  but  developed 
on  American  soil  into  a  very  different  sport 
In  Philadelphia  an  early  form  was  played  un- 
der the  name  of  'town-ball,'  and  a  similar 
game  was  known  in  upper  Canada  as  early  as 
I83S.  It  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  New 
York,  however,  that  baseball  received  its  great- 


e  of  the  city  of  Hoboken,  N.  J,,  as  early 
as  1845.  It  was  not  until  1857,  however,  that 
the  baseball  convention  was  held  for  the  pur- 
pose of  framing  uniform  rules  out  of  the  va- 
rious methods  of  each  district  and  club,  and  in 
the  following  May  (he  tirst  *National  Baseball 
Association*  was  organized. 


The  first  real  series  of  games  played  be- 
tween organized  clubs  was  t^t  between  teams 
pidced  from  .the  various  clubs  of  New  York 
and  Brooklyn  on  the  old  Fashion  racecourse  at 
Flushmg,  L.  I.,  in  1858,  the  first  authorized 
code  of  rules  being  formulated  and  published 
for  their  direction.  From  the  present  view- 
point these  rules  were  crude.  For  instance,  the 
regulation  ball  weighed  ^  ounces  and  meas- 
ured W/t  inches  in  circumference.  It  was  a 
lively  hall  (anticipating  by  50  years  die  latest 
development  of  the  golf-ball),  beiiig  made  with 
2^  ounces  of  rubber,  covered  widi  yam  and 
leather.  The  bat  was  unlimited  as  to  length, 
but  was  decreed  not  to  exceed  2)^  inches  in 
diameter.  In  the  delivery  of  the  ball  there  was 
a  greater  difference  than  in  any  other  respect 
as  compared  with  the  later  development  of  the 
game:  for  the  ball  could  onljr  be  pitcbed;  all 
throws  and  jerks  being  prohibited  The  pitcher 
was  at  liberty  to  take  any  number  of  steps  be- 
fore delivery,  and  his  limit  was  anywhere  be- 
hind a  line  12  feet  across  and  45  feet  from  the 
home  base.  Then,  too,  he  could  pitch  his  ball 
almost  without  limitation  so  long  as  he  pitched 
*as  near  as  possible  to  the  home  base.* 

As  then  played,  none  but  amateurs  partici- 
pated; indeed,  no  one  could  represent  his  club 
unless  he  had  been  a  member  for  30  days,  and 
•money,  place  or  emolument*  was  a  bar.  Games 
were  originally  played  on  free  grounds,  but  on 
the  establishment  of  the  Union  Ball  Ground 
and  the  C^pitoline  Oub  of  Brooklyn  in  1863, 
the  admission  mnnpv^^ent  tn  the  nrnnrietor. 
the  players  later  h^viry'a~^ari-,  ^nd  thus  was 
lagiET'Tounaalion    of    nrofesf-ioijial    niav.      Sn 

matreFs  dritfed  tor  six  years,  with  a  gradual 
tendency  to  greater  restrictions  in  rules,  greater 
skill  in  play,  and  more  and  more  professional- 
ism, until  1869,  when  for  the  first  time  a  sal- 
aried team,  the  'Red  Stockings  of  Cincinnati,* 
began  a  tour  of  games,  and  natural^  carried 
everything  before  them.  Through  18o9  and  up 
to  June  1870,  they  played  without  losing  a  single 
game. 

The  delivery  of  the  pitcher  had  been  grad- 
ually developing.  As  early  as  I860  the  dis- 
guised undertiand  throw  had  come  into  vogue, 


game  h    _  __ 

and  the  professional  element  so  popular  that  a 
•National  Association  of  Professional  Baseball 
Players*  was  formed,  and  in  1875  the  various 
club-owners  took  control  of  the  professional 
players  and  organized  'The  National  League  of 
Professional  Ball  Gubs,'  which  continued  in 
undisputed  possession  of  the  professional  field 
until  1890,  when  a  rival  association,  *The  Amer- 
ican League,'  was  founded.  There  are  several 
other  leagues  of  minor  importance.  Baseball 
naturallv  found  favor  in  American  universities 
and  colWes,  but  its  tcduuque  in  the  early  days 
was  cruae,  even  among  the  best  teams.     Team 

tfieji  1 1! jiR  w4i33rdc'FanTtfe  fielding  p 
t  hiPBijTfieTagrs  play  ed  muen  1  artfter  ali^ 
late   as    the   middl?,ju[fis 
were^Oj  Tmcomirioiirima 


iJigilizcd 


by  Google 


BASBIX)  W  —  BASEL 


SOS 


team  would  make  over  100.  As  late  as  1867, 
when  two  college  nines  made,  respectively,  13 
and  8,  it  was  considered  a  phenomenon.  There 
ii  no  intercoUegiate  championship  in  the  ordi- 
nary sense;  each  college  plays  a  set  of  games 
with  other  colleges.  A  full  and  exact  knowl- 
edge of  the  game  can  be  acquired  only  by  a 
study  of  the  ofiicial  rules.  Briefly,  the  game  is 
played  between  two  teams  of  nme  men  each, 
on  a  field  in  which  a  diamond-shape  with  sides 
of  90  feet  each  has  been  marked  out  according 
(o  certain  technical  rules,  the  apices  of  the 
angles  bein^  the  home  plate  and  first,  sec- 
ond  and  third  bases,  reckoning  to  the  right 
from  the  home  plate.  The  pitcher's  "box*  is 
situated  near  the  centre  of  the  diamond  about 
60  feet  from  the  batsman's  stand,  and  from  that 
point  tbe  pitcher  is  required  to  deliver  balls  to 
the  batsman,  pitched  according  to  definite 
rules.  The  catcner  stands  behind  the  batsman; 
liis  principal  office  is  to  catch  unhit  balls  ana 


The  fielders  are  known  as  the  infield,  consisting 
of  first,  second  and  third  baseman  and  short- 
stop; and  the  outfield,  of  left,  right  and  centre 
fielders.     The   office   of   the   first  section   is  to 
catch  batted  or  thrown  balls  and  to  touch  there- 
with  the  batsman   running   between   bases,   or, 
failing  in  this,  to  return  the  ball  to  the  pitcher; 
that  of  the  second  section  may  be  stated  gen- 
erally   as   the   stopping   or   catching   of    batted 
balls    and    returning    them    to    the   pitcher    or 
throwing  them  to  the  bascmcit  for  the  purpose 
of  putting  out  running  batsmen.    The  positions 
and  duties  of  the  fielders  are  defined  with  strict 
limitations  by  the  rules.     The  aim  of  each  team 
is  to  make  as  many  runs  as  possible.    To  score 
a  run  a  player  must  make  a  complete  circuit  of 
the  bases,  but  not  necessarily  at  one  hit.     With 
his   own  "hit  he   may  get  as   far  as  first  base; 
then  may  get  to  second  base  while  the  pitcher 
is  delivering  a  ball  to  the  second  batter,  and  to 
the  third  base  on  the  hit  of  that  man,  or  even 
on  the  hit  of  the  third  batsman.    When  three 
men   are   put  out,  one  inning  is  finished;   and 
the  other  team  takes  its  turn,  with  three  men 
one  after  the  other,  and  so  on  until  there  have 
been  nine  innings  on  each  side.     A  batsman  is 
out  who  is  touched  by  the  ball  after  leaving  one 
base  and   before  he  reaches  another,  or  whose 
batted  ball  is  catight  by  one  of  the  fielders  be- 
fore  it    reaches   the   ground.     The   batsman   is 
also  declared  out  when  hit  by  a  batted  ball ;  or 
when  being  forced  to  run  for  a  base  by  reason 
of  all  bases  being  occupied,  the  ball  is  held  by 
the  flelder  at  the  base  for  which  he  is  making. 
The    batsman  must  not  step  out  of  his  box, 
and  must  strike  at  every  ball  that  crosses  *the 
plate"  on  a  level  between  his  knees  and  shoul' 
ders  — such  are  called  *fair  balls."     If  he  fails 
either    to    strike  at    or    to    hit   it  counts  as   a 
"strike*  against  trim,  and  if  he  fails  three  times 
be  is  out,  providing  the  third  ball  is  caught  by 
the  catdter  before  it  reaches  the  ground.     If 
the  pitcher  delivers  a  ball  which  does  not  pass 
over  the  plate  in  the  defined  tone,  it  is  counted 
as  "one  tell*  in  favor  of  the  batsman,  and  after 
four   sucli  balls  he  is  entitled  to  go  to  the  first 
base  utunolested.     Baseball  has  been  introduced 
into    England,  but  without  much  success.     In 
Canada,    Australia   and  Japan   it   has   become 
popular,  while  many  Chinese  also  have  become 
expert  at  the  game. 


Biblioxrai^y.— Camp,  W.,  'Baseball' 
(Spalding's  'Athletic  Library,*  New  York, 
current  year)  ;  Claudy,  C.  H.,  'The  Battle  of 
Baseball'  (including  'How  I  Became  a  Big- 
League  Pitcher,*  by  C.  Mathewson,  New  York 
1912)  ;  UcGraw,  J.  J.,  'Scientific  Baseball' 
(Fox's  'AthleUc  Library,'  New  York  1913)  ; 
Mumane,  T.  H.,  'How  to  Play  Baseball' 
(Spalding's  'Athletic  Library,'  New  York 
1905)  ;  Richter,  F.  C.  'History  and  Records  of 
Baseball'  (Philadelphia  1914) ;  Spalding,  A.  G., 
'Annual  Baseball  Guide'   ^New  York) ;  Spald- 


often  called  by  himself  Bexnaw  von  Nordal- 
BiNGEN,  German  educator:  b.  11  Sept.  1723;  d. 
25  July  1790.  He  had  in  Dessau  an  institution 
for  education  called  Philanthropinon.  'The 
chief  features  of  Basedow's  system  are  the 
cosmopolitan  character  which  he  endeavored  to 
instil  mto  his  pupils,  and  the  full  development 
of  the  faculties  of  the  young  at  which  he  as- 
pired, in  pursuance  of  the  notions  of  Locke 
and  Rousseau.  With  Salzmann,  Campe,  etc., 
he  established  some  good  institutions,  and  de- 
serves special  credit  for  his  efforts  for  the 
education  of  the  lower  classes. 

BASEDOW'S  DISEASE  (also  called 
Graves'  and  Exophthaluic  Goiter),  a  disorder 
due  to_  excessiva  thyroid  activitj^.  characterized 
by  rapid  and  irregular  heart-action,  large,  pro- 


.  .  sympathetic  type  arc  recog- 
able.  The  vast  majority  of  the  mild  cases 
IS  due  to  a  faulty  handling  of  the  emotions, 
chiefly  bound  up  m  the  function  of  self-pres- 
ervation, but  a  not  inconsiderable  group  result' 
from  acute  inflammatory  disease  of  the  thyroid, 
consequent  upon  an  infection.  A  proper  psy- 
chotherapy, psychoanalysis,  will  relieve  toe 
milder  and  psychogenic  cases,  which  are  in  the 
"     ■■       Surf'    "^^  ■  ■■      ■ 


the  severe  inflammatory  tyjws.  (See  Goiter). 
Consult  Jellifle  and  Wliite,  'Diseases  of  the 
Nervous  System'  (1917)  ;  Falta,  'Ductless 
Gland  Diseases';  Sattler,  'Die  Morbus  Base- 

BASEL.  ba'zel.  BASLE,  or  BALE,  bal, 
Switzerlana;  one  of  the  largest  cities  in  the 
federation  and  capital  of  canton  Baselstadt,  43 
miles  north  of  Bern.  It  consists  of  two  parts, 
situated  on  opposite  sides  of  the  Rhine,  and 
communicating  tiy  three  bridges.  A  new  gran- 
ite  structure   since    1905   has   replaced   the   old 


been  laid  out  on  the  site  of  the  mediceval  walls 
and  ramparts.  The  city  is  irregularly  though 
fairly  well-built,  and  has  an  ancient  cathedral, 
or  minster,  consecrated  in  1019,  and  the  re- 
cently restored  16th-century  city  hall.  Among 
the  institutions  of  the  city  are  the  university, 
founded  in  1459;  various  collections  of  paint- 
ings, a  seminary  for  missionaries  and  a  Ger- 
man Bible  Society.  In  1849  a  large  museum 
was  completed,  which  contains  the  university 
library  and  all  the  collections  belonging  to  the 
town.  Its  manufactures  consist  principally  of 
ribbons,  silk  goods,  cotton  prints,  linen,  gloves, 
leather,  jewelry  and  turnery  ware.  Its  advan- 
tageous position  on  the  Rhine,  a  little  belo* 


Google 


sot  BA 

the  point  where  it  becomes  navigable,  and  at 
the  terminus  of  the  French  and  German  rail- 
ways, has  made  it  a  centre  ol  trade  and  start- 
ing point  for  travelers  in  Switzerland.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  United  States  consulate.  Basel  was 
formerly  a  free  imperial  city,  but  joined  the 
Swiss  Confederacy  in  1501.  Buxtorf,  Wetstein, 
Hermann,  the  Bemouillis  and  Euler  were  bom 
in  Basel.  Erasmus  also  lived  there  several 
years  and  lies  buried  in  the  cathedral.  Pop. 
about  133,000. 

BASEL,  ConfesBion  of,  a  Calvinistic  con- 
fession introduced  by  CEcolampadius  at  the 
opening  of  the  Synod  of  Basel  (1531).  It  was 
adopted  by  the  Protestants  of  Basel  in  1534. 
Simple  and  comparatively  moderate  in  its 
terms,  it  occupies  an  intermediate  place  between 
Zwingli  and  Luther. 

BASBL,  Coimcil  of,  a  council  announced 


It  commenced  its  sittings  14  Dec,  1431  under 
the  presidency  of  the  cardinal  legale,  Juliana 
Oesarini  of  Saint  Aiigelo.  The  objects  of  its 
deliberations  were  to  extirpate  heresies  (that 
of  the  Hussites  in  partieular)i  to  unite  all 
Christian  nations  under  the  Roman  Catholic 
Churchj  to  put  a  slop  to  wars  between  Chris- 
tian pnnces  and  to  reform  the  Church.  The 
Pope,  having  learned  that  the  Fathers  were 
about  to  reopen  a  discussion  upon  Hussite  doc- 
trines already  definitely  pronounced  upon,  and 
also  because  of  the  expressed  wish  ot  the  Greek 
'  bishops  to  reopen  negotiations  for  reunion  at 
a  council  to  be  held  on  Italian  soil,  instructed 
the  cardinal  legate  to  dissolve  the  Council. 
That  body  opposed  the  claims  of  the  Pope,  with 
severe  animadversions  on  his  neglect  of  the 
welfare  of  the  Church,  and,  notwithstanding 
his  repealed  orders  to  remove  to  Italy,  con- 
tinued its  deliberations  under  the  protection  of 
the  Emperor  Sigismund,  of  the  German  princes 
and  of  France. 

In  order  to  secure  itself  against  the  attacks 
of  Eugenius  IV  it  re-enacted  the  decrees  of  the 
Counal  of  Constance  concerning  the  power  ot 
.  a  general  council  (in  matters  of  faith,  of 
schism  and  of  reformation)  to  command  the 
Pope,  as  well  as  all  Christendom,  and  to  punish 
the  disobedience  of  the  clergy,  and  even  of  the 
Pope,  by  virtue  of  its  judicial  character  as  Ihe 
representative  of  the  universal  Church.  It  like- 
wise pronounced  all  the  doings  and  remon- 
strances of  the  Pope  against  its  proceedings  of 
no  force,  and  began  a  formal  process  against 
him  after  he  had  issued  a  bull  for  its  dissolu- 
tion ;  summoned  him,  term  after  term,  to  appear 
before  its  tribunal,  and  exercised  as  much  as 
possible  the  papal  prerogatives  in  France  and 
Germany. 

Meanwhile  it  concluded,  in  the  name  of  the 
Church,  a  peace  with  the  Hussites  (whose  dep- 
uties appeared  6  Jan.  1433,  with  300  horse,  m 
Basel),  by  which  the  use  of  the  cup  in  the  eom- 
munion  was  granted  to  them.  This  peace  was 
ratified  20  Nov.  1433,  by  the  Calixtines.  the 
most  powerful  and  finally  prevailing  party  of 
the  Hussites.  The  Council  deviated  on  this 
point,  indeed,  from  the  decrees  of  the  Council 
of  Constance,  but  was  obliged  to  do  so  in  order 
to  assist  its  most  faithful  jirotector,  the  Em- 
peror Sigismund,  to  the  acquisition  of  Bohemia 
by    this    compromise    with    the    Hussites,   who 


were  not  to  be  subdued  by  force.  Eugenius  IV 
revoked  in  1433  his  decree  of  dissolution,  and 
at  the  16th  session,  5  Feb.  1434,  was  read  a 
document  subscribed  to  b^  the  Pope,  in  which 
it  was  declared  that  the  (.ouncil  had  been  law- 
fully convened.  In  return  the  Fathers  recalled 
everything  that  had  been  said  against  the  per- 
son of  the  Pope  or  the  dignity  of  his  office. 
The  Council,  proud  of  its  victory  over  the 
Pope,  then  attempted  to  interfere  in  the  quar- 
rels of  the  German  princes,  but  was  reminded 
by  Sigismund,  who  protested  against  its  inter- 
meddling in  the  affairs  of  the  Crown,  of  its 
proper  point  — the  reformation  of  the  Church 
Toward  the  limitation  of  the  power  of  the 
Pope,  a  proceeding  which  naturally  evoked 
papal  opposition,  it  had  already  made  an  im- 
portant step  by  depriving  him  of  the  disposal 
of  the  prebends  of  cathedral  and  collegiate 
churches,  which  had  been  obtained  by  his  pre- 
decessors; by  restoring  to  the  chapters  the  irce 
election  of  their  oflicers,  and  by  obliging  the 
Pope  to  confirm  them  gratuitously.  It  pro. 
cccded  to  the  reformation  of  the  clergy  hy 
ordaining  that  the  excommunicated  should  not 
incur  the  penalties  of  their  sentence  before  its 
publication ;  that  interdicts  should  never  be 
granted  at  the  request  of  sinele  individuals, 
and  that  repeated  appeals  shoulcTnot  be  allowed 
on  account  of  their  complaints  C20th  session, 
22  Jan.  1435)  ;  that  the  annatet  (q.v),  the  sums 
paid  for  the  pallia,  etc.,  should  be  regarded  as 
simoniacal,  and  should  not,  under  any  pretext, 
be  demanded  or  paid  in  future;  that  the  divine 
service,  the  mass,  and  the  canonical  houis 
should  be  regularly  observed  by  the  ciergy  of 
each  class;  that  disturbances  of  public  worship 
should  be  prevented  by  a  good  ecclesiastic^ 
police;  that  the  Feast  of  Fools  and  all  irrever- 
ent celebrations  customary  in  the  Church  about 
Christmas  should  be  abolished  (21st  session,  9 
June  1435). 

In  the  23d  session  (25  March  1436)  the  form 
of  election,  the  confession  of  failh  and  the  offi- 
cial oath  of  each  Pope,  by  which  he  bound  him- 
self to  obey  the  decrees  of  the  Council,  and  the 
aiumal  repetition  of  the  same,  were  provided 
for;  all  preferment  of  the  relations  of  a  Pope 
was  forbidden,  and  the  college  of  cardinals  was 
limited  to  24  prelates  and  doctors  of  all  na- 
tions, who  should  be  elected  by  the  free  votes 
of  the  college,  should  be  entitled  to  half  oi  die 
revenues  of  the  stales  of  the  Church,  should 
watch  over  the  Pope  and  always  sign  his  bulls. 
They  granted  him  only  the  right  to  dispose  of 
the  prebends  belonging  to  the  diocese  of  Rome, 
and  abolished  the  investiture  of  Church  prefer- 


In  the  26th  session  it  again  summoned  him 
to  appear,  on  account  of  his  disobedience  of  its 
decrees^  declared  him  guilty  of  contumacy,  and, 
after  Eugenius  had  opened  his  counter-synod 
at  Ferrara,  decreed  his  suspension  from  the 
papal  chair  in  the  31  st  session  (24  Jan.  1438). 
In  the  same  session  it  forbade  appeal  to  Rome 
without  resort  to  the  intermediate  jurisdictions, 
left  to  the  papal  disposition  but  one  out  of  10 
and  two  out  of  50  prebends  of  a  chnrch,  and 
destined  the  third  part  of  all  canonries  which 
might  become  vacant  to  men  who  had  taken 
regular  degrees.  The  removal  of  Eugenius, 
however,  seemed  to  be  so  qucstionaWe  a  pro- 
ceeding that   some  prelates,  who  till  then  had 


BASEL  — BASBLLA 


1  spes   . 

ji  the  Coimdl  (  for  example,  die  cardinal  l^ate 
Juiiano,  and  the  ^eat  canon  Nicfaalas  of  Cusa, 
archdeacon  of  Li^e,  with  the  most  of  die 
Italians),  left  Basel  and  went  ovcr^  th«  party 
of  Eugenius.  The  archbishop  of  Aries,  Car- 
dinal Louis  Allemand,  a  man  of  superior  spirit, 
courage  and  eloquence,  was  now  made  first 
president  of  the  Council  and  directed  its  pro- 
ceedinRS 'with  much  vigor. 

Aluough  its  number  was  dlminislied,  its 
most  powerful  protector,  the  Emperor  Sigis- 
mund,  deceased,  and  its  authority  doubted  by 
several  princes  and  nations  on  account  of  its 
open  rupture  with  the  Pope,  yet,  in  the  33d 
session  (16  May  1439),  after  violent  debates  in 
which  the  archbishop  of  Palermo,  Nic.  Tn- 
deschi  (known,  under  the  name  of  Panormita- 
nus,  as  the  greatest  canon  Of  his  time),  who 
was  the  delegate  of  the  King  of  Aragon  and 
Sicily,  took  the  part  of  the  Pope  — it  declared 
Eugenius,  on  account  of  his  oDstinate  disobe- 
dience of  its  decrees,  a  heretic,  and  formally 
deposed  him,  in  the  following  session,  as  guilty 
of  simony,  perjury  violation  of  the  laws  of  the 
Church  and  bad  aoministration  in  his  office.  In 
the  34th  session,  June  1439,  the  Council  pn>- 
nounced  the  deposition  of  Eugene.  At  this  ses- 
sion Uiere  were  but  two  representatives  of 
Spain  and  Italy,  and  the  total  number  of 
prelates,  including  abbots,  was  39. 

Notwithstanding  the  plagiie,  then  raging  in 
Base),  which  continually  diminished  its  numner, 
it  proceeded  in  a  regular  conclave  (17  NoTrember 
of  the  same  year)  to  elect  the  Duke  Amadeus 
of  Savoy  to  the  papal  chair.  This  prince  then 
lived  in  retirement  at  Ripagtia,  on  the  Lake  of 
Geneva,  and  seemed  particularly  qualified  for 


:  he  adopted  —  was  acknowledged  by 
only  a  few  princes,  cities  and  universities.    The 
chief  powers.  Prance  and  Germany,  assented  tO 
the  decrees  of  the  Council  for  the  reformatioo 
of  the  Church,  but  they  chose  to  remain  neutral 
in    the   contest   with   Hugenins.     Meanirfiile  he 
acquired   new  credit  by  the  union  concluded 
with  the  Greek  deputies  at  Florence  (but  after- 
-ward  rejected  by  the  Greek  Church)  and  the 
friendship  of  the  Emperor  Frederic  III.    The 
Council,  on  the  other  hand,  denoonced  by  Eu- 
genius  and  deserted  by  its  protectors,  gradually 
declined  under  its  feeble  Pope,  and,  consulting 
only  appearances  and  the  personal  safety  of  its 
niembers,  held  its  45th  ana  last  session  16  May 
1443,  after  an  inaction  of  three  years  inter- 
rupted only  by  a  few  insignificant  decreet.    At 
this  session  the  place  of  meetii^  was  changed  to 
Lausanne.    Here  some  of  the  prelates  remained 
toKCtbcr  under  the  Cardinal  Louis  Allemand 
until  1449,  when,  after  the  death  of   EuKcniuB 
and  the  resignation  of  Fdix  V,  they  gladlv  ac- 
cepted the  amnesty  offered  by  the  new  Pope, 
Nicholas  V,  and  pronounced  the  Coqndl  closej- 
The  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Basel  are  admit- 
ted into  none  of  the  Roman  or  trflicial  collec- 
tions, and  by  the  Roman  Church  are  considered 
of    no   authority.      They   have   been   rcgalded, 
however,  as  of  autbonty  in  points  of  canon 
lawr,  in  France  and  Germany,  as  their  regular 
tions  for  the  reformation  of  the  Church  were 
to  some  extent  adopted  in  both  countries,  and, 
as    far  as  they  regard  clerical  discipline,  were 
actually  enforced.    Some  concordats  concluded 
v<a-3  — 20 


at  subsequent  dates  have  modified  the  a^ptica- 
tion  of  them  but  never  formally  and  entirely 
iCnnulled  them.  The  Council  of  Basel  was  one 
of  the  most  important  in  the  history  of  the 
Church.  The  spirit  of  the  councils  of  Pisa 
(1409J  and  of  Constance  (1414-18)  was  faimu- 
tkted  in  the  decrees  of  Basel,  and  led  to  a  two- 
fold result:  on  the  one  band  the  many  salutary 
decrees  of  reform,  on  the  other  the  clear  ex- 
pression of  many  dangerous  principles  in  regard 
to  the  organization  of  the  Uiurch.  It^  history 
has  often  been  misrepresented  by  historians, 
tome'  seeing  in  it  on^  an  unhappy  tendency 
from  the  true  centre  of  unity;  others  regarding 
i(  as  a  great  progressive  movement,  but  for- 
getting that  it  was  simply  the  growth  of  an 
fccpedienty  due  to  exceptional  conditions.  To 
know  it  impartially  it  must  be  studied  in  the 
0ri^nal  sources.  Consult  Hardouin,  Labbi  and 
Cossart;  Mansi's  collection  consisting  of  31 
folios;  Alzog,  <Cbnrch  History';  Paraons, 
'Studies  in  Church  History'  ;  Pirouse,  G^ 
<E)ocumenu  in&tits  relatifs  au  Condle  dc  Bale' 
iBulletii,  Hist,  et  Pkiloi,  year  1905,  Nos.  3-4, 
pp.  364-398,  Paris,  1906). 

BASEL,  Treatiea  of  Peace  «t,  S  April  and 
22  July  1795,  between  Prussia,  Spam  and 
France,  in  whidi  Prussia  and  Spain  separated 
Aemselves  from  the  coalition  against  France 
and  acknowledged  the  republic.  France  re- 
tained the  Prussian  provinces  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Ithine  until  me  general  peace,  and  ac- 
cepted the  mediation  of  Prussia  when  any  Gel<- 
man  princes  wished  to  conclude  separate  treaties 
of  peace  with  it.  A  secret  article  was  inserted 
in  the  treaty,  the  object  of  which  was  to  secure 
compensation  to  Prussia  in  caie  the  left  baidc 
of  the  Rhine  should  remain  with  France  at  the 
general  peace;  The  Landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel 
afterward  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  French 
republic  at  Base)  28  Aug.  1795,  by  which  [he 
latter  retained  possession  of  the  territories  of 
Hesse-Cassel  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  until 
the  general  peace.  By  the  Peace  of  Basel  all 
the  conquests  of  France  beyond  the  Pyrenees  / 
were  restored  to  Spain,  in  exchange  for  which  / 
tiiat  country  ceded  to  France  the  Spanish  part/ 
of  the  island  of  San  Domti^^.  / 

BASEL,  UolvcrBltr  of,  situated  at  Basel, 
an  institution  opened  in  1460.  After  the  Refor<- 
mation  it  became  strongly  Protestant  and  ex- 
erted B  widespread  influence  in  behalf  of  the 
new  faith.  Among  its  professors  were  Era»- 
mus,  CEcoIampadiUB,  Eujer  and  the  Bernqullis. 
It  is  at  present  the  principal  theological  school 
in  Switzerland,  with  departments  of  medicine, 
law  and  philosophy.  Its  library  contains  250,- 
OOO  volumes  and  4,000  MS5,  chiefly  dealing 
with  the  Reformation,  besides  other  valuable 
collections  and  museums.  There  are  about  950 
students  in  attendance. 

BASBLLA,  or  MALABAR  NIGHT- 
SHADE, a  monotypic  but  ve^  variable  genus 
of  tropical  herbs  of  the  natural  order  Ckenopo- 
diaeea.  B.  rubra,  a  twining  annual  or  biennial 
plant,  native  of  India,  where  it  is  cultivated  as  a 

Kt  herb,  is  often  raised  in  Europe,  and  has 
en  introduced  into  the  United  States  as  a 
substitute  for  spinaclL  which  it  succeeds  in  sea- 
■on  (July  until  frost).  It  is  decidedly  mucil- 
aginous w:hen  cooked.  Sometimes  It  is  used  as 
a  greenhouse  climber.  One  variety  bears  ediUe 
tubers,  and  another  fumisfats  a  purple  dye. 


Google 


306 


BASBHXNT  —  3ASIL 


Knl 


BASSBIBNT,  in  architecture;  the  bioe  or 
lowest  story  of  a  buildiiig.  It  should  have  ex- 
ternally an  appearance  of  strengfli,  but  its 
hei^t  and  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  edifice 
are  very  various,  depending  on  the  character 
of  the  apartments  on  the  ground  floor. 

BASBY,  ba'sA,  Philippines,  a  town  in  the 
province  of  Samar,  on  the  north  shore  of  San 
Pedro  Bay.  tt  has  a  population  of  about 
14,000. 

BASHAHR,  one  of  the  Punjab  hill  states, 
on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Himalayas,  tra- 
versed from  east  to  west  by  the  Sutlcj ;  area, 
3,820  square  miles.  The  Kajab  and  upper  classes 
in  the  southern  parts  are  Rajpuls,  and  the  peo- 
ple generally  are  of  the  Hindu  race,  but  tneir 
observance  of  Hinduism  is  very  partial.     The 

Sovernment  is  in  the  hands  of  a  British  rcsi' 
ent  Pop.  over  80,000. 
BASHAN,  bi'shan  or  b^-shan'  (meaaing 
uncertain,  perhaps  'soft,  rich  soil*),  the  name 
'a  Scripture  for  a  singularly  rich  tract  of  coun- 
'  lying  b^ond  the  Jortum,  betvreen  Uount 
:nnon  and  the  land  of  Gilead.  These  two 
regions.  Banian  and  Gilead,  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  those  tribes  that  desired  to  continue 
the  pastonl  life  to  which  the);  and  their  fathers 
had  been  accustomed,  and  Gilead  was  accord- 
ipgly  divided  between  Reuben  and  Gad.  wliilc 
Basuan  was  given  to  the  half-tribe  of  Manasr 
seh.  Its  forests  contain  magnificeat  oaks,  and 
th*  '^tmiig  hii11<  nf  R:^>!lian*  of  ancient  times 
ore  still  represented  by  vast  herds  of  black  cat- 
^.     Bashan   had   been    the   kii^6m~af-tbe. 

~T^anaanite  giant  Og,  whom  Moses  destroyed; 
and  one  district  of  the  coimlry,  Argob,  had  at 
lltat  time  60  foiced  cities,  with  walls,  gates  and 
bars,  besides  many  unwalled  towns,  remains  of 
which  are  yet  to  be  seen.  Among  the  cities  of 
this  region  were  £drei,  Kcnath.  Golan  and 
Boirah.  After  the  captivity  it  is  mentioned  as 
divided  into  Trachonitis  (the  ancient  Argob), 
Gaulanitis  (Golan),  Auranitis  (HauraiL^^  men- 
tioned by  Ezeldel)  and  Batanxa,  or  Basfaan 
proper. 

BASHAW,  Edward,  English  Non-con- 
formist theologian:  A  Newgate  1671.  He  was 
imprisoned  in  Newgate  because  of  his  refusal 
to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  and  supremacy. 
He  is  the  author  of  'Antisocinian  Disserta' 
tions,'  and  a  'Dissertation  on  Absolute  Idon- 
archy.' 

BASHFORD,  Jamei  Whitford,  American 
clergyman  and  edncator:  b.  Fayette,  Wis.,  27 
May  1849.  He  was  graduated  at  the  University 
of  Wisconsin  in  1873.  and  at  the  Theological 
School  of  Boston  University  in  1876;  became 
instructor  of  Greek  at  the  University  of  Wis- 

.  consin  in  1874,  and  president  of  the  Wesleyan 
University  of  Ohio  from  1889  until  ITO*  when 
he  became  a  tushop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  His  works  include  'Science  of  ReU- 
Kion>  (1891);  'God's  Missionary  Plan  for  the 
World'  (1907);  numerous  published  sermons, 
and  contributions  to  periodical  literature. 

BASHI-BAZOUKS,  properly  BOZOOKS. 
irregular  troops  in  the  nay  of  the  Turidsh 
Sultan.  The  term  means  "liRht-headed.'  They 
are  a  wild,  turbulent  body  of  men,  mostly  from 
Turkey  in  Asia,  and  in  the  duties  with  which 
they  are  entrusted  resemble  the  Cossacks  in  the 
former  Russian  imperial  army.     In   1876  the 


fiasiU'Batouks  were  guil^  of  great  : 
in  checking  a  threatened  insurrection  m  lat 
district  around  PhiUppopolis  in  eastern  RumeHa, 
which  led  to  the  Russo-Turkish  War  of  1877-7& 

BASHI^SLANDS.    See  Batan  Islands. 

BASHKIRS,  or  BASHKBERS,  a  tribe  of 
lialf-civilized  people  subject  to  Russia,  and  in- 
habiting the  banks  of  the  Ural  and  Volga. 
They  are  probably  descended  from  the  Nogay 
Tartars  and  resemble  them  in  their  manners. 
They  formerly  roamed  about,  under  their  own 

frinces,  in  southern  Siberia.  To  avoid  the 
iberian  khans  they  settled  in  their  present 
territory,  extended  themselves  along  the  Volga 
and  the  Ural,  and  submitted  to  the  Khan  ot 
Ktiazan.    Al  the  time  when  this'  state  was  over- 


revolts  long  prevented  their  increase  and  kept 
them  in  a  weak  condition.  They  number  about 
500,000,  and  inhabit  chiefly  the  governments  of 
Orenburg,  Perm  and  Samara.  They  are  Mo- 
hammedans, and  live  chiefly  by  hunting  the 
breeding  ot  cattle  and  horses,  and  keepmg  of 
bees.  They  prepare  from  mare's  and  camel's 
milk  a  fermented  beverage,  koumiss,  which  is 
their  favorite  drink.  They  furnish  the  Russian 
army  with  a  body  of  irregular  cavalry. 

BASHKIRT8EPF,  bash-kert'sef,  Uarie, 
Russian  author:  b.  Russia  1860;  d.  of  consunqi- 
tion.  Paris  1834,  She  came  of  a  noble  and 
.wealthy  family,  went  to  Italy  to  study  singing, 
and  to  Paris  to  study  art.  Her  fame  rests 
on  her  private  'Journal,'  which  seems  to. have 
been  wntten  with  ultimate  publication  in  view. 
It  begins  with  her  13th  year  and  continues 
through  her  later  life.  According  to  her  own 
words,  it  was  intended  to  be  'the  transcript 
of  a  woman's  life.*  It  appeared  in  Paris  m 
1885.  and  was  abridged  and  translated  into 
Ei^Iish  in  1889,  and  was  called  by  Qadstone 
*a  botric  without  a  parallel.*  Like  Rousseau's 
'ConfcMions,'  it  claims  to  be  an  absolutely 
candid  expression  of  individual  experience. 
From  the  age  of  three  years  die  cherished  in- 
ordinate ambition,  and  feh  herself  destined  to 
become  great  as  a  Aoffti,  writer,  artist  or  qncen 
of  society.  Admiration  was  essential  to  her, 
and  she  records  compliments  to  her  beauty  or 
her  erudition  with  equal  pleasure.  Her  life 
was  a  curious  mixture  of  the  interests  of  a  pre- 
cocious though  attractive  society  girl  with  those 
of  a  serious  student  Her  chronic  diKOOtent 
was  due  to  the  disproportion  between  btr 
aspirations  and  her  achievements.  She  was 
always  self-conscious,  and  her  book  reveals 
her-  longings,  her  petty-  vanities  and  her  childiib 
crudities,  al  well  as  her  versatile  and  brilliant 
talents.  Madame  de  Stael's  'Corinne'  appears 
to  have  been  her  model. 

BASIC  SLAG,  the  shg  of  refuse  matter 
which  is  obtained  in  making  basic  steel,  awl 
which,  from  the  phosphate  of  lime  it  conlaia^ 
is  a  valuable  fertilizer. 

BASIC  STKEL.   See  Steel  UANtTFAtTrutt 

BASIL  (Ocimum),  a  genus  of  fr3«:rant  sn- 
nual  herbs  ot  the  family  Mfnthaeea,  natives 
of  warm  climates,  cultivated  for  culinary  pur- 
poses and  for  ornament.  The  spedes  generally 
raised  are  sweet  basil  (O,  basi&cum),  bush  of 
dwarf  basil  (O.  MtnHnwm),  (coRudered  Iv 
some  botanists  a  fonn  of  O.  teiilKiiM),  and 


vCiOogIc 


BASIL  —  BA8U.tAN    HOMKS 


an 


tree  basil  (.0.  graiisHmitm).  The  name  baiil 
is  tlso  applied  to  certain  species  of  several  other 
related  genera;  for  itistance,  K^lio  and  Cola-- 
mUlka.  For  culture  and  uies,  lee  Hubs 
(Culinary). 

BASIL,   bA'in   or  bSzlI,   Saint,   aurnamed 
The  Gbeat,  Mshop  of   Oesarea,  Cappadocia: 


. .  e  tic  friend  ot  Gregoty,  afterward  Bishop 
of  Nazianzus.  He  was  baptized  in  357,  and  after 
extensive  travels  retired  to  the  desert  of  Fontus 
and  there  founded  an  order  of  monks  named 
Basilians.  He  succeeded  Eusctiius  in  the  see 
of  Csesarea  in  370,  denounced  the  aipostasy  of 
the  Emperor  Julian,  and  by  his  opposition  to 
Arian  doctrines  greatly  offended  the  Emperor 
Valens.  The  liturgy  of  Saint  Basil  —  not 
wholly  his  —  is  still  used  in  the  Eastern  Church, 
and  his  rule  is  siill  observed  in  the  monastic 
institutions.  In  his  doctrine  he  emphasized  the 
trinity  ralher  than  die  unity  of  the  Godhead, 
and  be  declined  to  admit  the  claims  of  the 
see  of  Rome  to  primacy  in  the  Christian  Church; 
but  he  stood  out  as  the  champion  of  orthodoxy 
in  the  East,  and  promoted  union  between  the 
two  great  branches  of  the  Church.  With  Greg- 
ory of  Nazianzus  and  his  brother  Grt^ory  of 
Nyssa  he  was  founder  of  what  is  called  the 
'Cappadocian  theology.*  He  was  a  voluminous 
writer  of  theological  subjects,  'in  purity  and 
perspicuity  surpassing  most  of  the  heathen  as 
well  as  the  Christian  writers  of  his  a^e.*  Con- 
sult Murray's  'Dictionary  of  Christian  ffiog- 
raphy'    (I-ondon  1911). 

BASIL  I,  Roman  Emperor  in  the  East:  b. 
Macedon,  of  poor  parents,  about  the  beginning 
of  the  9th  century;  d.  886,  from  a  blow  .given 
him  by  a  stag  while  hunting.  In  his  25th  year 
he  made  his  way  to  Constantinople,  and  gained 
the  favor  of  an  archimandrite,  who  procured 
him  service  with  an  c^Bccr  of  the  court  of  the 
Emperor  Michael  HI.  Later  he  was  appointed 
head-cbamberlain  to  the  Emperor.  Des{>ite  in- 
trigues against  him  be  advanced  so  rapidly  in 
the  Hmperor's  favor  that  he  waa  adopted  as  his 
colleague.  He  murdered  his  chief  rival,  Bardas, 
and  knowing  that  Michael  had  rendered  himself 
odious  by  his  cruelty  and  debauchery,  he  headed 
a  body  of  conspirators  and  murdered  him  in  his 


.;nd  equitable  soverei^,  paid  equal  attention 
to  the  internal  administration  and  the  foreign 
relations  of  the  onpire,  and  not  overlooking 
even  its  religious  interests,  sent  an  archbishop 
into  Russia  and  laid  the  foundation  of  that 
ascendency  which  the  Greek  Church  has  so 
long  possessed  in  that  country.  He  compiled 
a  body  of  laws  called  the  Basilica,  which,  aug- 
mented by  his  son  and  successor,  Leo  the 
Pm  ILOSOPHEB,  were  in  force  tilt  the  fall  of  the 
empire,  Basil  I  deprived  Photius  of  the  see 
of  Constantinople,  and  restored  Ignatius;  but 
on  the  death  of  the  latter  he  recalled  Photius. 
He  successfully  carried  on  war  with  the  Sara- 
cens. I^e  versatility,  if  not  the  depth  of  his 
ititeflcct,  is  strikinely  displayed  in  his  exhorta- 
tions to  his  son  Leo,  which  are  still  extant 
Consult    Vogt,  <Basil  I'   (Paris  1908). 

BASIL  II,  Roman  Emperor  in  the  East:  d 
1025.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  the  Emperor 
Romanus  the  Younger,  in  963,  he  was  kept  out 


of  the  succession  for  12  years  by  two  usurpers: 
the  first,  Nicepborus  II  (Phocus),  who  died 
in  969,  and  the  second,  Johannes  (John)  Zimia- 
ces,  who  associated  Basil  and  his  brother  Con- 
stantlne  with  him  in  the  empire  in  975,  and 
died  the  following  year,  leaving  the  whole 
power  to  Basil  aldiough  Constantine  was 
still  his  colleague  in  name.  His  reign  waa 
almost  a  contiRuous  warfare,  in  which  the  con- 
tending parties  seemed  to  vie  with  each  other 
in  committing  deeds  of  cruelty.  In  1014,  after 
a  great  victory  over  the  Bulgarians,  in  which  . 
he  had  taken  15,000  prisoners,  he  had  99  out 
of  every  100  deprived  of  their  eyes  and  thus 
sent  home.  The  sight  of  thb  horrible  cruelty 
perpetrated  on  his  soldiery  caused  the  death  of 
Samuel,  King  of  the  Bulgarians.  The  war 
ended  in  1018  by  the  complete  conquest  ot 
Bulgaria. 

BASILBAN  MANUSCRIPTS,  two  man- 
uscripts of  the  Gre<^k  New  Testament,  now  in 
the  library  of  Basel:  (1)  a  nearly  complete 
uncial  copy  of  the  Gospels  of  the  8th  century; 
(2)  a  cursive  copy  of  the  whole  New  Testa- 
ment except  the  Apocalypse,  of  the  lOlh  cen- 
tury. 

BASILIAN,  ba-sele-an,  Philippines,  the 
largest  island  of  the  Sulu  Archipelago.  It  is 
of  oblong  form,  about  36  miles  long  and  situ- 
ated south  of  Mindanao,  from  which  it  is 
suaiated  by  a  _  strait  nine  miles  wide.  The 
ishmd  Is  mountainous,  and  most  of  it  is  covered 
by  virgin  forests.  The  soil  is  rich  and  pro- 
duces a  variety  of  valuable  crops,  including 
cotton,  coffee,  sugar,  chocolate,  tobacco,  indigo 
and  spices  of  all  sorts.  Basilian  has  about 
&000  inhabitants  and  three  excellent  harbors. 
The  name  is  also  applied  to  the  whole  group 
of  34  adjacent  islets;  total  area,  350  sqture 
miles.  The  leading  port  is  Isabella,  on  Basilian 
Strait,  580  miles  trom  Manila. 

BASILIAN  LITUHGY,  that  form  for 
celebrating  the  eucharisi  drawn  UR  toward  the 
close  of  the  4th  centuiy.  by  Basil  the  Great, 
still  used  in  the  Greek  Church. 

BASILIAH  HONKS,  a  monastic  order, 
chiefly  belonging  to  the  Gredc  (^urch,  who 
strictly  follow  the  rules  of  Basil,  the  great 
Saint  Basil  (q.v.),  who,  after  visiting  the  mon- 
asteries of  Egypt,  Syria  and  Palestine,  induced 
many  to  enter  the  monastic  life  and  even  to 
fcupd  convents.  His  rule,  which  was  founded 
in  358,  was  confirmed  by  Pope  Liberius  in  363. 
In  379  there  were  at  least  80,000  in  the  eastern 
monasteries.  Many  convents  were  dispersed  in 
the  8th  ccntuiy  during  the  iconoclast  persecu- 
tions and  all  b^an  to  languish  about  the  time 
of  the  eastern  schism.  The  order  now  com- 
prises priests,  lay-brothers,  cenobites  hving  in 
community,  anchorites  in  cells  and  hermits  in 
solitudes.  They  are  governed  by  an  archiman- 
drite who  has  several  convents  under  his  juris- 
dktion^  and  by  exarchs  deputed  by  the  archi- 
mandrite to  visit  the  convents.  The  order  has 
developed  more  extensively  in  Russia  than  in 
other  countries.  In  Austna,  Poland  and  Hun- 
gary there  are  many  communities,  known  as 
Rutheniana,  in  union  with  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  In  Italy  also  they  had  convents  in 
Calabria,  Sicily  and  Naples.  In  Spain  tbcy 
flourished  for  nearly  two  centuries  until  IJQS, 
when  they  were  suppressed.    The  c 


Google 


of  Sisters  of  Saint  Boul  wer«  founded  by 
Saint  Maerina,  sister  of  Saint  Basil.  Other 
communities  followin;;  the  rule  of  Saint  Basil 
are  the  Uelchites  in  Libanut;  the  Bardiolomitei 
of  the  Armenian  riles,  so  called  because,  after 
takins  refuge  in  Genoa  in  1307,  they  had  pos- 
session of  Saint  Bartholomew's  Church  there 
until  1659. 

Saint  BasiL  in  the  monastery  which  fae 
founded  near  Neocsesarea,  set  his  face  against 
the  very  ascetic  tendencies  which  had  already 
asserted  themselves  in  monastic  life  in  the 
Catholic  Church.  While  strongly  insisting  on 
fasting  and  prayer  he  maintained  that  neither 
should  be  allowed  to  interfere  with  work,  which 
should  always  fonn  an  integral  part  of  the  life 
of   every  monastery.     He   taught   that 


quired  it,  which  it  was  the  duty  and  oUi^tion, 
he  asserted,  of  every  monk  to  give.  .His  pro- 
gram insisted  upon  common  meals,  common 
work  and  common  prayer,  the  latter  seven 
times  a  dav.  Unauestionea  ob^ence  to  the 
superior,  self-denial,  chastity,  renouncing  of  all 
wealth  and  property  were  exacted  by  Saint 
Basil  of  all  who  entered  his  monastery.  Dur- 
ing his  life  the  members  of  the  order  were 
cenobites,  never  hermits,  for  whom  he  had 
little  respects  So  strong  became  the  influence 
of  the  Basilians  that  they  practically  drove  the 
hermit  orders  out  of  Cappadocia  and  the  neigh- 
boring provinces  and  finally  established  their 
order  as  the  all -prevailing  form  of  monasticism 
throughout  the  Greek  and  Slavonic  countries. 
About  the  beginning  of  the  9th  century  Theo- 
dore, abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Studium,  in 
Constantinople,  gave  a  real  constitution  and 
codified  laws  to  the  order  of  the  Basifians. 
These  were  gradually  adopted  by  all  the  mon- 
asteries of  the  order  throughout  Greece  and, 
later  on,  liy_  all  those  in  die  Slavonic  countries. 
This  explains  the  statement  often  made  that 
*Tbe  Rules  of  Basil  and  the  Constitution  of 
Theodore  the  Sudite,  with  the  Canons  of  the 
Councils  comprise  the  greater  and  most  itnport- 
ant  part  of  the  monastic  law  of  the  Greek 
Church."  Theodore  made  the  sphere  of  action 
and  die  aims  of  die  order  very  definite,  dividing 
die  d»y  time  between  work,  reading,  liturgical 
services  of  the  Church  and  prayer.  The  work 
clement  tended  to  make  tbe  order  very  popular 
so  that  Theodore  had  in  his  own  monastery 
over  1,000  monks,  many  of  whom  were  counted 
among  the  most  famous  copiers  of  manuscripts 
in  Constantinople,  then  the  most  cdebrated 
centre  of  leammg  in  the  East 

The  &rst  Russian  monastery  was  founded  at 
Kiev  about  1050  by  a  monk  from  the  great 
Basilian  centre  of  Mount  Athos,  in  Greece; 
and  in  less  than  a  century  the  order  had  spread 
preth'  well  over  the  domains  of  the  Tsar,  from 
which  it  was  rapidly  extended  to  all  the  other 
Slavonic  countries.  In  Russia  there  exist  to- 
day nearly  500  monasteries,  in  Turicey  over  100, 
and  in  all  tbe  Slavonic  countries  outside  Russia 
probaMy  as  many  as  in  Turkey.  Among  the 
4,000,000  people  following  the  Ruthenian  rites 
diere  are  numerous  Basilian  monasteries  which, 
while  owing  allegiance  tp  Rome,  follow,  in 
practically  every  other  respect,  the  rules  and 
ordinances  of  the  Greek  Church.  All  the  saints 
on  their  calendar  are  those  of  the  East  and  not 
those  of  the  West,  and  they  adhere  strictly  to 


the  rules  of  the  order  as  laid  down  by  Basil 
and  Theodore.  Most  of  the  adherents  of  the 
Lithuanian  fsitfa  are  to  be  found  in  Galida; 
bat  there  are  more  than  bait  a  million  of  diem 
in  Austria,  principally  in  the  Polish  part.  In 
fact,  the  order  is  rcpreseDted  in  every  part  of 
ancient  Poland.  In  Hungary,  iriiere  the  Basi- 
lian order  was  once  atroag,  k  now  has  tiut  litile 
influence.  The  monasteries  i 
meaiam 
Basil. 

BASILICA.  The  word  basilica  (meanbg 
a  kingly  or  magnificent  building)  is  of  Grtti 
derivation,  but  the  buildings  so  termed  appear 
to  have  originated  with  die  Romans.  The 
basilica  edifices  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  were 
the  courts  of  justice  and  commercial  meeting 
places  of  the  people.  The  judicial  court  was 
I>rcsided  over  by  the  archon  basiletu.  As  its 
title  describes,  it  was  a  building  of  magnificence 
comportinjj  with  the  importance  it  held  in  the 
civic  functions.  The  basilica  style  of  construc- 
tion was  that  used  for  die  earliest  of  the 
churches  of  the  prhnitive  Christians,  and  it  is 
claimed  by  some  authorities  that  the  first  Chris- 
tian worship  in  public  (on  Constantine's  ac- 
cepting the  Christian  creed)  was  held  in  die 
pagan  basilicas. 

The  typical  basilica  was  an  oblong  edifice 
surrounded  by  a  colonnade  (peristyte)  and  the 
interior  also  was  divided  by  rows  of  columns. 
Vitruvius  says  die  old  Roman  basilica  was 
closed  in  by  a  wall  having  a  doorway  within 
it,  or  was  freely  open  like  the  Greek  Colon- 
nades. The  interior  of  the  building  was  di- 
vided lengthways,  by  two  rows  of  columns, 
into  three  naves,  the  central  one  being  the 
widest.  At  one  end  was  the  tribunal  where 
the  seated  judges  presided  over  the  pnbHc 
court,  and  the  opposite  end  was  the  entrance, 
The  early  Christian  basilica  was  nlanned  on  the 
above  lines.  The  interior  of  the  Ccmstantine 
style  of  baaJUca  has  been  described  as  being 
divided  into  tbe  three  following  open  sections 
or  spaces;  Starting  with  the  pronaot,  destined 
for  the  catechumens,  next  came  the  chonu, 
where  die  choristers,  tnnrumental  musicians 
and  exorcists  performed  their  functions.  Lastljr, 
beyond,  was  the  saaranitm,  where  the  altar  was 
located,  near  whtdi  the  deacons  and  lub- 
deacons  were  seated.  The  abtidt  (apse)  or 
prttbyttrium  held  the  ordamed  priests  on  a 
scmi-drcular  bendi  icomistorium)  interrupted 
in  the  middle  bv  a  more  elevated  seat  (juo- 
gettns}  reserved  for  the  bishop.  The  side 
aisles  received  the  congr^ation  (men  at  the 
right,  women  at  the  left).  Most  basilicas  had 
an  offTBW  or  narlhex  (covered  vestibule  sup- 

Krted  by  columns)    as  entrance.     The  cany 
ildings   were   covered  with  a  flat,  wooden 

About  tbe  first  innovation  in  basilica  stme- 
ture  made  by  the  early  Christian  Church  was 
the  extension  from  die  main  buiItUng  of  tbe 
apiii,  usually  in  semi-drcular  form,  lie  roof 
over  the  central  nave  was  also  raised  a  slon' 
higher  than  the  side  walls  (dtresiory'),  afFord- 
ing  light  from  windows  in  the  extended  walls. 
Ottier  excrescences  crept  in  from  time  to  time, 
such  as  side  chapels  for  special  services,  ini 
even  towers  on  the  front  walls.  Some  authori- 
ties define  the  biuilica  Ptnoi  as  from  300  to 

800  A.D. 


,  Google 


-Prob»bfy  the  fint  bawl- 

-,i  was  that  erected  in  Rome  br  Cabs  Censori- 
nns  (184  B.C.}  — [he  basilica  Porcu.  Other 
noted  ancient  pa^an  banlicas  in  Rome  were: 
Basilica  SctnpToiua,  erected  by  Tiberius  Scm- 


Corresp.  archfolog.'  1880) ;  Quicberat,  J.,  <La 


•■gal 
■       ■ 
■ 
■ 


f;';,"| 


^  Dt  OracUa  oi 
RomttuPMU  Banlic*. 

pronius  Gracchus;  basilica  Opimiij  by  Consul 
Quintus  Opiniiis  (151  B.C.).  baniica  jt:tnilia. 
t^  .Smilius  Paulus;  basilica  Jutia,  commenced 
t^  Julius  Oesar  and  finished  by  Augustus 
(about  25  A.P.).  Three  moderate-sized  basilicas 
were  discovered  in  Pmn^ii.  Vitruvias  wrote 
a  description  of  the  basilica  built  by  him  at 
Favo. 

Christian  BasQlcM.—  Of  basilicas  that  were 
in  ancient  Rome  we  know  of:  Saint  Peter's, 
Saint  Pawl's,  those  of  Saint  John  Lateran, 
Saint  Clement,  Sta.  Maria  m  Trastevere 
and  Saint  Lawrence.  Present  existing  basilicas 
in  Rome  are:  Saint  Peter's,  Saint  Paul's,  those 
of  Saint  John  Lateran,  Saint  Clement,  Saints 
Nereo  and  Achilleo,  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore, 
Saint  Paul's  without  the  walls  (reconstructed 
19th  century).  Other  noted  basilicas  arc:  Saint 
Apollinaris  in  Classe,  near  Ravenna ;  Saint 
Apollinaris  in  Ravenna ;  Torcello  Cathedral, 
near  Venice ;  Saint  Ambrose,  Milan ;  Saint  Res- 
titua,  Naples,  In  Germany  are:  The  Cadiedral 
at  Treves,  built  abom  4th  century  (has  one  Story 
and  flat  roof) ;  Saint  Crodehard  and  Saint 
Utchael  in  Hildesheim ;  the  Abbey  Church  in 
Quedlinbnrg.  In  England  are,  notably:  Saint 
Barnabas  at  Oxford  and  Saint  lames  st  Leces- 
ter.  Saint  Tean-Baptisle  Church,  Leaungton  ave- 
nue and  76th  street.  New  York  dty  (recnitly 
erected),  is  said  to  best  represent  the  basilica 
style  of  any  edifice  in  Ae  United  States. 

BiUiocnplv.~~  Clausse,  Gustave,  'Lcs 
Monuments  du  Christiaaisiae  au  Moyen 
Age,  basiliques  et  moiaiques  duritiennes' 
(Paris  1893)  ;  Defalot  and  Bezold,  'Die  Idrcb- 
licbe  Baukiinst  des  Abendlandes*  (Leipzig 
I8W>  ;  Hart  'Walls  in  Rome*  (London  1913) ; 
Uartigny,  'Dictionnaire  des  antlcjuit^  chr6- 
tiennes'  (article  <Basilique>> ;  FdkgriBi,  A,., 
'Basilica  Fwlvia*  (in  (Bollettlno  delflnstit  di 


T****©*"*"**!? 


9] 


2. —  Gioond-plaa  of  St  Pctv'i  Buillct,  Roma. 

a)  Norg:  h)  Iniw  AUe:  (S)  Outv  Aiilc  for 
DDI  (Sii)  OutO'Aiila  tot  Women;  U)  AtrlwBi 
tj)  Wdl;  (QTrihuoia  or  Bemii  labndal ;  "" 
FRsbyury:  (S)  Goipel  Ambo;  (9)  Pniit] 


der  abendlandischen  Kirchengeb&ude'  (Vienna 
1878);  Wura,  Hermann,  <Zur  Charakteristik 
der  klassischen  Bastlica>  (Strassburg  1906)  ; 
Zcstermann,  'Die  antiken  und  christliiien  Ba- 
ailicen'  (Leipzig  1S47) ;  KramL  in  ^Realen- 
cydopadia  der  cnrisdichen  AlterChOmen*  (Frei- 
burg 1882),  gives  a  loni;  list  of  early  basilicas 
outside  Rome  under  article  'Basilica* 

Clement  W.  Couubb. 
BASILICA,  a  code  of  laws  founded  on  the 
code  of  Justinian,  supposed  to  have  been  named 


■810 


BASILICATA— BASILISK 


after  the  Greek  Emperor  Basilius  I,  in  whose 
reign  its  compilation  was  begun.  It  was  fin- 
ished by  Leo  the  Philosopher  and  revised  by 
order  of  his  son  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus 
in  945.  It  consisted  of  60  books,  but  we  no 
longer  possess  them  in  a  complete  form.  The 
principal  editions  are  those  of  Fabrot  (7  vols., 
Paris  1647),  and  Heimbach  (Vols.  !-V.  Leip- 
zig 1833-50). 

BASILICATA,  ba-ia-e-ca't?,  the  andent 
Lucania,  in  southern  Italy,  composed  solely 
of  the  province  of  Poienza;  so  called  after  the 
Emperor  Basilius  II,  who  reconquered  it  from 
the  Saracens  and  Lombards  in  the  llth  ccntary. 
It  is  mountainous,  several  peaks  rising  to  up- 
ward of  4,500  feet  (Monte  Pollino,  7,375  feet). 
The  Apennines  here  divide  into  two  parts,  whidi 
branch  off  to  the  east  and  west  From  these 
the  rivers  Bradano,  Basento,  Salandrella,  A^ri 
and  Sinni  take  their  source,  and  after  draining 
tbii  fertile  district,  fall  into  the  Gulf  of  Taranto 
in  the  Ionian  Sea.  There  are  also  many  lakes, 
some  of  volcanic  origin.  The  chief  are  Mon- 
ticchio,  Pesolc,  Maorno,  and  Santa  Palagina. 
The  bulk  of  the  people  are  poor  and  ignorant, 
and  talk  a  dialect  called  biiiluco.  lis  coast 
line  being  for  the  most  part  marshy,  and,  as  a 
consequence,  unhealthful,  the  province  derives 
next  to  no  commercial  benefit  from  it.  The 
orange  and  lemon  grow  well  near  the  coast. 
Other  products  are  cotton,  flax,  silk,  honey, 
wax,  licorice,  dried  fruit,  saffron,  tobacco,  etc 
Mineral  springs  are  many,  chiefly  sulphur- 
ous. There  are  marble  quarries  at  Avig- 
liano,  Latronico,  Muro,  Lucano  and  Picemo; 
chalk  at  Mauro  Forte  and  Montemuro ;  trans* 
parent  quartz  at  Lagonegro;  tufa  at  Matera: 
and  excellent  lignite  at  San  Chirico  Raparo  and 
.  Rotonda.  Area,  3,845  square  miles;  pop.  about 
490,800. 

BASILICON,  b4-al^-kQn,  a  name  of  sev- 
eral ointments,  the  chief  ingredients  of  which 
are  wax,  pitch,  resin  and  olive  oiL 

BASILICON  DORON  (the  royal  gift), 
the  title  of  a  book  written  by  King  James  I  in 
1599,  and  printed  in  Edinburgh  in  1603,  con- 
taining a  collection  of  precepts  on  the  art  of 
Eovemment,  and  maintaining  the  claim  of  the 
king  to  be  sole  head  of  the  Church. 

BASILIDES,  b4-sni-d«z,  founder  of  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  sects  of  ancient  Alexan- 
dria. He  lived  under  the  reigns  of  Trajan, 
Adrian  and  Antoninus,  but  the  place  of  his 
birth,  supposed  to  be  in  Persia,  Syria  or  Egypt, 
is  unknown.  He  was  well  acquainted  with 
Christianity,  but,  under  the  pretense  of  freeing 
it  from  corruption,  corrupted  it  still  more  by 
mixing  it  up  with  the  wJdest  dreams  of  the 
Gnostics  and  peopling  the  earth  and  the  air 
with  multitudes  of  seons.  He  had  numerous 
followers  who  spread  from  Syria  and  Egypt 
into  Italy,  and  even  as  far  as  France,  but  they 
suddenly  sai^  into  obscurity  and  are  scarcely 
heard  of  after  the  4th  century. 


His  principal  poem  gives  a  picturesque  and 
romantic  account  of  the  bloody  wars  which 
the    Portuguese   waged,    in    1756,    against   the 


exile,  and  also  dedicated  verses  to  him  in  token 
of  his  RTatitude.  On  his  return  to  Rio  de 
Janeiro  he  was  favorably  received  by  the  au- 
thorities and  the  literary  notabilities,  and  widi 
tbdr  co-operation  he  became  one  of  die  foun- 
ders of  the  first  Brarilian  Academy.  In  1790 
he  again  had  to  resort  to  flight,  and  he  suc- 
ceeded in  escaping  to  Lisbon.  He  was  ,the 
author  of  manw  lyrical  pieces  and  sonnets,  and 
of  a  poem,  'Quitubia,'  written  on  an  African 
chieftain  whose  devotion  to  Portugal  engaged 
thejKjet's  sympathy;  but  the  most  abiding  monu- 
ment of  his  gaiua  is  his '^Uruguay,'  which  'a 
still  popular  «4ieraver  the  Portnguese  language 
is  known. 

BASILISCUS,  brother  of  Verina,  wife  of 
Leo,  Emperor  of  the  East:  d.  a.d.  477.  In  his 
youth  h  '  *  ' 
Scythian 


.  expedition  consisted  of  upward  of  1,100 
vessels,  conveying  soldiers  and  sailors  to  the 
number  of  more  than  100,000  men,  and  iu 
equipment  is  said  to  have  cost  ^ut  $25,000,000. 
But  this  vast  flee^  after  raaduDg  the  coast  of 
Africa  in  safety,  was  altogether  destroyed  or 
dispersed  by  Genseric,  through  the  incapadty 
or  treachery  of  its  leader.  Basiliscus  escaped 
to  Constantinople,  and  obtained  the  pardon  of 
the  Emperor  only  by  the  earnest  intercession 
of  the  Empress.  After  die  death  of  Leo,  and 
of  his  successor,  Leo  II,  in  474,  Basiliscus 
usurped  the  imperial  throne.  But  he  was  un- 
able to  sustain  himself  in  tUs  position,  and 
was  not  long  after  overthrown  and  put  to  death 
by  Zeno,  the  legitimate  heir. 

BASILISK,  UUI-lIsk,  according  to  Pliny 
(lib.  viii,  c.  21),  a  kind  of  serpent  found  in  the 
African  deserts,  named  baHlislos.  or  little  king, 
because  its  body  was  mariced  witb  bright  spots, 
and  those  on  the  head  had  the  aippeaiance  of  a 
crown  or  diadem.  It  had  a  very  pointed  head 
with  fiery  eyes,  and  was  of  a  dark  color,  verging 
to  blackness.  All  other  snakes  were  said  to  fly 
from  the  sound  of  its  lussitig;  and  instead  of 
trailing  along  like  other  serpents  the  basilisk 
raised  its  body  nearly  erect;  and,  as  it  passed 
along  killed  the  herbs  and  fruits  by  its  toucb, 
and  even  by  its  breath.  Yet  this  monster  was 
destroyed  1^  weasels.  If  these  fables  had  ref- 
erence to  any  real  animal,  it  is  probable  that 
it  was  a  species  somewhat  similar  to  the  cobro 
de  eopello,  or  the  asp  viper.  Both  are  accus- 
tomed to  erect  a  very  considerable  part  of  the 
body,  though  not  to  move  forward  in  this  way. 
It  is  hi{^Iy  pfobablt  that  the  basilisk  of  the 
ancients  was  merely  a  creature  of  fictiog. 

The  name  is  now  apfdied  to  one  of  the  Cen- 
tral and  Sonth  American  liiards  of  the  family 
tmoHtda  and  genus  Basiliscus,  remarkahit  for 
the  hirfi  and  erectile  crests  which  are  devel- 
oped along  the  back  and  tail  of  the  males.  Tbg' 
have  long  legs  and  long  Qexible  toes,  enabling 
them  to  climb  trees  witti  great  activity.  They 
prefer  such  trees  as  overhang  the  water,  into 
which  they  plunge  at  any  sign  of  danger.  They 
feed  entirely  utKm  vegetable  matter.  The  fiest- 
fcnown  species  is  Ba^isciu  amerittmiu,  which 
has  a  length  of  nearhr  three  feet,  three-fifths  of 
which  is  tail.  In  color  the  basilius  are  grew 
and  brown,  with  dark  cross-bars  on  the  back. 


B  ASILOS  AUKtJS  —  BASKET 


811 


and  the  crest  of  the  males  is  red  In  early 
spring  they  lay  about  a  dozen  eggs  in  a  hole 
among  the  roots  oi  a  tree.     Sec  also  Icuaha. 

BASILOSAURUS.    See  Zkuglodon. 

BASIN,  in  physical  Rcogra^jr,  the  whole 
tntct  of  country  drainecT  hy  a  river  and  its 
tributaries.  The  line  dividing  one  river  basin 
from  anodter  is  the  watershed,  and  by  tracing 
the  varioas  watersheds  each  country  is  divided 
into  its  constituent  basins.  The  basin  of  a 
lake  or  sea  comprises  as  well  all  the  territory 
drained  b<f  the  rivers  which  run  into  it  Such 
hydrograpbic  basins  owe  their  origin  either  to 
erosive  action  or  to  a  depression  of  the  earth's 
crust  When  riven  become  established  upon  a 
new  land  surface  they  proceed  to  deepen  and 
widen  their  chaunets,  and  in  course  of  time 
may  appreciably  lower  the  level  of  the  drainage 
area.  Glaciers  are  also  important  agents  in  the 
establishment  of  hydrograpUc  basins,  as  is  il- 
lustrated by  the  numerous  rock  basins  (now 
occupied  by  lakes)  that  were  hollowed  out  by 
tbe  great  ice-sheets  that  once  invaded  northern 
North  America  and  Europe.  Other  depres- 
sions have  been  formed  by  vertical  movemetits 
of  ttie  strata  comprising  the  earth's  crust.  Tbe 
Great  Basin  lying  between  the  Rxxky  Moun- 
tains and  the  coast  ranges,  and  many  of  the  . 
lake  bauns  of  central  Africa,  originated  in 
this  way.  In  geology  a  basin  is  the  synclinal 
arrangement  oi  Strata  so  that  they  dip  or  are 
inclined  toward  a  common  centre.  The  Paris 
Basin  and  the  London  Basin  are  familiar  in- 
stances.   See  River;  Lakk;  VAUiv,  etc. 

BASINGSTOKE,  England,  town  and 
parish  of  Hampshire,  sitaated  near  the  source 
of  the  Loddon,  18  miles  north- northeast  from 
Winchester.  Its  streets  are  well  built,  paved, 
and  lighted,  and  the  town  is  amply  supplied 
with  water.  It  has  a  town-ball,  containme  a 
spacious  csm-market  and  ballroom.  It  has 
also  a  fine  Gothic  church,  erected  in  the  time 
of  Henry  VIII ;  several  other  places  of  wor- 
ship ;  a  mechanics'  institute,  with  good  library ; 
and  nmnerous  charities.  A  considerable  trade 
is  carried  on  in  com,  coal,  timber  and  malt, 
and  it  has  manufactures  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, clothing,  malt,  liquors,  etc.  In  the  neigh- 
borhood are  the  rums  of  Basing  House,  oe- 
lonzing  to  the  Marquis  of  Wincnester,  which 
withstood  the  forces  of  the  Commonwealth  for 
four  years,  but  was  at  last  taken  by  Cromwell 
and  burned  to  the  ground  in  1645.    Pop.  11,540.' 

BA8KERVILLK.  Charles,  American 
chemist;  b.  Noxubee  County,  Miss.,  IS  June 
1870.  In  1886-87  he  studied  at  the  University 
of  Mississippi  and  in  1890  was  graduated  at 
the  University  of  Virginia.  He  also  studied  at 
Vaaderbilt  University  and  at  the  University  of 
Berlin.  From,  1851  to  1904  he  was  successively 
instructor,  assistant  professor  and  professor  of 
chemistry  and  director  of  the  chemical  labora- 
tory at  the  University  of  North  Carolina.  In 
19M  he  was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry 
at  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York. 
Professor  Baskerville  discovered  the  chemical 
elements  of  carolinium  and  berzctium  and  has 
invented  processes  for  refining  oils,  etc.  He 
bas  made  extensive  investigations  in  the  chem- 
■•itrj'  of  anaesthetics  and  in  the  applications  of 
radium  in  'medicine.  He  has  written  'School 
Chembtry>  <1898)  ;  'Key  lo  Schod  Chemistry* 


twal 
of^th 


(1898) :  "Radium  and  its  Applications  in  Medi- 
cine' (1909);  'General  Morganic  Chemistryl 
(1909);  'Laboratory  Exercises,*  with  R.  W. 
Curtis  (1909);  'Progressive  Problems  in 
(Chemistry,*  with  W.  L.  Estabrooke;  "Qualita- 
tive Analj^is,*  with  L.  J.  Curtman ;  collaborator 
in  'Municipal  Chemistry*;  'Anesthesia,'  with 
J.  T.  Gwathmey ;  also  scientific  educational  and 
technological  articles  in  various  periodicals. 

BASKERVILLE,  John,  English  printer 
and  artist:  b.  Wolveriey,  Worcestershire.  1706; 
d.  1775.  Inheriting  a  small  estate,  he  was 
brou^t  up  lo  no  profession,  but,  acquiring  great 
skill  m  penmanship  and  carving  letters  on  stone, 
at  the  age  of  20  he  settled  at  Birmingham  as  a 
writing-master.  He  subsequently  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  japanned  works,  and  in 
1750  entered  upon  his  great  career  as  printer 
and  typefounder,  in  whidi  he  displayed  extraor- 
dinary ability,  as  well  as  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  ink  and  paper  used  in  his  productions.  His 
first  great  work  was  an  edition  of  Virgil,  in 
■al  quarto,  17S6,  which  was  followed  by  many 
the  Latin  classics,  and  some  Englisn  ones, 
quarto  and  smaller  sizes.  After  his  death  his 
types  and  matrices  were  sold  lo  Beaumarch;us 
at  Paris  for  £3,700.  Baskerville  prints  are  in 
continuous  demand  in  England  to-day. 

BASKET,  a  vessel  made  of  osier  twigs  or 
other  flexible  materials,  as  rushes,  strips  of 
wood,  splits  of  bamboo,  rattan,  etc  and  used 
for  holding  and  carrying;  all  sorts  of  common- 
ties.  Tbe  word  is  of  Bn [anno- Celtic  origin  and 
still  subsists  in  the  Welsh  language  in  the  form 
Basgawd,  from  Basg-  plaiting,  net-work:  it  was 
adopted  into  the  Latm  language  in  the  1st  cen- 
tury with  form  little  altered  — Bairawda.  The 
baskets  made  in  Britain  were  highly  prized  by 
the  Romans,  and  the  poets  Juvenal  and  Martial 
make  mention  of  them  as  articles  of  no  trifling 
value.  They  were  evidently  regarded  as  rare 
exotic  curios  in  Juvenal's  day,  for  the  poet,  in 
drawing  an  exaggerated  picture  of  the  ship- 
wreck in  which  his  friend  Catullus  threw  over- 
board his  mpst  cherished  possessions,  couples 
Bascaudse  (baskets)  with  articles  of  chased 
silver  wrought  by  famous  artists  (Sal,  xii.). 
And  Martial  (xiv,  99)  makes  tbe  British  bas- 
ket say  of  itself:— 

Btubua  de  pictii  nil  hMcauda  Britu 


In  primafval  limes  basket-making  was  a 
branch  of  the  art  of  weaving,  and  both  of 
these  arts  grew  out  of  the  still  more  primi- 
tive one  of  wattling,  first  employed  in  mak- 
ing enclosures.  Tylor  ('Early  History  of 
Mankind')  notes  tne  existence  of  wicker- 
weaving  among  primitive  tribes  throughout  the 
world.  This  is  the  first  step  in  the  art  of  weav- 
ing textile  fabrics.  It  is  practised,  or  rather 
was  practised,  by  the  natives  of  New  Zealand 
and  of  northwestern  America,  and  as  late  as 
1856  hy  an  Indian  tribe  living  northwest  of 
Lake  Huron.  In  the  lake  habitations  of  Switi- 
erland  have  been  found  specimens  of  wicker- 
weaving  work  consisting  of  strands  of  un- 
twisted fibre,  probably  hemp,  bound  together  ty 
transverse  strands  wattled  in  among  them;  and 
in  the  same  localides  have  been  found  speci- 
mens of  the  same  kind  of  weaving  but  of  a 
progressively  hi^er  and  finer  type.  There  is 
even  a  genetic   relation  between  Ae  arts  of 


gle 


818 


BASKST-BALL 


basket-maldug  and  pottery,  proved  by  ^ed- 
mens  of  rude  pottery  found  in  all  quarters  of 
the  world:  in  these  are  seen  the  impreHcs  of 
the  basket-work  on  which  the  clay  was  molded 
and  which  was  burnt  away  in  the  kiln.  Even 
after  the  art  of  motdiaK  the  clay  without  the 
basket-work  frame  was  invented,  the  potters 
seem  to  have  imkatcd  the  marki^s  left  by  it 
Among  the  Indians  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
along  the  Gulf,  ail  pottery  vessels  of  large  site 
used  to  be  modeled  in  baskets  of  willow  or 
splints,  which,  being  burnt  olf,  their  markings 
remained.  Shields  of  basket-work  covered  with 
hide  were  in  use  among  the  Britons  at  the 
time  of  Cssar's  invasion,  and  similar  shields  are 
still  employed  by  primitive  peoples  wherever 
they  live  in  savage  isolation.  Boats,  too,  of 
basket-work,  with  a  covering  of  hide  (coracles), 
were  used  by  the  ancient  Britons,  and  boats  of 
the  same  type  were  seen  by  Herodotus  (i,  194) 
oavigaiing  the  Euphrates.  These  were  of  round 
form,  without  distinction  o£  bow  and  stem, 
and  similar  boats  are  still  in  use  on  some  rivers 
in  India.  On  account  of  its  lightness,  combined* 
with  sCren^  and  durability,  basket-work  is  pre- 
ferred to  joinery  in  the  manufacture  of  various 
commodities,  as  window-screen v  pony-carriage 
bodies,  chairs,  tables,  etc.  In  South  America 
the  natives  weave  baskets  of  rushes  capable  of 
botding  liquids,  and  those  of  Tasmania,  now 
extinct,  used  to  weave  of  leaves  water-tight 
vessels.  The  material  most  commonly  em- 
ployed in  basket-maid ng  is  the  willow  or  oder 
twig,  and  the  production  of  this  material  is  an 
important  industry  in  France,  -Germany.   Bel- 

f'um,  Holland  and  Britain.  The  product  of 
ranee  and  Britain  is  the  most  highly  esteemed 
for  firmness,  toughness  and  evenness;  that  of 
Germany  is  reputed  inferior  to  the  French;  the 
Dutch  product  is  in  least  esteem,  being  soft 
and  pithy.  Besides  ozier  twigs,  a  great  variety 
of  other  materials  arc  employed  in  basket- 
maldng.  In  this  country  coarse,  strong  baskets 
are  made  of  shavings  or  long  broad  splits  of 
various  tou{i;h  woods.  In  China  and  Japan  the 
usual  materials  are  bamboo  and  rattan,  and  the 
Chinese  and  Japanese  excel  in  the  manufacture 
of  wares  of  these  materials,  their  products  be- 
ing unrivaled  for  fineness,  elegance  and  finish- 
and  some  of  their  work,  as  in  the  encasing  of 
the  egg~shell  porcelain  of  the  Japanese,  is  mar- 
velous for  the  delicacy  of  the  manipulation; 
even  the  examples  seen  in  our  marts,  of  com- 
mon liiilc  porcelain  saucers  so  encased  in 
basket-work,  are  worthy  of  admiration  for 
painstaking  workmanship.  The  fronds  of  the 
Palmyra  palm,  originally  employed  in  India  in 
making  "Cajan*  baskets,  now  afford  a  staple 
materia]  for  use  in  the  art  throughout  the  world. 
So,  too,  Phonnivm  tetiax,  native  of  New  Zea- 
land, which  yielded  to  the  natives  of  that  coun- 
try their  peculiar  basket-making  material,  is 
BOW  employed  in  all  countries  for  the  same 
purpose. 

Basket-making  is  one  of  the  simplest  of  die 
mechanic  arts;  and  the  workman,  in  ro^ng 
baskets  designed  for  use,       '   ' 


■  apparatus  beyond  those  reqais  . . 
cutting  the  rods  and  interlacing  them  —  a  knife 
and  a  bodkin,  with  a  mallet  to  beat  them  into 

Elace.  The  process  can  be  learned  in  principle 
y  inspection  of  a  basket-maker  at  work  in 
fashioning  a  basket  from  the  foundation  to  the 


rim.  Having;  provided  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
rods  or  splints  of  much  greater  lengUi  than 
the  proposed  dimensions  of  the  finished  work, 
he  lays  a  number  of  them  on  the  floor  in  paral- 
lel pairs  at  small  intervals  in  the  irection  of 
the  longer  diameter  of  the  basket;  this  is  the 
woof,  so  to  speak.  Then  these  are  crossed  at 
right  angles  bv  two  of  the  largest  osiers,  with 
their  thidc  ends  toward  the  workmauL  who  sets 
his  foot  upon  them;  neit,  each  of  these  ii 
woven  alternately  over  and  under  the  length- 
wise psrallel  pieces,  and  thus  the  parallel  pieces 
are  held  fast;  this  is  the  •siaUi''— the  founda- 
tion. Now  the  end  of  one  of  the  two  transverse 
rods  is  woven  over  and  under  the  lengthwise 
rods  all  round  the  bottom  till  that  whole  rod 
is  worked  in;  and  the  same  is  done  with  the 
other  transverse  rod,  and  then  additional  long 
osiers  are  woven  in  tin  the  bottom  is  of  the 
required  size.  The  bottom  is  now  finished  and 
work  begins  on  the  superstructure  by  driving! 
the  sharpened  lar^  ends  of  a  suJEcient  number 
of  long,  stout  osiers  between  the  rods  at  the 
bottom  from  the  edge  toward  the  centre ;  these 
are  the  ribs  or  skeleton,  being  set  up  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  aides;  betweeo  these  ribs  other 
rods  are  woven  in  till  the  structure  reaches  the 
desired  height  To  finish  the  edge  the  ends 
.  of  the  ribs  are  turned  down  over  each  other 
and  thus  compactly  united.  A  handle  is  added 
tnr  forcing  two  or  three  sharpened  rods  of 
the  requisite  length  down  through  the  weav- 
ing of  the  sidta,  close  together,  and  pinning 
them  fast  a  little  below  the  brim ;  the  rods  are 
then  either  boimd  or  plaited  in  any  way  the 
workman  chooses. 

Our  North  American  Indians  were  once 
among  the  most  expert  basket- weavers  in  the 
worltC  Now  only  the  older  Indians  know  the 
art,  and  certain  tribes  whose  work  was  incom- 
parably fine  and  beautiful  have  already  lost  it 
After  much  pauperiiing  under  die  abominable 
reservation  systen^  it  was  decided  that  the  In- 
dians needed  an  industry  to  save  them  from 
sinking  still  lower.  Lace-making,  after  Brus- 
sels and  French  patterns,  was  nrst  superim- 
posed on  a  Minnesota  reservation,  whence  it  has 
spread.  Now,  lace-making,  which  has  been  de- 
veloped by  the  European  woman,  fits  her  '" 


.  _ .  .  _  . .  making  lace,  for  they  have 
remarkable  skill  with  the  fingers.  An  enli^t- 
-etied  administrator  of  Indian  affairs  has  taken 
up  the  task  of  human  development  in  the  rigbt 
wav  and  has  made  plans  to  revive  ba^ket- 
maldng  by  introducing  it  into  the  government 
Indian  schools,  where  the  children,  who  now 
know  nothing  of  this  beautiful  art,  may  learn 
from  the  only  masters  capable  of  leaching  them 
—  their  own  people,  directed  by  white  teachers 
who  know  the  needs  of  the  constantly  widen- 
ing market.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars' 
worth  of  baskets  are  imported  from  Japan  and 
Germany  every  year  —  money  which  by  every 
right  should  be  earned  bv  our  capable  and 
needy  Indians;  and  better  tnan  the  money  they 
will  earn  is  the  satisfaction  of  doing  what  they 
do  with  surpassing  skill. 

BASKET-BALL,  a  distinctly  American 
game.  Its  history  begins  in  1891,  when 
a  lecturer  in  psychology  at  the  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  Training  School, 
in     Springfield,     Mass.,     suggested,     as    an 


BASKET-FISH— BASQUE  PROVINCES 


S13 


exercise  of  iDvenliveneu,  a  game  that 
ivould  comply  with  certain  conditions. 
One     of     his     pupils,     James     Nai  smith,     tak- 


jiited  area,  limited  number  of 
equally  awlicable  to  either  sex,  etc, —  applied 
his  mind  to  meet  those  conditions,  and  invented 
*basket-ball.*  It  is  played  on  a  marked  oblong 
square  containing  not  more  than  3,500  feet  of 
actual  playing'Space,  by  teams  of  five  each, 
known  respectively  as  centre,  left  and  right 
forwards,  and  left  and  right  backs.  The  bail 
is  roimd  and  inflated,  not  less  than  30  or  more 
than  32  inches  in  circumference,  and  very  like 
that  with  which  "Association*  foot>baIl  is 
played  The  goals  are  hammock  nets  of  cord, 
suspended  from  metal  rings  IS  inches  in  diam- 
eter, and  placed  10  feet  from  the  ground,  in  the 
centre  of  the  ends  of  the  playing- space.  The 
time  of  playing,  for  seniors,  is  two  halves  of 
20  minutes,  with  an  interval  of  ID  minutes;  and 
for  iuniors,  two  halves  of  15  minutes,  with  a 
similar  interval.  No  kicking  of  the  ball  witn 
the  foot,  or  hitting  virith  the  fists,  is  permitted; 
the  ball  must  be  held  by  the  hands  only.  Con- 
sult Naismith  and  Gulick,  'Basket  Ball'  ; 
'Spalding's  Athletic  Library'  (New  York 
1894)  ;  Fisher,  H.  A.  (cA),  Officiai  Collegiate 
Basket  Bali  Guide  ("Spalding's  Athletic  Li- 
brary,' New  York,  annual)  ;  Smith,  T.  H.,  Of- 
fUiol  Basket  Ball  Guide  (Fox's  'Athletic  Li- 
brary,'  New  York  1906). 

BASKBT-PISH,  a  name  given  about  16^ 
by   Jobn   Winthrojv   governor   of    Connecticut, 


to  the  Astrophyton  agassitii.    It  belongs  i 

Eoup  Euryiuiaa,  and  ta  allied  to  the  sand-stars, 
t  differs  in  toe  arms  being  much  branched 


and  ending  in  lono;  slender  tendrils  which  are 
so  much  interlaced  as  to  suggest  basket-work. 
It  is  very  large,  the  disc  being  two  inches  across, 
and  the  entire  animal  often  a  foot  in  diameter. 
It  lives  off  the  coast  of  New  England  in  from 
10  to  100  fathoms  of  water.  Other  names  are 
■  Medusa 'a-head'  and  'Searbasket* 
-  BASKET-WORU.  See  Bag-Wobh. 
BASKETT,  Jfunes  Newton,  American 
zoologist  and  novelist :  b.  Nicholas  County,  Ky., 
1  Nov.  1849.  He  was  aradualed  Ph.B.  at 
University  of  Missouri  18S,  and  M.A.  in  1893. 
Later  he  became  well  known  as  a  civil  engi- 
neer and  historian,  and  as  the  author  of  ac- 
counts of  Spanish  expeditions  in  the  south  and 
southwest  of  early  dates.  His  papers  include 
the    'Route  of  Cabeia  de  Vaca'    (Tei 


of  numerous  contributions  in  journals  and 
magaiines  bearing  on  natural  history.  He  has 
been  a  special  student  of  the  divining  rod  and 
other  subconscious  endowments,  is  a  lec- 
turer on  many  subjects,  especially  birds,  and 
the  author  of  'The  Story  of  the  Birds'  (1896)  ; 
'The  Story  of  the  Rshes'  (1899);  'The  Story 
of  the  Reptiles  and  Amphibians'  (1902);  'At 
You-All's  House'  (1898);  'As  the  Light  Led' 
(1900);   'Sweetbrier  and  Thistledown'    (1902), 

BASKING-FISH,  or  B ASKING-SHARK. 
See    Shark. 

BASLE.     See  Basel, 


duced  1.  NiOM^AS,  who,  having  espoused  the 
doctrines  of  the  Reformation,  was  compelled 
by  persecution  to  take  refuge  in  England, 
where  he  became  the  minister  of  a  con^ega- 
tion  at  Norwich,  When,  by  the  accession  of 
Henry  IV,  a  better  era  began  to  dawn,  he  re- 
turned to  his  country '  and  officiated  till  his 
death,  as  minister  of  a  church  at  Carentan. 
2,  Benjamin,  son  of  the  former:  b.  1580;  d. 
1652,  He  succeeded  his  father  in  his  charge, 
and  held  it  for  the  long  period  of  51  years. 
He  long  held  a  prominent  place  among  the  re- 
formers of  France ;  presided  in  the  assembly 
held  at  Rochelle  in  16^;  undertook  the  dan- 
gerous task  of  negotiating  for  En^ish  aid; 
traveled  into  Scotland  to  arouse  the  Protestant 
feeling  in  that  country;  and  on  his  return  took 
the  lead  in  the  important  synods  held  at  Cha- 
renton  in  1^23  and  1631,  and  at  Alen^on  in  1637. 
His  principal  work,  entitled  'Treatise  on  the 
Church,'  is  a  good  specimen  of  his  talents.  3. 
Hensi  dr  FRANQtJENAY:  b  1615;  d,  1695.  He 
was  the  youngest  son  of  Benjamin,  studied  for 
the  bar,  and  as  a  provincial  advocate  in  Rouen 
long  stood  at  the  head  of  his  profession.  His 
eloquence,  learning  and  unsullied  integrity  se- 
cured him  the  esteem,  not  only  of  the  Protes- 
tants, whose  views  he  held,  but  even  of  those 
most  violently  opposed  to  nim.  His  complete 
works,  confined  to  juridical  subjects,  were  pub- 
lished at  Rouen  in  two  volumes,  folio,  in  1778. 
4.  Jacques,  eldest  son  of  Henri:  b,  Rouen 
1653;  d  1723.  He  is  the  best-known  and  per- 
haps the  ablest  member  of  the  family.  He 
studied  theolo;^  at  Geneva  and  Sedan,  and  in 
1676  became  minister  of  the  Protestant  Church 
at  Rouen,  In  1685  his  church  having  been 
closed  by  decree  of  Louis  XIV,  he  removed  to 
Holland  and  ofGciated  as  minister,  first  at  Rot- 
terdam, and  then  permanently  at  The  Hague. 
Among  his  works  may  tte  mentioned  'History 
of  the  Church,'  2  vols.,  folio;  'History  of  the 
Jews,'  15  vols.,  12mo.;  'Annals  of  the  United 
Provinces,'  2  vols.,  folio;  and  'The  Holy  Com- 


1  whom  it  has  pro- 


.  Si 

their  separate  headings.  The  total  area  is 
2,739  square  miles,  and  the  total  population  was 
estimated  (31  Dec,  1914)  at  706,249.  Lying  on 
the  northern  versant  of  the  Cantabrian  Moun- 
tains, these  provinces  present  a  reasonable  con- 
trast to  the  arid  table-land  of  Castile,  being 
covered  with  green  all  the  year  round  Bears, 
chamois,  capercailzie  and  hazel-grouse  abound 
in  the  waving  forests  of  oak,  birch,  ash  and 
beech  trees;  there  are  great  chestnut  and  wal- 
nut groves,  bountiful  orchards,  vineyards  and 
luxuriant  meadows  alternating  with  fields  of 
maize,  rye,  potatoes,  flax  ana  hemp,  Salmon 
and  trout  streams  race  through  the  verdant 
mountain  glens;  from  Corunna  to  the  Bidassoa^ 
on  the  French  frontier,  the  country  is  dotted 
with  isolated  farmsteads,  villages  consisting  of 
little  else  besides  a  church  and  a  tavern,  the 
rest  of  the  houses  scattered  over  a  wide  area. 
Though  tolerably  straight  and  uniform,  the 
north  coast  is  broken  by  several  small  harbors, 
where  much  commerce  is  carried  on  in  small 
vessels.  The  Basque  provinces  are  the  centre 
of  the  iron  mining  district  of  Spain,  where, the 


Lioogle 


ress,  nearly  6,000,000  tons  being  produced 
annually.  In  the  province  o£  GuipSicoa  is  the 
village  of  Loyola,  the  birthplace  (1491)  of 
Inigo  Lopez  de  Recaldc,  who  became  famous 
as  the  founder  of  the  Jesuit  order  under  the 
name  of  Ignatius  of  Loyola,  In  that  village, 
also,  the  Basques  have  ihdr  sacred  tree  called 
the  'Guamica,*  the  emblem  of  their  liberties. 
See  Basques. 

BASQUES,  b&sks,  or  BISCAYANS,  in 
their  owp  language,  Euscaldunac  ;  the 
Spaniards  call  them  "Vascon^dos.*  A  remark- 
able, very  ancient  race  inhabiting  both  sides  of 
the  Pyrenees,  the  southwest  comer  of  France 
and  the  north  o£  Spain,  They  represent  the 
remnant  of  a  people  once  spread  over  the  whole 
of  the  It>erian  Peninsula  aud  southern  Gaul  in 
prehistoric  times.  They  are  [trobably  the  de- 
scendants of  the  ancient  Iberi,  who  occupied 
Spain  before  the  Celts,  though  this  is  by  no 
means  a  decided  point  among  ethnologists. 
From  the  early  dawn  of  history  they  constituted 
small  republics,  ruled  by  duly  elected  chiefs  and 
according  to  special  codes  (fueros),  breathing 
fierce  independence,  parochial  exdusiveness  and 
stern  but  patriarchal  regulations.  The  French 
Basoues  (Gascons)  settled  on  the  north  side 
of  the  Pyrenees  about  the  end  of  the  6th  cen- 
tury, between  the  mountains  and  the  Garonne. 
Under  the  Carlovingians  they  elected  their  own 
dukes,  but  after  the  extinction  of  that  family 
they  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Aquitania  in 
the  11th  century.  In  1106  they  purchased  the 
Labourd  for  3,306  gold  florins,  and  were  incor- 
porated with  it  under  France  in  1453,  by  Charles 
VII,  but  continued  to  enjoy  certain  exemptions 
from  taxes,  enlistment  in  Uie  army,  etc  Their 
number  is  estimated  at  about  150,000.  The 
ultramontane  Basques  have  not  played  any  im- 
portant part  in  Spanish  history.  Their  distinct 
national  code  has  been  respected  at  all  times 
and  by  every  ruler,  farming  a  kind  of  imperittm 
in  imperio  with  their  special  parliament,  Dis- 
putacion  Provincial,  tariffs,  tolls,  and,  until 
recent  years,  even  their  own  army  and  police. 
After  the  close  of  the  second  Carhst  war  in  1876 
the  pow.ers  and  privileges  of  the  Basque  Dispu- 
laciones  were  considerably  curtailed  by  the 
S^nish  government,  though  the  provinces  re- 
tamed  entire  control  of  their  municipal  affairs. 
They  collect  their  own  taxes  and  pay  an  annual 
tribute  to  Spain,  the  amount  of  which  is  fixed 
pcrioically  and  generally  for  20  years  in  ad- 
vance. The  tribute  for  the  years  1915-16  was 
fixed  at  9.000,000  pesetas  ($1,800,000),  while  the 
province  of  Guipizcoa  contributes  an  addi- 
tional tax  of  700.000  peseus  ($120,000).  The 
Basques  preserve  their  ancient  language,  former 
manners  and  customs  and  their  national  dances. 
The  rhythm  of  their  music  differs  altogether 
ftoni  that  of  other  parts  of  Spain;  it  possesses 
its  own  essential  characteristics,  so  pronounced 
that  none  in  Spain  can  imitate  it  and  few  out- 
side can  understand.  Their  national  anthem, 
the  •Guamica,*  named  after  their  sacred  tree 
in  Loyola,  is  said  to  be  capable  of  rousing  the 
Basque  to  a  fierce  degree  of  patriotism.  They 
make  admirable  soldiers,  especially  tn  guerrilla 
warfare^o  which  their  native  temperament  in- 
clines. Thn"  furnish  a  prescribed  quota  of  re- 
cruits to  the  Spanish  army  annually.  The 
people  of  the  Basque  provinces  and  Navarre 


were  the  strongest  supporters  of  the  pretender, 
Don  Carlos,  and  supplied  the  best  leaders  in 
the  Carlist  wars.  In  personal  appearance  the 
Basques  are  of  medium  site,  active  and  athletic; 
of  fair  complexion  in  general,  they  bear  some 
resemblance  to  certain  Tartar  tribes  of  tbe 
Caucasus.  They  are  faithful  and  honest,  kind 
and  hospitable  to  '  strangers.  Thar  mental 
equipment  is  said  to  be  somewhat  dull,  thoucb 
illiteracy  is  comparatively  rare  among  inem.  In 
his  'Bible  in  Spain'  George  Borrow  tells  us 
that  no  people  on  earth  are  prouder  than  the 
Basques,  'but  theirs  is  a  kind  of  republican 
pride.*  They  have  no  notnlity  amongst  them, 
and  no  one  will  acknowledge  a  superior.  They 
are  good  seamen,  and  were  the  first  Europeans 
who  engaged  in  the  whale  fishery,  when  whales 
were  plentiful  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 

The  Basques  are  the  •mystery  people*  of 
Eorope;  much  controversy  has  raged  aronnd 
the  (juestion  of  their  ori^n.  The  Romans 
mention  a  tribe  called  'Vascones,*  who  lived 
somewhere  in  the  present  Basque  province). 
Gascones  is  the  same  word,  the  letters  b  and  g 
being  often  interdianged.  Not  all  the  Basque- 
speaking  people  are  Bas<}Ue3.  The  old  Gascones 
and  the  present  Bbmais  speak  a  Basque  dia- 
lect, but  they  differ  widely  from  the  Spanish 
Basques.  These  French  people  have  dark  curly 
hair  and  brown  eyes;  they  are  round-headed 
and  short  of  stature,  whereas  the  true  Basques 
are  long-headed  and  short-faced,  with  ligbt 
hair,  and  generally  blue  or  gray  eyes.  They 
are  also  tsdier  and  high- shouldered.  Borrow 
decided  that  the  Basoues  were  of  Mongolian 
ori^.  He  discovered  many  Sanskrit  roots  ia 
their  language,  but  was  •inclined  to  rank  the 
Basque  rather  amongst  the  Tartar  than  the 
San^rit  dialects.*  Modern  scientists,  however, 
have  completely  discarded  Borrow's  theory,  and 
not  a  few  have  sought  to  place  the  cradle  of 
the  Basque  race  in  northern  and  northeastern 
Africa,  from  the  similarity  of  their  language 
to  the  old  Berber  and  Tuareg  langu^jcs.  In 
any  case  it  is  certain  that  Basque  is  neither  an 
Aryan  nor  Indo-Germanic  language ;  its  af- 
finities with  Berberic  point  to  Egypt  and  to 
Somaliland.  On  the  other  hand,  the  language 
of  the  old  Mediterranean  race  also  has  affmities 
with  Basque,  and  points  eastward  into  Asia 
Minor.  Our  whole  knowledge  of  the  so-called 
Basque  language  being  based  entirely  upon  the 


some  authorities  it  contains  only  about  W 
foreign  words,  while  others  emphatically  assert 
that  more  than  half  the  words  in  the  whole 
language  are  borrowed.  The  following  stania, 
"noted  down  from  recitation'  by  George  Bor- 
row, may  serve  as  an  example  of  Basque 


This  means,  *The  waters  of  die  sea  are  vast, 
and  their  bottom  cannot  be  seen;  but  over  them 
I  will  pass,  that  I  may  behold  my  love.*  As 
stated  above,  the  Basques  call  themsclvel 
Euscaldunac:  euik ^^ laaguage,  sound;  al  from 
oidfo^part  or  side;  iiu«=full  of,  plenty;  ac 
^^  adjectival  ending,  the  c  being  the  sign  of  the 
plural.  Thus  the  whole  word  signifies  'those 
with  a  language.*    The  language  itself  is  called 


BASRAH— BASS 


*Eu9aira,*  and  the  country  Euscallerria, 
Eudca-Herria  or  Eusquercrria,  from  the  word 
trria,  land.  The  Siranish  group  of  Basque 
dialects  are  the  Guip^izcoa:^  upi»er  Navarrese 
and  Biscajran ;  the  French  group  are  the 
Labourdin,  lower  Navarrese  and  Soulbtin.  See 
AutvA ;  Biscay  ;  Basque  Provinces  ;  Guip- 
6zcda;  Navarre;  Spain. 

BibUoETSphy. —  Aranzadi,  T.  de,  'lExtste 
una  raza  Enskara?'  (Madrid  190S) ;  Borrow, 
G.,  'The  Bible  in  Spain  > ;  Bonaparte,  Prince 
Luden,  'Le  verbe  Basque  en  tableaux'  (Lon- 
don I8W)  ;  Gadow,  Dr.  H.,  <In  Northern  Spain' 
(London  1897);  Webster.  W..  'Basque 
Legends'  (London  1879);  Vinson,  J..  'Les 
"  '   (Paris  1882). 


BASRAH.    : 

BASS,  Bdward,  first  Protestant  Episcopal 
bishop  of  Massachusetts :  b.  Dorchester,  Mass., 
23  Nov.  1726;  d.  Ncwbaryport,  Mass.,  10  Sept 
1803.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1744; 
was  ordained  in  England  in  1752;  and  later  be- 
came pastor  of  the  church  at  Newfaurypon, 
Mass.  During  the  Revolution  he  omitted  from 
the  church  service  all  reference  to  the  roval 
family  and  the  British  government.  For  uiis 
he  was  expelled  from  the  Sodety  for  the  Prop- 
agation of  the  Gospel.  In  1797  he  ^'as  conse- 
crated bisbt^  of  Massachusetts,  and  finally  also 
of  New  Hampshire  and  Rhode.  Island. 

BASS,  Hichael  Thomu,  English  brewer: 
b.  1799;  d.  1884.  He  became  head  of  the  Bur- 
ton brewing  firm  of  Bass  &  Company  upon  the 
death  of  his  father  and  was  a  member  of  Par- 
liament from  1848  to  1883.  His  benefactions 
were  very  numerous,  and  included  the  building 
and  endowing  of  Saint  Paul's  Church,  Burion 
(the  total  expenditure  on  the,  parish  being  about 
$500,000) ;  and  the  establishment  of  recreation 

Sounds,  a  free  library,  and  swimming  baths  for 
:rby.  at  a  cost  of  $185,000.  Of  simple  tastes, 
he  more  than  once  declined  a  baronetcy  and  a 
peerage. 

BASS,  bis  {It  basso,  deep,  low),  (1)  die 
lowest  male  voice,  with  die  average  compass 
of  from  F  to  F  two  octaves  above;  deep  bajses 
exceed  tlus  limit  downwards  and  high  ones 
reach  higher  notes ;  (2)  the  lowest  part  in  the 
harmony  of  a  musical  composition.  It  is  the 
most  important  of  all  the  parts,  the  foundation 
of  the  lurmony,  and  the  support  of  the  whole 
composition.  Different  forms  of  bass  are : 
Basso  conccrtante,  or  Basso  rccitante,  the  bass 
of  die  little  chorus;  the  bass  which  accompanies 
the  softer  parts  of  a  composition,  as  well  as 
those  which  employ  the  whole  power  of  the 
band.  This  part  is  generally  taken  by  the 
violoncellos.  Bass-counler  or  conira-hass,  the 
under  bass;  that  part  which,  when  there  are 
two  basses  in  a  composition,  is  performed  by 
the  double  basses,  the  violoncellos  taking  the 
upper  bass  or  basso  concertante.  Basso  nfieno 
(It.),  the  bass  of  the  grand  chorus;  that  bass 
which  jiMns  in  the  full  parts  of  a  composition, 
and,  by  its  depth  of  tone  and  energy  of  stiolce. 
affords  a  powerful  contrast  to  the  lighter  ana 
softer  passages  or  movements.  Figured  bass, 
a  bass  which,  while  a  certain  chord  or  harmony 
is  continued  by  the  parts  above,  moves  in  notes 
of  the  same  harmony.  Fundamental  bast,  that 
bass  which  forms  the  tone  or  natural  founda- 
tion  of   die  harmony,   and    from   which   that 


harmony  is  derived.  Ground  bats,  a  bass  which 
starts  with  some  subject  of  its  own,  and  con- 
tinues to  be  repeated  throughout  the  movement, 
while  the  upper  part  or  parts  pursue  a  separate 


placing  figures  over  the  bass  note.  Bass  clef, 
the  character  put  at  the  begmning  of  the  stave, 
in  which  the  bass  or  lower  notes  of  the  com- 
position are  placed,  and  serving  to  determine 
the  pitch  and  names  of  those  notes. 

BASS,  the  name  of  various  trimly  shaped, 
active,  gamy  fishes  of  both  fresh  and  salt  water, 
mosdy  in  northern  regions.  The  term  was 
originally  applied  to  the  Morone  labrax  of  the 
west  coast  of  Europe,  and  was  thence  trans- 
ferred to  many  other  fishes  having  a  real  or 
fancied  likeness  to  this  in  appearance  and  quali- 
ties. This  fish  represents  ihc  sea-perch  famil^r, 
Serranidx,  is  perch-like  in  form,  usually  12 
to  18  inches  long,  and  frequents  the  shoal  shore- 
waters  in  great  numbers,  being  noted  for  its 
fierceness  and  voradty.  Its  flesh  is  excellent. 
The  same  family  and  genus  are  represented  in 
North  America  by  many  species,  of  which  the 
nearest  relative  is  the  yellow  bass  (M.  inter- 
rufila)  of  the  southern  Mississippi  Valley,  It 
is  a  brassy-yellow  with  seven  very  distinct 
black  longitudinal  lines,  those  below  the  lateral 
line  being  interrupted  posteriorly,  the  posterior 
parts  ahemating  with  the  antenor.  Its  body 
IS  oblong-ovate  with  the  back  much  arched. 
The  dorsal  fin  and  anal  spines  are  stout.  It  is 
a  light  fish  for  its  lengtl^  ordinarily  weighing 
one  to  two  pounds,  but  often  measuring  12  to 
18  inches,  and  weighing  five  potmds.  It  is  very 
game,  and  is  esteemed  by  some  anglers  the 
equal  of  the  black  bass  in  this  respect. 

In  the  same  family  falls  the  well-known 
striped  bass  or  "rock  fish^  (Roceui  linealus), 
of  the  northeastern  Atlantic,  which  approaches 
the  coast  and  enters  fresh  water  only  at  spawn- 
ing^timc  when  it  ascends  the  rivers.    It  was 


Puget  Sound  to  Lower  California.  The  largest 
fish  are  to  be  found  in  Chesapeake  Bay,  where 
they  averatre  from  30  to  50  pounds  in  weight, 
and  occasionally  reach  double  that.  In  color 
they  are  brassy-olive,  the  fins  and  sides  rather 
pale,  and  the  latter  marked  with  seven  or  eight 
blackish  stripes.  The  favorite  way  of  fishing 
for  the  striped  bass  is  by  casting  a  "sqtiid" 
through  the  surf,  using  as  a  bait  pieces  of  clam, 
shrimp  or  crab;  but  tney  will  rise  to  a  fly;  and 
on  the  Padfic  coast  are  easily  lured  by  a  sbinr 
iiig  spoon-bait. 

The  white  bass  (_R.  ehfyropsy  is  a  near 
relative  of  the  striped  bass,  and  inhabits  the 
Great  Lakes  from  the  Saint  Lawrence  to  Mani- 
toba, and  soitthward  in  the  Mississippi  Valley 
to  Arkansas.  Its  preference  is  for  still  wateri, 
and  it  is  even  lighter  in  wdght  for  length  ^an 
the  yellow  bass.  It  is  generally  taken  wuh  bait, 
though  it  will  rise  to  the  fly.  It  is  silvery  in 
its  color,  tinged  with  golden  below,  with  dusl^ 
hncs  along  the  sides. 

The  most  important  of  the  American  fresh- 
water bass  are  the  black  bass  — two  species  of 
percoid  game  fishes  of  the  distinctly  American 
family  CfHtrarchid»,  which  also  contains  the 


°gle 


316 


BASS  — BASS   ROCK 


the  waters  of  the  upper  Mississippi  Vall^,  uid 
Great  Lakes  region,  but  in  1853  they  were  in- 
troduced into  the  head  water*  of  the  Potomac 
River,  whence  tfae^  have  spread  into  all  the 
rivers  that  empty  into  Chesapeake  Bay.  More 
recently  bass  have  been  introduced  into  New 
England  and  into  many  of  the  far  Western 
States;  as  well  as  transported  into  England, 
France,  Germany  and  other  countries.  The 
body  is  oblong,  compressed,  the  back  not  much 
elevated,  bead  oblong-conic,  lower  jaw  promi- 
nent, teeth  on  j:  .  -  - 
broad  villiform   1 

usually  no  teeth  or  tongue.  Black  bass  vary 
greatly  in  size  in  different  waters.  The  small- 
mouthed,  however,  seldom  exceeds  six  pounds 
in  weight,  while  the  large- mouthed,  especially 
in  the  South,  is  larger,  running  as  high  as  14 
pounds.  In  color  both  are  dull  golden-ereen 
with  a  bronze  lustre,  the  scales  on  the  cheeks 
are  more  minute  than  those  on  the  body,  and 
the  dorsal  fin  is  deeply  notched.  In  the  smalt- 
mouthed  species  {Microptems  dolotnieu)  the 
maxillary  does  not  extend  beyond  the  eye,  and 
the  scales  on  the  cheek  are  arranged  in  17  rows. 
In  the  large-mouthed  (M.  salmotdes)  the  max- 
illary extends  beyond  the  eye  and  there  are  but 
10  rows  of  scales  on  (he  checks.  The  lateral 
line  in  both  is  nearly  straight,  passing  from  the 
upper  edge  of  the  gill-cover  to  the  centre  of  the 
base  of  the  caudal  fin.  The  small-mouthed  has 
die  wider  range,  extending  from  the  Red  Kiver 
of  the  North  to  Texas  and  Mexico.  Both  va- 
rieties are  free,  but  capricious,  biters,  and  both 
are  game  fighters.  They  are  taken  with  arti- 
ficial flics  such  as  the  "Rube  Wood,"  "Seth 
Green,*  "silver  doctor,*  and  ■Parmachenec 
bell,*  as  well  as  \^  casting  with  a  wide  range  of 
natural  baits,  such  as  crayfish,  minnow^  worms 
and  small  frogs ;  or  they  may  be  taken  by  troll- 
ing from  a  boat,  using  a  stiS  rod,  especially 
in  lakes,  with  any  standard  silver  or  golden 
spoon-bait.  In  some  districts  the  large-mouthed 
bass  is  called  'straw"  bass;  in  others  "slough,* 
•lake,'  'marsh,'  or  'Oswego'  bass,  or  'green 
trout,*  'welchman,*  etc. 

Another  species  deserving  mention  is  the 
'rock-bass,'  one  of  the  sunfish  (.Ambloptites 
TUpestris),  found  in  practically  eveiy  lake,  pond 
and  stream  east  of  the  dry  plains.  It  does  not 
usua!l)[  attain  more  than  halt  a  pound  in  weight, 
is  easily  caught  and  is  the  least  persistent 
fighter  of  any  of  the  family.  In  color  it  is 
mottled-olive  or  brassy^reen.  Consult  Hen- 
shall,  <Book  of  the  Bass>  (1889):  and  Jordan 
and  Evermann,  'American  Food  and  Game 
Fishes'   (New  York  1902). 

BASS,  Culture  of.  The  artificial  culture 
of  American  bass  is  of  recent  growth,  owing 
principally  to  ignorance  of  the  proper  methods. 
Considerable  pond-space  is  required,  certainty 
that  the  water  is  cl«an  and  that  the  temperature 
is  not  likely  to  fall  much  below  60°  F.  during 
the  spawning  season.  Bass  will  not  spawn  in 
water  colder  than  50°.  A  good  pond  an  acre 
in  extent  ought  to  yield  50,000  to  75,000  young 
fish ;  four  or  five  acres  is  about  the  limit  in 


deep  place  (the  'kettle*)  near  the  outlet;  on 
the  shallow  "shelf  the  fish  will  nest  and  may 
be  hatched  and  cared  for.  This  main,  or 
*brood'^  pond,  should  contain  aquatic  plants. 
In    addition    there    should   be   many    separate 


small  shallow  'fry  ponds*  for  the  segrt^adon 
and  rearing  of  young  fish  sorted  according  to 
age.  Wild  stock  of  the  large-mouthed  black 
bass  may  be  caught  and  introduced  at  any  time 
of  the  year;  but  the  small-mouthed  breediii^- 
stock  (to  which  most  of  what  is  to  be  said 
applies)  must  be  introduced  only  in  the  autumn. 
They  are  then  supplied  from  day  to  day  with 
minnows  and  craytish,  and  also  are  gradually 
accustomed  to  t^ce  chopped  beef,  liver  and 
lungs  or  other  food,  but  this  artificial  feeding 
must  be  artfully  done  or  it  will  not  succeed. 

Bass  lay  their  eggs  in  May  in  saucer-like 
nests  constructed  of  pebbles  on  the  bottom  of 
ponds.  These  nests  are  made  and  kept  clean 
by  the  male  fish,  until  he  can  induce  a  gravid 
female  to  deposit  her  eggs  therein.  They  are 
then  kept  clean  and  gushed  imtil  they  hatch. 
When  hatching  the  young  cluster  on  the  nest 
in  a  compact  mass,  but  soon  begin  to  rise 
toward  the  surface,  and  at  last  the  male,  which 
has  theretofore  herded  and  protected  them, 
drives  them  into  a  jungle  of  water-weeds  and 
abandons  them  to  their  fate.  They  then  become 
the  prey  not  oniy  of  every  other  bass  or  perch 
in  tne  pond,  but  the  smaller  are  killed  and 
eaten  by  the  larger  amon^  themselves.  Hence 
very  few  reach  maturity.  To  avoid  this, 
breeders  of  small- mouthed  bass  furnish  the 
pond  with  a  lar^  number  of  artificial  nests, 
consisting  of  shallow,  open  boxes  half-filled 
with  sand  and  pebbles.  Ttese  are  occupied  and 
arranged  as  nests  by_  the  fish.  When  the  fry 
appear  a  'crib*  consisting  of  a  framework  of 
iron,  covered  with  cheese-cloth,  sufficiently  large 
to  enclose  the  nest-box,  and  tall  enough  to 
reach  a  little  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  is 
set  around  the  nest  and  firmly  anchored.    The 

Such  cribs  are  also  placed  around  any  natural 
nests  found  in  the  pond.  These  young  fish  are 
fed  until  they  have  absorbed  the  yolk-sac,  and 
then  are  captured  in  scoop- nests  and  trans- 
ferred to  the  proper  fry-pond.  Artificial  nests 
are  not  used  for  the  hardier  and  slower  large- 
mouthed  bass,  but  cribs  may  be  placed  around 
their  natural  nests. 

Success  in  bass-culture  depends  on  a  good 
site  and  good  water  for  the  ponds ;  but  even 
more  on  the  proper  care  and  feeding  of  the 
young.  Full  directions  in  both  these  particulars 
are  to  be  found  in  W.  E.  Meehan's,  'Fish-Cul- 
ture in  Ponds'  (New  York  1913). 

Ebmest  Incersou. 

BASS  (bis)  ROCK,  a  remarkable  trap- 
rock  island,  at  ue  mouth  of  the  Firth  of  Forth, 
three  miles  from  North  Berwick.  It  is  of  cir- 
cular sfaafte,  about  a  mile  in  circumference,  and 
rises  precipitously  to  a  height  of  350  feet  It 
is  inaccessible  except  on  one  flat  shelving  point 
on  the  southeast.  Its  summit  is  estimated  at 
about  seven  acres,  and  ibis  supports  a  few 
sheep,    the   mutton    of    which   is   considered   a 

freat  delicacy.  Solan  geese  and  other  sea- 
owl  in  myriads  cover  its  rocks,  and  fly  around 
it  in  clouds.  The  surrounding  water  is  of  great 
depth  on  the  northeast,  but  shallow  on  the 
south.  Among  the  historical  ruins  on  the 
island  are  the  remains  of  a  fortalicc  command- 
ing the  landing-place,  capable  of  accommodat- 
ing upward  of  WO  men,  formerly  accessible 
only  i^  ladders  or  buckets  and  chains ;  and  the 
ruins  of  a  chapel  about  halfwv  up  the  acclivitf. 


BAT  FISH,  BALLOON  FISH,  ETC. 


II  Fiih  (LepidoilcBt  at 


4  BaDooo  FUi  (Tetrodod  fabik*) 

E  Bal  Piih  (Halib*  Tupeitilio) 

a  Skeleton  of  ■  Bu>  (P«a  flatiitOii) 


Google 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


BASS  STRAIT— BASSET 


The  Bass  was  purchased  by  the  English  govem- 
ment  in  1671,  and  its  castle,  king  since  de- 
molished, wa*  converted  into  a  state  prison  in 
which  several  emioent  Covenanters  were  con- 
fined. It  was  the  last  place  in  Britain  that  held 
out  asainst  WilUain  III,  its  small  band  of  gal- 
lant defenders  yielding  only  to  starvation.  The 
island  anciently  belonged  to  a  family  of  the 
najne  of  Lauder,  wfaoM  head  was  ilylM  Lander 
of  the  Bass. 

BASS  STRAIT,  a  chaanel  beset  with 
islands,  which  separate*  Australia  from  Taa- 
manta,  120  miles  brond,  discovered  t^  George 
Bass,  a  surgeon  in  the  Briti^  navy,  u  179B. 

BASS  (bSs)  VIOL,  a  stringed  instrumeirt 
resembling  Uie  violin  in  form,  but  much  Ui^er. 
It  has  four  strings  and  eight  stops,  which  are 
subdivided  into  semi-stops,  and  is  played  with 
a  bow.    See  Viol. 

BASSANIO,  bi-sa'ne-fl,  the  lover  of  Portia 
in  Shakespeare's  ^Merchant  of  Venice.' 

BASSANO,  bAs-sa'no,  Hiifuea  Bernard 
Maret,  Doc  dc,  French  pubticist  and  states- 
man :  b.  Dijon  1763 ;  d  18^.  On  the  first  out- 
burst of  the  French  Revolution  he  enthusiasti- 
cally embraced  its  principles,  published  the 
Bulletin  de  fAssembUe,  and  soon  after  was 
appointed  editor  of  the  Monitew.  He  became 
acquainted  with  Bonaparie,  and  was  made  by 
Um  <Juef  of  divisicm  in  the  Ministry  of  Foreign 
Affairs.  In  I81I  he  was  created  Duke  of  Bas- 
sano  and  appointed  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs ; 
and  in  1612  he  conducted  and  signed  the  treaties 


the  Emperor  was  sent  to  Elba  in  1814,  Bas- 
sano  retired  from  public  life;  bat' immediately 
after  Napoleon's  return  he  joined  him,  and 
was  vetv  nearly  taken  prisoner  at  Waterloo. 
On  the  Emperor's  final  overthrow  Bassano  was 
banished  from  France,  but  at  the  Revoludoa 


of  the  Interior  and  president  of  the  council, 
but  the  ministry  of  which  he  fonoed  a  part 
survived  only  three  days. 

BASSANO,  Jacopo,  (real  name  Gucoko 
DM  Pdhte),  Italian  painter:  b.  Bassauo  (wheaee 
hia  surname)  1510;  d.  1592.  He  painted  htt- 
torical  pieces,  landscapes,  flowers  and  portraits; 
among  the  latter  those  of  the  Doge  of  Venice, 
of  Anosto,  Tasso  and  other  persons  of  emi- 
nctKC.  Several  of  his  best  works  are  in  die 
diurches  of  Bassano,  Venice,  Vicenza  and  other 
towns  of  Italy.  He  left  four  sons,  all  paintei% 
of  whom  Francesco  was  die  most  distingnished. 

BASSANO,  bas-sii'-ne  Italy,  dty  in  the 
province  of  Vicenza,  on  flie  Brenta,  30  miles 
north  of  Padua  (long.  11°  43'  E.;  lat  45" 
46'  N.).  Its  30  churches  contain  beautiful  paint- 
ings. A  stone  bridge,  182  feet  long,  unites  the 
town  with  the  large  village  Vtncantino.  Vines 
and  oKves  are  cultivated  in  the  vicinitv  and 
flhere  is  considerable  trade  in  sill^  cloth  and 
leather,  oil,  wine  and  asparagus,  its  principal 
manufactures  are  straw  hats,  porcelain  and  wax. 
Napoleon  made  Bassano  a  duchy,  with  50,000 
francs  yearly  income,  and  granted  it  to  his 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Maret  <see  Bas- 
SAim,  HUGires).  Near  Bassano,  8  Sept  1796, 
Bonaparte  defeated  the  Austrian  general 
Wuraser.    Bassano  was  the  birthplace  of  die 


..  -  ..Ilage  of  Possagus,  the  birthplace  of 
Canova.  In  the  Austro-Gennan  invasion  of 
north  Italy  in  November-December  1917,  Bas- 
sano was  in  imminent  danger  for  a  few  days, 
the  enemy  driving  on  it  Uom  the  north  and 
east.  The  timely  arrival  of  Anglo-French 
troops  improved  the  shattered  morale  of  the 
Italians  and  the  Teutonic  hosts  were  halted  at 
the  Piave,  less  than  15  miles  distant.  Sec  Wai^ 
EUKWEAH,     Pop.  (1911)   17,130. 

BASSEIN,  bfts-sSA',  India,  a  decayed  town 
in  the  presidency  of  Bombay,  at  the  south  end 
of  a  small  Island  of  the  same  name,  28  miles 
north  of  Bombay,  and  separated  from  the  island 
of  Salsette  bv  a  narrow  channel.  It  was  forti- 
fied by  the  Portuguese  in  1536,  and  remained 
in  their  possession  until  captured  by  the 
Mahrattas  in  1739.  During  diis  period  it  rose 
to  be  a  fine  and  wealthy  city  of  over  60,000  in- 
habitants, with  many  stately  buildings,  includ- 
ing a  cathedral,  5  convents,  13  churches  and 
handsome  private  residences.  Tb  rough  war, 
plague  and  other  causes  it  has  decayed  until  its 
papulation  had  dwindled  to  9,598  in  1911.  It 
stui  exports  considerable  quandties  of  rice. 

BASSEIN,  Burma,  town  in  the  Irrawaddy 
division  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Bassein  River, 
one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Irrawaddy,  with  a 
suburb  on  the  right  bank;  lat  16°  46'  N.;  long. 
94°  48'  E.  The  Eiwrlish  fort  with  the  court- 
houses, treasury,  poIice-«fiice,  etc.,  are  on  the 
left  bank.  In  the  saburb  on  the  right  bank  are 
the  rice-milts  and  store-yards  of  the  principal 
merchants.  Its  inland  water  connection  and 
the  opening  of  a  railway  in  1903  have  enhanced 
its  importance  as  a  centre  of  commerce.  The 
river  IS  navigable  up  to  the  town  for  ships  of 
the  largest  burden,  and  there  is  a  considerable 
trade  in  exportiug  large  quantities  of  rice,  and 
importing  coal,  salt,  cottons,  etc  The  place  is 
of  military  importance  also,  as  it  commands  the 
navigation  of  the  river.  It  was  captured  by  the 
British  in  1852.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  consul  of 
die  United  States.    Pop.  37,081. 

BASSBLIN,  biis-ian,  or  BACHBLIN. 
bash-iaft,  OUvsr,  French  poet:  b.  Val-  de-Vire, 
Normandy,  about  1350;  d.  about  1419.  It  has 
been  asserted  that  the  vocabulary  of  theatrical 
uid  poetical  literature  is  indebted  to  him  for 
the  word  •vaudeville.*  He  seems  to  have  been 
a  doih-fuUer  or  presser,  much  given  to  versified 
narration  and  iteration  of  convivial  themes  in 
rliymed  fragments  dubbed  vaux-dt-mre  in 
bcHior  of  the  poet's  birthplace.  In  the  'Book 
of  New  Songs  and  Vaux-Kle-Vire'  (1610)  a{K 
pears  a  collection  of  these  bacchanalian  stanias, 
the  most  touching  of  which  is  addressed  by  the 
singer  'To  My  Nose,'  the  rubescence  thereof 
being  tastefully  and  exquisitely  celebrated. 

BASSES-ALPES,  bas-alp  («lower  Alps'), 
a  department  of  France,  on  the  Italian  border. 
See  Alps. 

6A3SRS-PYRiN£BS,bas-pe-ri-ni  ('lower 
Pyrenees'),  a  French  department  bordering  on 
Spain  and  the  Bay  of  Biscay.    See  PyaEims. 

BA98ST,  a  game  of  cards,  formerly  much 


.Google 


BA88BT.HORH — BASSI 


Elayed  under  the  aame  at  Pour  et  contrt.  De 
(oivre,  in  hu  <Doctrine  ol  Oiaaces,'  has  cal- 
culated many  problems  coonected  with  this 
game. 

BASSBT-HORN,  a  wooden  wind-instni- 
metit  (catfed  also  Comet  by  reason  of  its  curva- 
ture), believed  to  have  bem  invented  in  Passau 
in  17/0.  It  was  afterward  perfected  by  Theo- 
dore Lotz  in  Presburg.  It  is,  properly  con- 
sidered, an  enlarged  clarinet;  and,  notwithstand- 
ing the  difference  of  its  form,  it  resembles  that, 
not  only  in  its  qualides  and  tone,  but  also  as 
regards  its  intonation,  the  mode  of  holding  it 
and  fingering^  so  that  eveiy  clarinet  iilayer  can 
perform  on  it.  Besides  tuc  mouthpiece  it  U 
formed  of  five  pieces  —  the  head-piece,  two 
middle  pieces,  the  trunlc  and  the  bell,  the  last 
of  whicii  is  usually  of  brass.  It  diners  from 
the  clarinet  chiefly  in  having  four  additional 
low  keys  worked  by  the  thumb  of  the  right 
hand.    Its  compass  is  three  and  a  half  octavet, 


BASSET-HOUND,  a  dog  with  many 
hound-tike  characteristics,  somewhat  used  for 
rabbit-hunting,  clumsy  in  shape,  and  allied  to 
the  dachshund  (q.v.).  Its  bead  is  as  massive 
and  solemn-looking  as  that  of  a  bloodhound, 
which  it  also  resembles  in  the  length  of  its  ears. 
Its  body  is  as  bulky  as  that  of  a  foxhound,  to 
which  It  is  also  similar  as  regards  color,  hair 
and  form,  save  that  its  fore  legs  are  but  four 
iccbes  high  and  crooked  at  the  knee.  Below 
this  point  is  a  wrinkled  ankle  terminating  in  a 
massive  paw,  each  toe  of  which  stands  out  dis- 
tinctly. Its  coat  is  ^ort,  smooth  and  fine,  with 
the  gloss  of  a  thoroughbred  race-horae;  and 
its  colors  are  black  and  white  and  tan.  In 
wdsht  it  varies  from  40  to  45  pounds.  It  is 
probably  of  French  origin. 

BASSETERKB,  bas-tar  West  Indies,  the 
name  of  two  towns.  (1)  Tl)e  capital  of  the 
British  West  Indian  island  of  Saint  Chris- 
topher's, a  seaport  situated  at  the  moudi  of  a 
small  river,  on  the  south  side  of  the  island,  and 
on  the  edge  of  the  fertile  vale  of  Basseterr^  a 
tract  yielding  rich  crops  of  sugar  and  fruits. 
"Die  town  was  destroyed  by  fire  m  1867.  but  has 
been  rebuilt  with  better  houses  and  wider  streets 
than  before.  It  is  a  place  of  considerable  com- 
mercial importance,  with  a  population  of  about 
8,000.  (2)  The  capital  of  the  French  West 
Indian  island  of  Guadaloupe,  situated  near  the 
south  end  of  the  island,  and  consisting  of  one 
principal  long  street  stretching  along  the  sea- 
shore. It  is  defended  by  Forts  Royal  and 
Matilda.  The  uichorage  is  unsheltered  and 
«q»sed  to  a  constant  swell.    Pop.  about  8,000. 


Asiatic  Socie»,>  1^84);   <Fertia,  the  Land  of 


BASSETT,  James,  American  missionary: 
K  Hamilton,  Canada,  31  Jan.  1834;  d.  1906.  He 
was  graduated  at  Wabash- College  1^  and  at 
Lane  Theological  Seminary  1859'  was  chaplain 
in  the  Union  army  1862-63;  and  liter  pastor  of 
Presbyterian  diurches  in  Newark  and  Engle- 
wood,  N.  J.  In  1871  he  went  to  Persia  as  a 
nissionary,  and  in  a  diort  time  acquired  such 
a  fatniliarity  with  the  language  diat  he  com- 
posed a  volume  of  hymns  in  Persian  ('Te- 
heran,' 1875,  1884).  Other  of  his  writings  are 
'Among  the  Turcomans*  (contributed  to  the 
'Leisure  Hour,*  1879-80);  'Note  on  the 
Simnuni    Dialects'     ('Journal    of    the    Royal 


the  1 


'   (188 


BASSETT,  John  Spencer,  American  his- 
torian: b.  Tarboro.  N.  C,  18  Sept.  1867.  He 
was  graduated  from  Trinity  CoU^e,  Durham, 
N.  C.,  in  1888.  and  took  the  degree  of  Ph.D. 
at  Johns  Hopkins  University  in  1894;  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  history  at  the  first  named 
institution  in  1893  and  in  1W6  became  professor 
of  history  at  Smith  College.  His  writings  re- 
late chieSy  to  North  Carolina  history  and  com- 
prise 'Constitutional  BeginniiigB  of  North  Caro- 


'Slavery  in  the  State  of  Nor^  Carolina' ;    —  , 

War  oi  the  ReKulaiioa> ;  'The  Federalist  Sys- 
tem* (1906)  ;  Life  of  Andrew  Jackson'  (2  vols, 
1911)  ;  'A  Short  History  of  the  United  States' 
(1913)-    'The  Plain  Story  of  American  His-  ! 

tory>  (1916).  These  works  are  nearly  all  in- 
cluded in  the  'Johns  Hopkins  University 
Studies   in   Historical  and  PoUtical   Science.'  - 

'The  Middle  Group  of  American  Historians' 
(New  York  1916).  ] 

BASSI,  bas'se,  Laon  Haria  Catcrina,  Ital- 
ian philosopher  :b.  Bologna,  29  Oct  1711;  d.  2I>  | 
Feb.  1778.    She  received  a  doctor's  d^rce  as  as 
acknowledgment  of  her  attainments,  and  de- 
livered public  lectures  on  experimental  phUoso-  | 
phy.  She  also  lectured  in  the.  Philosophical  Col- 
lege, where  she  was  appointed  professor.    Her 
correspondence  with  the  most  eminent  scholars  I 
of   Europe   was   very   extensive.     She   married 
Giuseppe  Verrati  in  1738  and  had  aeveral  chil- 
dren. I 

BASSI,  bis'se,  Ugo,  Bamabite  monk,  and 
distinguished  ItaEan  patriot :  b.  1804  at  Cento, 
in  the  Roman  states,  of  an  ItaHan  father  and 
Greek  mother.  He  was  much  distinguished 
among  the  br^ren  for  his  extraordinary  learn- 
ing and  talents.  The  liberality  of  his  ^litical 
opinions,  however,  rendered  him  obnoxious  to 
the  papal  court,  and  he  was  sent  into  exile  in 
Skn^,  from  which  he  returned  on  tlie  accession 
of  Pius  IX  in  184&  On  the  breaking  out  of 
the  Lombard  revolution  in  1848  he  greatly  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  valor  in  battle  and  hu 
untiring  services  in  the  hosintals.  On  the 
cwntulatian  of  Treviso  he  went  to  Vesiice, 
i^ere  he  fought  in  the  ranks  against  her 
Austrian  besiegers.  Thence  he  went  to  Rome 
and  joined  Garitialdi's  le^on  as  diaplain.  On 
the  fall  of  Rome  he  was  one  of  those  who  fol- 
lowed Garibaldi  when  he  made  a.  last  attend 
to  fight  his  way  to  Venioc,  which  still  held  out 
against  the  Austrians.  The  litiic  band  was, 
however,  dispersed  and  cut  up  by  Austrian 
troops,  and  Garibaldi  himself  escaped  with  great 
difficulty.  Bassi  was  taken  prisoner,  carried  to 
Bologna  and  condemned  to  death  18  Aug.  1849. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  work  on  'The  Church 
After  the  Image  of  Christ,*  and  an  unfinished 
poem  called  'Constantine,  or  the  Triumph  of 
the  Cross.'  His  talents  were  universal.  He 
was  an  accMnpUshed  musician  and  OMnposer, 
wrote  his  own  language  in  remarlcable  perfec- 
tion, and  was  a  perfect  master  of  Greek,  Latin, 
English  and  French.  He  was  equally  remark- 
able for  his  ^rsonal  beauty  and  his  eloquence 
as  an  improvuatore,  while  his  memory  was  so 
prodigious  that  he  is  said  to  have  been  casaUe 


t,zcd=y  Google 


BASSOHS^BKRE  —  BA8SW00D 


819 


of  reciting  the  whok  of  Dante's  *Diviiia  Com- 
niedia.' 

BASSOMPIERRS,  h^s&A-fi-it,  Frangois 
(friA-swar)  de,  marshal  of  France,  one  of  the 
most  distinguiihed  men  of  the  courts  of  Henrv 
IV  and  L(>uis  XIII,  descended  from  a  branch 
of  the  bouse  of  Cleves;  b,  Lorraine  1579; 
d.  1646.  In  his  youth  be  studied  philoso- 
phy, jurisprudenc.e,  medicine  and  the  military 
art  After  traveling  through  Italy  he  appeared 
at  the  court  of  Henry  IV,  where  his  taste  for 
splendor;  play  and  gallantry  soon  made  him 
conspicuous.  In  1600  he  made  his  first  cam- 
paign against  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  and  fought 
with  equal  distinction  in  the  following  year 
against  the  Turks.  His  love  of  France  soon 
called  him  back;  he  aspired  to  the  hand  of  the 
daughter  of  the  Constable  de  Montmorency, 
whose  charms  had  excited  the  most  violent 
passion  in  Henry  JV.  Bassompierre  yielded  to 
the  solicitations  of  his  King  and  renounced 
his  intended  union  with  her.  In  1622  Louis 
XIU  appointed  him  marshal  of  France,  and 
became  so  mndi  attached  to  him.  that  Luyties, 
the  declared  favorite,  alarmed  at  his  growing 
influence,  insisted  upon  his  removal  from  court. 
Bassomaierre  dierefore  accepted  an  embassy, 
and  held  this  position  successively  in  Spain, 
Switzeriand  and  England.  After  his  return 
he  entered  ^:ain  into  the  militarv  service  and 
wai  present  at  the  siege  of  Rochelle  and  Mont- 
auban.  Cardinal  Richelieu,  who  soon  after  ob- 
tained entire  control  of  the  King  and  the  coim- 
ti^,  feared  the  boldness  of  Bassompierre  and 
his  secret  connection  with  the  house  of  Lor- 
rabe;  and  the  machinations  of  the  latter  served 
him  as  a  pretext  for  sending  Bassompierre,  in 
1631,  to  the  Bastille,  from  which  he  was  not 
released  til)  1643,  after  the  death  of  the  cardi- 
nal During  his  detention  he  occupied  himself 
with  his  memoirs  (first  published  at  Cotoene 
1665;  and  Paris  1877)  ;  and  the  history  of  his 
embassies  in  Spain,  Switzerland  and  E^sland, 
which  sheds  much  li^t  on  the  events  of  that 

BASSOON,  a  wooden  reed  instrument 
which  forms  the  natural  bass  to  the  oboe,  serv- 
ing as  a  continuation  of  its  scale  downward. 
The  reed  is  fixed  to  a  crooked  mouthpiece  issu- 
ing from  the  side  of  the  bassoon.  The  holes 
are  partly  closed  by  the  fingers,  partly  by  means 
of  keys.  It  was  formerly  used  as  an  accom- 
paniment to  the  oboe,  but  it  is  now  so  far  im- 
proved with  keys  as  to  be  susceptible  of  being 
played  solo.  Its  compass  is  more  than  three 
octaves,  from  low  B  flat  to  A  flat  in  the  treble; 
but  its  scale  is  complicated,  and  much  depends 
upon  the  player  and  even  upon  the  individual 
instrument.  It  consists  of  four  tubes  (besides 
the  mouthpiece)  ;  bound  together  somewhat 
like  a  fagot.  Hence  the  Italians  term  it  fagotto, 
and  from  them  the  Germans  fagott.  It  forms, 
when  pnt  together,  a  continuous  tube  nearly 
eight  feet  long,  but  as  the  bore  is  bent  abruptly 
hadt  on  itself  its  height  is  only  about  four 
feet  In  music  designed  for  wind-instniments 
il  often  forms  the  bass.  It  is  capable  of  very 
line  and  also  grolesf|ue  effects,  and  has  been 
much  employed  by  some  of  the  best  composers, 
wmetimes  as  a  tenor  or  even  alto  instrument. 

BASSORA,  bas-so'ra,  or  BASRAH,  has'ra, 
Turkey  in  Asia,  a  city  utuated  between  two  and 
three  miles  on  the  west  side  of  and  on  a  navi- 


gable canal  kadiug  about  two  miles  from  the 
Shat-el-Arab,  as  the  united  stream  of  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates  is  called,  about  half  w^  between 
the  Persian  Quif  and  the  junction  of  the  two 
rivers.  Merchants  from  Arabia,  Turkey,  Ar- 
menia and  Greece,  also  Jews  and  Indians,  re- 
side here,  and  it  is  the  station  of  a  United 
States  consul.  The  Arabs  are  more  numerous 
than  the  Turks,  and  their  language  is  chiefly 
spoken.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  about 
10  miles  in  circuit,  20  to  25  feet  thick.  The 
houses  are  generally  mean,  partly  constructed 
of  clay,  and  the  bazaars. are  miserable  edifices. 
A  considerable  trade  is  carried  on.  Mail 
steamers  run  between  Bombay  and  Bassora, 
and  there  are  also  other  steamers  trading  here. 
Dates  form  the  principal  export ;  camels  and 
horses,  galls,  gum,  carpets,  wool  and  wheat  are 
also  exported;  total  exports  over  $5,000,000  an- 
nually. The  imports  are  coffee,  rice,  spices, 
textiles,  etc.  The  trade  of  the  interior  is  con- 
ducted by  means  of  caravans.  The  town  is 
dirty  and  unhealthy;  the  environs  are  very  fer- 
tile. The  modern  Bassora  arose  in  the  17th 
century,  and  does  not  occupy  the  site  of  the 
older  town,  whose  ruins  lie  about  nine  miles 
southwest  of  it.  Turkey  entered  (he  war  1  Nov. 
1914,  and  on  the  Sth  Great  Britain  declared 
war.  A  contingent  of  English  and  native 
troops  sent  by  the  government  of  India  were 
already  waiting  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  On  7 
November  the  British  landed  at  Fao,  on  the 
Shatt-cl-Arab,  and  occupied  the  village.  Sail- 
ing 30  miles  farther  up  the  estuary  they  dis- 
embarked at  Sanijeh,  occupied  that  place  and 
Sahain,  and  _  encountered  the  main  Turkish 
force  at  Sahil,  14  miles  from  Basrah,  on  17 
November.  The  Turks  were  routed  in  a  short 
battle  with  heavy  loss,  and  on  23  Nov.  1914 
the  British  entered  Basrah  unopposed.  See 
War,  European  :  Turkish  Campaign.  Pop. 
about  8/1000.  The  vilayet  of  Bassora  has  an 
area  of  53,580  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
about  600,000, 

BASSORA  GUM,  a  gum  brought  from 
Bassora;  supposed  to  be  derived  either  from  a 
cactus  or  a  mesembryanthemum. 

BASSORIH,  a  kind  of  mucilage  found  in 
gum  tragacanth  (sometimes  called  aaraganthin), 
which  forms  a  jelly  with  water  but  does  not 
dissolve  in  it.  A  clear,  aqueous-looking  liquid, 
apparently  of  the  nature  of  Bassorin,  exists 
in  the  large  cells  of  the  tubercular  roots  of  some 
terrestrial  orchids  of  the  section  Ophyrea.  It 
is  formed  of  minute  cells,  each  with  Its  cylo- 
blast;  the  whole  beiug  compactly  aggregated  in 
the  interior  of  the  parent  cell. 

BAS6VILLE,  has-vel,  Nicolas  |ean  Hngon 
de,  French  journalist  and  diplomatist.  As  edi- 
tor of  the  MercHre  National  he  attracted  atten- 
tion to  himself  and  was  appointed  secretary  to 
the  legation  at  Naples  in  1792.  Soon  after  this 
be  was  despatched  to  Rome,  where  be  was 
killed,  in  1793,  by  the  populace  for  attempting, 
nnder  orders  of  the  French  government,  to 
oblige  all  French  residents  to  wear  the  tricolor 
rockade.  The  death  of  Bassville  has  furnished 
the  subject  for  many  compositions  in  both  prose 
and  verse,  in  French  and  Italian. 


iizodsi  Google 


BAST  — BASTARD 


BAST,  or  BASS,  dw  thiii  layer  of  fibrous 
tissue  formed  by,  but  outside  the  layer  of,  cam- 
bium  (q.v,).  or  m  popular  phrase  the  inner  bark 
of  dicotyleoonous  shrubs  and  trees.    Less  fre- 

3uently  it  occurs  in  the  leaves  and  pith  of 
icotyledonous  herbs  and  in  the  stems  of  cer- 
tain monocotyledonous  plants  in  which  it  is  not 
easily  distinguished  from  the  wood.  By  ex- 
tension the  tenn  is  also  applied  to  the  phloem 
portion  of  the  vascular  system  (q.v.)  of  flower- 
ing plants  and  ferns.  For  the  plant,  as  well  as 
for  mercantile  purposes,  bast  is  hi^ly  import- 
ant, for  until  it  becomes  changed  into  wood,  it 
conducts  the  elaborated  food  from  the  (rreen 
tissue  to  regions  of  use  or  storage  The  bast 
cells  are  disposed  and  developed  variously  in 
different  plants;  occurring  in  rows,  wreaths, 
more  or  less  spread  bundles,  or  single  within 
the  parenchyma.    In  some  plants  bast  is  formed 


when  treated  by  a  solution  of  iodine  and 
chloride  of  zinc  become  pale  blue,  the  older 
ones  violet,  the  full-grown  pink.  Thickened  cells 
are  plainly  stratified,  and  their  walls  often  be- 
come contiguous  by  the  disappearance  of  the 
cavity.  The  walls  exhibit  various  designs,  spiral 
or  other  lines,  more  or  less  constantly,  accord- 
ing to  the  syecies  of  the  plant.  By  micro- 
scopical exammation  and  chemical  analysis  the 
nature  of  the  various  fabrics  made  of  bast  may 
be  determined.  Thomson  and  F.  Baur  have 
thus  demonstrated  the  sheets  arolind  Egyptian 
mummies  to  be  of  linen.  The  degree  oi  con- 
traction, of  twisting,  the  length,  density  and 
fomi  of  the  single  cells  of  the  bast  vary  in 
different  plants.  They  are  very  long  in  flax, 
hemp,  in  some  nettles,  spurges,  etc.,  very  short 
in  cinchona.  Cotton  consists  of  long  hairs,  and 
not  of  bast  cells,  which  it  very  much  resembles 
otherwise.  The  bast  cells  of  monocotyledonous 
plants  arc  mostly  lignified.  They  conduct 
elaborated  food  but  a  short  time,  become  filled 
with  air  and  thus  dead  to  the. plant.  The  un- 
lignified  arc  very  hygroscopic  and  often  contain 
chlorophyll.  No  bast  cell  has  pits,  but  the 
conifera  have  sieve  pores  or  canals.  The  uses 
of  bast  are  manifold.  Flax  bast  is  soft,  flexible, 
seldom  with  swellings ;  hemp  bast  is  very  long, 
Stifftr  and  thicker  than  flax,  more  stratified; 
nettle  (Urfica  dioica)  bast  resembles  cotton, 
has  swelKngs  and  is  thicker  than  hemp. 
Branched  and  lignified  bast  cells  of  great  beauty 
are  found  in  the  mangrove  tree  (Rhisophora 
tnample)  and  the  secondary  ones  of  Abies 
Ptctmata.  Among  the  monocotyledonous  bast 
fibres,  those  of  the  New  Zealand  flax  (_Phoi- 
mium  tenax')  are  the  most  remarkable,  being 
formed  in  bundles  near  the  mar^n  of  leaves. 
They  resemble  hemp,  are  very  white,  sometimes 
yeUowish,  very  long,  and  contain  much  lignin, 
ui_  consequence  of  which  they  are  somewhat 
Stiff,  but  verf  tough  and  fit  for  stout  ropes. 
In  palms  a  highly  developed  body  of  lignified 
bast  surrounds  the  vascular  bundles,  while  bast 
bundles  are  found  also  in  the  bark,  leaves  and 
interior  of  the  stem.  A  similar  disposition 
exists  in  the  Drarteno  rcjiexa,  and  in  some 
Aroidea.    Everybody  knows  the  tenacity  of  the 


bast  of  the  lime  tree,  which  is  hence  called 
bass-wood.  The  Chinese  grass-cloth  is  made 
of  Boekmtria  niva  or  B.  tenacisjima.  Uanila 
hemp  comes  frora  Miua  trxlilis;  rice  bags  are 
made  in  East  India  from  Antiarit  toxtceria. 
From  the  use  of  bast  in  ancient  times  for 
writing  upon,  the  Latin  name  of  bast,  liber, 
has  been  applied  to  designate  book.  See  also 
Fuke;  Flax;  Hemp;  Jute;  Ramie. 

BAST,  in  Egyptian  mytholog>',  a  goddess 
represented  with  the  head  of  a  cat  or  lioness. 
Bubastis,  in  Eg^^  ^as  the  city  where  she  held 
a  high  place,  similar  to  that  of  Neith  in  Sail. 
Nearly  a  million  Egyptians  made  annual  pil- 
grimages to  her  shrine.  Great  numbers  of 
bronze  im^es  of  Bast  were  purchased  in 
Bubastis. 

BASTAR,  a  feudatory  state  of  British 
India,  joined  with  the  Chanda  district  of  the 
Central  Provinces.  It  has  an  area  of  13,062 
square  miles  and  a  population  (1911)  of  433,310. 

BASTARD,  one  begolien  and  bom  out  of 
lawful  wedlock,  or  born  during  wedlock  where 
the  husband  was  under  the  age  of  puberty,  or 
where  the  husband  had  died  at  such  a  time  that 
there  was  no  possibiUty  of  his  beiag  dK  father, 
or  where  there  was  no  possibility  of  access  on 
the  part  of  the  husband  on  account  of  his 
absence  from  the  country,  or  where  the  bus- 
band  labored  under  a  diuhility  due  to  some 
natural  infirmity. 

The  Romans  distinguished  two  kinds  of  nat- 
ural children  —  nolhi,  the  issue  of  conculunage, 
and  tp«rii,  the  children  of  prostitutes ;  Qte 
former  could  inherit  from  the  molter,  and  wer« 
entitled  to  stmport  from  the  father;  the  latter 
had  no  claims  whatever  to  support.  Both  were 
often  raised  to  all  the  rights  of  legitimate 
children  bv  afiiliation.  The  Athenians  treated 
all  bastards  with  extreme  rigor.  By  the  laws 
of  SoloiL  they  were  dented  the  rights  of  citizen- 
ship, and  a  law  of  Pericles  ordered  the  sale  of 
5,000  bastards  as  slaves.  What  rendered  these 
regulations  more  severe  was,  that  not  ohly  the 
issue  of  concubinage  and  adultery,  but  all 
children  whose  parents  were  not  both  Athe- 
nians, were  considered  bastards  at  Athens.  Thus 
lliemisIoclEs,  whose  mother  was  a  native  of 
Halicarnassus,  was  deemed  a  bastard  The  law, 
as  might  be  expected,  was  often  set  aside  by 
the  influence  of  powerful  citizens-  Pericles 
himself  had  it  repealed  in  favor  of  his  son  W 
Aspasia,  after  he  bad  lost  his  legitimate  children 
by  the  plague.  The  condition  of  bastards  has 
been  different  in  various  periods  of  modem 
history.  Among  the  Goths  and  Franks,  thq" 
were  permitted  to  inherit  -from  the  father. 
Thicry,  the  natural  son  of  Qovis,  iriberiied  a 
share  of  his  father's  conquests.  William  the 
Conqueror,  natural  son  of  Robert  I,  Duke  of 
Normandy,  and  of  Arleite,  daughter  of  a 
furrier  of  Falaisc,  inherited  his  father's  do- 
minions- He  called  himself  WUlelmut,  co^ 
nometito  Baiardus.  The  celebrated  Dunois 
styled  himself,  in  his  letters  the  Bastard  of 
Orleans.  In  Spain,  bastards  have  always  been 
capable  of  inheriting.  The  bastarcbi"  of  Henry 
of  Transtamare  dia  not  prevent  bis  accession 
to  the  throne  of  Castile.  In  France,  the  con- 
dition of  bastards  was  formerly  very  different 
in  the  different  provinces.  Since  the  Revolu- 
tion, it  has  been  regidated  in  a  uniform  manner 
by  the  general  law  of  the  kingdom.    The  codt 


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BASTARD  BAR  — BA8TIAH 


SSI 


civ3  thus  fixes  tbeir  riefats;  H  the  father  or 
mother  leave  legitimate  descendants,  the  bastard 
h  entitled  to  one-third  of  the  portion  he  would 
have  inherited  had  he  been  a  lawful  child;  If 
&e  father  or  mother  die  without  descendants, 
but  leave  ascendants,  or  brothers  or  sisters_,  he 
is  then  entitled  to  one-Iialf  of  snch  a  portion; 
if  the  father  or  mother  leave  no  ascendants  or 
descendants,  no  brothers  or  sisters,  he  is  en- 
titled to  three-quarters  of  suA  a  portion;  and 
if  the  father  or  mother  leave  no  relations  within 
the  degrees  of  succession,  be  is  entitled  to  the 
whole  propers.  These  regulations  do  not  apply 
to  the  issue  of  an  incestuous  or  adulterous  con* 

By  the  common  law  of  England,  a  child  born 
after  marri^e,  however  soon,  is  legitimate,  or 
at  least  he  is  presumed  to  be  so;  for  one  bom 
in  wedlock,  and  long  enoush  after  the  marria^ 
to  admit  of  the  period  ot  gestation,  may  still 
be  proved  ille^timate.  tinder  some  circum- 
stances, and  this  is  tne  general  rule  in  the 
United  States.  According  to  the  common  law, 
a  bastard  is  not  the  heir  of  any  one ;  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  his  only  bein  are  bis  children  bom 
in  wedlock,  and  their  deKendants.  According 
to  the  Roman  law,  one  bom  ont  of  wedlock 
midit  be  Icgitinnted  by  subscqtient  marriage 
and  acknowledgment  of  hia  parents,  in  1236 
the  English  prelates  proposed  the  introduction 
of  the  Roman  law,  in  uda  respect,  into  Eng^ 
land,  to  which  the  nobility  made  the  celebrated 
repfcj,  NoIkhhu  leges  Angti»  vuttarf  (We  are 
unwilling  to  change  the  laws  of  England). 
But  that  law  exists  in  Scotland  to-day,  ihoti^ 
not  in  England,  Ircl^d  or  Wales.  Consult 
Scbouler,  <Trcatise  on  the  I^w  of  Domestic 
Relations.*    See  Illegitimacy. 

BASTARD  BAR,  the  ordinary  name  given 
to  the  heraldic  mark  used  to  indicate  illegiti- 
mate descent.  Properly  spealdn^,  it  is  not  a  bar 
at  all,  whidi  is  a  band  stretching  horizontally 
across  the  shield,  bnt  a  baton  sinister;  that  is, 
it  stretches  diagonally  across  the  shield  in  the 
direction  of  the  sinister  chief  and  the  dexter 
base,  bat  is  coupcd  or  cut  short  at  the  ends, 
so  as  not  to  touch  the  comers  of  the  shield. 
This  circumstance  serves  to  distinguish  the 
bastard  bar  from  the  bend  sinister,  as  well  as 
the  fact  that  the  former  is  only  one-fourdi 
of  the  breadth  of  the  latter.  Wlien  belonging 
to  the  illegitimate  descendants  of  ro^ty  it 
may  be  of  metal;  but  in  other  cases  it  must 
be  of  color,  even  when  on  another  color.  This 
mark  in  heraldry  is  of  comparatively  recent 
origin,  bastards  in  earlier  times  not  having 
been  allowed  to  bear  the  arms  of  thdr  fathers. 
It  cannot  be  removed  until  three  generations 
have  borne  it,  and  not  even  then  unless  replaced 
by  some  other  mark  assigned  by  the  kin^  of 
arms,  or  unless  the  coat  is  changed.  Sometimet 
permission  was  granted  to  a  bastard  or  one  of 
his  descendants  to  bear  it  dexter  instead  of  sin- 
ister, although  he  was  not  allowed  to  cancel  it 
altogether. 

BASTARD  OP  ORLEANS,  die  name 
^ven  to  the  natural  son  of  Louis,  brother  of 
Charles  VI  of  France,  jean  Dunois ;  b.  1402;  d. 
1468.  On  account  of  his  exploits  in  the  Hun- 
dred Years'  War  he  was  created  Count  of 
Orleans. 

BASTARHAB,  the  earliest  Teutonic  people 
mentioned  in  history.    They  migrated  from  the 


region  of  die  Vistula  to  the  lower  Danube 
about  200  fl-C.  Consult  Keane,  'Man;  Past  and 
Present*  (1899). 

BASTIA,  Corsica,  the  former  capital  of 
the  island,  98  miles  northeast  of  Ajaccio  by  rail 
It  is  badly  built,  has  narrow  streets,  a  strong 
citadel  near  the  sea,  two  harbors,  the  new  and 
the  old,  and  a  fine  marine  parade,  adorned  with 
a  marble  statue  of  Napoleon  by  BartolinL 
The  citadel  and  cathedral  are  noteworthy.  Its 
public  institutions  are  a  lyceum,  a  library  of 
over  30,000  volumes  and  fine  collections  of 
natural  history.  The  inhabitants  carry  on  a 
considerable  trade  in  manufactured  (foods, 
hides,  wines,  tobacco,  oil^  wax  candles,  liquors 
and  macaroni.  Marble  quarries,  lanyards  and 
dyeworks  ^ve  employment  to  many  operatives. 
It  is  an  important  trade  centre  and  exports 
fruit,  vegetables,  minerals,  fish.  The  stilettoes 
manufactured  here  are  held  in  great  esteem  by 
the  Italians.  In  1745  Bastia  was  taken  by  the 
British,  and  in  1768  was  united  with  France. 
On  the  new  division  of  the  French  territories 
(1791)  Bastia  was  made  the  capital  of  the  de- 
partment  of  Corsica,  of  which  at  present 
Ajacdo  is  the  capital.  Bastia  is  still,  however, 
the  commercial  and  industrial  capital  of  the 
island  and  a  United  States  consul  is  stationed 
here.    Pop.  29,412. 

BASTIAH,  Adolf,  German  traveler  and 
anthropolo^st;  b.  Bremen^  26  June  1826;  d. 
1905.  He  made  extended  journeys  throughout 
Australia,  Asia,  America  and  west  Africa  at 
various  periods  of  his  career  and  his  explora- 
tions were  carried  on  in  such  widely  sundered 
countries  as  Yucatan,  New  Zealand  and  Persia, 
At  the  age  of  70  he  started  on  an  exploring 
voyage  to  the  Malay  Archipelago.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  ethnology  in  the  University  of  Berlin, 
director  of  the  Museum  fiir  Volkerkunde,  and 
in  1901  became  editor  of  the  Elhnographisches 
NolisblatI,  published  in  Berlin.  His  nearly  60 
works  deal  with  the  various  aspects  of  an- 
thropology, his  range  being  broad  and  his 
services  in  behalf  of  science  of  the  greatest 
value.  Among  his  many  volumes  may  be 
named  <Der  Mensch  in  der  Gcschichte>  (I860)  ; 
'Ethnographische  Forschungen'  (1871-73)  i 
<Der  Buddhismtis  in  seiner  Psycholo^e* 
(1882)  ;  'Der  Fetisch  an  der  Kuste  Guineas' 
(18841 ;  'Vorgeschichtliche  Schiipfungslieder* 
(1893);  <Die  Nikronesischen  Kolonien'  (1899- 
1900):  'Die  VSlkerkunde  und  der  VoUcer- 
verkehr>   (1900). 

BASTIAN,  Henry  Charlton,  English  phy- 
sician and  biologist:  b.  Truro,  26  April  1837. 
He  obtained  the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1861  from 
the  University  of  London,  graduating  subse- 

Suently  in  medicine  at  the  same  university.  In 
366  was  appointed  lecturer  on  pathology  and 
assistant  physician  in  Saint  Mary's  Hospital, 
London.  In  1867  he  became  professor  of  patho- 
logcal  anatomy  in  University  College,  and  in 
1878  he  was  also  appointed  professor  of  clini- 
cal medicine.  In  1887-95  he  was  professor  of 
the  principles  and  practice  of  medicine.  Apart 
from  numerous  contributions  to  medical  and 
other  periodicals,  and  to  Qnain's  'Dictionary  of 
Medicine,'  his  works  include  'The  Modes  of 
Origin  of  Lowest  Organisms'  (1871);  <The 
Becpnninas  of  Life>  (1872) ;  'Evolution  and  the 
Ongin  of  Life*  (1874)  ;  'Lectures  on  Paralysis 
from  Brain  Disease*  (1875);  'The  Brain 


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Organ  of  Mind*  (1880),  which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  French  and  German ;  'Paralysis ; 
Cerebral,  Bulbaf  and  Spinal'  (1886);  <A 
Treatise  on  Aphasia  and  other  Speech  Defects' 
(1898);  'Studies  in  Heterogenesis'  (1904); 
'Nature  and  Origin  of  Uving  Matter'  (1905); 
'The  Evolution  of  Life'  (1907)  ;  'The  Ori^n 
of  Life'  (1911).^  He  is  a  recognized  autbori^ 
in  the  pathology  of  the  nervous  system  and  an 
advocate  of  the  doctrine  of  spontaneous  genera- 

BASTIAT,  ba'-siy»',  FrMiric,  a  distin- 
guished French  political  economist :  b.  Bayonne, 
19  June  1801;  d.  Rom^  24  Dec.  1850.  He 
entered  in  1818  the  cqnnting-bouse  of  his  uncle 
at  Bayonne,  but  he  felt  no  enjoyment  in  the 
routine  of  mercantile  life,  and  in  1825  retired 
to  a  property  at  Mugron,  of  which  he  became 
possessor  on  the  death  of  bis  grandfather.  Thus 
withdrawn  from  society  he  devoted  himself 
with  eagerness  to  meditation  and  study,  master- 
ing the  English  and  Italian  languages  and  litera- 
tures, speculating  on  the  problems  of  philosophy 
and  religion,  and  digesting  the  doctrines  of 
Adam  Smith  and  Say,  of  Charles  Compte  and 
Dunoyer.  His  first  publication  appeared  in 
1844  under  the  title  'be  Vinfluence  dea  tarifs 
francais  et  anglais  sur  I'avenir  des  deux  peo- 
ples.' In  184S.  he  came  to  Paris  in  order  to  si*> 
perintend  the  publication  of  his  'Cobden  et  la 
ligue,  on  I'agitatlon  anglajse  pour  la  liberie  des 
(changes,'  and  was  very  cordially  received  by 
the  economists  of  the  capital;  from  Paris  he 
went  to  London  and  Manchester,  and  made  the 
personal  acquaintance  of  Cobden,  Bright  and 
other  leaders  of  the  league.  When  he  returned 
to  France  he  found  that  his  writings  had  been 
exerting  a  powerful  influence;  ana  in  1846  he 
assisted  in  o^niiing  at  Bordeaux  the  first 
French  Free  Trade  Association.  He  wrote  in 
rapid  succession  a  series  of  brilliant  and  effec- 
tive pamphlets  and  essays,  showing  how  social- 
ism was  connected  with  protection,  and  exposing 
the  delusions  on  which  it  rested.  While  thus 
occupied  he  was  meditating  the  composition  of 
a  great  constructive  work,  meant  to  renovate 
economical  science  by  basing  it  on  the  principle 
that  'interests  left  to  themselves  tend  to  har- 
monious combinations,  and  to  the  pr^ressive 
preponderance  of  the  general  good.'  'file  first 
volume  of  this  work,  <Les  Harmonies  icono- 
miques,'  was  published  in  the  beginning  of 
18S0.  He  was  a  member  succes.'iively  of  the 
Constituent  and  Lc^slative  assemblies.  He 
also  published  'Proprifti  et  Loi' ;  'Justice  et 
Fraternit^' ;  'Protectionistne  et  Communisme': 
and  many  other  treatises.  The  life  work  of 
Bastiat,  in  order  to  be  fairly  appreciated,  re- 
quires to  be  considered  in  three  aspects.  (1) 
He  was  the  advocate  of  free  trade,  the  opponent 
of  protection.  The  general  theory  of  free  trade 
had,  of  course,  been  clearly  stated  and  solidly 
established  before  he  was  bom,  and  his  desire 
to  see  its  principles  acted  on  in  France  was 

Juickened  and  confirmed  by  the  agitation  of  the 
inti-Com-Law  League  for  their  realization  in 
England,  but  as  no  one  denies  it  to  hare  been 
a  great  merit  in  Cobden  to  have  seen  so  dis- 
tinctly and  comprehensively  the  bearing  of 
economical  truths  which  he  did  not  discover, 
no  one  should  deny  it  to  have  been  also  a 
great  merit  in  Bastiat.  He  did  far  more  than 
merely  restate  the  already  familiar  truths  of 


free  trade.  He  showed  as  no  one  before  turn 
had  done  bow  the^  were  tyipticable  in  the  vari- 
ous spheres  of  French  agriculture,  trade  and 
commerce.  Now  the  abstract  theory  of  free 
trade  is  of  comparative^  tittle  value;  its  elab- 
oration so  as  to  cover  details,  its  concrete  ap- 
plication and  its  varied  illustration  arc  equally 
essential.  And  in  these  respects  it  owes  more, 
perhaps,  to  Bastiat  than  to  any  other  economist 
In  the  'Sophismes  ficonomiques'  we  have  the 
completest  and  most  effective,  the  wisest  and 
the  wittiest  exposure  of  protectionism  in  ita 
principles,  reasonings  and  consequences  whidi 
exists  in  any  lai^uage.  (2)  He  was  the  op- 
ponent of  socialism,  in  this  respect  also  he  had 
no  equal  among  the  economists  of  France.  He 
alone  fought  socialism  hand  to  hand,  body  to 
body,  as  It  were,  not  caricaturing  it,  not  de- 
nouncing it,  not  criticizing  under  its  name 
some  merely  abstract  theory,  but  taking  it  is 
actually  presented  by  its  most  poplar  repre- 
sentatives, considering  patiently  their  proposals 
and  arguments,  and  proving  concluuvely  that 
thev  proceed  on  false  principles,  reasoned 
badly  and  sought  to  realize  generous  aims  by 
foohsh  and  harmful  means.  Nowhere  will  rea- 
son find  a  richer  armory  of  weapons  available 
against  socialism  than  in  the  pamphlets  pub- 
lished by  Bastiat  between  1848  and  185a  Tbese 
pam|4ilets  will  live,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  at  least 
as  long  as  the  error*  which  they  expose.  (3) 
He  attempted  to  expound  in  an  original  mi 
independent  manner  political  economy  as  a 
sdcnce.  In  combating  first  the  piDtectioniits 
and  afterward  die  socialists,  there  gradually 
rose  on  his  mind  a  conception  which  seemed  to 
him  to  shed  a  flood  of  l^t  over  the  whole  of 
economical  doctrine,  and,  indeed,  over  die  iritolc 
theory  of  society,  namely,  the  harmoin  of  the 
essential  tendenaes  of  human  nature.  The  radi- 
cal error,  he  became  always  more  convinceil 
both  of  protectionism  and  socialism,  was  the 
assumption  that  human  interests,  if  left  to  ti 


ruining  agriculture,  the  forngner  injuring  the 
native,  the  consumer  the  producer,  etc. ;  and  die 
chief  weakness  of  the  various  schools  of  po- 
litical economy,  be  believed  he  had  discovered 
in  their  imperfect  apprehension  of  the  truth  that 
'  '  ■        's,  when  li  ' 


themselves,  when 
_ .  arbitrarily  and  forcibly  interfered  with,  tend 
to  harmonious  combination,  to  the  general  good 
Such  was  the  point  of  view  from  which  Uas- 
tiat  sought  to  expound  the  whole  of  economical 
science.  The  sphere  of  that  science  he  limited 
to  exchange,  and  he  drew  a  sharp  distinction 
between  utility  and  value.  Pohtical  economy 
he  defined  as  the  theory  of  value,  and  value  as 
•the  relaticm  of  two  services  exchanged*  The 
latter  definition  he  deoned  of  supreme  im- 
portance. It  appeared  to  him  to  correcl  what 
was  defective  or  erroneous  in  the  ctmflicting 
definitions  of  value  given  by  Adam  Snnth,  Say, 
Ricardo,  Senior,  Storch,  etc,  to  preserve  and 
combine  what  was  true  in  dieni,  and  to  afford 
a  basis  for  a  more  consistent  and  developed 
economical  dieory  than  had  previously  lieen 
presented  It  has,  however,  found  little  accept- 
ance, and  Roscher,  Caimes  and  others  seem  to 
have  shown  it  to  be  ambiguous  and  mislcadins- 
A  consequence  of  it  on  which  he  laid  grcal 
stress  was  that  die  gratoitotn  gifts  of  nature, 


Digitized  by  GoOl^le 


StA8TIZ>S — HASTUXE 


whoever  be  (beir  ntiUty,  are  incapable  of  bo 
quiring  value  —  what  is  gratuitous  for  man  in 
an  isolated  state  remaining  gratuitous  in  a 
social  condition.  Thus,  landf  accc»'ding  to  Bas- 
tiat,  is  as  gratuitous  to  men  at  the  present  day 
as  to  their  first  parents,  the  rent  which  Is  paid 
for  it, —  its  so-called  valtte,^  bein^  merely  the 
mum  for  the  labor  and  capital  which  have  been 
e]c|>ended  on  its  improvement.  In  the  general 
opinion  of  economists  he  has  failed  to  estab- 
lish this  doctrine,  failed  to  show  that  the  pro- 
perties and  force  of  nature  cannot  be  so  appro- 
priated as  to  acquire  value.  His  theory  of  rent 
IS  nearly  the  same  as  Carey's,  that  is,  decidedly 
anIi-Ricardian.  His  views  on  the  growth  of 
cafiital  and  interest,  on  landed  property,  com- 
petition, consumption,  wages  and  population, 
are  indei>endent,  and,  if  not  tinquaHfiedly  true, 
at  least  richly  sugaiestive.  His  works  were  pub- 
lished in  seven  volumes  (Paris  1881),  Consult 
Bondurand,  <Fr£d£ric  Bastiat>  (ib.  1879)  ;  and 
Von  Leesen,  <FrM«ric  Bastiat'  (Munich  1904). 
See  Economics. 

BASTIDE,  Jules,  French  sUtesman:  b. 
Paris,  21  Nov.  1800i  d.  1879.  Early  a  Democrat, 
he  never  ceased  to  labor  for  the  downfall  of 
the  Bourbon  monardnrj  ^"^  fought  hard  in  the 
revolution  of  July  1830.  He  was  also  opposed 
to  the  Orleans  monarchy.  Condemned  to  death 
for  his  share  in  the  insurrection  of  5  June  1832, 
he  escaped  from  prison  and  fled  to  England, 
where  he  resided  two  years.  He  returned  in 
1834,  and  was  acquitted.  After  the  death  of 
Armand  Carrel  he  became  chief  editor  of  the 
Maiiomxt  newspaper  in  1836.  This  place  he  re- 
signed in  1846  and  founded  the  Revue  Nationale 
in  1847.  He  rendered  great  assistance  to 
Lamartine  in  the  office  of  the  Ministry  of 
Foreign  Affairs,  and  was  Minister  for  Foreign 
Affairs  from  10  May  to  20  Dec  1S48.  He  re- 
tired to  private  life  after  the  coup  d'itat  of 
1851.  He  was  the  author  of  <La  ripublique 
francaise  et  I'liaUe  en  1848»  (18S8);  »Guerres 
dc  religion  en  France*  (1859). 

BASTIKN-LEPAGK,  bast-yen'- le-pazh, 
Julea,  French  painter-,  b.  Damvllliers,  1  Nov. 
1848;  d  10  Dec.  1884.  He  studied  under 
Cabanel,  and  early  began  to  attract  notice  by 
bis  impressionist  p(cture&  in  the.  Salon.  Some 
of  his  more  important  works  were  'In  Spring,* 
'The  First  Communion,'  'The  Shepherds,' 
'The  Potato  Harvest,*  'The  WheatfieJd,'  'The 
B^gar,  and  'Joan  of  Arc  Listening  to  the 
V«ce3.'  His  most  striking  portraits  were 
those  of  his  grandfather,  his  father  and  mother, 
Sarah  Bernhardt,  Andre  Theuriet  and  the 
Prince  of  Wales  (Edward  VH),  He  wasmade 
a  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1879. 
Consult  Theuriet,  'J.  Bastien-Lcpage,  I'homme 
et  l-artist'    (1885). 

BASTILLE,  b4s-tel'  (from  med.  Fr.  bastir, 
to  build),  the  French  designation  for  an  armory 
or  fortified  building  constructed  for .  military 
puiposes.  The  word  is  popularly  associated 
with  the  Bastille,  or  the  stale  prison  and  citadel 
of  Paris,  built  to  protect  the  palace  of  (Charles ' 
V  against  the  incursions  of  the  Burgundians, 
and  destroyed  by  the  mob  in  the  beginning  of 
the  Revolution  in  1789,  after  an  existetice  of 
over  four  centuries.  It  was  founded  by  Hugues 
d'Aubriot  in  1369,  and  completed  by  the  addi- 
tion of  four  towers  in  1383, 


The  building  became  notorious  for  imprison- 
ment b^  iettres  de  cachet,  or  secret  warrants 
issued  in  the  name  of  the  king,  but  the  names 
of  the  individuals  were  inserted  by  the  minis- 
ters, who  were  the  depositaries  of  these  letters. 
Of  the  origin  of  this  custom  we  may  perhaiis 
find  the  explanation  in  Montesquieu  s  'Esprit 
des  Lois,'  where  it  is  said,  "Honor  is  the  virtue 
of  monarchies,  and  often  supplies  its  place.* 
A  nobleman  was  unwilling  to  be  dishonored  by 
a  member  of  his  family.  Filial  disobedience 
and  unworthy  conduct  were  probably  not  more 
uncommon  among  the  nobility  of  France  than 
elsewhere.  But  in  such  cases  fathers  and  re- 
lations oiten  requested  the  confinement  of  the 
offender  until  the  head  of  the  family  should 
express  a  wish  for  his  release.  At  first  tiis 
privilege  was  limited  to  the  chief  families  of 
the  country.  The  next  step  was,  that  the 
ministers  of  government  considered  themselves 
entitled  to  the  same  privileges  as  heads  of 
families  among  the  nobility.  If  an  offense  was 
committed  in  their  offices  or  households,  which, 
if  known,  would  have  cast  a  shadow  upon  the 
ministers  themselves,  they  arrested,  molH 
propria,  the  otmoxious  individuals,  and  often 
made  use  of  their  privilege  to  put  out  of  sight 
persons  whose  honest  discharge  of  duty  had 
excited  their  displeasure,  or  who  were  ac- 
quainted with  facts  disgraceful  to  the  ministers 
themselves.  It  sometimes  happened  that  no 
further  examination  of  the  prisoners  was  held, 
and  the  cause  of  their  detention  nowhere  re- 
corded. In  stich  cases  an  individual  remained 
in  prison  sometimes  30  or  40  years  or  even 
till  his  death,  because  succeeding  officers  torfc 
it  for  granted  that  he  had  been  properly  con- 
fined, or  that  his  imprisonment  was  reauired  for 
reasons  of  state.  The  invention  of  tne  Iettres 
de  cachet  immediately  opened  the  door  to  the 
tyranny  of  ministers  and  the  intrigues  of 
favorites,  who  supplied  themselves  with  these 
orders,  in  order  to  confine  individuals  who  had 
become  obnoxious  to  them.  These  arrests  be- 
came contiBuall;^  more  arbitrary,  and  men  of 
the  greatest  merit  were  liable  to  be  thrown  into 
prison  whenever  they  happened  to  displease  a 
minister,  a  favorite  or  a  mistress.  On  14  July 
1789  the  Bastille  was  surrounded  by  a  tumultu- 
ous mob,  who  first  attempted  to  negotiate  widi 
the  governor,  Dclaunay,  but  when  these  negotia- 
tions failed,  began  to  attack  the  fortress.  For 
several  hours  the  mob  continued  their  si^e 
without  being  able  to  effect  anything  more  thaji 
an  entrance  into  the  outer  court  of  the  Bastille; 
but  at  last  the  arrival  of  some  of  the  Royal 
Guard  with  a  few  pieces  of  artillery  forced  the 
governor  to  let  down  the  second  drawbridge 
and  admit  the  populace.  The  governor  was 
seized,  but  on  the  way  to  the  hotel  de  ville  was 
torn  from  his  captors  and  put  to  death.  The 
next  day  the  destruction  of  the  Bastille  be^n, 
and  a  bronze  column  now  marks  its  site.  The 
event  considered  by  itself  was  of  no  great 
national  importance,  but  it. marked  the  begin- 
ning of  the  French  Revolution. 

Much  exaggeration  took  place  in  relatbn  to 
the  discoveries  said  to  be  made  in  its  demolition, 
especially  in  relation  to  one  Count  de  Lorges; 
but  it  is  sufficiently  established  that  there  was  - 
no  such  person  in  existence,  certainly  not 
in  the  Bastille.  No  exaggeration,  however, 
was  needed  Seven  persons  only  were  found 
in  its  cells  and  dungeons ;  one,  the  Count  dfi  .  • 

Co  ogle 


BASTINADO  —  BA8UTOLAND 


Solage,  a  prisoner  since  his  11th  year;  another, 
Tavemier,  the  son  of  Paris  Duvertiey,  who, 
after  10  years  at  the  Isles  Marguerites,  had 
passed  30  years  in  the  Bastille,  and  who  re- 
appeared on  his  liberation,  bewildered,  with  a 
broken  intellect,  like  a  man  awakened  from  a 
sleep  of  40  year^  to  a  world  new  compared 
with  that  on  which  he  had  closed  his  eyes. 
Records  of  horrors  even  worse  than  this  were 
found  inscribed  on  the  registers  of  the  prison. 
Two  will  suffice.  They  are  the  names  of  Father 
Theodore_  Fleurand,  of  Brandenburg,  a  Capu- 
chin, retained  many  years  on  suspicion  of  be- 
ing a  spy;  and  of  one  Lebar.  arrested  at  76  and 
dead  at  90  years.  Nearly  SO  years  before  Cag- 
liosttx)  scrawled  on  the  walls  of  his  cell :  'The 
Bastille  shall  be  demolished,  and  the  people  shall 
dance  on  the  area  where  it  stood. •  This 
prophecy,  at  least,  of  the  empiric  and  impostor, 
was  realized  to  the  letter.  It  was  the  Car- 
magnole which  thnr  danced  about  the  liber^ 
trees  to  the  tune  of  the  'Ca  Ira.' 

Bibliography.--  Bingham,  D.  A^  *The  Bas- 
tille' (London  1888) ;  Bournon,  F,  <La  Bas- 
tille* (Paris  1893)  ;  Brentano,  P.  P.,  'Les  lettres 
de  cachet  i  Paris'  (Paris  1904);  Delort  J.. 
'Histoire  de  la  detention  des  philosopbes  a  la 
Bastille'  (Paris  1829)  ;  Lecocq,  G.,  'La  Prise  de 
la  Bastille'  (1881);  Rav^sson,  R,  <Les 
Archives  de  la  Bastille'  (16  vols.,  Paris  1866- 
86). 

BASTINADO,  a  punishment  employed  by 
the  Turks,  which  consist*  of  blows  upon  the 
back  or  soles  of  the  feet,  applied  with  a  light 
wooden  stick  or  with  a  knotted  String. 

BASTION,  a  flanking  tower  in  medixval 
fortification,  from  which  archers  and  war  ma- 
chines could  direct  their  projectiles  on  the 
storming  enemy  while  he  was  held  in  check  by 
the  ditch.  On  the  introduction  of  artillery  into 
Europe  towers  were  made  considerably  larger 
than  formerly,  and  ultimately,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  16th  century,  the  Italian  engineers  made 
them  polygonal  instead  of  round  or  square,  thus 
forming  a  bastion.  This  is  an  irregular  penta- 
gon, one  side  of  which  is  turned  inward  toward 
the  tower,  so  that  the  opposite  salient  angle 
faces  the  open  field.  The  two  longer  sides,  en- 
closing the  salient  angle,  arc  called  the  faces; 
the  two  shorter  ones,  connecting  them  with  the 
town  wall  or  rampart,  are  called  the  flanks. 
The  faces  are  destined  to  reply  to  the  distant 
fire  of  the  enemy,  the  flanks  to  protect  the 
ditch  by  their  fire.  The  first  Italian  bastions 
still  showed  their  descent  from  the  ancient 
towers.  They  kept  close  to  the  main  walls;  the 
salient  angle  was  very  obtuse,  the  faces  short, 
and  the  parapet  revetted  with  masonry  to  the 
very  ton.  Bastions  are  built  in  very  lUfferent 
ways.  Some  are  entirely  filled  with  earth ;  some 
have  a  void  space  inside;  some  are  straight, 
some  curved,  some  double,  some  have  even 
three  or  four  flanks,  one  over  the  other ;  some 
have  faussebrayes,  or  low  ramparts  of  earth 
oulside ;  sometimes  they  have  casemates,  des- 
tined for  the  retreat  of  the  garrison,  or  tor 
batteries;  sometimes  cavaliers  or  orillons,  etc. 
In  modem  times,  among  the  fortifications  built 
according  to  the  system  of  bastions,  those  on 
the  plan  of  Cormontaigne  and  the  modem 
French  works  are  considered  best  adapted  for 
defense.  They  are  spacious;  the  flank  of  die 
side   bulwark,   which  is  perpendicular   to  the 


prolon^tion  of  the  face  of  die  j^inctpal  bd- 
wark,  IS  not  farther  distant  than  300  paces  from 
its  point;  it  is  also  straight,  and  orillons  and 
other  artificial  contrivances  are  banished.  See 
FoHTincATiow. 

BASTWICK,  John,  Enslish  i^ysician:  b. 
Writtle  in  Essex  1593;  d.  1654.  He  settled  il 
Colchester,  but  instead  of  confining  himself  to 
his  profession  entered  keenly  into  theological 


ten,  entitled  'Elenchus  Religionls  Fapisticx,' 
which,  as  he  declares  on  the  titlepag&  be 
proves  to  be  neither  apostolic  nor  catholic, 
nay,  not  even  Roman.  He  afterward  published 
'Flagelliun  Pontificis  et  Episcoponim  Lati- 
alium,'  which  actjuired  some  notonety  a"  "  '"" 


Court,  who  called  the  author  before  them,  and 
condemned  him  to  a  fine  and  two  years'  im- 
prisonment. Bastwick  became  more  zealous 
than  before,  however,  and  published  a  defense 
addressed  to  the  English  prelates  and  a  new 
•iitany,*  in  which  bis  former  offenses  were 
boldly  repeated  A  second  sentence  mercUessly 
condemned  him  to  a  much  heavier  fine,  to  ex-' 
posure  to  the  pillory,  the  loss  of  his  ears  and 
imprisonment  for  life.  The  ascendency  of  the 
Parliament  in  1640  procured  his  freedom;  the 
sentence  was  formal^  repealed,  and  the  amount 
of  the  fines  imposed  on  mm  was  afterward  re- 
funded. He  appears  to  have  been  a  stanch 
Presbyterian,  for  in  1648  we  find  him  attacking 
the  Independents. 

BASUTOLAHD,  South  Africa,  an  English 
Crown  colony,  lying  to  the  east  of  the  Orange 
River  Colony,  and  on  the  northeast  of  Cape 
Colony.  T^e  Basutos  beloi^  chiefly  to  me 
great  stem  of  the  Bechuanas,  out  of  one  of  the 
chief  branches  of  whom,  along  with  the  sur- 
vivors of  various  other  Kaffir  tribes,  they  have 
arisen.  Their  countenance  is  better  formed 
than  that  of  the  negroes,  although  they  have 


proporticKied,  the  color  of  their  sldn  a  veiy 
dark  brown,  and  their  disposition  cheerful, 
mild  and  pacific.  Their  land,  called  by  thein- 
selves  Lesuto,  is  very  fertile,  and  is  cultivated 
with  great  industry;  but  its  fertility  has  lonjt 
exposed  them  to  the  encroachments  of  their 
neighbors.  Under  their  chief  Moshesh,  wbo 
died  in  1869,  they  were  raised  from  a  state  of 
utter  barbarism  to  a  certaiK  degree  of  civiliia- 
tion,  and  the  land  was  thrown  open  to  mis- 
sionaries. Being  exposed,  however,  to  constant 
attacks  of  their  warlike  neighbors,  Mosbesh 
was  at  last  induced  to  request  the  English  gov- 
ernment to  adopt  them  as  subjects.  This  was 
acceded  to,  and  in  1868  Basutotand  was  declared 
English  territory^being  annexed  to  Cape  Colony 
in  1871.  In  1884,  however,  Basutoiand  was 
placed  under  the  direct  authority  of  the  hotoe 
government.  Since  1903  Basutoiand  is  a  mem- 
ber of  the  South  African  Customs  Union.  The 
imik>rts  consist  chiefly  of  clothing  and  blankets. 
agricultural    implementSj   metal   products    and 

froceries.  The  yearly  imports  average  about 
1,250.000  and  the  exports  about  51,000,00ft 
Basutoiand  is  administered  by  a  resident 
commissioner,  under  the  high  comnusuonet 
of    South   Africa.     It   is   divided    into  seven 


BMVILLB— BAT 


88G 


dUtricts,  subdivided  into 
tered  b);  heiedtbiy  chiefs, 
tion  of  justice  is  ^so,  t 


J  large  extent, 


in  the  bands  o£  nat've  judges.    A _,  

Maseru  connects  with  the  South  African  rail- 
way system.  It  has  an  area  of  about  10,300 
square  miles.  Pop,  (1911)  404.S07.  Consult 
widdicombe,  'Fourteen  Years  in  Basutoland* 
(18^) ;  Barldey,  'Amon^  Boers  and  Basutos* 
0900);  Bryce,  'Impressions  of  South  Africa* 
08»i;  EllenberBer,  'History  of  the  Basuto* 
(1912). 

BASVILLC    See  Motni,  Vincekzo. 

BAT,  one  of  a  group  (order  CheirofiUra) 
of  small  mammals  adapted  to  life  in  the  air  by 
the  possession  of  wings  formed  of  a  membrane 
stretched  between  the  greatly  prolonged  bones 
of  the  arm  and  hand.  The  general  organiza- 
tion of  bats  allies  them  to  the  Instctivora.  The 
bones  of  the  spine,  hinder  limbs  and  tail  are  of 
a  normal  character;  die  chest  ia  much  enlarged 
to  admit  of  the  increased  aiie  of  the  hings  and 
heart,  necessary  to  the  relatively  violent  exer- 
tion necessar}^  to  flisht,  the  breast  bone  is 
keeled  as  in  birds,  and  the  muscles  of  the  fore 
Timbs  are  much  enlarged.  The  fore  limbs  them- 
selves consist  of  the  normal  number  and  ar- 
rangement of  bones,  but  all  are  greatljr  elon- 
gated, especially  those  of  the  fingers,  wluch  are 
so  lengthened  nut  as  often  to  be  equal  to  the 
total  length  of  the  spine.  The  thumb,  however, 
is  comparatively  small,  stands  at  right  angles 
to  the  other  bones,  and  terminates  in  a  strong 
claw  of  great  service  in  clinging  to  supports. 
The  whole  extent  of  the  arm  and  hand  in  the 
bats  is  enclosed  within  a  membrane  which  con- 
sists of  leathen  skin  more  or  less  furrv  upon 
At  outside,  woicb  stretches  between  uie  tin- 
ker}, arm  bones  and  body,  formiitg  an  exten- 
sibte  membrane  or  parachute,  ahd  constituting 
an  effective  instrument  of  flight  In  some  bats 
a  similar  membrane  (^which  is  only  an  extension 
of  the  sldn  and  »  of  douMe  thickness) 
stretches  from  the  heel  of  each  bind  foot,  where 
it  is  supported  by  a  bony  spur,  to  the  tip  of  the 
tail,  but  in  many  bats  the  tail  is  free  from  any 
snch  membrane.  The  tail  is  very  variable  in 
length,  but  is  never  prehensile  nor  bushy.  The 
hinder  limbs  of  bats  are  peculiar  in  being 
twisted  in  such  a  way  that  the  knee  bends  back- 
ward^ makins;  walking  very  difficult. 

The  memtiranous  wings  of  the  bat  are  not 
only  an  organ  of  flight,  enabling  it  to  perform 
feats  b  the  air  probably  not  exceeded  by  any 
bird  or  insect,  but  are  also  a  means  of  inform- 
ing the  creature  as  to  Us  surroundings.  Bats 
are  mainly  nocturnal  and  their  eyes,  ihoi^h 
highly  organiie<L  are  very  small,  embedded  in 
fur  and  comoar^ively  useless  in  the  dark,  yet 
DO  animal  seems  more  tboroi^Iy  wide  awake 
and  able  to  take  care  of  itself,  even  in  almost 
complete  darkness,  than  this  one,  which  habi- 
tually lives  in  gloomv  caves  and  seeks  its  food 
only  after,  dayught  nas  dejiarted.  The  ability 
»bch  it  displays  in  catching  its  prey  by  ex- 
traordinary aplity  in  pursuit,  and  in  avoiding 
obstacles  as  it  darts  about  amot)g  the  trees, 
seem  to  be  due  largely  to  an  extreme  sensitive- 
ness in  the  wings.  These  are  not  only  supplied 
widi  a  great  number  of  blood  vessels  and 
nerves,  but  thctr  surfaces  abound  in  minute 
sense-organs,  <acfa  the  terminus  of  a  nerve 
fibrilla.    This  armature  has  evidently  arisen  as 


an  added  means  of  information,  giving  the 
animal  a  sense  of  touch  more  exquisite  than  we 
know  of  elsewhere  in  the  animal  kingdom.  The 
well-known  experiments  of  the  Italian  Spal- 
lanzani  toward  the  end  of  the  18th  century, 
which  have  been  verified  by  more  recent  in- 
vestigadons,  make  it  plain  that  bats  depend 
very  largely  upon  these  sense  organs  in  their 
wings  to  guide  them  in  their  devious  flight 
throu^  the  darkness.  It  was  found  that  Mts 
whose  eyes  were  sealed  up  with  varnish,  or 
even  completely  destroyed,  made  their  way 
with  apparent  ease  not  only  throu^  dark 
rooms  out  in  places  where  strings  had  been 
stretched  across  the  path  in  various  directioos, 
and  other  obstacles  had  to  be  avoided.  These 
blinded  bats  never  collided  with  such  obstruc- 
tions, but  seemed  able  to  approach  a  wall  at 
ease,  alight  upon  a  perch,  or  even  find  a  small 
cavity  without  apparently  searching  for  it 

For  a  similar  purpose  of  information  many 
bats  are  furnished  with  extraordinary  mem- 
branous appendages  upon  the  nostrils  and  ears, 
which  give  to  some  of^  them  the  most  ({rotesque 
appearance.  In  the  large  fruit-eat  mg  fox- 
headed  bats  of  the  East  Indies,  which  are  more 
nearly  diurnal  than  any  others,  the  ears  are  of 
no  great  siie,  and  the  nose  is  defended  only 
by  long  hairi  about  the  nostrils  and  eyelids, 
but  in  all  the  smaller,  insect-eating,  nocturnal 
bats,  there  arise  upon  the  nostrils  leaf-like  ap- 
pendages, sometimes  very  large  and  complicated 
which  resemble  the  leathery  substance  of  the 
wings  and  in  such  species,  the  ears  are  often 
several  times  larger  in  area  than  alt  the  rest  irf 
the  face.  These  great  ears  must  not  only  col- 
lect sounds  far  too  faint  for  us  to  hear,  but 
their  membranes  are  as  nervous  and  sensitive 
as  those  of  the  win^s,  probably  bdn^  able  to 
feel  degrees  of  densiW  in  the  air  oitirely  im- 
perceplibU  to  most  otner  creatures. 

Bats  are  divisible  into  two  groups  or  sub- 
orders, the  Megacheiroptera,  ana  ihe  MUrocheif 
roptera.  The  first  group  contains  the  fruit- 
eating  bats  whose  large  size,  reddish  fur  and 
fox-hke  head  have  |^ven  them  the  name  of  fly- 
ing foxes  (q.v,).  Their  chief  distinguishing 
feature,  however,  is  the  fact  that  the  molar 
teeth  are  not  tubercular  but  are  marked  with  a 
longitudinal  furrow.  They  live  mainly  upon 
fruit  and  are  confined  to  the  tropics  of  the 
Old  World,  and  are  all  included  m  a  single 
family,  PteropodidiF.  The  Mkrockeiroplero 
have  molars  with  sharp  cusps  adapted  to  cut- 
ting and  crushing  the  insects  upon  which  they 
mainly  subsist.  This  group  includes  all  of  the 
ordinary  bats,  of  which  those  most  familiar  in 
North  America  and  Europe  belong  to  the  targe 
and  typical  family  Vesperliliotiidie,  of  which 
nearly  200  spedes  are  named.  Among  the  most 
numerous  and  widespread  of  the  Norfli  Ameri- 
can bats  are  the  large  hoary  bat  (Lasittnti 
cinereiis)  of  the  Northeastern  States;  but  it 
keeps  to  the  woods  and  is  not  often  seen;  it 
migrates  to  the  southern  States  in  winter.  It 
is  about  5.50  inches  long.  Another  common  bat 
of  the  woods  is  the  smaller,  silver-haired 
(Latiotiyctffus  noclitiagaiu) .  The  red  hot 
(length  4.40  inches)  is  numerous  m  the  All«- 
gliBnian  region,  inhabiting  caves  in  great  com- 
panies ;  but  the  'common*  bat  of  tbt  whole 
country  east  of  Ihe  Rockies  is  the  Httle,  ^ossy, 
brown  familur  of  oar  homas  and  ^rden*,  as 
uns  with  II 


well  as  of  the  woods,  which  remains  i 


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BAT-PARASITES — BATAN 


th«  vear  round;  hibernating  during  cold  weather 
in  &e  hollow  trees,  caves  and  crevices  about 
buildings,  where  they  tnake  their  home,  and 
whence  tncy  emerge  at  night,  to  sect  their  pr^ 
about  our  farmyards  and  gardens.  As  the  in- 
sects caught  are  mainly  mosquitoes  and  similar 
pests,  and  as  they  do  no  harm,  they  should  be 
encouraged,  rather  than  feared  an'd  persecuted. 
'Awake  at  the  most,*  says  Cram,  'some  four 
out  of  every  24  hours  of  their  drowsy  little 
lives,  they  never  make  any  nests  or  even  at- 
tempt to  fix  over  the  crannies  where  they  hide, 
and  where  the  little  bats  are  bom.  These 
helpless  little  things  are  not  left  at  home  at  the 
mercy  of  fora^ng  rats  and  mice.  When -the 
old  bat  flits  off  into  the  twilight,  the  youngsters 
often  go  with  her,  clinging  about  her  neck.  .  .  . 
At  times,  she  deposits  them  on  the  branch  of  i 


ish  bat  called  'big-eared*  (Corynorhiniu 
macrolis)  which  differs  from  the  others  in  that 
its  great  ears  are  joined  together  by  their  bases 
in  front. 

For  a  systematic  account  of  Oie  bats  of  the 
world  consult  Dobsoi^  'Catalogue  of  Chirop- 
tera  in  the  Brirish  Museum*  0878),  and  his 
subsequent  papers,  mentioneo  in  Flower's 
'Mammalia*  (1891).  For  North  American 
forms  consult  Allen,  H.,  'Bats  of  North 
America'  (Smithsonian  Institution,  Washing- 
ton 1S93).  For  habits,  etc.,  consult  the  writings 
of  Harlan,  Audubon,  Baird,  (Rodman,  Meams, 
E.  A.,  Herrick,  C.  L.,  Miller,  G.  S.,  and  especially 
Merriam,  C.  H.,  'Mammals  of  the  Adtrondacks* 
(Unnvan  Society  New  York  1893)  ;  Stone  and 
Cram,  'American  Animals*  (1902);  Goose,  'A 
Naturalist's  Sojourn  in  Jamaica'  (IKI).  See 
also  Fox-BAT;  Fruit-bat;  Leaf-nosed  Bats; 
Vampire,  and  similar  titles. 

BAT-PARASITES.  Besides  bugs  (see 
BED-Bt;G)  certain  very  strangely  modified  wing- 
less flies  are  in  rare  cases  found  living  on  bats 
in  Africa  and  the  East  Indies.  They  are  some- 
what spider-like,  with  a  narrow  eyeless  head, 
though  four  oceili  are  present  tn  some  species, 
which  rests  on  the  back  of  the  thorax,  while  the 
legs  are  large,  long,  and  sprawling,  ending  iu 
large  claws.  They  are  only  a  line  or  two  in 
length.  The  larva  is,  like  that  of  the  sheep- 
tick  (q.v.)  and  horse-fly  {fUppobasca),  very 
peculiar,  the  magKot  being  probably  nourished 
m  the  dilated  oviduct  of  ine  fly,  then  attaining 
its  full  growth,  when  it  is  expelled  in  the  shape 
of  a  broad,  short  pupariunj,  the  skin  being 
hardened  by  the  excretion  of  chitin. 

BATABANO,  b^-ta-b^-no',  Cuba,  town  in 
the  province  of  Havana  near  the  south  coast 
37  miles  from  Havana,  by  rail.  This  port  is 
one  at  which  coasting  steamers  touch,  and  is 
the  nearest  point  in  Cuba  to  the  Isle  of  Pines. 
The  natives  are  engaged  in  sponge  fishing. 
San  Cristobal  de  la  Habana  was  founded  od 
the  site  of  the  modem  Batabano  by  Diego 
Velasque*  in   1514.     Pop.  about  6,500. 

BATAC,  ba-tak*,  or  BATAG,  PhiHppines, 
an'  island  about  one  and  a  half  miles  off  the 
northeast  coast  of  Samar,  the  most  northerly 
of  that  portion  of  the  Philip|Nne  Islands  which 
goes  under  the  designation  of  Visaya,  or 
Bisaya.     Area,  18  square  miles. 

BATAC,  or  BATAG.  Philippines,  a  town 
of  LUzon,  the  largest  in  the  province  of  IIocos 


Norte,  founded  in  1587.  It  is  situated  10  miin 
south  of  Laoag  and  is  a  flonrishing  trade  centre. 
Pop.  about  19,500. 

BATAK,  ba'l^k,  Bulgaria,  a  district  aad 
town  southwest  of  Philippopolis.  The  regiaD 
became  prominent  in  European  history  la  tk 
time  of  the  Bulgarian  insurrection  agauist  Tur- 
key in  1876.  In  May  of  that  year  the  villagers 
of  Batak  were  preparing  to  take  part  in  the 
insurrection,  when  the  place  was  attacked  bj- 
a  force  of  Bashi-Bazouks  under  the  command 
of  Achmet  Ajha  of  Dopat.  After  a  short 
struggle  the  village  was  surrendered  and  tbc 
inhaoitants  gave  up  their  we^>oiis,  on  ^  as- 
surance of  the  Turkish  commander  thai  'not 
a  hair  of  their  beads  should  be  touched.*  On 
9  May  1876  the  Turks  bi^n  one  of  the  most 
cruel  massacres  recorded  ui  history;  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  imfortunate  village  were  butcherd 
and  those  who  took  refuge  in  the  church  were 
burned  to  death  by  the  Turkish  soldiers.  Mr, 
Baring,  the  Enclish  commissioner,  visiting  the 
place  two  months  later,  found  but  one  survivor, 
an  old  womaa.  The  Turidsh  govemmeni  re- 
warded Achmet  with  a  decoration  of  honor. 
The  news  of  the  massacre  at  Batak  and  of  odier 
'Bul^rian  atrocities*  aroused  all  Europe  and 
furnished  Russia  with  an  excellent  pretext  for 
declaring  war  against  Turkey  in  1877.  It  sui- 
fered  heavily  in  the  war  against  the  Turks  ui 
1912-13  and  in  the  second  Balkan  War  in  I9IJ. 
See  also  Bulcaua;  San  Stefano,  Treaty  or; 
Turkey. 

BATALEUS,  b«-t«-ler'.  a  brge,  vido- 
nunously  crested  eagle  of  Africa,  DUned 
Hehtarnu  ttaiidalus  with  reference  to  the 
uausual  shortness  of  its  tail.    It  Ms  the  band' 


bold  contrasts  of  rich  maroon,  %lack  and  giaf. 
with  bronir  reflectiam  from  the  wings.  It 
feeds  mainly  on  lizards  and  snakes,  attaddnK 
the  tatter,  even  when  venomous,  by  blows  of  ii( 
powerful  beak.  Its  breeding  season,  which  ii 
at  the  commencement  of  the  hot  weather 
when  other  birds  are  busy  at  other  thinF:^ 
seems  to  be  placed  with  reference  to  ibt 
greater  ease  with  which  snakes  can  then  U 
captured,  when  the  grass  dies  down  or  bunu 
off,   exposing  than   to   view. 

BATALHA,  bft-tal'y^,  Portugal,  village  tf 
miles  north  of  Lisbon,  famed  for  its  Domioi- 
can  convent,  founded  by  King  John  I,  in  com- 
memoration of  a  victory  over  the  king  o' 
Castile  in  the  year  1385.  This  convent,  one 
of  the  most  splendid  buildings  in  Europe,  is 
576  feet  long  and  443  wide.  Its  church,  is 
which  lie  the  remains  of  the  founder  and  ibc 
following  three  Idng^  of  the  house  of  Avti,  iS 
well  as  those  of  Prince  Henrv  the  Navigator, 
is  a  beautiful  edifice,  adorned  with  many  ait 
treasures.    Pop.  3,830. 

BATAN,  ba'tan,  Philippines,  a  province 
of  the  island  of  Lnion,  forming  tfie  peniniuli 
between  the  bay  of  Manila  and  the  China  Sea' 
area,  450  square  mites;  chief  town,  Bolai^ 
It  is  noted  for  many  excellent  varieties  ol 
marble,  which  are  ertensfvely  used  in  ti« 
churches  and  public  buildinffs  of  Manila  and 
other  towns  of  the  Philippines.  The  inhab- 
itants of  the  towns  and  coasts  of  this  prorintt 
are  of  the  Tagalog  race,  but,  besides  these,  the 
mountain  fasmesses  are  inhabited  by  nmne^ 
ous  tribes  of  Negritos 


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BATAN— BATAVIA 


BATAN,  Philippines,  a  town  on  the  isbnd 
of  Panay,  in  tb«  province  of  Capiz,  21  miles 
west  of  Capiz.    Pop.  (1898)   12,9(fe. 

BATAN,  or  BASH!   ISLANDS,  Philip- 

S'lnes,  a  group  of  small  islands  in  the  Giinese 
ea,  discovered  by  Damqier  in  1687,  now  a 
dependency  of  the  Philip^nes,  north  of  which 
they  are  situated,  midway  between  Luzon  and 
Formosa.  American  control  was  established 
over  these  islands  in  March  1900,  with  Teofilo 
Costilleja  as  first  governor.  The  Batans  are 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Bashi  Channel,  which 
divides  the  Philippines  from  the  Japanese 
insular  territory,  and  have  an  area  of  125 
square  miles  and  a  population  estimated  at 
9,500.  The  principal  islands  in  the  group  are 
Itbayal,  Basay,  Saptan  and  Hujos.  Santo 
Domingo  de  Basco,  the  principal  town  and 
port,  is  abont  500  miles  from  Manila,  and  has 
a  population  of  about  3^.  The  other  towns 
are  San  Bartolome  de  C^layan,  San  Carlos  de 
Marigatao,  San  Josi  de  Ibans,  Santa  Maria  de 
Mayan  and  San  Vicente  de  Saptan.  Under 
Spanish  rule  Santo  Domit^n  was  the  residettce 
of  a  political  military  governor,  a  judge  and  an 
attorney-  geneisL 

BATANJBA,  or  BASHAN,  a  district  of 


1  the  north  ta  the  brook  of  Jabbok  (the 
modem  Nahr  el  Zerka)  on  the  south,  and 
from  the  Jordan  on  the  west  to  the  Geshurite 
and  Maachathite  boundaries  on  the  east  Its 
chief  towns  were  Aduaroth,  Edrei,  Golan  and 
Salchah.  It  was  a  rich  pasture  tend,  famed 
for  its  sheep  and  oxen.  In  Roman  times  with 
Iturxa,  Gaulanitis  Trachonitis  and  Auranitis, 
Batanxa  formed  one  of  the  five  diviuons  of 
the  country.  For  its  part  in  the  history  of 
Israel  consult  Num.  xx\  33-35;  Deul,  iii,  1-3; 
Josh,  xiii,  29-31;  Amos  iv,  1:  Ezek.  xxxviL  6; 
isa.  ii,  13. 

BATANGAS,  ba-tan'g^s,  Philippines,  a 
town  on  the  island  of  Luzon,  the  capital  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name,  S8  miles  south 
of  Manila.  It  was  founded  in  1581,  and  is 
situated  on  the  large  bay  of  BUansas,  open- 
ing into  the  Strait  of  Mindoro.  It  is  well 
built,  containing  several  spacious  streets,  in 
which  are  many  elegant  mansions.  A  number' 
of  annual  expositions  are  held  in  tho  dty. 
The  city  has  an  excellent  harbor,  atid  prior  to 
the  war  between  the  United  States  and  Spain 
was  the  seal  of  a  large  commerce.  The  prov- 
ince is  one  of  the  richest  sugar  growing  dis- 
tricts in  the  Philippines;  but  the  industry  is 
iar  inferior  to  its  possibilities  owing  to  the 
lack  of  proper  machinery  and  modem  methods 
of  treatment.  There  are  forests  of  pine  wood 
on  the  mountains,  and  the  region  is  rich  in 
mineral  waters.  The  only  important  industty 
is  the  manufacture  of  dyes  tuffs,  and  rilk, 
abaca  and  cotton  fabrics.  It  is  also  notable 
for  its  large  production  of  cocoanuC  oil,  the 
larger  part  of  which  is  used  for  domestic  pur- 
poses, chiefly  lamp  oil  and  lubricating  ma- 
chinery. Such  of  It  as  is  exported  to  Europe, 
after  bang  solidified,  is  manufactured  into 
soap  and  candles.    Pop.  39,358. 

BATATAS,  ba-ta'tas.     See  Sweet  Potato. 
BATAVI,  an  old  C^erman  nationwhicb  in- 
habited    a     part     of     the    present     Holland, 
especially  the  island  called  Batavta,  formed  by 


that  bnnch  of  the  Rhine  which  en^ties  itself 
into  the  sea  near  Leyden,  together  with  the 
Waal  and  the  Mense.  Their  territories,  how- 
ever, extended  mnch  beyond  the  WaaL  Their 
bravery  was  commended  by  Tacitus.  Accord- 
ing to  him,  they  were  originally  the  same  as 
the  Catti,  a  German  tribe  which  had  emigrated 
from  their  country  on  account  of  domestic 
troubles.  This  must  have  happened  before  the 
time  of  Caesar.  When  Germanicus  was  about 
to  invade  Germany  from  the  sea,  he  made 
their  island  the  rendezvous  of  his  6eet  Bdng 
subjected  by  the  Romans,  they  served  them 
with  such  courage  and  fidelity  as  to  obtain 
the  title  of  their  friends  and  brethren.  Th^ 
were_  exempted  from  tributes  and  taxes,  and 
permitted  to  choose  their  leaders  among  them- 
selves. Their  cavalry  was  particularly  excel- 
lent During  the  reign  of  Vespasian  they  re- 
volted, under  the  command  of  Gvilis,  from 
the  Romans,  and  extorted  from  tbem  favor- 
able terms  of  peace.  Trajan  and  Adrian  sub- 
jected them  a^in.  At  the  end  of  the  3d 
century  the  Saltan  Franks  obtained  possession 
of  the  island  of   Batavia.     See  Batavian   Rb- 

BATAVIA,  properly  the  name  of  the  island 
occupied  by  the  ancient  Batavi,  became  at  a 
later  date  the  Latin  name  for  Holland  and 
the  whole  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  The 
name  Batavian  Republic  (q.v.)  was  given  to 
the  Netherlands  on  their  new  organization,  16 
May  1795j  and  they  continued  to  bear  it  till 
the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  Holland, 
under  Louis  Bonaparte,  8  June  1806. 

BATAVIA,  Java,  city  and  seaport  on  the 
north  coast  of  the  island,  near  the  west  end, 
and  the  capital  of  all  the  Dutch  East  Indies; 
long.  106°  50*  E. ;  lat  6°  8*  S.  It  is  situated  on 
a  wid&  deep  bay,  in  which  are  interspersed 
many  low,  green  islets,  within  which  ships 
find  safe  anchorage,  the  roadstead  being 
sheltered  from  the  northwest  monsoon.  The 
largest  of  these  islets  is  Onrust,  at  which  all 
ships  above  300  tons  burden  have  to  anchor. 
The .  town  consists  of  two  portions.  The  old 
is  situated  in  a  low,  marshy  plain  near  the 
sea,  and  intersected  by  the  Great  River  and 
sundry  canals,  is  exceedingly  unhealthy,  and 
subject  to  an  intermittent  fever,  very  fatal  to 
strangers.  Much  has  been  done,  however,  to 
diminish  the  unhealthiness  by  draining  the 
marshes,  and  letting  currents  of  water  into 
the  stagnant  canals.  The  old  is  still  the  busi- 
ness quarter  and  contains  the  principal  ware- 
houses and  ofhces  of  the  Europeans,  the  Java 
Bank  and  the  exchange.  On  the  west  side  of 
the  Great  River  is  the  Chinese  quarter,  in- 
habited entirely  by  Chinese.  Batavia  is  the 
chief  mart  among  the  islands  of  the  Asiatic 
Archipelago  for  the  products  of  the  Eastern 
seas  and  the  manufactures  of  the  West,  and 
its  commerce  is  correspondingly  important. 
The  chief  products  are  coffee,  sugar,  tea,  rice, 
different  spices,  timber,  dyewoods.  diamonds, 
drugs,  minerals,  etc.  Batavia  was  founded  1^ 
the  Dutch  in  1619  and  attained  its  greatest 
prosperity  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century, 
when  it  had  about  150,000  inhabitants.  The 
most  important  edifices  are  the  Stadt-house, 
CaMnisfic,  Lutheran  and  Portuguese  churches, 
some  Mohammedan  mosques  and  Chinese 
temples.  Among  its  educational  institutions 
are  a  gymnasium,   a   nnmber  of   govei 


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BATAVIA^BATX 


and  private  schools,  an  orplian  asylum,  a 
medical  school  for  oativea  connected -with  the 
military  hospital,  and  a  number  of  scieolific 
societies.  Pd[i.  about  140,000,  of  vrbnu  9,500 
are  Europeans,  28,000  Giinese  and  3.000  Arabs. 
The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  of  Mal»  extrac- 
tion, with  a  considerable  aomixture  of  Chinese, 
and  a  small  number  of  Europeans  (Dutch, 
English  and  Portuguese).  A  United  States 
consul  resides  here.     See  Java. 

BATAVIA,  III.  town  in  Kane  Connty,  on 
the  Fox  River,  and  on  the  Chicago  &  N.  W. 
and  Chicago,  B.  &  Q.  railroads,  37  miles  west 
of  Chicago.  Here  is  the  State  Asylum  for  the 
Insane.  Batavia  has  line  churches  and  public 
schools  and  a  public  library.  Amone  the  in- 
dustries are  stone  quarries  and  foundries,  and 
manufactories  of  farm  implements,  wagons, 
pumps,  engines  and  windmill  factories.  Batavia 
was  settled  in  1834  and  incorporated  in  1850. 
It  is  governed  under  a  charter  of  19Q2,  by  a 
mayor,  eleclea  every  two  years,  and  a  tmi- 
cameral  council.    Pop.  5,000. 

BATAVIA,  N.  y,  town  and  county-seat 
of  Genesee  County,  37  nules  east  of  Buffalo 
and  33  miles  west  of  Rochester,  on  Tonawanda 
Creek  and  on  the  New  York  Central,  the 
Lehigh  Valley  and  Lake  Erie  and  Western  rail- 
roads. It  is  in  an  agricultural  region;  has 
manufactories  of  plows,  threshers  and  agricul- 
tural implements,  rubber  goods,  shoes,  cut-glass, 
sheet  metal  goods,  paper-boxes,  monuments. 
electrical  equipment,  shot-guns,  stampings  and 
metal  specialties,  and  there  are  also  flour  mills 
and  canning  factories.  In  1914  there  were  in 
operation  57  establishments,  employing  2,833 
persons,  who  received  51,733,000  for  their  serv- 
ices. The  cM)itaI  invested  in  Uiese  enterprises 
totalled  $7,847,000;  the  raw  materials  used  were 
valued  at  $2,423,000  and  the  finished  products 
at  $5,340,000.     It  has  three  banks  and  taxable 


school.  Among  the  public  buildings  are 
courthouse^  county  jail,  surrogate's  oflSce, 
county  clerk's  office,  Holland  Purchase  museum 
and  land  office,  containing  interesting  historical 
relics,  the  State  Institution  for  the  Blind  and 
the  Dean  Richmond  Memorial- Library.  There 
are  daily  and  weekly  newspapers. '  Batavia  has 
the  charter  form  of  government;  the  water- 
works and  electric-light  plant  are  owned  by  the 
municipality.  A  new  filtration  plant  for  sewage 
disposal  is  about  to  be  constructed.  The  villa^ 
was  founded  in  1811,  and  first  incorporated  m 
IS26.  It  was  the  home  of  William  Morgan, 
made  famous  through  the  Anti-Masonic  ex- 
citement in  1826.  Pop.  (1910)  11,613;  (1916) 
15,300.  Consult  Seaver,  'Historical  Sketch  of 
the  VilUge  of  Batavia'   (Batavia  1849). 

BATAVIAH  RBPUBLIC,  the  name 
adopted  by  the  Seven  United  Provinces  of  the 
Netherlands  soon  after  tJie  French  Revolution, 
and  acknowledged  by  the  powers  of  Europe. 
The  whole  repubUc  was  declared  one  and  in- 
divisible; all  members  of  society  were  declared 
■  '      '  ...  ■  .  jjm  respect  to 


was  changed  into  that  of  a  Idngdom,  under  the 
name  of  Holland;  and  the  Batavlan  republic 
fell  nominally  under  the  sway  of  Loois  Bona- 

Brte  as  its  sovereign,  but  really  under  that  of 
;  brother  Napoleon.     See  Nftheblands. 

BATCHELLER,  George  Sherman,  Ameri- 
can jurist:  b.  Batchellervflle,  N.  Y.,  25  July 
1837;  d  Paris,  France,  2  July  1908.  He  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1858;  entered  the  Utiioo 
army  in  1862;  was  taken  prisoner  at  Harper's 
Ferry,  and  exchanged  io  1863;  was  then  an- 
pointed  deputv  provost-marshal-general  of  the 
department  of  the  South;  and  in  1865-70  was 
inspector-general  mi  the  staff  of  Governor  Fus- 
ion of  New  York.  He  was  president  of  lit 
International  Tribunal  of  Egypt  1883-85 :  assist. 
ant  Secretary  of  the  United  States  Treasury 
1889-91;  Umted  States  Uinister-resident  and 
ConsnI-General  to  Portugal  1891-93;  and  in 
1896,  again  a  member  of  the  International 
Tribunal  of  Egypt  In  May  19(S  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  aupreme  Court  of  Appeals.  In 
1879  King  Humbert  decorated  him  with  ihi 
great  cordon  of  the  Order  of  the  Crown  of 
Italy,  in  rect^nition  of  his  services  as  president 
of  the  Universal  Postal  Coi^ress  of  1897. 

BATCHELOR,  0«orEe,  American  Uni- 
tarian ctei^Tman:  b.  Southbut^,  Conn.,  I83& 
He  was  secretary  of  the  American  Unitarian 
Association  l99i-97,  and  has  siiwe  been  edttot 
of  the  Chrisiiatt  Register,  published  in  Boston. 
He  has  also  been  secretary  of  the  National 
Unitarian  Conference  1870-«!1.  and  its  chairman 
1893-94.  He  is  the  author  of  'Social  Equi- 
librium.^ During  the  last  50  years  he  has  served 
three  parishes,  in  Salem,  Mass.,  Chicago,  III., 
and  Lowell,  Mass.  He  has  given  lectures  on 
ethics  at  the  schools  of  theology  at  Meadville. 
Pa,,  and  at  Harvard  University.  In  his 
eightieth  year  be  is  on  the  retired  list,  but  dur- 
ing the  last  year  has  contributed  articles  to 
The  Christian  Register,  The  Harvard  Theologi- 
cal Revitw  and  Th»  Harvard  Cradtuites'  Mago- 
MRf.  While  a  junior  in  Harvard  College  be 
spent  a  winter  as  acting  superintendent  of  Ac 
United  States  Sanitary  Commission  at  Sheri- 
dan's headquarters  at  Winchester,  Va.  la 
recognition  of  this  service  he  was  made  a  inent- 
ber  of  The  Union  Society  of  the  Civil  War 
and  also  of  The  United  Military  Order  of 
America.  In  1911  he  was  made  a  doctor  of 
^vinity  tyy  the  Meadville  Theologioal  School. 

BATCHIAN,  bat-shyan',  or  BATJAN, 
one  of  the  Molucca  Islands,  west  of  the  south- 
em  peninsula  of  the  large  island  of  Halma- 
hera  or  Gilolo.  Area,  914  square  iniles;  pop- 
about  13,000l  It  belongs  to  the  Dutch  residency 
of  Temate,  con^ts  of  two   peninsulas  jtHiied 


l^  a  narrow  isthmus,  and  has  many  mouptains. 
^tchian    produces    gold,    copper,    coal,   S3( 
,  cloves  and  fine  timber. 


•'eudality  was  abolished,  all  fiefs  declared 
allodial  and  possessors  of  lordships  to  be  in- 
denaified.     In  1^06  the  form  of  government 


BATE,  William  BrimaB;e,  American  legis- 
lator: b.  near  Castalian  Springs,  Tenn.,  7  Oct. 
1826;  d.  Washington.  D.  C.  9  March  1905.  He 
served  as  a  volunteer  through  the  Me«icw 
War;  graduated  at  the  Lebanon  Law  School  ir 
1852;  elected  attorney- general  of  the  Nashnlle 
district  in  18S4;  and  was  presidential  elector 
in  1860.  In  the  Civil  War  be  rose  from  private 
to  the  rank  of  major-general  in  the  Confeder- 
ate army,  and  was  three  times  dangerously 
woiuded.    He  was  an  elector-at-large  for  Ten- 


BATBHAH  —  BATHS 


808 


nessee  oo  tfie  Democratic  ticket  in  1S76;  was 
elected  governor  in  1882  and  1884,  and  a  United 
States  senator  in  1887.  1S93  and  1899. 

BATBHAN,  Newton,  Americati  educator: 
h.  Fairfield,  N.  J.,  27  July  1822;  d.  Galesburg, 
III.,  21  Oct.  \&l.  He  graduated  from  Illinois 
Cotl^e,  1843,  and  studied  at  Lane  Theological 
Seminary,  but  began  to  teach  instead  of  enter- 
ing the  ministiy.  He  was  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Saint  Charles  College,  1847-51 ;  Stale 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  18S8-63; 
member  of  the  State  board  of  health,  1877-97. 
and  president  of  Knox  College,  1875-93,  when 
ill-health  caused  his  retirement.  His  official 
reports  are  of  high  value  in  educational  litera- 
ture, and  much  oi  the  excellence  of  the  Illinois 
school  laws  is  due  to  his  wisdom  and  foresidit 
He  published  'School  Laws  o£  lUinms'  (1865, 
12di  ed..  1866);  'School  Laws  and  Common 
School  Decisions  of  the  State  of  IIUuchs'  ;  re- 
vised by  W.  L.  Pillshury  (1888). 

BATES,  Aria,  American  author:  b.  East 
Machias,  Me..  16  Dec.  1850.  He  graduated 
from  Bowdoin  in  1876,  when  he  engaged  in 
literary  work  in  Boston,  editing  the  Sunday 
Courier,  1880-93 ;  and  aUerwarif  became  pro- 
fessor of  English  literature  in  the  Massachu- 
setts Institute  of  Technology.  He  is  author  of 
poems  and  novels,  including  'The  Pagans' 
<New  York  1884) ;  <A  Lad's  Love,>  <The 
Wheel  of  Fire'  (1885);  'The  PhiUstines' 
(1888) ;  'Berries  of  the  Brier'  (1886),  poems; 
*ToId  in  the  Gate'  (1892) ;  "Talks  on  Writing 
English,'  "Talks  on  the  Study  of  Ltteratm-e' 
(1®7);  'The  Puritans'  (1899);  "Under  the 
Beech  Tree'  (1899);  'Diary  of  a  Saint> 
(1902);  'The  Intoxicated  Ghost'  (1908);  »nd 
an  introductlDn  to  E,  P.  Whipple's  'Charles 
Dickens>  (1912). 

BATES,  Barnabas,  American  clei^iymati; 
an  active  promoter  of  cheap  postage  in  the 
United  States:  b.  Edmonton,  Englan<i  1785;  d. 
Boston,  Mass^  11  Oct.  1853.  He  came  to  Amer- 
ica at  an  early  age,  became  a  Baptist  preacher 
in  Rhode  Island,  and  was,  for  a  time,  collector 
of  the  port  of  Bristol.  In  1825,  having  become 
a  Unitarian,  he  established  a  weekly  journal 
in  New  York  called  the  Christian  fnquirer. 
During  Jackson's  administration  he  received  an 
appointment  under  Samuel  Gouvemeur,  post- 
master of  New  York,  and  for  some  lime  per- 
formed the  duties  of  postmaster  himself.  The 
information  gained  in  this  capacity  first  inter- 
ested him  in  the  question  of  cheap  postage.  He 
investigated  the  subject  for  years,  wrote,  pub- 
lished pamphlets  and  lectured  throu^out  the 
country,  and  finally  effected  a  matenal  reduc- 
tion in  the  rates  of  land  postage.  He  was  en- 
deavoring to  obtain  a  corresponding  reform  in 
ocean  postage  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

BATES,  Blanche,  American  actress:  h. 
Portland,  Ore.,  1873.  She  made  her  first  ap- 
pearance in  1894  in  San  Francisco,  taking 
a  part  in  Brander  Matthews'  one-act  play, 
*This  Picture  and  That.'  Her  first  success 
was  as  Mrs.  Hillary  in  'The  Senator,'  and  she 
has  played  the  leading  comedy  role  in  'The 
Last  Word,'  'The  Railroad  of  Love,'  'Transit 
of  Leo'  and  'The  Intfimational  Match,'  Her 
acting  of  Nora  in  'A 'Doll's  House*  (the  first 
Ibsen  play  presented  on  the  Pacific  coast)  was 
31  dbtinct  artistic  trium^    She  has  also  taken 


leading  parts  in  'The  Charity  Ball,'  'Sweet 
Lavender, '  'The  Dancing  Girl, '  and  others. 
Her  phenomenal  success  m  'The  Great  Ruby' 
(1899^  ;  as  Miladi  in  'The  Three  Musketeers' 
(1899)  ;  in  Long  and .Belasco's  'Darling  of  the 
Gods'  C19CB-03),  and  'The  Girl  of  the  Golden 
West'  (1905)  has  given  her  a  place  of  assured 

frominence  on  the  American  stage.  C 
trang,  'Famous  Actresses  of  the  Day' 
ton  1899). 

BATES,  Charlotte  PIske  (Madame  A 
Rocfi),  American  poet  and  miscellaneous  prose- 
writer;  b.  New  York,  30  Nov.  1838.  She  was 
educated  in  Cambridge,  Mass. ;  assisted  Long- 
fellow in  compiling  'Poems  of  Places' ;  edited 
the  'Cambridge  Book  of  Poetry  and  Song' 
(Boston  I8825  ;  'The  Longfellow  Birthday 
Book';  and  'Seven  Voices  of  Sympathy' ■  has 
contributed  to  magarines  and  published  'lUsks 
and  Other  Poems,*  a  volume  of  original  verse 
(1879).  She  married  in  1891  M.  Adolphe  Rogi, 
who  died  in  1896.  , 

BATES,  Edward.  American  lawyer:  b. 
Behnont,  Vk:,  4  Sept.  1793j  d,  25  March  1869. 
Having  settled  in  Missoun,  be  served  in  the 
legislature  and  Constitutional  Convention,  and 
in  CbiUTess  in  1827-29.  He  was  Attomey- 
Generafof  the  United  States  in  Lincoln's  first 
administration;  and  had  been  a  candidate  for 
the   presidential   nomination   in   1860, 

BATBSj  John  Coalter,  American  military 
officer;  b.  Samt  Charleis  County,  Mo.,  26  Aug. 
1842.  He  entered  the  regular  army  as  a  lieu- 
tenant in  the  11th  United  States  mfantry,  14 
May  1861,  and  served  on  the  staff  of  General 
Meade  from  the  battle  of  Gettysburg  to  the 
close  of  the  war.  On  4  May  1898  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  for 
die  war  with  Spain,  and  on  8  July  was  pro- 
moted to  major^eneral  for  his  services  in  the 
Santiago  campaign.  In  February  1899  he  was 
appointed  military  governor  of  the  province 
of  Santa  Gara,  Cuba,  and  in  April  following, 
was  ordered  to  duty  in  the  Philippines.  In 
March  1900  be  was  assigned  to  the  command 
of  the  department  of  southern  Luzon,  and  for 
his  eminent  services  there  and  on  the  Sulu 
group  was  promoted  major-general,  9  June 
1902.  In  February  1906  he  became  heutenant- 
general  succeeding  (^eral  CfaaSee  as  chief 
of  staff,  and  in  April  1906  he  retired. 

BATES,  Joshua,  American  financier :  b. 
Weymouth,  Mass.,  1788;  d.  24  Sept.  1864.  In 
1828  he  became  a  member  of  the  house  of 
Baring  Brothers  &  Company,  in  Loudon,  and 
subsequently  its  senior  partner.  In  1854  he 
was  a_ppointed  umpire  to  the  joint  British  and 
American  Commission  for  the  settlement  of 
claims  arising  from  the  War  of  1812.  He  was 
the  principal  founder  of  the  Boston  Public 
Library,  and  in  1852,  the  first  year  of  its  ex- 
istence, he  made  it  a  gift  of  $50,000,  and  later 
pave  it  30,000  volumes.  Its  main  reading-room 
15  named  'Bates  Hall*  in  his  honor. 

BATES,  Katharine  Lee,  American  poet 
and  educator:  b.  Falmouth,  Mass..  12  Aug. 
1859.  A6.  Wellesley  Collegtj.  1880;  A.M. 
1891;  Litt.D.  Middleburv  College,  1914.  She 
was  called  to  the  English  literature  depart- 
ment of  Wellesley  College.  1885,  made  asso- 
riate  professor  in  1888,  professor  in  1891. 
Has   edited   various    English    dassics,   i     '    * 


Lioogle 


830 


BATES  — BATH 


ing  the  Heywood  volume  in  the  Belles  Let- 
tres  Series  (1916)  and  written  other  t>ooks 
on  professional  lines,  as  'The  English  Reli' 
{pons  Drama'  (1893)  and  'HtsEoiy  of  Amer- 
ican Literature'  (1898)  ;  has  traveled  in 
Eur(M>e,  Egypt,  Palestine,  and  published  sev- 
eral twoks  as  fmit  of  these  travels:  'Spanish 
Highways  and  Byways'  (1900);  'From  Gret- 
na Green  to  Land's  End'  (J907);  <In  Sunny 
Spain,  a  Story'  (1913).  Her  vohimes  of 
poetry  are  'The  CoU«e  Beautiful*  (1887); 
'Sunshine'  (1890)  ;  'The  Story  of  (Hiaueer's 
Canterbury  Pilgrims  Retold  for  Children' 
(1909);    'America  the  Beautiful'    (1911). 

BATES,  Samuel  Petwiiman,  American  his- 
torian: b.  Mendon,  Mass.,  29  Jan:  1827;  d. 
1902.  He  was  principal  of  Meadville  Acad- 
emy, Pa, ;  superintendent  of  schools  in  Craw- 
ford County  Pa..  1857-60:  deputy  sUle  super- 
intendent of  schools,  1860-66;  and  StErte  his- 
torian, 1866-73.  Among  his  publications  are 
the  'Lives  of  the  Governors  of  Pennsylva- 
nia>  (1873)  ;  'Lectures  on  Mental  and  Moral 
Culturc>  (I8S9):  'History  of  the  Battle  of 
Gettysburg'  (1878) ;  'Hislory  of  the  Battle 
of  Chancellorsville'  (1882)  ;  'History  of  Col- 
leges in  Pennsylvania.' 

BATE'S  CASE,  an  English  historical  inci- 
dent of  much  significance  as  marldng  the 
opening  of  the  struggle  of  Parliament  with 
the  Siuart  kings.  Jomi  Bate,  a  London  mer- 
chant, having  refused  to  pay  certain  duties 
levied  without  consent  of  Parliament,  was 
sent  to  prison  by  the  royal  officers.  The 
Commons  supported  Bate,  but  the  king's 
authority  to  levy  impositions  on  exports  and 
imports  was  smtained  by  the  Court  of  Ex- 
chequer. 

BATES  COLLEOB,  LewiUon,  Me.,  was 
opened  in  1863  and  chartered  in  1864.  It 
grew  out  of  Maine  State  Seminary,  a  second- 
ary school  opened  in  1857.  The  college  was 
founded  by  its  first  president,  Rev.  Oren 
Burbank  Cheney,  D.D.  (1863-94).  and  bears 
the  name  of  its  chief  benefactor,  Benjamin 
Edward  Bates,  a  merchant  of  Boston  and  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  city  of  Lewiston. 
Bates  was  <he  first  Eastern  college  to  afford 
collegiate  education  to  women  and  its  first 
woman  graduate  (1869)  became  a  professor 
in  Vassar  College.  Bates  is  undenominational 
but  thoroughly  Christian.  Its  faculty  rep- 
resents nine  different  rcli^ous  denominations 
and  the  leading  universities  and  colleges  of 
the  United  States.  It  places  primary  stress 
upon  character,  does  not  tolerate  haiing  and 
makes  abstinence  from  ititoxicatine  drinks  a 
condition  of  student  membership.  Its  courses 
of  instruction  cover  the  range  of  undergrad- 
uate studies  as  pursued  in  progressive  col- 
leges of  to-day.  The  unusual  excellence  of 
its  courses  in  English,  including  argumenta- 
tion, is  indicated  by  its  30  victories  m  38  in- 
tercollcEiaic  debates.  Alone  among  New 
England  colleges.  Bates  has  no  secret  frater- 
nities. It  has  chemical,  physical  and  biologi- 
cal laboratories,  libraries  containing  more 
than  40.000  volumes  and  a  spacious  athletic 
field.  Its  campus  of  45  acres  is  of  rare  nat- 
ural beauty  and  with  its  15  buildinf^  (includ- 
iuR  a  chapel,  Carnegie  science  building  and 
library)  has  a  value  of  $597,000.  Its  invested 
funds  amount  to  $930,000.  About  43  per  cent 
of  its  graduates  have  become  teachers.     For 


the  last  20  years  the  ntimber  of  its  nadnain 
at  the  head  of  city  high  schools  in  New  Eng- 
land is  believed  to  have  exceeded  those  of 
any  other  college.  Bates  has  102  scholarships 
and  it  so  shapes  its  poliqr  as  to  help  studenli 
of  small  means  to  meet  their  own  expaises.  The 
college  has  34  officers  and  instructors  and 
472   students. 

BATBSVILLE,  Ark.,  city  and  county-seat 
of  Independence  County,  on  the  White  River 
and  on  a  branch  of  the  Saint  Louis,  I.  U. 
ft  S.  Railroad,  115  miles  northeast  of  Littk 
Rock.  It  is  the  seat  of  Arkansas  Colleee, 
founded  1872,  a  Presbyterian  institution;  abo 
of  a  Masonic  Home  and  School  and  of  an 
Odd  Fellows'  Home  and  Sdiool  for  Widow) 
and  Orphans.  The  river  is  navigable  for 
steamboats  to  this  point  and  the  United  States 
gtivemraent  has  provided,  at  a  cost  of  over 
S3,0D0;OO0;  a  system  of  locla  and  dams  to  in- 
sure navigation  for  100  miles  above  the  town 
It  contains  inunense  quarries  of  marble  and 
other  stone  in  which  It  carries  on  a  large 
export  trade  and  has  woolen  mills,  flouring 
mills,  furniture  factories,  municipal  electric 
lighting  and  power  plants,  waterworks,  etc. 
Pop.    (1910)    3,400. 

BATFISH,  a  sea-fish  (Malthe  vnpertUio) 
of  low  organization,  constkuting  the  family 
Maltheida,  allied  to  Ae  goose£shes  (Lo- 
pkiida),  which  creeps  about  the  bottom  like 
a  huge  toad  and  feeds  upon  whatever  comes 
within  its  reach.  It  is  numerous  in  all  warm 
seas  and  some  related  forms  inhabit  the 
deeper  parts  of  the  ocean.     See  Goosefisb. 

BATH.  As  the  most  andent  records  of 
the  human  race  refer  to  the  use  of  the  badi  it 
is  probably  safe  to  surmise  that  the  prdistoric 
peoples  early  discovered  the  cleansiiur  effect  of 
water  and  were  eager  to  enjoy  it  "To  the  an- 
cient Egyptians,  as  to  the  more  modern  Mo- 
hammeduis,  it  is  a  part  of  their  religious 
service,  while  among  the  early  Hebrews  it  was 
not  only  one  of  the  first  purificative  duties  but 
it  was  positively  prescribed  by  the  Mosaic  law 
in  certam  spccined  cases  of  uncleanness.  Thus 
the  lew  who  bad  no  bath  in  the  court  yard  ol 
his  house,  bathed  in  the  streams,  or,  later,  in 
the  mixed,  or  public  bath,  while,  besides  water, 
bran  was  often  used  for  ceremonial  cleansing, 
especially  by  the  women,  just  as  the  modern 
Arabs,  when  unable  to  obtain  water,  tub  ihem- 
selves  clean  with  sand.     See  Ablution. 

The  earliest  and  most  common  form  of 
bathing  was,  of  course,  that  of  swimniinc  in 
rivers,  and  bathing  in  such  rivers  as  the  Nile 
and  the  Ganges  was  supposed  to  possess  a  re- 
ligious significance  which  tended  to  make  the 
practice  a  very  popular  one.  The  use  of  Otb 
and  the  greater  luxury  of  perfumes  became 
customary  on  occasions  of  sanitary  bathing  at 
a  VBiy  early  period.  In  later  times  the  more 
wealthy  Romans  possessed  many  kinds  of  «» 
and  pomades  which  they  brought  to  the  batos, 
that  their  bodies  might  be  anomted  with  thero, 
while  even  the  poorest  classes  rubbed  Aor 
bodies  with  flour  of  lentils  after  the  bath. 

The  first  reference  to  tucb  a  convenience  as 
that  of  a  public  bath  occurs  in  the  Bible,  where 
IE  is  stated  that  die  bathing  "pools*  were  some- 
times sheltered  by  porticoes,  but  this  was  > 
■imde  invention  whoi  compared  to  die  perfect 
bathing  facilities  wludi  were  afterward  P^ 


vided  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  whfle  the 
praise  lavished  upon  the  baths  of  Darins  by 
Akxandcr  the  Gre«t  indicates  that  the  Persians 
must  also  have  possessed  beantifaliy  appointed 
bathing  facilities. 

The  public  baths,  which  began  to  be  built  in 
Rome  uioitly  after  Qodius  had  succeeded  in 
supplying  the  city  wiA  water  from  Praencste, 
soon  beuime  one  of  the  most  popular  institu- 
tion* of  the  nation  and  emperors  vied  with  their 
predecessors  to  construct  the  largest  and  most 
elaborate  establishments.  As  the  result,  enor- 
mous buildings  were  erected  and  these  contained 
not  only  the  bathing  apartments  but  the  gym- 
nasia and  libraries,  or  even  dieatres,  and  the 
most  able  writers  of  that  tirae  admit  their  in- 
ability to  describe  the  magnificence  and  luxuri- 
ous appointment  of  many  of  these  palaces  of 
cleanlmcss  and  pleasure.  For  example.  Seneca 
says.  To  such  a  pitch  of  luxury  have  we  come 
Hat  we  are  dissatisfied  if  we  do  not  tread  on 
g«ns  in  onr  baths.*  These  baths,  or  thermtt, 
as  they  were  called,  contained  swimming  baths, 
warm  baths,  vapor  baths  and  baths  of  hot  and 

Wherever  the  Romans  settled  they  built  pub- 
He  baths,  and  wherever  they  found  hot  spnngs 
or  natural  stufie,  diey  made  use  of  them,  thus 
■aving  the  expense  of  heating,  as  at  Baite  and 
BadL  The  charge  made  at  a  public  bath  was 
only  a  quadraus,  or  about  one-quarter  cent. 

The  deheacy  of  feeling  concemisg  the  batb- 
injf  together  of  sexes  which  is  said  to  have 
existed  in  early  times  certainly  did  not  extend 
to  the  days  of  the  empire,  when  it  was  not  at 
all  uncommon  for  men  and  women  to  make  use 
of  die  nme  bath  and  it  was  probably  due  to 
this  practice  diat  the  public  baths  came  f     ' 


ness  of  the  bath  from  the  standpoint  of  cleanli- 
ness and  health,  the  Church  fathers  insisted  that 
baths  should  be  taken  for  socfa  purposes  only 
and  not  for  pleasure.  It  was  at  this  time  when 
the  bath  reached  the  height  of  luxuriousness; 
when  rich  citizens  had  magnificent  private  baths 
of  rheir  own  attached  to  uieir  villas,  and  when 
elaborate  private  bathing  houses  might  be  had 
for  hire  in  all  the  cities;  conditions  which  con- 
tinued until  about  the  5th  century,  when  the 
destruction  of  Rome's  water  supply  by  the 
Huns  and  Ae  many  disasters  which  ac«»n- 
panied  the  downfall  of  the  empire  tended  to 
turn  popular  attention  from  the  delights  of  the 
thertn<r.  How  thoroughly  the  bath  afterward 
fell  into  disuse,  however,  is  a  matter  which 
historians  have  been  unable  to  determine.  In 
the  East,  of  course,  where  the  heat  and  dust 
make  its  use  obligatory,  there  has  never  been 
any  diminution  in  the  practice,  and  while  in 
Euroge,  for  a  time  at  least,  perfumes  were  used 
to  offset  any  dissoreeable  odors  that  might 
arise  from  imcleanliness  of  the  person,  ttiis 
condition  could  not  have  existed  for  maOT 
centuries,  for,  by  the  latter  part  of  the  12th 
century,  the  popularity  of  the  bath  had  become 
so  well  re-estabUshed  that  there  was  scarcely 
any  large  city  in  Europe  which  did  not  possess 
-well-patronized  hot-air  bathing  houses.  Again 
in  the  I7th  century,  when  die  Turkish  bath 
■was  introduced,  there  was  another  revival  of 
interest  in  the  matter  of  personal  cleanliness, 
and  people  of  all  classes  flocked  to  the  t»ths, 
or  Himmans,  at  they  wen  called,  to  enjoy  the 


rH  381 

new  luxury  that  had  been  imported  from  the 
East 

While  the  Turkish  bath,'  not  to  mention  ttie 
Russian  and  Egypdan  baths,  are  so  similar  to 
the  hot-air  baus  of  the  Romans  that  many 
authorides  have  regarded  them  as  nothing  more 
or  less  than  an  out^wth  from  the  latter,  the 
fact  that  the  principle  of  the  vapor  bath  has 
been' known  to  many  nations,  and  has  even 
been  foimd  among  savages,  or  races  in  an 
early  stage  of  civilization,  has  led  to  the  more 
recent  and  counter  theory  that  the  hot-air  boxes 
of  the  Uexicans,  the  'medicine  sweats*  of  the 
American  Indians,  the  small  baths  of  the  an- 
cient inhabitants  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and 
the  larger  vapor  baths  of  Japan,  like  those  of 
Turkey  and  Russia,  are  of  just  as  independent 
origin  as  those  of  the  more  ancient  Rome. 
However  that  may  be  it  is  at  least  certain  that 
while  this  luxurious  form  of  bathing  was 
largely  responsible  for  the  neglect  of  the  cold 
bath  and  the  sea-battung,  the  virtues  of  which 
have  been  appreciated  onW  within  comparatively 
modem  times,  it  is  largely  due  to  the'  pleasure- 
able  sensations  resulting  from  this  form  of  bath 
that  the  various  nations  of  the  world  have  not 
neglected  those  principles  of  cleanliness  upon 
which  the  good  health  of  a  people  so  vitally 
depends. 

The  Cold  Batb^Tbe  first  effect  of  the 
cold  bath  (at  a  temperature  say  from  50'  to 
70° )  is  to  produce  a  shock  to  the  nerves  of  the 
skin.  In  the  case  of  the  cold  bath  as  ordi- 
narily used,  the  application  is  short,  and  the 
more  near  to  tbe  temperature  of  50°  F,  the 
vater  is  the  shorter  it  should  be.  Following  the 
first  acdon  is  reaction,  during  which  the  blood 
returns  to  the  stdn,  the  blood-vessels  of  which 
relax,  and  a  pleasant  sensation  of  glow,  spread- 
ing rapidly  over  the  surface,  is  experienced. 
This  reaction  is  aided  hy  rapid  friction  of  the 
skin,  as  b);  towels,  and  if,  after  drying,  the 
body  is  quickly  clothed  and  exercise  engaged 
in,  the  total  effect  of  the  bath  is  stimulating, 
inducing  a  feeling  not  onlj;  of  warmth  but  also 
of  vigor.  The  length  of  time  the  cold  may  be 
applied  without  interfering  with  the  setting  in 
of  a  proper  reaction  depends  on  the  individual. 
A  mere  instant's  immersion  is  sufficient  for 
some,  others  can  bear  several  minutes,  while 
some  could  not  bear  complete  immersion  of  the 
body  at  all,  a  feeling  of  coldness  and  shivering 
lastmg  for  hours  after  it.  Obviously  for  such 
persons  the  full  cold  bath  is  not  suitable,  and 
the  cold  wet  towel,  cold  wet  sponge,  wet  sheet, 
etc..  may  be  used  instead,  and  may  gradually 
lead  up  to  the  full  cold  plunge,  which  may  thus 
be  made  tolerable  and  enjoyable.  The  cold  bath 
is  not  usually  suitable  for  the  old  and  the  deli- 
cate. The  action  of  the  cold  water  may  be 
intensified  by  showering  it  or  spraying  it  on  the 
body  by  means  of  various  arrangements  of  pipes, 
etc  The  morning  or  early  part  of  die  day  is 
the  suitable  time  for  all  such  kinds  of  hath*. 
Persons  who  are  thus  habituated  to  the  use  of 
cold  water  are  less  susceptible  to  the  inflnence 
of   cold   and   can   stand   longer   exposure   than 

Tepid  Batha  (temperature  85°  to  95°)  pro- 
duce neither  depression  nor  excitemeni  and 
are  therefore  suited  for  all.  They  are  the  best 
when  prolonged  immersion  is  desired,  as  in 
the  treatment  of  chronic  sldn  and  nervous 
diseases. 


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Tbe  Wun  Bath  (um^raturc  96°  to  104°) 
is  particularly  serviceable  in  removing  feelings 
of  fatigue.  It  diould  qiucken  only  slightly 
the  circulation,  and  bring  an  additional  quan- 
ti^  of  blood  to  the  skin.  It  is  by  this  means 
that  it  removes  the  tired  feeling  from  ex- 
hatisted  miuclea,  for  it  promotes  the  removal 
from  the  tissues  of  the  waste  products,  which 
have  accumulated  during  the  period  of  activity, 
and  whose  presence  in  Uie  muscles  is  the  cause 
of  the  feehng  of  weariness.  After  prolonged 
labor,  or  a  long  fatiguing  walk,  or  prolonged 
exposure  to  damp  and  cold,  or  after,  for  ex- 
ample, the  exertion  of  much  dancing,  nothing 
is  so  restorative  and  refreshing  as  a  warm  bath. 
When  employed  for  such  purposes,  the  person 
should  end  with  a  spray  or  douche,  or  simple 
sponge  of  tepid  water  (70°)  if  he  is  about  ta 
go  to  bed,  or  with  a  warm  spray,  quickly  re- 
duced to  cold,  before  dressing  to  go  out.  Warm 
baths  are  largely  employed  in  feverish  affec- 
tions of  children  for  promoting  the  a^on  of 
the  sldn;  and  they  are  'a  safe  resort  in  the 
convulsions  of  children,  cold  being  at  the  same 
time  applied  to  the  head. 

The  Hot  Bath  (temperature  102°  to  110°) 
acts  in  a  more  pronounced  way  upon  the  heart 
and  nervous  system  than  the  merely  warm  bath. 
If  very  hot  it  powerfully  excites  the  heart, 
whose  action,  indeed,  it  may  stimulate  to  vio- 
lence. The  brain  is  also  influenced  by  the  more 
copious  flow  of  blood  throu^  it,  due  to  the 
vigorous  action  of  the  heart  These  effects, 
however,  are  largely  counterbalanced  by  the 
increased  flow  of  blood  to  the  skin.  But  the 
prolonged  use  of  hot  baths  is  weakening,  and 
the  temporary  strain  thrown  upon  the  heart 
and  blood-vessels  and  brain  would  be  hurtful 
to  many.  The  bather  should  be  immersed  to 
the  chin:  the  hair  is  damped  with  cold  water 
and  a  thin  cold  cloth  is  wrapped  about  the 
head.  Cold  water  may  be  drunk  if  desired. 
The  bath  should  last  20  minutes,  or  less  if 
oppression' is  felt.  It  should  conclude,  as  di- 
rected for  warm  bath,  with  tepid  douche  or 
sponging,  or  with  warm  Spray  quickly  reduced 
to  cold.  The  hot  bath  should  not  be  used  in 
the  morning  or  early  part  of  the  day,  or  at  any 
time  except  before  going  to  beiL  unless  the 
person  is  pros>erly  cooled  down  before  dresung 
and  going  out. 

The  Hot-air  Bath  is  one  of  the  most 
powerful  irays  of  stimulating  the  activity  of 
ttie  skin.  The  jKrson,  unclothed,  is  placed  in 
an  apartment  which  is  heated  by  means  of  fur- 
naces, the  air  being  dry.  In  a  longer  or  shorter 
time,  according  to  the  heat  at  the  air  and  the 
condition  of  the  bather,  the  perspiration  bursts 
out  upon  the  skin,  becoming  very  copious,  so 
that  the  whole  body  is  bathed  in  sweat  A  very 
high  temperature  may  be  borne  so  long  as  the 
air  is  quite  dry,  for  the  sweat  passes  rapidly  off 
from  the  bod^  in  the  form  of  vapor,  removing 
a  lai^e  quantity  of  heat,  and  thus  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  body  does  not  rise,  unless  the  air 
is  very  hot,  when  the  heat  of  the  body  usually 
increases  by  two  or  three  degrees.  The  same 
high  temperature  could  not  be  borne  if  the  air 
were  moist,  as  in  the  case  of  a  vapor  bath,  tor 
then  the  air  is  saturated  or  nearly  so  with 
moisture  and  cannot  take  up  more,  or  can  take 
up  very  little,  Uarked  oppression,  difficulty  of 
breathing,  fullness  in  the  head,  faintness,  etc., 
would  then   speedily  arise,     ^'hen  the  air  is 


qoite  dnr,  however  a  high  tcmperatare,  for  ex- 
ample that  of  180  F..  can  usually  be  endured 
with  ease,  and  even  above  212°.  Not  only  tbe 
activity  of  the  sldn  but  the  action  of  the  heart 
and  of  breathing  are  greatly  increased.  It  is 
thus  not  suited  for  eveiyone,  certainly  not  m 
its  full  form  for  anyone  with  weak  neart  or 
vessels  and  for  veiy  full-bkioded  persons. 

The  Turkish  Bath.— The  hot-air  bath  is 
usually  obtained  with  other  accessories  in  the 
fonn  of  the  Turkish  bath.  This  bath  was 
adopted  by  the  Turks  from  the  Romans,  who 
derived  it  from  the  Greeks.  The  bather  enters 
the  dressing-room  (Rom.  vettiarinm),  which  is 


equipped  Turkish  baths,  three  room*,  separated 
from  the  dressing- room  by  well- padded  doors. 
The  first  of  these  corresponds  to  the  Roman 
tefidanHm,  the  warm  room,  in  which  the  tem- 
perature is  from  115°  to  120°;  beyond  this  and 
separated  from  it  by  heavv  cnrtams  is  the  hot 
room,  or  caiidartHm,  in  wnich  ^e  temperature 
ranges  from  120°  to  140°;  and  still  beyond  is 
theliDttest  room,  called  also  the  flue  room,  cor- 
respmdtDg  to  the  Roman  laconimm.  Here  the 
temperature  i*  not  below  150°,  usually  175°  lo 
160  ,  but  may  be  200*  and  upward.  Every 
Turkish  bath  has  at  least  two  rooms  beyond 
the  dressing-room,  one  in  which  the  tempera- 
ture may  readily  be  raised  to  140°  or  thereabout, 
and  one  beyond  it  in  which  the  highest  tem- 
peratures may  be  obtained. 

When  a  full  Turkish  bath  is  taken  the  fol- 
lowing is  the  usual  cmnse:  The  bather  un- 
dresses in  one  of  the  curtained  recesses  of  the 
dressing-room,  girds  a  towel  or  similar  clolb 
round  his  loins,  and  carrying  a  badi-towel  over 
the  arm  passes  into  the  warm  room.  Here  he 
stays  only  long  enough  to  wet  the  hair  with 
cold  water,  and  perhaps  drink  of  it  and  then 
passes  on  through  the  hot  room,  into  the  hottest 
room.  Spreading  his  towel  over  a  chair  he 
reclines  on  it  wets  his  head  with  cold  water, 
and  drinks  at  his  pleasure,  but  not  too  copiously, 
of  cold  water,  which  the  attendant  will  bring 
him.  Here  he  remains  five  or  10  minutes.'  By 
this  time  the  whole  bodv  will  be  bedewed  with 
perspiration ;  and  the  Sather  passes  out  info 
the  room  next  in  temperature,  the  hot  room, 
where  he  reclines  for  another  10  or  15  minutes. 
Then  he  passes  to  the  warm  room,  lower  in 
temperature  than  the  former,  and  here  he  re- 
clines till  the  attendant  is  ready  for  him,  when 
he  proceeds  to  the  washing  room.  Here  he  lies 
on  a  table  and  the  attendant  goes  over  tbe 
whole  bod^,  rubbing  die  surface,  and  thus  re- 
moving all  loose  effete  skin,  gras[Nng  and 
kneading  the  muscles,  bending  joints  and  so  OB- 
He  is  tfaeti  rubbed  over  with  soap,  scrubbed  and 
washed  down,  and  lastly  douched  with  warm 
and  then  tepid  and  cold  water.  From  this  room 
the  bather  passes  out  quickly,  plunges  tLrougb 
a  cold  batn,  and  regains  the  dressing-rooiD, 
where  he  is  quickly  dried  down  with  warn 
dry  toWels.  He  is  then  enveloped  in  a  d^' 
bath-towel,  and  so  attired  he  lies  down  od  w 
couch  in  the  dressing-room,  covered  over  W™ 
a  li^t  rug  or  blanket,  tiU  his  slrin  aitumcs  in 
natural  degree  of  warmth.  When  the  skin  ■> 
cool  and  dry.  usually  in  15  or  20  minutes,  tke 
badier  dresses  deliberately,  and  m^  Aen  go 
out  The  ordinary  dtiration  of  tbe  full  batn. 
from  the  flue  room  to  the  washing  room,  » 

,1,  .1 :  Google 


from  40  minutes  to  an  hour.  The  full  bmtk 
however,  is  suited  chiefly  for  those  accustomed 
to  i^  for  the  healthy  and  robust. 

The  vapor  bath  acts  upon  the  body  much 
IS  the  hot-water  bath  does,  but  it  acts  more 
powerfully,  though  the  effect  of  the  heat  is  not 
so  quick  since  vapor  is  a  slower  conductor  of 
heat  than  water.  This  bath  can,  therefore,  be 
borne  hotter  than  a  water  bath,  but  the  high 


fion  of  common  sah  or  sea  salt  to  water.  The 
benefits  of  open-air  bathing;—  sea  or  river, — 
are  not  limited,  of  course,  to  the  action  of  tiie 
water,  but  are  increased  by  the  action  of  the 
fresh  air,  the  respiration  of  which  is  stimulated 
by  the  bath,  and  by  the  exercise  in  the  open  air 
invariably  indulged  in  afterward. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  medicated  baths, 
which  have,  or  are  supposed  to  have,  special 


body  as  hot  air  does.  The  temperature  of  the 
vapor  bath  cannot  be  comfortably  endured 
above  120"  F.  The  vapor  bath  is  characteristic 
of  the  Russian  baths.  It  is  taken  in  •  chamber 
filled  with  vapor,  which  is  thus  not  onW  ap- 
^ied  to  the  surface  of  the  body  but  also  inhaled. 
This  makes  it  still  more  oppressive.  It  may  be 
used,  however,  in  a  simple  form,  in  which  the 
vapor  is  not  breathe*^  by  the  person  sitting  on 
a  chair,  surrounded  from  the  neck  downward 
by  blankets,  which  envelop  the  chair  also  and 
hang  to  the  ground.  Under  the  chair  is  placed 
a  shallow  earthenware  or  metal  dish,  containing 
boiling  water  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four 
inches.  In  the  water  are  placed  a  couple  of 
red-hot  bricks.  Or  under  the  chair  may  be 
placed  a  spirit-lamp,  supported  above  it  bdne: 
a  shallow  pan  containing  boiling  water.  Such 
baths  are  very  useful  for  catarrh,  for  rheumatic 
and  neuralgic  pains,  sciatica,  etc,  as  well  as 
for  cases  where  excessive  action  of  the  skin  is 


for  exposure  in  the  vapor  bath. 

8ea-Bathinc.— OTdinaiT  sea-bathing  is  of 
course  cold,  ana  produces  the  stimulating  effects 
described  in  resard  to  the  cold  bath.  There  is 
besides  the  additional  stimulus  due  to  the  salt, 
so  that  sea-bathing  acts  as  an  invigorating  tonic 
It  is  not,  however,  suited  for  everyone,  and  is 
taken  much  too  indiscriminately.  It  is  also 
indulged  in  witiiout  due  precaution.     *'    '~ 

very  common  error  for  persons  to  — 

the  sea  too  long,  the  result  being  shivering, 
blueness  of  the  skin,  difficulty  in  recovering 
warmth,  headache,  etc  Persons  who  are 
anemic,—  that  is,  of  deficient  quality  of  blood, — 
ougjit    not   to   indulge    in    sea-bathing   without 


suffered  from  any  internal  complaint  ought  also 
to  refrain.  The  best  time  for  sea-bathing  is  in 
the  morning.  It  should  never  be  indulged  in 
immediately  after  a  meal,  when  the  business  of 
digestion  is  going  actively  forward.  A  good 
time  is  before  lunch  or  early  dinner,  for  which 
the  brisk  walk  home  after  the  bath  will  prove 
an  excellent  appetizer.  ■  Neither  should  sea- 
bathing be  engaged  hi  immediately  after  very 
active  exercise,  when  the  body  is  m  a  state  of 
very  active  perspiration  or  in  a  condition  of 
fatigue.  At  the  same  time,  moderate  exerdse 
before  the  bath  is  unobjectionable,  and  the 
body  ought  to  be  comfortably  warm.  The  per- 
son should  undress  ouickly  and  plunge  in  bodily, 
wetting  the  whole  body  at  once.  During  the 
bath  exercise  should  be  active,  as  in  continued 
swimming.  Children,  because  of  the  little  re- 
sisting power  of  their  bodies,  are  readih  de- 
pressed by  sea-bathing.  They  may  be  gramially 
accustomed  to  it;  but  they  ou^t  not  to  be 
forcibly  immersed  to  their  aver^on  and  terror. 
Sea-baths  may  be  imitated  at  home  by  the  addi- 


, __   natural  mineral  waters  may  be 

used  for  the  purpose.     Mud-baths  are  recom- 
mended for  special  reasons. 

Various  arrangements  are  employed  for  ac- 
centuating the  effect  of  the  water,  whether  used 
hot  or  cold,  or  for  applying  it  to  particular 
parts  of  the  body.  The  sprsjy  is  one  well-known 
variety  of  bath.  The  douche  is  a  jet  of  water 
directed  u^on  some  part  of  the  body  through  a 
l^-inch  pipe,  the  force  of  the  water,  quantity 
discharged  and  temperature  being  ca^pable  of 
modification.  It  at  first  lowers  the  vitality  of 
the  part  to  which  it  is  applied,  but  reaction  seta 
in  quickly,  so  that  its  whole  effect  is  stimulatiiie, 
quickening  tissue  change.  The  douche  may  btt 
used  hot  or  cold,  or  one  after  the  other  in 
ra^d  succession,  a  change  which  is  most  stimu- 
lating of  all.  In  old-standing  complaints,  thick- 
enings about  joints,  stiff  joints,  etc,  it  is  a  very 
useful  application.  In  the  case  of  the  descend- 
ing douche,  the  iHpe  is  10  to  IS  feet  above  the 
floor  level,  and  for  the  horizontal  douche  ths 
pipe  is  four  feet  above  floor  level  In  the  former 
case  it  is  played  first  on  the  spine,  and  then 
shoulders,  nips,  arms  and  legs  in  succession. 
At  tiie  close  it  is  directed  on  to  the  chest  and 
head,  the  force  of  the  water  being  broken  by 
the  hands.  In  the  latter  case  the  back,  chest, 
and  legs  are  douched  in  the  order  named. 


while  the  patient  rubs  himself  vigorously, 
fore  beginning  the  head  is  wet  with  cold  wi  .    , 
I  douched  last,  the  force  of  the  water  being 


broken.  Hie  process  should  last  scarcely  two 
minutes. 

The  sitz-bath  or  hip-bath  is  a  means  of 
limiting  the  application  of  the  water  to  the 
hips  and  nei^horing  parts.  The  form  of  the 
bathing-tub  is  such  wat  the  person  has  the  hadt 
in  the  sitting  posture,  the  limbs  and  upper  part 
of  the  body  being  out  of  the  bath.  The  siti- 
bath,  hot  or  cold  accordiw  to  circnro stances, 
is  in  much  use  for  abdominal  and  liver  com* 

f taints,  and  specially  for  feminine  ailments. 
ts  soothing  effects  used  hot  in  such  disorder* 
are  marked.  Altogether  the  use  of  4e  bath, 
in  association  with  treatment  by  medicine,  is 
of  the  highest  value  in  numerous  disorders, 
rheumatic,  gouty,  digestive,  febrile,  etc.  In 
particular,  the  Turkish  bath,  under  due  Miper- 
tntendeoce,  may  produce  surprising  results, 
from  checking  a  simple  cold  upward.  See  also 
HyniOTHERAPY. 

BATH,  England,  city  in  Somersetshire,  107 
miles  west  of  London.  It  is  beautifully  sit- 
uated on  the  Avon,  in  a  narrow  valley  bound- 
ed on  the  northeast  and  southwest  by  hills 
and  iridening  on  the  northwest  into  rich  and 
extensive  meadows.  The  Avon  is  navigable 
from  Bath  to  Bristol  Bath  is  noted  for  its 
places  of  amusement,  its  fine  streets  and  the 


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884 


BATH  — BATH  HOUSBS 


magnificeiiGC  of  its  public  buildings.  The 
houses  are  of  superior  conrtruction,  built  ol 
freestone,  obtainea  from  the  hills  about  the 
town.  The  Abbey  Church  ranks  as  one  of 
the  finest  specimens  of  perpendicular  Gothic 
architecture;  The  beauty  and  sheltered  char- 
acter of  its  situation,  the  mildness  of  its  cli- 
mate and  especially  the  curative  t&cucy  of 
its  hot  chalybeate  springs  have  long  rendered 
Bath  a  favorite  fashionable  resort.  The  four 
principal    springs   yield   no    less    than   184,000 

E lions  of  water  a  day;  and  the  baths  are 
th  elegant  and  commodious.  The  temper- 
ature of  the  springs  varies  from  109*  to  117* 
F.  They  contain  carbonic  add,  chloride  of 
sodium  and  of  magnesium,  sulphate  of  soda, 
carbonate  and  sulmtate  of  lime,  etc.  Baih 
was  founded  by  the  Romans  and  called  by 
them  Aquae  Solis  (waters  of  the  sun). 
Among  the  Roman  remains  discovered  here 
have  been  some  fine  baths.  The  height  of  its 
prosperity  was  reached,  however  in  the  18th 
century,  when  Beau  Nash  was  leader  of  the 
fashion  and  master  of  its  ceremonies.  Since 
then,  althoueh  it  still  attracts  large  numbers 
of  visitors,  It  hat  become  the  resort  of  val- 
etudinarians chiefly.  Jointly  with  Wells  it  is 
the  head  of  a  diocese  and  returns  two  mem- 
bers to  the  House  of  Commons.  Bath  has 
many  handsome  public  buildings,  among 
them  beinK  the  Guild  Hall,  technical  schools, 
an  art  Rallery  and  reference  library,  and  the 
Royal  Literary  and  Scientific  institution. 
There  are  several  fine  parks,  including  the 
1  Park,  of  about  50  acres,  containing  a 


Icets.     Pop.   50,729. 

BATH,  Me.,  city,  jport  of  entry,  and  county- 
Mat  of  Sagadahoc  County,  on  the  Kennebec 
River  and  the  Maine  C.  Railroad;  12  miles 
from  the  ocean  and  30  miles  south  of  Aiwusta 
aod  36  miles  northeast  of  Portland.  It  ii  ad- 
mirably situated  as  a  commercial  port ;  has 
regular  steamboat  connections  with  Boston  and 
Portland;  is  principally  engaged  in  shipbuilding, 
both  wood  and  iron ;  ana  manufactures  brass 
and  iron  goods,  oil  cloth,  shoes  and  lumber. 
The  Bath  Iron  Works  built  the  gunboats 
Machiat  and  Coiline,  the  ram  Katakdin  and 
several  of  the  modem  torpiedo  boats  for  die 
United  States  navy.  Bath  has  a  large  coastwise 
and  foreign  trade  in  ice,  coal,  lumber,  hay,  iron 
and  steel;  and  contains  four  national  banks, 
public  library,  a  costly  system  of  waterworks, 
and  property  valued  at  $7,000,000.  Bath  dates 
from  a  mission  settlement  of  1660.  It  was  in- 
corporated as  the  town  of  Bath  in  1781  and 
received  a  dty.  charier  in  1847,  revised  in  1899 
which  provides  for  a  one-year  term  mayor  and 
a  bicameral  city  council.     Pop  9,396. 

BATH,  N.  Y.,  town  and  coun^-seat  of 
Stuben  County,  on  the  Cohocton  Creek,  36 
miles  west  of  Elmira,  on  the  Buffalo  branch  of 
the  Erie  and  the  Delaware,  L.  &  W.  railroads. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  New  Yoric  SUte  Soldiers 
and  Sailors'  Home  the  Davenport  Home  for 
Orphan  Girls  and  Haverling  Academy ;  is  prin- 
cipally engaged  in  agriculture;  and  manufac- 
tures shoes,  harness,  window  shades,  cycles, 
automobile  engines  and  aeroplanes.  Bath  was 
settled  in  1793  and  incorporated  in  1816.    Pop. 


BATH,  Knights  of  the,  an  Engli^  order 
of  chivalry  established  in  1725  by  George  L 
By  die  book  of  statutes  then  prepared,  the  num- 
ber of  knights  was  fixed  at  38,  namely,  the 
sovereign  and  37  knights  companions.  The 
King  allowed  the  chapel  of  Henry  VII,  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  to  be  the  chapel  of  the 
order.  The  limits  of  the  order  were  extended 
try  the  Prince  Regent  in  1815,  to  reward  the  dis- 
tinguished services  of  officers  during  the  wars; 
and  again  in  1847,  when  it  was  also  opened  to 
civilians.  It  was  further  enlarged  in  1861.  It 
now  consists  of  three  classes,  each  of  which  is 
subdivided  into  (1)  military  members;  (2) 
civil  members,  and  (3)  honorary  members,  con- 
sisting of  foreign  pnnces  and  officers.  The  first 
class  consists  of  Knic^ts  Grand  Cross  (G.C. 
B.) ;  the  second  ot  Knights  Commanders 
(KCB.)  ;  and  the  third  of  Companions  <CB.) 
Mr.  James  W.  Gerard,  formerly  United  States 
Ambassador  to  Germany,  was  decorated  by 
King  Gcoi^e  with  the  G.C.B.  in  1917.  The 
title  of  'Sir,*  however,  can  only  be  assumed 
after  the  ceremony  of  the  'accolade*  (0^) 
has  been  performed  by  the  sovereign.  The 
dean  of  Westminster  is  dean  ot  the  order.  The 
ribbon  of  the  order  is  crimson,  and  its  motto, 
'Tria  juncta  in  uno.* 

BATH  HOUSES,  PnbUc.  Bathing  as 
serving  for  cleanliness,  health  and  for  pleasure, 
has  been  almost  instinctively  [practised  ^  near^ 
every  peojile.  The  most  andent  records  men- 
tion bathing  in  the  rivers  Nile  and  Ganges. 
From  an  early  period  the  Jews  bathed  in  run- 
ning water  ana  used  hot  and  cold  baths;  so 
also  did  the  Greeks.  The  Persians  must  have 
had  handsomely  equipped  baths,  for  Alexander 
the  Great  admired  the  luxury  of  the  bath  ot 
Darius.  But  the  baths  of  the  Greeks  and  prob- 
ably of  all  Eastern  nations  were  on  a  small 
scale  as  compared  with  those  which  eventually 
sprang  up  among  the  Romans. 

In  early  times  the  Romans  used,  after  exer- 
cise, to  throw  themselves  into  the  Tiber.  Next, 
when  ample  suppUes  of  water  were  brought  into 
the  city,  large  ptscintg,  or  cold  swimming  baths, 
were  constructeA  the  earliest  of  which  appear 
to  have  been  the  pisdtta  publico  (312  b.c) 
near  the  Grcus  Maxim  us,  supplied  by  the 
Appian  aqueduct,  the  lavacrum  of  A^roina 
and  a  bath  at  the  end  of  the  Qivus  Capitolinus. 
Next,  small  public  as  well  as  private  baths  were 
built;  and  with  the  empire  more  luxurious 
forms  of  bathing  were  introduced,  and  warm 
baths  became  far  more  papular  than  cold  baths. 
Public  baths  (fiainta)  were  first  built  in  Rome 
after  C3odius  brought  in  the  supply  of  wate( 
from  Praeneste.  After  that  date,  baths  be^ 
to  be  common  in  Rome  and  in  other  Italian 
cities.  In  tact,  private  baths  gradually  came 
into  use,  bein^  usually  attached  to  the  villas  of 
the  wealthy  citizens.  Maecenas  was  one  of  the 
first  who  built  public  baths  at  tus  own  e3q»e[ise. 
After  this  time,  each  emperor,  as  he  wished  to 
ingratiate  himself  with  the  people,  lavished  the 
revenues  of  the  state  in  the  construction  o£ 
enormous  buildings,  which  not  only  contained 
suites  of  bathing  apartments,  but  included 
nvinasia,  and  sometimes  even  theatres  and 
hbraries.  Such  establishments  went  by  the  name 
ot  Tkernur.  The  prindpal  therms  were  those 
of  Agrippa  .(21  B.C).  of  Nero  (65  a,d,),  of 
Titus    (81   A.D.>,   of   Domitian   (95  A.D.),  of 


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BATH  HOUfiBS 


88e 


CaracalU  <217  A.a),  and  still  later  those  of 
IMocIetian  (3<K  A.D.)  and  of  Constantine  (317 
*.D.).  There  are  said  to  have  been  850  baths 
altogether  in  Rome  at  one  period.  The  technical 
skill  displayed  hy  the  Romans  in  rendering;  their 
walls  and  the  aides  of  reservoirs  impervious  to 
moisture,  in  conveying  and  heating  water,  and 
in  conslructine  flues  for  the  conveyance  of 
hot  air  throu^  the  walls,  was  of  the  hi^est 
order.  The  Roman  baths  contained  swimming 
pools,  warm  baths  of  hot  air  and  vapor  baths. 
The  l;is(ina  were  often  of  immense  size  — that 
of  Diocletian  bein^  200  feet  long  — and  were 
adorned  with  beautiful  marbles.  Wherever  the 
Romans  settled,  Ihey  built  public  baths,  and  the 
ruins  of  such  have  been  found  in  all  the 
countries  which  at  any  time  were  subject  to  the 
Roman  eagles  — Gaul  (France),  Spain,  Ger- 
many, England,  etc'  It  ma^  be  well  to  point 
oat  that  none  of  those  public  baths  was  free: 
on  the  contrary  they  were  usually  patronized 
only  by  the  upper  classes.  It  has  remained  for 
the  modem  at;^  to  adopt  free  public  baths  as 
part  of  its  service  to  the  pubhc. 

Although  they  never  wholly  gave  up  cold- 
'  water  bathing,  the  Romans  practised  chiefly 
warm  bathing.  This,  of  course,  is  more  lux- 
urious, but  when  indulged  in  to  excess  is 
enervating.  The  unbounded  Ucense  of  the  pub- 
lic baths,  and  their  connection  with  modes  of 
amusement  that  were  condemned,  led  to  their 
being  to  a  considerable  extent  oroscribed  by 
the  early  Christians.  The  early  Fathers  wrote 
that  bathinK  might  be  practised  for  the  sake  of 
cleanliness,  but  not  for  pleasure.  About  the 
5th  century  many  of  the  lai^  thermx  in  Rome 
fell  into  decay.  The  cutting  off  of  the  aqueduct 
by  the  Huns,  and  the  gradual  decrease  in  popo* 
lation  contributed  to  this.  PubHc  bathing,  how- 
ever, was  kept  up  in  full  vigor  in  Alexandria 
and  elsewhere.  Hot  bathing,  and  especially  hot 
air  and  vapor  bathf,  were  adopted  W  the  Mo- 
hammedans; and  the  Arabs  brought  them  with 
them  to  Spain.  The  Turks  at  a  later  time 
carried  them  high  up  the  Danube.  The 
Crusaders  also  contributed  to  the  Spread  of 
badis  in  Europe,  and  hot  vapor  baths  were 
especially  recomniended  for  the  leprosy  so 
prevalent  in  thote  days.  After  the  commence- 
ment of  the  13th  century,  there  were  few 
large  cities  in  Europe  without  vapor  baths. 
According  to  Erasmus,  th<^  were  common  M 
the  time  of  the  Reformation  in  France,  Ger- 
many and  Belgium;  they  seem  to  have  been  ft 
common  adjunct  to  inns.  After  a  time  they 
became  less  common,  but  the  reason  for  the 
decline  b  not  clear. 

In  England  the  next  revival  of  baths  wu 
at  the  close  of  the  l7th  century,  under  the 
Elastern  name  of  hummans,  or  the  Italian  name 
of  bagnios.  These  were  avowedly  conducted 
on  the  principle  of  the  Turkish  baths  of  the 
present  day.  But  there  were  several  consider- 
able epochs  in  the  history  of  baths,  one  in  the 
commencement  of  the  18th  century,  when  Floyer 
and  others  recalled  attention  to  cold  bathing, 
of  which  the  virtues  had  long  been  overlooked. 
In  the  middle  of  the  century  also^  Russell  and 
others  revived  sea  bathing  in  England,  and 
were  followed  by  others  on  the  Continent,  until 
the  value  of  sea  bathing  became  fully  appreci- 
ated. Later  in  the  same  century,  the  experi- 
nients  of  James  Currie  of  the  action  of^  the 
complete  or  of  partial  baths  on  the  system  in 


disease  attracted  attentioR;    and  though   for- 
gotten for  a  while,  they  bore  abundant  fruit 

In  the  4th  decade  of  the  19th  century  free 
cold  swimming  baths  were  revived  in  Germany. 
In  England,  smce  1642,  public  swimming  bath^, 
besides  separate  baths,  have  been  supplied  to 
the  public^  at  very  moderate  rates,  and  floating 
baths  in  rivers,  always  known  in  some  German 
towns,  have  become  common  wherever  there 
are  flowing  streams.  The  better  supply  of  cities 
with  water  during  the  19th  century  has  greatly 
aided  the  movement  to  extend  bathing  facilities 
to  the  public  In  1846,  the  British  Parliament 
passed  the  first  of  a  series  of  acts  to  encourage 
the  establishment  of  public  baths  by  the  local 
authorities,  but  by  1865  only  25  boroughs  had 
cared  -  to  provide  bathing  establishments  for 
their  inhabitants.  About  1890  the  city  councils 
began  to  take  up  the  matter  energetically  with 
authorization  from  Parliament ;  but  it  then 
increased  so  rapidly  that  almost  every  town  or 
borough  of  50,000  people  now  has  its  public 
bath  open  the  year  round  and  many  smaller 
communities  are  similarly  equipped.  About  50 
German  cities  maintain  public  baths  throughout 
the  year  and  many  of  the  establishments  in  the 
larger  cities  are  models  of  their  kind  in  con- 
struction  and  equipment.  On  the  Continent  gen- 
erallv  and  in  Scandinavia  onl^  the  large  cities 
are  thus  provided ;  but  in  Russia  they  are  almost 
universal  in  places  of  any  size. 

In  the  United  States,  though  public  baths 
have  existed  since  1866  until  about  1805  in  a 
few  water-side  cities,  they  were  confined  to 
cold  swimming-baths  sunk  in  the  sea  or  river 
near  the  shore,  and  open  onlv  during  warm 
weather;  of  excellent  service  lor  the  comfort 
of  those  not  too  far  off,  but  too  limited  in  scope 
to  be  of  the  highest  value  to  the  general  public 
Not  only  were  they  closed  for  more  than  halt 
the  year,  but  to  those  who  must  walk  more  than 
half  or  diR;e-guarters  of  a  mile  to  obtain  a 
bath  (their  utility  being  for  the  poor),  their 
valne  as  refreshment  in  hot  weather  vas  neu- 
tralized by  4e  needful  exertion  to  reach  them. 
Their  use,  therefore,  depended  on  their  dis- 
tribution and  relation  to  the  water  svstem. 
Thus,  in  Boston,  where  six  were  established  in 
1866,  with  300,000  patrons  during  the  first  sea- 
son, and  extended  to  14  in  1897^  they  were  so 
located  on  the  Charles  River,  at  City  Point  and 
on  South  Bay,  that  a  coDsiderable  part  of  the 
pcx>rer  poputaAitm  were  within  fairly  easy  dis- 
tance of  them.  Only  about  a  doien  United 
Stales  dties  had  even  these  bathing  facilities 
prior  to  1895,  and  the  first  general  movement 
in  favor  of  year-round  hot  and  cold  laths  was 
a  reflex  from  Germany,  about  1891.  The  first 
city  in  the  United  States  to  establish  a  free 
municipal  bath  supplied  with  hot  and  cold 
water  was  Chicago,  which  opened  such  a  bath 
in  lS9i.  Yonkers  was  the  first  dty  to  establish 
free  public  baths  open  all  the  year.  This  bath 
was  opened  on  Labor  Day,  1896.  Brookline, 
Uass.,  esUblished  free  public  baths  in  1896.  and 
Boston  and  Buffalo  in  1897.  The  pioneer  in 
the  pubhc  bath  movement  in  the  country  gen- 
erally was  Dr,  Simon  Baruch.  It  was  he  who 
closely  investigated  the  working  of  the  public 
bath  systems  in  (jermany  and  in  other  European 
countries  and  subsequently  advocated,  despite 
the  strongest  official  oppoution,  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  system  into  the  larger  cities  of  the 


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BATH  H0U8BS 


United  States.  In  1890  his  plans  were  adopted 
by  the  New  York  Associahon  for  Improving 
the  Condition  of  the  Poor  and  the  following 
year  this  Association's  "People's  Baths'  were 
completed  and  at  once  became  a  great  popular 
success.  Shortly  afterward  the  trustees  of  the 
Baron  de  Hirsch  Fund  erected  a  public  bath 
on  Henry  street,  New  York,  and  the  Demilt 
IMspensary  bath  was  opened  about  the  same 
lime.  In  1895  the  Riverside  Association  opened 
a  public  shower  bath  in  West  »th  street 
Among  other  efforts  by  various  charitaile 
organizations  for  the  provision  of  bathing 
facilities  for  the  masses  may  be  mentioned 
the  floating  hospital  of  the  Saint  John  Guild,  the 
Wayfarer?  Lodge  and  the  municipal   lodging- 

in  this  connection,  a  word  m^  be  said  about 
what  are  known  as  •Mikveh  Baths.*  These 
are  very  common  in  New  York  city  and  are 
usually  located  in  the  basement  of  tenements  in 
the  crowded  sections.  They  are  conducted  as 
commercial  enterprises,  the  charge  for  a  bath 
-  usually  ranging  from  S  to  10  cents.  At  certain 
times  of  the  year  (e.g.,  the  Passover)  the  use 
of  these  baths  is  compelled  by  religious  custom 
for  both  men  and  women;  and  all  women 
are  required  to  use  these  pools  regularly 
within  seven  days  after  menstruation.  The 
method  of  using  the  bath  is  minutely  pre- 
scribed in  the  Hebrew  liturgy.  The  first 
compulsory  Imi station  was  Iv  New  York 
Stale  in  April  1895  (though  a  bathing  atid 
washing  association  was  incorporated  there  in 
1849) ;  It  obliged  all  cities  of  over  50,000  people 
to  establish  public  baths  and  comfort  stations, 
kept  open  the  year  round,  with  both  hot  and 
cold  water,  and  14  hours  a  day,  and  under  such 
conditions  as  the  local  board  of  health  judged 
proper:  river,  lake  or  sea  baths  not  to  be 
deemed  a  compliance  with  the  act  Gties  under 
50,000,  though  not  compelled,  were  permitted  to 
use  their  funds  or  credit  for  the  same  object. 
The  first  city  to  comply,  and  perhaps  the  first 
in  the  United  States  to  furnish  such  con- 
veniences in  their  full  extent,  was  Yonkers, 
N.  Y.,  not  within  the  compulsory  section.  This 
town  opened  one  on  Labor  Day,  1896;  and  an- 
other of  brick  in  1898^  with  accommodations 
for  400  daily  baths.  Within  the  act,. Buffalo 
opened  its  first  in  1S97;  Albany,  Rochester, 
Syracuse  and  Troy  have  since  complied;  and  in 
New  York  the  first  one,  five  years  after  the  act 
was  passed,  was  opened  in  Rivington  street  in  a 
closely-packed  quarter,  during  1900,  at  a  cost 
of  $100,000.  It  furnishes  3,000  baths  a  day  qf 
20  minutes  each,  from  67  si>ray  baths.  In  1902 
three  additional  municipal  interior  baths  were 
contracted  for  in  Manhattan,  providing  facilities 
each  for  103  persons  at  one  time. 

At  present  New  York  maintains  and  operates 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  borough  presi- 
dents free  public  interior  baths,  free  floating 
baths  and  a  large  public  bathing  beach  at  Coney 
Island,  For  the  use  of  these  baths  no  charge 
whatever  is  made  (except  at  the  seaside  baths, 
where  a  fee  of  10  cents  is  charged).  In  Man- 
hattan there  are  12  free  public  interior  baths 
and  U  free  floating  baths  (all  of  the  latter, 
however,  are  not  put  in  commission  each  year). 
Brooklyn  has  eight  interior  baths,  a  large  public 
balh  at  the  seaside,  and  in  normal  years  two 
floating  baths.     The  interior  baths  are  open 


daily  to  the  public  from  6  am.  to  10  p.m.  and 
on  Sunday  from  6  A.M.  to  1  P.M.  Swimming 
pools  represent  a  veiy  important  and  attractive 
feature  of  these  public  baths.  In  addition  the 
dty  provides  baths  in  many  of  its  public 
schools.  Almost  all  of  these  are  of  the  shower 
type.  At  present  67  schools  are  thus  equipped 
and  the  High  School  of  Commerce  has  a  swim- 
ming pool  as  has  the  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York.  The  seaside  public  bath  at  Coney 
Island  is  a  substantial  concrete  structure  con- 
taining 1,3(X)  individual  dressing  rooms  for 
women  and  700  dressing  rooms,  each  for  eight 
persons,  for  men.  In  this  manner  7,000  patrons 
are  accommodated  at  one  time.  In  a  recent 
year  (1914)  there  were  over  10,000,000  free 
baths  given  by  the  city  of  New  York  in  both 
floating  and  permanent  batlis.  The  average 
cost  per  bather  during  that  year  was  a  little 
over  four  cents.  In  Philadelphia  the  PubUc 
Baths  Association  was  organized  in  1895; 
but  the  first  to  be  opened  was  in  1898; 
in  a  crowded  quarter  between  Fourth  and 
Fifth  streets.  It  is  a  building  of  2^  stories, 
4()  by  60  feet,  constructed  of  bride  and  iron, 
with   concrete    floors   and   iron   partitions.      It  , 

cost  about  £30,000.  It  was  built  without  a  swim- 
ming pool,  having  only  shower  baths  —  a  sys-  ! 
tem  favored  where  economy  of  space  and  water 
is  essential;  the  People's  Baths  and  the  Baron 
de  Hirsch  Fund  Baths  in  New  York  adopt  the 
same  plan.  The  Philadelphia  establishment  has 
a  puUic  laundry  in  connection  with  its  own 
suit  and  towel  laundry,  where  women  and  men 
in  separate  compartments  can  wash  their  clotli- 
ing  for  a  smalt  fee,  and  sin^e  men  make  much  i 
use  of  it  to  wash  their  underclothing.  Some  I 
of  the  old  warm-season  baths  have  since  been 
made  permanent,  as  in  Newaric,  N.  J.,  which  so 
extended  two  in  1898,  and  in  1900  voted  a  third. 
Boston  from  1897  to  1899  increased  its  public 
baths  to  33—14  floating,  10  beach  and  9 
others;  17  south  of  the  (Tommon  and  16  north; 
and  prepared  to  erect  permanent  structures  in 
each  industrial  section  of  the  city.  The  first 
of  these  was  opened  at  Dover  street  in  1898— 
a  fine  brick  and  granite  structure,  with  marble 
partitions  and  staircases,  the  whole  with  land 
costing  $86,000.  It  has  gymnasiums  also,  and 
medical  directors  for  each  sex  to  give  courses 
of  training,  and  for  cases  of  accident  or  sud- 
den illness.  The  intention  is  ultimately  to  make 
these  baths  places  of  public  recreation,  corre- 
sponding to  the  summer  playgrounds ;  thus 
reaching  in  the  2Dth  century  the  point  at  which 
the  Romans  had  arrived  in  the  first.  BrookUne 
adjoining  Boston^  has  a  handsomely  appointed 
permanent  municipal  bath  house,  "nie  State  of 
Massachusetts  has  erected  several  splendid 
bath  houses  at  the  prominent  beaches.  Pitts- 
burg Worcester,  Kansas  City,  Utica,  Holyoke, 
Providence,  R.  I.,  and  numerous  other  cities 
have  built  substantial  public  bathing  establish- 
ments. Saint  Paul,  Minn.,  through  the  public 
spirit  of  Dr.  Ohage,  a  German  physician,  now 
has  a  public  playground,  pavilion,  etc..  con- 
nected with  permanent  bath  houses  on  wfiat 
was  till  recently  a  waste  island  in  the  middle  of 
the  MississipjM,  near  the  business  centre  of  the 
city  and  between  two  main  bridges.  Like  most 
of  the  other  balh  establishments,  it  is  free,  save 
a  small  charge  for  soap  and  towels ;  has  free 
instriKtion  in   swiffimtng^   and  is  open   every 

,11-  .1   Goo^tIc 


BATHOLITH  —  BATHORY 


day,  includins  Sundays.  The  expensive  amuse' 
mcnt  pounds  at  Pulaski  Parle,  Qiici^D,  in- 
dade  swimming  pools  and  locker  houses  that 
cost  $70,000.  "nie  deep  pool  is  40x60  feet  and 
the  shallower  pool  60x180  feet.  The  establish- 
ment accommodates  500  bathers  an  hour.  The 
installation  of  baths  in  public  schools  began  in 
Germany,  Gottingen  leading  the  way  in  18S5 
under  the  headship  of  the  mayor  and  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  university.  In  the  United  States 
it  was  first  taken  up  in  Boston  and  suburbs; 
in  1900  a  number  of  baths  were  put  into  the 
Paul  Revere  School  in  the  north  end,  and  in 
Brookline  swimming  is  a  regular  part  of  the 
school  curricuLum.  But  most  of  the  school  ■ 
baths  are  confined  to  shower  equipments.  Many 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  branches,  gymnasiums,  clubs  and 
hospitals  now  maintain  semi'public  bathing 
eslablitbments,  mostly  equi^Kd  with  showers 
but  sometimes  with  pools. 

Designs  of  modem  municipal  bath  houses 
are  cretbted  mainly  to  Dr.  Munnich,  an  amw 
surgeon;  the  late  Prof.  Oscar  L^issar;  Good- 
win Brown,  &  limacy  commisuoncr,  and  Dr. 
Simon  Baruch,  president  of  the  American  As* 
sociation  for  Promoting  H^ene  and  Public 
Baths.  Low  fireproof  buildings  are  preferrol, 
with  an  abundant  water  supply  through  a  main 
of  at  least  four  and  preferably  six  inches 
diameter.  The  water  should  always  be  filtered, 
and  the  piping  exposed.  Concrete  or  brick  con- 
struction IS  preferred,  and  the  |iools  require 
excellent  workmanship.  Their  sides  are  best 
made  of  glazed  tile  or  marble.  White  walls 
and  good  light  are  desirable.  The  inflow  of 
H-ater  to  a  pool  should  be  such  as  to  change 
the  water  in  24  hours.  In  addition  to  this  regu- 
lar flow,  the  pool  should  be  wholly  emptied 
once  or  twice  a  week.  Nude  bathing  is  en- 
cours^d,  as  it  assists  the  bathing  masters  in 
Mcluding  the  diseased  from  the  pool. 

Where  funds  do  not  permit  complete  bath- 
ing establishments,  tent  baths,  supplied  with 
showers,  may  be  utiliied,  as  at  Baltimore, 
Beach  baths  consist  usually  of  floating  plat- 
forms connected  with  a  pier  by  a  bridge.  The 
centre  of  the  platform  is  opened  for  the  pool, 
■hich  is  scparateid  from  the  outside  water  by 
woodwork.  The  dressing  rooms  are  on  the 
margins  of  the  platform.  Such  baths  are  in 
increasing  use  at  beaches  all  over  the  United 
States. 

Bibliogniphy.— Cross,  A.  W.,  'Public  Baths 
and  Wash-Houses';  Gerhanl.  W.  P.,  <The 
Progress  of  the  Public  Bath  Movement  in  the 
Uniled  States>  (1913) :  id..  <Publtc  Bath 
Houses  and  Swimming  Pools'  (in  AmencoH 
City,  November  1914) ;  id.,  'Modern  Baths  and 
Bath  Houses'  (New  York  1908)  ;  Hanger,  G. 
W'.,  'Public  Baths  in  the  United  States'  (in 
Public  Health  Reports.  1  Aug.  1913.  Washing- 
ton D.  C.)  ;  Kelfy,  R.  F.  G.,  'Portable  Baths 
and  their  Relation  to  the  Public  School  Sys- 
tm'  (1917) ;  Manheimer,  W.  A.,  'Essentials 
of  Swimming-Pool  Sanitation'  (Washington 
19I5);  Moll,  A.  A..  'Sanitation  of  Swimming 
Pools'  (in  American  City,  April  1913);  ToP 
man,  William  H.,  'Public  Baths'  (in  Yale  Re- 
i-wui.  May  1897).  Consult  also  'Bulletin  54'  of 
ihe  Bureau  of  Labor,  SSth  Congress  (Washing- 
ton 1903-04). 

BATHOLITH.  or  BATHOLITE,  a 
iMge  intrusive  mass  of  igneous  rock;  irregular 


In  shape,  which  has  melted  Its  way  up  across 
the  enclostng  beds.  They  differ  from  laccoliths 
(g.v.)  in  not  being  intruded  between,  but  rather 
across,  the  beds.  Th^  are  usually  many  miles 
in  extent,  and  often  form  the  cores  of  moun- 
tain ranges,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada. Bodies  of  the  same  form,  but  smaller, 
are  often  called  stocks  or  bosses. 

BATHOMBTSR,  an  instrument  for  meas- 
uring the  depth  of  the  sea  or  any  large  bodv  of 
water  without  a  sounding  line,  the  name  being 
derived  from  bathos,  depth.  It  was  invented  by 
Dr.  C.  W.  Siemens  after  1859  as  an  adjunct  to 
the  laying  of  submarine  telegrBphic  cables,  SO 
as  to  keep  a  continuous  record  of  the  sea  de^th 
below  a  moving  ship.  The  principle  of  the  in- 
strument is  based  upon  the  gravitation  of  the 
earth,  total  gravitation  being  represented  by  a 
column  of  mercury,  which  rests  upon  a  uiin 
steel  diaphragm  embossed  in  such  a  way  that  its 
centre  can  move  within  a  small  range  freely 
up  and  down  under  the  influence  of  the  mercury 
column  -without  encountering  any  friciional  re- 
sistance. The  column  ends  in  a  cu^,  and  mer- 
cury is  poured  into  both  cup  and  pipe  up  to  a 
certain  point,  the  space  above  being  filled  with 
water,  alcohol  or  a  liquid  of  less  density,  this 
latter  terminating  in  a  sinral  tube  laid  upon  a 
scale  at  the  top  of  the  instrument.  The  centre 
of  the  diaphragm  which  supports  the  column 
of  mercury  is  carried  by  two  or  more  carefully 
tempered  steel  springs,  so  adjusted  that  their 
elastic  pressure  balances  exactly  the  dead  weight 
of  the  column  of  mercury  resting  upon  the  dia- 
phragm, the  result  beinEr  that  the  diaphragm 
retains  its  faoriionul  position.  Inclosed  in  an 
air-ti^t  casing  closed  by  a  disc  of  plate  gtasa. 
the  instmmeat  records  by  an  ingenious  com- 
pensating! arrangement  the  natural  balance  of 
the  elastic  gravis  forces  on  the. scale,  from 
which  readings  are  made.  Consult  Siemens, 
'The  Bathometer*    (1879). 

BATHORY,  ha't&-re,  or  BATTORI,  a 
celebrated  Hungarian  family  which  in  the  15th 
century  became  divided  into  two  branches,  one 
of  which  gave  Transylvania  five  princes,  and 
Poland  one  of  its  greatest  kings. 

1.  StefhSK:  b.  1532;  d.  Grodno,  12  Dec. 
1586.  He  entered  the  army  and  so  distinguished 
himself  that  when  the  death  of  John  Sigismnnd 
Zapolya,  nephew  of  Sigismund  II,  King  of 
Poland,  in  1571,  left  a  vacancy  in  the  sover^ 
eignty  of  Transylvania,  Stephen  Bathory,  with- 
out courting  the  honor,  was  onammonsly 
elected  When  the  throne  of  Poland  became 
vacant  tiy  Henry  of  'Vak>is  quitting  the  country 
in  order  to  mount  the  throne  of  France,  Stephen 
Bathory  was  elected  to  succeed  him  in  1575, 
and  was  crowned  along  with  his  Queen.  Anne, 
daughter  of  Sigismund  Augustus,  at  Cracow, 
in  1576.  He  found  the  kingdom  totn  asunder 
by  faction,  the  people  enervated  by  long  peac^ 
the  treasury  exhausted  and  the  army  without 
discipline.  He  therefore  gave  his  first  atten- 
tion to  internal  improvement,  but  had  no  sooner 
effected  it  than  he  determined  to  recover  the 
Polish  territories  of  which  the  Tsar  of  ] 


menting  dissensions.  He  accordingly  declared 
war  against  him,  beat  him  at  all  points  and 
compelled  him  to  accept  a  disadvantageous 
peace.  Under  Stephen  Batfaory  Poland  en- 
joyed a  comparative  tranquillity  to  which  it  ha^ 


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BATHS  OF  AOSIPPA  —  BATHUR8T  INLET 


long  been  a  strat^r,  and  be  was  meditating 
important  consiituticHMl  reforms,  which  prom- 
ised to  make  that  tranquillity  pennanent,  when 
he  died  suddenly, 

2.  SicisMUND,  nephew  of  Stephen:  b.  1572: 
d.  1613.  He  became  Voivode  or  Prince  of 
Transylvania  in  1581,  but  did  not  assume  power 
till  1588,  at  the  %e  of  16  years.  He  shook  oS 
the  Ottoman  yoke,  and,  by  the  great  talents  he 
displayed,  had  begun  to  give  hopes  of  reigning 
Eloriously  as  an  independent  sovereign,  when, 
from  mere  fickleness  and  eccentricity  of  char- 
acterj  he  voluntarily  resigned  his  dominions  to 
the  Emperor  Rudolph  11  in  return  for  two  prin- 
cipalities in  Silesia,  a  cardinal's  hat  and  a  pen- 
sion. With  the  same  fickleness,  however,  he 
immediately  repented  of  the  act,  and,  availing 
himself  of  an  invitation  by  the  Transylvanians, 
returned,  and  placed  himself  under  the  protec- 
tion of  the  Porte.  The  talent  which  he  had 
displayed,  and  the  good  fortune  which  had  fol- 
lowed him  in  early  life,  appeared  now  to  have 
forsaken  him;  the  Imperialists  defeated  him  in 
every  battle,  and  he  was  obliged  to  throw  him- 
self on  the  mercy  of  the  Emperoi,  who  sent 
him  to  live  out  the  rest  of  his  days  at  Prague. 
Historians  attribute  inherent  insanity  to  the 
Bathory  family. 

BATHS  OF  AGRIPPA,  the  earliest  of 
the  Roman  thermx;  erected  ^  Marcus  A^rippa 
in  the  reign  of  Augustus.  They  stood  m  the 
Campus  £[artius,  about  20  feet  behind  the 
Pantheon.  In  1831,  on  the  removal  of  some 
houses,  ruins  were  found  of  a  great  hall  paved 
with  marble  and  lined  with  fluted  columns. 

BATHS  OF  CARACALLA.  one  of  the 
most  magnificent  of  the  Roman  therma,  in  the 
southeast  part  of  the  city,  in  which  2,3iX)  men 
could  bathe  at  the  same  time.  They  were  begun 
in  206  A.D.  by  Caracalla,  and  completed  by  Sev^ 
ems.  There  were  stadia  for  the  athletes,  gal- 
leries for  the  exhibition  of  paintings  and  sculp- 
ture, libraries,  conversation  halls,  lecture- rooms, 
etc  The  mechanical  skill  ilisplayed  in  their 
construction  was  very  great.  The  ruins  which 
still  remain  are  among  the  most  remarkable  in 
Rome. 

BATHS  OF  DIOCLBTIAN,  the  most 
extensive  of  the  Roman  themue;  in  the  north- 
east part  of  the  citv,  and  covering  most  of  the 
ground  between  tne  Porta  Collina  and  the 
Porta  Viminalis.  Over  3,000  persons  could 
bathe  in  them  at  the  same  time.  They  contained 
a  library,  picture-gallery,  odeum,  etc.  Michel- 
angelo transformed  the  great  hall  of  the  Tepi- 
darium  into  a  nave  for  the  Church  of  Saint 
Marie  degli  Aneeli.  One  of  the  laconica  (hot 
rooms)  forms  the  vestibule  of  the  church. 

BATHS  OP  TITUS,  a  structure  on  the 
Esquiline  Hill  in  Rome;  built  by  the  Emperor 
Titus.  Considerable  ruins  are  found  normeast 
of  the  Coliseum. 

BATHSHEBA,  bath-she'ba,  or  b&th'sh£-b^ 
wife  of  Uriah,  the  Hittitc,  whose  stonr  is 
told  in  2  Sam.  xi.  David  commiited  adult«y 
with  her,  then  caused  her  husband  to  be  slain, 
and  afterward  took  her  to  wife  These  sins 
displeased  Jehovah,  who  sent  the  prophet 
.  Nathan  to  David  with  the  parable  of  uie  ewe 
lamb.  David  bitterly  repented,  but  yet  was 
punished.  Bathsheba  was  the  mother  of  Solo- 
mon, whose  succession  to  the  throne  she  took 


pains  to  secure.  She  is  afterward  meDlioned  in 
the  history  of  Adonijah,  in  the  title  of  Psalm 
li,  and  among  the  ancestors  of  Christ  [Matt 
i.  6). 

BA' 
statesman:  b.  16&4;  d.  1775. 
omtonent  of  the  measures  of  Sir  Robert  Wal- 
pole's  ministry,  and  the  intimate  friend  of 
BoUngbroke,  Pope,  Addison  and  other  great 
writers  of  the  time.  The  earldom  was  created 
in  1772. 

BATHURST,  Henry  (2d  E\bi.).  son  of 
the  preceding,  Ejiglish  statesman:  b.  1714;  i. 
1794.  In  1771  he  was  made  Lord  Hi^  Chan- 
cellor of  England.  He  wrote  'Theory  of  Evi- 
dence,' etc 

BATHURST,  Henry  (3d  Ea«l1,  son  of 
the  2d  Earl,  English  statesman :  b.  23  May  1762; 
d.  1834.  In  1607  he  became  president  of  the 
board  of  trade;  in  1809  Secretary  for  Foroen 
Affairs,  and  in  1812  Secretary  for  the  Colonies 
a  post  held  by  him  for  16  years.  He  was  also 
president  of  the  council  under  Wellington, 
182S-30. 

BATHURST,  Africa,  town  on  the  island 
of  Saint  Mary's,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia, 
and  capital  of  the  British  colony,  Gamtna  The 
town  is  exceptionally  clean  and  contdns  gov- 
ernment houses,  barracks  and  a  hospital.  Fac- 
ing the  river  are  the  stores  of  the  European 
merchants.  There  are  a  number  of  expert  ship- 
builders in  Bathurst.  Its  trade  is  chiefiy  in 
gum,   bees '-wax,   rice,   tobacco,   cotton,   rubber. 


1911  numbered  about  5,000,  including  the 
Jollofs  which  tribe  inhabits  the  district  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  town. 

BATHURST,  Australia,  the  principal 
town  in  the  western  district  of  the  colony  of 
New  South  Wales  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Macquarie  River,  144  miles  west  of  Sydnej, 
2,153  feet  above  sea-level  and  surrounded  by 
hills.  It  has  wide,  welt-laid-out  streets  crossing 
each  other  at  right  angles,  with  a  central  square 
planted  with  trees.  The  public  buildings  in- 
clude the  Anglicao  and  Roman  Catholic  cathe- 
drals and  churches  for  Baptists,  CongrcgaUon- 
alists,  Wesleyans,  Presbyterians  and  others; 
courthouse.  Jail  and  town-hall,  post  and  tele- 
graph offices;  a  hospital,  numerous  schools,  a 
school  of  arts,  etc  There  are  several  tanneriei 
a  coach  factory,  railway  workshops,  breweries 
and  flour  mills.  Soap,  candles,  glue,  boots  and 
shoes  and  furniture  are  also  extensively  manu- 
factured. Ilie  city  was  founded  in  1819  and 
was  the  first  settlement  beyond  the  Blue  Moun- 
tains, which  were  long  believed  to  be  impas- 
sable; In  1851  there  were  discoveries  of  gold' 
here  and  this,  with  copper  and  silver,  is  the 
chief  mineral  product.  Fine  statuary  marble 
is  quarried.  The  whole  district  is  admirably 
adapted  to  pastoral  pursuits,  and  about  250,000 
acres  are  under  cultivation.  Com,  barltj, 
whea^  fruit  and  tobacco  are  the  chief  prod- 
ucts. It  is  well  watered  and,  being  ^150  fed 
above  sea-level,  has  a  moderate  temperature. 
Pop.  (1911)  8,575. 

BATHURST  INLET,  an  inlet  of  the 
Polar  Sea,  prajectin|;  due  south  aboot  75  miles 
out  of  Coronation  Gulf.    It  u  in  a  direct  line 


iizodi  Google 


BATHURST  ISLAND  — BATON  ROUGE 


between    the   magnetic   pole  and  Great  Slave 
Lake,  and  about  300  miles  from  each. 

BATHURST  ISLAND,  the  name  of  two 
islands:  (1)  An  island  off  the  northeast  coast 
of  Australia,  just  west  of  Melville  Island,  and 
separated  from  the  mainland  of  Australia  by 
Qarence  Strait  on  the  south,  and  from  Melville 
Idand  by  Apsley  Strait;  (2)  an  island  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  discovered  by  Parry  in  1819, 
lying  due  south  of  Grinnell  lind,  and  the  most 
eastern  of  the  group  called  Parry  Islands.  It 
is  separated  from  North  Somerset  on  the  south 
by  Barrow  Strait,  and  from  North  Devon  on 
the  east  by  Wellington  Channel. 

BATHYBIUS,  the  name  given  by  Hux- 
ley, in  186&  to  a  supposed  ora^anism,  a  bit  of 
unorganized  protoplasm,  found  at  the  sea-bot- 
tom at  great  depth.  It  was  structureless  and 
contained  numerous  calcareous  concretions. 
Huxley  abandoned  the  idea  that  it  was  a  living 
organism.  Afterward  Bessels  gave  the  name 
'protobathybius*  to  a  similar  slimy  moss 
dredged  in  Smith's  Sound  in  92  fathoms,  pos- 
sibly the  remains  of  protozoa  or  spcMiges. 
Bathybius  was  not  rediscovered  by  the  Chal' 
lenger  expedition,  and  Sir  John  Uurray  sus- 
pected that  the  substance  was  only  a  gelatin- 
ous precipitate  of  sultdiate  of  lime  from  sea 
water  mixed  with  alcohol. 

BATHYCLBS,  Greek  artist,  supposed  to 
have  flourished  in  the  time  of  Solon,  m  the  7th 
century  B.C  He  was  a  resident  of  Magnesia, 
in  Thessaly,  on  the  Mxander,  and  constructed 
for  the  Lacedemonians  the  colossal  throne  of 
the  Amycla^n  Apollo,  at  Amyclst  near  Sparta. 
Quaircmfre  de  Quincjr,  in  his  'Jupiter  Olym- 
pien,'  has  given  an  interesting  view  of  the 
splendid  god  and  his  superb  throne,  designed 
from  the  description  of  Pausanias. 

BATHYMETRY,    the    art    

depths  in  tlie  sea,  especially  for  the  purpose 
investigating  the  vertical  range  of  distribution 
of  [dants  and  animals.  An  extensive  series  of 
such  bathymetric  measurements  was  made  by 
H.  M.  S.  Cfiaitenger  (1872-76),  the  deepest 
sounding  being  4,575  fathoms.  In  February 
1900  the  United  States  surveying  ship  Nero  re- 
ported that  in  surveying  for  a  proposed  tele- 
graphic cable  line  between  Honolulu  and 
Manila  by  way  of  Guam  and  Yokohama,  she 
encountered  the  greatest  ocean  depths  on 
record,  two  casts  showing  5,160  and  5.269 
fathoms  respectively.     See  Bathoueter. 

BATIPFOL,  Pierre  Henri,  French  edu- 
cator and  writer:  b.  Toulouse,  France,  27  Jan. 
1861.  He  was  educated  at  the  Seminary  of  St. 
Sulpice,  Paris;  was  a  pu^l  of  Dudicsne  in 
Paris  and  of  De  Rossi  in  Rome.  He  was  or- 
dained priest  in  1884  and  from  1398  to  1907  was 
rector  of  the  Catholic  University  of  Toulouse. 
He  has  devoted  the  greater  part  of  his  life  to 
the  study  of  ancient  Christian  literature  and 
was  an  active  opponent  of  Loisy.  He  has  pub- 
lished 'Histoire  du  Br^aire  romain'  (Paris 
1893;  new  ed.,  1911;  English  tmns.,  London 
1898);  'L'enseigmement  de  Jfaus,'  a  statement 
of  ^  Catholic  doctrine  as  opposed  to  Harnack's 
'L'essence  du  diristiamsme'  and  Loi^s 
'L'Evangile  et  TEglise'  (Paris  1905) :  <L'Egli»e 
naissante  et  le  catholicisme,'  outlining  the 
Catholic  theoiy  of  diristian  origins  as  against 
Ritschl,  Hanack  and  others  (Paris  1908;  Eng- 


lish trans.,  London  1911).  This  work  was  com- 
mended by  Harnack  for  its  depth  of  scholar- 
ship. He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  the  'Etudes 
dbistoire  des  dogmes  et  dancienne  litt^ture 
chretienne*  and  'Tractatus  Origenis  de  Libris 
Sanctarum  Scripturarum,  >  extracts  from  Hip- 
polytus,  Novatiau  and  Origen. 

BATISTE,  ba-test,  a  fine,  white,  very 
compact  linen,  distinguished  by  its  delicate,  firm 
and  uniform  threads  from  every  other  linen 
texture.  The  name  is  derived  either  from  the 
Indian  material  bastas,  or  from  one  of  the  early 
manufacturers  of  it.  Baptiste  Chambtay,  who 
lived  in  the  13th  century,  and  from  whom  it 
was  also  called  the  cloth  of  Chambray,  or  Cam- 
bray;  hence  the  English  word  cambric. 

BATJAN.    See  Batchian, 

BATLEY,  England,  municipal  and  par- 
liamentary borough,  in  the  West  Ri<ting  of  York 
eight  miles  south  of  Leeds,  and  just  north  of 
Dewsbury,  with  which  it  is  united  for  parlia- 
mentary purposes.  The  houses  are  chiefly  of 
stone,  and  rather  irregularly  built  Batley  has 
an  ancient  parish  church  in  the  Early  English 
style,  a  townhall,  a  grammar  and  a  technical 
school,  mechanics'  institute,  etc.  Tte  princi- 
pal manufactures  are  heavy  woolen  cloths, 
Batley  being  the  chief  seat  of  the  manufacture 
of  heavy  woolens.  There  are  also  iron  foun- 
dries, machine- works,  collieries,  etc.  The  town 
was  incorporated  in  1668,  and  operates  its  gas 
and  waterworks.  It  also  mamtains  public 
baths,  markets,  a  library  and  a  cemeteiy. 
Pop.   31.429. 

BATNA.  b&t'na,  Algeria,  a  town  of  the 
department  of  Constantine,  situated  at  the  foot 
of  Mount  Tugurt,  which  is  covered  with  fine 
cedar  wood.  The  town  contains  a  church  and 
a  mosque,  and  is  an  important  military  and 
trading  post  between  the  Sahara  and  Tell. 
Pop.  .(1911)   8,890. 

BATON,  bat-on,  or  ba-tdn,  a  short  staff 
or  truncheon,  in  some  cases  used  as  an  official 
badge,  as  that  of  a  field  marshal.  The  con- 
ductor of  an  orchestra  has  a  baton  for  the  pur- 
pose of  directing  the  performers  as  to  time, 
etc.  In  heraldry,  what  is  usually  called  the 
bastard  bar,  or  bar  sinister,  is  properly  a  baton 

BATON  ROUGE,  bit'on  roozh',  La.,  city 
parish-seat  of  East  Baton  Rouge,  and  capital  of 
the  State,  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
French,  meaning  red  baton  or  stick.  The  city 
is  situated  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  90  miles  northwest  of  New  Or- 
leans, and  is  on  the  Louisiana  Railway  and 
Navigation  Company,  the  New  Orleans,  Texas 
and  Mexico,  the  Southern  Pacific  and  the 
Yazoo  and  Mississippi  Valley  railroads.  It  is 
picturesquely  built  on  a  bluH  commanding  an 
excellent  view  of  the  surrounding  country.  The 
houses  are  mostly  of  French  and  Spanish 
architecture.  The  river  below  the  city  is  bor- 
dered by  sugar-cane  plantations,  orchards  of 
tropical  fruits,  private  gardens  and  villas.  It 
was  the  capital  of  the  State  from  1847  to  1864, 
'when  the  seat  of  government  was  removed  to 
New  Orleans.  On  1  March  1882,  Baton  Rouge 
was  again  selected  as  the  capital  city.  The 
State  capitol  building  here  was  completed  in 
1852  at  a  cost  of  ^46,000.  It  was  partially 
burned  during  the  Civil  War  but  was  rebuilt  ia 


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340 


BATOHI  —  BATTALION 


1S82.  The  Louisiana  State  University  ' 
ganized  here  in  1360.  The  city  also  c 
various  State  institutions,  orphan  asylum,  peni- 
tentiary, deaf  and  dumb  and  blind  asylums. 
Slate  agricultural  and  mechanical  college  and 
agricultural  experiment  station.  There  are, 
among  other  public  buildings,  ihe  courthouse 
city  hall.  State  capital,  Hill  Memorial  Library, 
£Uks'  home,  post-oflice,  collegiaic  institute, 
high  school  building  and  a  national  soldiers 
cemetery. 

There  are  varied  and  extensive  manufactur- 
ing interests,  including  the  largest  southern  re- 
finery of  the  Standard  Oil  Company,  cotton 
seed  products,  lumber,  sugar,  molasses,  brick, 
artificial  ice  and  agricultural  implements.  The 
city  has  national  and  Slate  banks,  several 
dally  and  weekly  newspapers.  There  is  a  large 
and  growing  trade  with  the  surrounding  cotton 
and  sugar  growing  regions,  and  a  flourishing 
shipping  trade  is  carried  on  in  its  excellent 
hartor.  The  city  has  a  real  property  assessed 
valuation  of  $2,000,000,  actual  valuation  $3,500,- 
000,  exclusive  of  the  valuable  city,  parish  and 
State  property  which  is  exempt  from  assess- 
ment. In  addition  to  the  above  personal  as- 
sessed properly  is  $1,000,000,  making  a  total 
assessment  of  $3,000,000,   real  value  $5,000,000. 

Baton  Rouge  adopted  the  commission  form 
of  government  in  1913.  The  cily  was  one  of 
the  earliest  French  settlements  in  Louisiana.  A 
convention  which  met  here  21  Jan.  1861,  adopted 
Ihe  Ordinance  of  Secession  on  Ihe  26th;  the 


:  force  numbering  5,000  under  command  of 
Gen.  John  C.  Breckenridge  attacked  the  Fed- 
eral garrison  under  Gen.  Thomas  Williams,  but 
was  repulsed  after  a  fierce  contest  lasting  two 
hours.  General  Williams  was  killed  and  both 
sides  lost  heavily.  The  city  was  shortly  after- 
ward evacuated  but  a  month  later  wsts  re- 
occupied  by  the  Federal  troops  who  remained 
until  the  close  of  the  war.  A  former  povem- 
.  ment  arsenal  here  was  destroyed  dunng  the 
war.    Pop.  about  17,000. 

BATONI,  ba-tone,  Pompeo  Girolamo, 
Italian  painter;  b.  Lucca  170B;  d.  Rome  1787: 
The  manner  in  which  he  executed  his  paintings 
was  peculiar.  He  covered  his  sketch  with  a 
cloth  and  began  to  paint  the  upper  part  on  the 
left  hand  and  proceeded  gradually  toward  the 
right,  never  uncovering  a  new  place  until  the 
first  was  entirely  finished.  Boni,  who  cimipares 
him  with  Mcngs,  calls  the  latter  the  painter  of 
philosophy ;  the  former  the  painter  of  nature, 
Batoni  painted  many  altar-pieces  and  numer- 
ous portraits,  including  those  of  the  Emperor 
J^oseph  and  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa  in  Ihe 
imperial  gallery.  His  greatest  work  is  his 
'Fall  of  Simon  the  Sorcerer,'  which  was  or- 
dered by  Cardinal  Albani  tor  the  church  of 
Saint  Peter's  at  Rome  and  was  intended  to  be 
executed  in  mosaic.  His  'Magdalene,'  in 
Dresden,  and  his  'Return  of  the  Prodigal  Son,' 
in  Vienna,  are  celebrated. 

BATRACHIA,  the  frogs  and  toads  of  the 
Anura  order  of  Amphibia  (q.v.),  comprising 
ihc  Ranidar  frogs,  ihe  Bufonida  ordinary  toads, 
the  Hytida  tree  frogs,  the  Pipida  Surinam 
toads  and  similar  reptiles  with  the  distinguish- 
ing   characteristic    of    development    from    the 


tailed  and  ^Iled  tadpole  state  to  a  tailless,  but 

leg-  and  lung-provided  adult  condition. 

BATT,  John  Herridee,  EngUsh  Methodist 
divine:  b.  Taunton,  Somerset,  23  June  1845. 
He  was  educated  at  Shebbear  College,  North 
Devon,  and  at  Shireland  Hall,  Bimiui^iam. 
He  entered  the  ministry  in  1864,  was  president 
of  the  Bible  Christian  Conference  in  1887-88 
id    delegate    to    the    (Ecumenical    Methodiai 


07  he  was  Bible  Christian  editor  and  has  sl 

as  secretary  of  the  Bible  Christian  Examining 
Committee  for  25  years.  In  1910-11  he  was 
chairman  of  the  Bristol  and  South  Wales  dis- 
trict. He  has  published  'Dwight  L.  Moody: 
the  Life  Work  of  a  Modem  Evangelist';  'Dr. 
Bamardo,  the  Foster-Pa  ther  of  Nobodj-'i 
Children,'   etc. 

BATT  A,  Sumatra,  a  district  in  the  northern 
part  of  Ihe  island,  stretching  between  Sinkell 
and  Tabuyong,  on  the  west  and  the  Bila  and 
the  Rakan  on  the  east.    Pop.  about  300,000. 

BATTALION.  The  unit  of  or^anizaliai: 
of  troops  consisting  of  several  companies, 
usually  four,  and  so  called  from  b^ng  origi- 
nally a  body  of  men  arranged  for  battle.  A 
battalion  o£  infantry  is  generally  divided  into 
an  even  number  of  companies  and  the  com- 
panies are  equalized  by  transferring  men  from 
the  larger  (o  the  smaller.  In  each  battalion 
there  is  a  color-guard,  composed  of  a  color- 
sergeant  and  seven  corporals,  which  is  posted 
as  the  left  four  of  the  right-centre  company. 
The  color- sergeant  carries  the  national  color. 
The  regimental  color  (when  present)  is  car- 
ried by  a  sergeant,  who  takes  the  place  of  the 
corporal  on  ihc  left  of  the  color-sergeant.  A 
battalion  of  cavalry  is  usually  composed  of 
four  companies,  but  may  be  composed  of  a 
less  number  or  a  greater  number,  not  exceed- 
ing seven.  The  interval  between  companies 
in  line  is  ci^t  yards.  In  whatever  direction 
the  battalion  faces  the  companies  are  desig- 
nated numerically  from  the  right  to  the  left 
in  line  and  from  the  head  to  the  re^r  when 
in  column,  ^rst  company,  second  company,  and 
so  on.  In  whatever  ifirection  the  battalion 
faces  the  companies  to  the  right  of  the  cenlrt 
of  the  battalion  in  line  constitute  the  riski 
ti'inff;  those  to  the  left  of  the  centre  constitute 
the  left  uiing.  If  there  be  an  odd  number  of 
companies  in  line  the  centre  company  belongs 
to  the  right  wing.  A  battalion  of  artillery  con- 
sists of  any  number  of  batteries  from  two  to 
five.  The  interval  between  batteries  in  line 
is  28  yards.  In  horse-batterits  the  interval  is 
36  yards.  In  whatever  direction  the  battalion 
faces  tne  batteries  are  designated  numerically 
from  the  right  to  the  left  in  line  and  from  the 
head  to  the  rear  when  in  column,  first  battery. 
second  battery,  and  so  on.  In  whatever  direc- 
tion the  battahon  faces  the  latteries  to  the 
right  of  the  centre  of  the  battalion  in  line  cod- 
sblute  the  righl  iving:  those  to  the  left  of  ^c 
centre  constitute  the  left  -anng.  If  there  be  an 
odd  number  of  batteries  the  centre  battery  al- 
ways belongs  to  the  right  wing.  Battalion 
training,  the  means  whereby  the  smallest  num- 
ber of  independent  units  may  be  organized  (or 
manceuvre  and  for  combat,  should  be  intensive 
and  directed  primarily  at  the  instruction  of  the 
company  officers  in  the  handling  of  vnits  and 


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BATRACHIAHS  AHt 


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OTHER  AMI^IBIA 


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7  Toad.           aHoraadFna            >  Hp*  M  Sarioun  To^  IS  SpoHn)  SaUmuda  11  Spectteltd  S4laaud« 

.    ._,--       — . . — .  ...   . — ... 1«  Piotldi  13>  91tgB 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


BATTBNBBRO—  BATTERING  ItAH 


341 


jub-nnits  in  their  mutual  Telationsfaip  and 
should  be  mainly  concerned  with  the  tactical 
employment  of  the  fighlinK  power  of  com~ 
panics  in  mutual  support.  The  battalion  com- 
mander should  apply  in  practice  the  principles 
of  command  and  tactical  leadership,  a  knowl- 
ed^  of  which  he  has  gained  by  study  and  e:c- 
perience,  and  should  at  times  direct,  but  not 
command,  his  battalion  in  exercises  designed 
to  involve  specific  features  of  the  minor  p&ses 
of  tiaining.  the  elements  of  which  have  pre- 
viously been  subjects  of  drill -groimd  training. 
A  concrete  case  should  be  stated  calling  for 
the  actual  employment  of  the  troops  concerned. 
The  strength  and  cbaracter  of  the  opposition 
to  be  expected  will  be  controlled  by  the  bat- 
talion commander.  Besides  the  application  of 
appropriate  tactical  principles  adapted  to  the 
ground  in  use,  opportuni^  should  be  afforded 
of  making  incidental  and  appropriate  use  of 
previously  acquired  knowle^e  of  sigtialing, 
of  constructing  field  fortificatians  or  pioneer 
work,  of  the  passage  of  obstacles,  of  screen- 
ing from  the  observation  of  air  craft,  etc. 
The  greater  the  variety  of  incidents  intro- 
duced the  more  instructive  will  thase  exercises 
be. 

As  the  result  of  trench  warfare  and  inten- 
sive training,  the  tactics  of  a  battalion  in  de- 
fense have  changed  as  drastically  as  in  attack. 
If  the  enemy  now  assaults  a  position  he  must 
first  pass  through  the  curtain  of  fire  of  artil- 
lery. If  the  range  becomes  shorter  he  meet^ 
rifle  fire  and  the  machine  guns,  each  firing  SOO 
shots  a  minute.  Then  at  150  yards  from  the 
trench  he  is  met  by  a  second  barrage  of  Qre 
of  boml)s_  from  the  rifle  grenades.  If'  there  be 
any  survivors  they  are  met  at  40  yards  by 
bombs  thrown  by  hand,  by  close  rifle  fire  and 
machine  guns  that  spray  bullets.  If  any  reach 
their  objective  they  face  bayonets.  The  whole 
attack  b  under  a  dense  white  smoke  of  hun- 
dreds of  exploding  bombs.  Each  man  has  his 
specified  work  and  his  particular  weapon,  in 
the  use  of  which  he  has  been  found  to  display 
a  special  aptitude.  Each  man  has  a  responu- 
bility  which  never  fell  to  the  share  of  the  in- 
dividual infantryman  in  the  old-fashioned  at- 
tack. See  Army  Orcanization  ;  Tactics,  Uil- 
ITARV;  Telegraph  Battalions. 

BATTENBBRG,  bftt'fn-baiv,  Alerander, 
Prince,  Bulgarian  ruler;  b.  1857;  d.  23  Oct. 
1893.  He  was  the  second  son  of  the  morgan- 
atic union  between  Prince  Alexander  of  Hesse 
and  the  Countess  von  Hauke,  who  in  1851  re- 
ceived the  title  of  Countess  of  Battenberg.  In 
1879  he  was  chosen  Prince  of  Bulgaria  and  In 
1885,  without  consulting  Russia,  proclaimed 
the  union  of  eastern  Rumelia  with  Bulgaria. 
This  action  exasperated  both  Russia  and  Ser- 
bia and  the  btter  took  up  arms  against  Bill- 
earia  but  was  easily  defeated  by  Alexander  in 
the  space  of  two  weeks.  In  August  1886, 
however,  Russian  partisans  overpowered  Alex- 
ander in  his  palace  at  Sofia,  forced  him  to  ab- 
dicate and  carried  him  off  to  Reni.  in  Russian 
(erritory.  Set  tree  in  a  few  days,  he  returned: 
but  after  a  futile  atlempt  to  conciliate  the  Tsar, 
he  abdicated  in  September,  married  an  actress, 
arid  assuming  the  title  of  Count  Hartenaii,  re- 
tired  to  Gratz.     See  Bulgaria, 

BATTENBERG,  Henry  Maurice,  Prince, 
brother    of  the  preceding;   British  soldier:  b. 


MHan,  5  Oct  1858;  d.  20  Jan.  1896.  He  was 
the  third  son  of  Prince  Alexander  of  Hesse 
<see  Battenberc,  Alexanoeh,  above),  and  in 
1885  married  the  Princess  Beatrice  of  Eng- 
land, youngest  daughter  of  Queen  Victoria. 
He  joined  the  British  expedition  of  1895 
a^inst  Ashanti  and  while  on  his  way  home 
died  at  sea  of  a  fever  contracted  during  his 
military  service.  His  youngest  son,  Prince 
Maurice,  died  of  wounds  received  in  action 
27  Oct.  1914.  His  daughter.  Princess  Victoria, 
married  King  Alfonso  XIII  of  Spain  in  1906. 
The  eldest  5on,  Prince  Alexander  of  Batteft- 
berg,  changed  his  name  and  title  by  royal  con- 
sent (June  1917)   to  Marquis  of  Carisbrooke. 

BATTENBERG,  Louis  Alexander,  Pkikce, 
British  admiral :  b.  Grali,  Austria,  24  May 
1854.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Prince  Alexan- 
der of  Hesse  (see  Battenberc,  Alexander, 
above),  and  in  1884  married  the  eldest  daughter 
of  the  Princess  Alice  Maud  Mary,  Grand 
Duchess  of  Hesse-Darmsladt,  and  second 
dausfhter  of  Queen  Victoria.  A  naturalized 
British  subject,  he  entered  the  navy  in  1868,  in 
which  his  rise  was  rapid.  He  was  director  of 
naval  intelligence,  1902-04,  and  after  holding 
important  commands,  was  appointed  First  Sea 
Lord  of  the  Admiral^  in  1912,  which  post  he 
held  at  the  outbreak  of  the  great  European 
War,  Following  a  campaign  in  the  Brit- 
ish press  against  alien  enemies  resident 
in  Great  Britain,  he  resigned  his  office  on 
30  Oct  1914,  on  the  ground  that  his 
birth  and  parentage  somewhat  impaired 
his  usefulness.  In  accepting  his  resignation, 
the  First  Civil  Lord  of  the  Admirally,  Mr.  Win- 
ston Churchill,  paid  a  high  tribute  to  his  serv- 
ices, and  especially  referred  to  the  provision  he 
had  made  for  the  immediate  concentration  of 
the  Grand  Fleet  at  the  opening  of  the  war.  In 
June  1917  his  title  was  changed  to  Uarquisof 
Mil  ford  Haven, 

BATTENBERG,  Prussia,  village  in  the 
province  of  Hesst-Nassau,  from  which  the  sons 
of  Prince  Alexander  of  Hesse  (see  Batten- 
BEBG,  Alexander)  derive  their  title  of  princes 
of  Battenberg.  Before  1866  it  belonged  to 
Hesse-Cassel.    Pop.  about  1,000. 

BATTERING  RAM  {Lat  aries).  the 
earliest,  simplest  and,  until  the  improved  usage 
of  artillery,  the  most  effective  machine  for  de- 


huge  beam  of  seasoned  and  tough  wood,  hoisted 
on  the  shoulders  of  men.  who,  running  with 
it  at  speed,  against  the_  otstacle,  wall,  gate  or 
palisade,  made  what  impression  they  might 
against  it  The  ancients  employed  two  different 
machines  of  this  kind — the  one  suspended,  and 
vibrating  after  the  manner  of  a  pendulum,  and 
the  other  movable  on  rollers.  The  swinging 
ram  resembled  in  magnitude  and  form  the  mast 
of  a  large  vessel,  suspended  horizontally  at  its 
centre  of  gravity,  by  chains  or  cords,  from  a 
movable  frame.  Ligatures  of  waxed  cord  sur- 
rounded the  beam  at  short  intervals,  and  cords 
at  the  extremity,  opposite  to  the  head,  served 
for  the  purpose  of  applying  human  force  to 
give  the  oscillatory  n^otion.  The  rolling  ram 
was  much  the  same  as  the  above  in  its  general 
construction,  except  that  instead  of  a  pendulous 
racFtion,  it  received  only  a  motion  of  simple 
alternation,  produced  by  the  strength  of  inen 

Google 


BATTERSEA  —  BATTHYANYI 


applied  to  cords  passing  over  pnlleys.  This 
construction  seems  to  b»ve  been  6rst  employed 
at  the  si^e  of  Byzantium.  These  machines 
were  often  extremely  ponderous.  Appian  de- 
clares that,  at  the  siege  of  Carthage,  he  saw 
two  rams  so  colossal  that  100  men  were  em- 
ployed in  worldns:  each.  Vitruvius  afKnns  that 
the  beam  was  often  from  100  to  120  feet  in 
length;  and  Justus  Lipsius  describes  some  as 
180  feet  long,  and  two  feet  four  inches  in 
diameter,  with  an  iron  bead  weighing  at  least 
a  ton  and  a  half.  In  contrasting  the  effects  of 
the  battering  ram  with  those  of  the  modem 
artillery,  we  must  not  judge  of  them  merely 
br  the  measure  of  their  respective  momenta. 
Such  a  ram  as  one  of  those  described  bv  Lip- 
sius would  weigh  more  than  45,00tf^unas,  and 
its  momentum,  supposing  its  velocity  be  about 
two  yards  per  second,  would  be  neariy  quadruple 
tiie  momentum  of  a  40-pound  ball  moving  with 
a  velocity  of  1,600  feet  per  second.  But  the 
operation  of  the  two  upon  a  wall  would  be 
very  different.  The  ball  would  probably  pene- 
trate the  opposing  substance  and  pursue  its 
way  for  some  distance;  but  tne  efficacy  of  the 
ram  would  depend  almostly  entirely  upon  duly 
apportioning  its  intervals  of  oscillation.  At 
first  it  would  produce  no  obvious  effect  upon 
the  wall;  but  the  judicious  repetition  of  its 
blows  would,  in  a  short  time,  give  motion  to 
the  wall  itself.  There  would  first  be  a  barely 
I«rceptible  tremor,  then  more  extensive  vibra- 
tions; these  being  evident,  the  assailants  would 
adjust  the  oscillations  of  the  ram  to  that  of  the 
wall,  till  at  length  a  lar^e  portion  of  it,  par- 
taking of  the  vibratory  impulse,  would,  bv  a, 
well-timed  blow,  fall  to  the  earth  at  once.  This 
recorded  effect  of  the  ram  has  nothing  analo- 
gous in  the  results  of  modem  artillery. 

BATTBRSEA,  a  metropolitan  borough  of 
London,  in  Surrey,  forming,  with  Clapham,  a 
parliamentary  borough,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Thames,  opposite  Chelsea,  across  which 
there  is  communication  by  several  bridges. 
Area,  2,160  acres.  There  is  a  fine  public  park 
in  Battersea,  extending  over  185  acres,  and 
containing  a  .subtropical  garden  of  four  acres, 
artificial  Takes  and  other  attractions.  Clapham 
and  Wandsworth  commons  are  fine  areas  of 
unenclosed  ground.  Battersea  and  Qapham 
send  two  members  to  Parliament  —  one  for  each 
division.  The  municipality  is  most  progressive, 
many  of  the  public  utilities,  including  electricity, 
being  publicly  owned.  Pop,  167.743.  Consult 
Browning  and  Kirk,  'Early  History  of  Bat- 
tersea,' which  is  reprinted  from  the  collections 
of  the  Surrey  Archa:ological  Society  (1891)  ; 
Green  and  Darner,  'Clapham  Junction  and  Its 
People'  (1889)  ;  Hammond,  'Bygone  Battersea' 
(1897) ;  Simmonds,  'All  About  Battersea' 
(1882). 

BATTERSON,  Jamra  Ooodwia:  b.  Bloom- 
field,  Conn.,  23  Feb.  1823;  d  Hartford,  Conn., 
18  Sept  1901.  He  was  educated  in  the  public 
schools  of  Litchfield.  Conn.,  and  in  1845  became 
an  importer  of  and  dealer  in  granite  and  marble, 
with  headquarters  in  Hartford.  His  business 
^ew  into  one  of  the  most  extensive  of  its  kind 
in  the  United  States,  controlling  larfje  granite 
quarries  in  Westerly,  R.  L.   He  took  important 


Omnecticut  Mutual  buildings  in  Hartford,  the 


Mutual  Life,  Equitable  Life  Insurance  com- 
panies' builcHngs  and  Vandertult  residence  in 
New  York.  He  was  the  first  to  use  machinery 
for  polishing  granite  and  devised  many  other 
improvements.  In  1663  he  founded  the  Trav- 
elers' Insurance  Company,  and  was  its  pre«dent 
until  his  death.  Throughont  his  life,  thoudi 
never  holding  political  office,  he  was  one  of  tiu 
foremost  public  figures  of  his  dty  and  State. 
He  was  an  enthusiastic  student  of  political 
economy,  and  wrote  numerous  articles  and 
pamphlets  on  the  money  question.  He  tai^t 
himself  Gredc  and  became  an  acknowledged 
master  of  it;  and  he  was  equally  accomplished 
in  several  of  the  modem  European  languages, 
bis  versatility  and  capacity  for  work  beuis  ex- 
traordinary. In  the  last  year  of  his  lite  be 
wrote  a  poem  of  some  len^,  'The  Begin- 
nings,' d«iling  with  the  origin  o£  the  universe 
and  life. 

BATTERY.  The,  a  park  of  21  acres  form- 
ing the  southernmost  point  of  New  Yoik, 
occupying  the  site  of  the  original  Dutch  forti- 
fications. In  the  ea.rly  days  of  the  dty  the 
vicinity  of  the  Batte^  was  a  very  aristocratic 
quarter,  and  some  of"^  the  old  houses  are  snil 
standing.  The  park  now  contains  the  Barge 
Office  and  the  Aquarium,  formerly  Castle  (^ 
den   (q.v.).  _ 

BATTERY.    See  E^ectkic  Battcrv. 

BATTEUX,  b«-tfe,  Charlea,  French  schol- 
ar, honorary  canon  of  Rheims.  b,  Al- 
landliuj;,  1713;  d.  14  July  1780.  He  displayed 
his  gratitude  to  this  city,  in  which  he  received 
his  education,  by  the  ode  '!n  Civitatem  Retnen- 
sem,'  which  was  much  admired.  In  1739  be 
was  invited  to  Paris,  irfiere  he  taught  rhetoric 
in  the  colleges  of  Lisieux  and  Navarre.  He 
was  afterward  appointed  professor  of  Latin  and 
Greek  pbibsophy  at  the  Royal  College.  In 
1754  he  became  a  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Inscriptions,  and  in  1761  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy. Batteux  left  a  large  number  of  valuable 
works.  He  did  much  service  to  literature  and 
the  fine  arts,  by  introdudng  unity  and  system 
into  the  numerous  canons  of  taste,  which  had 
gained  a  standing  among  the  French  by  the 
example  of  many  eminent  men,  particularly  in 
regard  to  poetry,  and  must  be  regarded  as  a 
valuable  writer  on  esthetics,  tx>twith standing 
the  lugher  point  of  view  from  which  this  science 
is  now  considered.  Some  of  his  most  valu- 
able works  are  <Les  Beaux-Arts  rMuits  i  u 


principe'    (17471  and  'Cours  de  Belles- 

s  ou  prindpes  de  la  littirature'   fl774). 

These  works  were  translated  into  several  other 


Leltres  c 


languages. 

BATTH        ,         ^^ 

Count,  Hungarian  statesman,  l^nister  of  For- 
eign Affairs  during  the  Hungarian  revolution; 
b.  4  June  1807;  d.  Paris.  13  July  1854.  From 
his  earliest  childhood  he  took  a  lively  interest  in 
public  affairs,  and  after  having,  as  member  of 
the  Hungarian  Diet,  opposed  the  Austrian  gov- 
ernment, he  became  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  one  of  the  prominent  champions  of 
Hun^rian  independence,  devoting  his  wealth 
and  influence  to  the  promotion  of  this  cause, 
and  at  the  same  time  distinguishing  himself  on 
various  occasions  by  his  courage  and  skill  on 
the  battlefield.  After  having  officiated  as  p)V- 
emor  of  various  provinces,  ne  became  Uinutcr 


Google 


B  ATTHYAH  YI  —  BATTLB 


of  Foreign  Affairs,  under  the  administiUion  of 
Kossuth,  and  subsequently  he  shared  his  exile 
in  Turkey  until  1851,  when  he  repaired  to  Paris, 
where  he  died.  Althou^  sympathizing  with 
Kossuth  in  some  respects,  he  differed  from  him 
in  others,  and  addressed^  in  1851,  a  series  of 
letters  to  the  London  Ttmes,  in  which  he  re- 
flected rather  severely  upon  Kossuth's  character 
IS  statesman  and  patriot. 

BATTHYANYI,  Lonli,  Count,  Hungarian 
patriot:  b.  Pressburg  1809:  d.  6  OcL  1849.  He 
entered  the  anny  as  a  cadet  at  the  age  of  16, 
and  (Ml  cctning  mto  possession  of  a  large  far- 
tune,  abandonM  a  mifitaty  for  a  political  career, 


in  process  of  time  attained  the  rank  of 

leader  of  the  opposition  in  the  Hungarian  Diet. 
Upon  tlM  breakmg  out  of  the  commotions  of 
1848,  Batthyas^  took  an  active  part  in  pro- 
moting the  national  cause,  and  with  a  company 
of  armed  vassals  came  forward  to  assist  it  in 
the  field.  On  the  entry  of  Windischgrati  into 
Budapest  in  January  1849,  he  was  arrested  in 
the  house  of  his  sister-in-law,  the  Countess 
Karo^.  After  being  convnred  to  various  places 
he  was  finally  brought  back  to  Budapest,  tried 
by  court-martial  and  condemned  to  be  hanged. 
'Die  execution  of  this  sentence  he  prevented  by 
inflictirig  several  wounds  with  a  poniard  on 
his  neck  and  he  wu  accordingly  shot. 

BATTIADS,  a  dynas^  of  Gyrene  which 
reigned  from  the  7th  to  the  5th  century  B.C. 
The  kings  of  this  dynasty  were  Battus  I,  the. 
founder  of  Cyrene;  Arcesilaus  I,  his  son;  Bat- 
tus II,  son  of  Arcesilaus,  who  greatly  increased 
the  power  of  Cyrene;  ArcesiTatis  l\  son  of 
Battus  II;  Battus  III,  son  of  Arcesilaus  11; 
Arcesilaus  HI,  son  of  Battus  HI,  who  sub- 
mitted to  the  Persian  King;  Battus  IV  son  of 
Arcesilaus  HI;  Arcesilaus  IV.  son  of  Battus 
IV,  the  last  king  of  Cvrene,  killed  in  a  revolu- 
tion. He  is  celebrated  in  the  fourth  and  fifth 
Pindaric  odes. 

BATTIK,  an  Oriental  production  of  the  na- 
tives of  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  who  decorate 
their  clothing  with  it;  also  made  in  The  Hague 
for  local  ttse  and  export.  Upon  a  piece  of  Unen 
various  designs  are  outlined  with  a  penciL 
When  the  design  is  completed,  the  ornamented 
parts  of  the  fabric  are  covered  with  a  liquid 
which  possesses  the  quality  of  stiffening  after 
being  applied.  The  parts  not  ornamented  are 
dyed  the  desired  color.  After  the  entire  fabric 
has  been  ornamented  in  this  manner,  it  is  boiled 
in  hot  water  so  as  to  take  the  hard  stuff  out  of 
Ihe  battik.  The  di;ed  parts  will  then  hold  the 
dye  and  the  battik  is  ready.  The  Hague  people 
were  the  first  to  introduce  battik  into  Europe. 
It  is  made  on  linen,  silk,  velvet  and  leather,  and 
is  exported  to  all  the  principal  cities  of  Europe. 

BATTISTI.  Ceure,  Italian  author  and 
patriot:  b.  Trent,  4  Feb.  1875;  d.  13  July  1916. 
After  studying  law  at  Vienna  and  Gratz,  he 
devoted  himself  to  geographical  science  at 
Florence,  where  he  received  the  Litt.D.  degree 
in  1897.  His  topographical  geological  and  lit- 
erary researches  eonecmeii  always  the  Tren- 
lino,  Aat  part  of  'Italia  irredenta*  under 
Austrian  rule  His  numerous  works  on  these 
snbjects  are  regarded  as  standard  authorities. 
An  ardent  democrat,  he  fiercely  defended  the 
Italian  national  muse  in  the  Trentino.  He 
had  fon^t  in  the  ranks  of  the  Liberals  until 


Soctalism  made  its  appearance  in  that  part, 
when  he  embraced  the  new  creed  and  becune 
its  leading  exponent  As  editor  of  the  Social- 
ist daily  paper  H  Popolo,  and  as  Socialist  dep- 
uty for  Trent  in  the  Austrian  Parliament,  he 
conducted  the  political  campaisn  in  favor  of 
autonomy  for  the  Trentino  and  the  establish- 
ment of  an  I tahan* university  in  Austria.  On 
various  occasions  his  activities  brought  hira 
into  conflict  with  the  Austrian  authonties  and 
also  several  terms  of  imprisonment.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  European  War  Battisti  re- 
turned to  Italy  and  advocated  Italian  interven- 
tion against  Austria.  This  desire  being  ful- 
filled in  May  1915,  he  entered  the  Italian  army 
as  a  private  soldier  and  in  due  course  rose  tp 
the  rank  of  captain.  During  an  attack  on  the 
Pasubio  sector  in  the  Vallarsa  on  10  July  1916v 
in  which  Battisti  commanded  a  company  of  the 
Vicenxa  Battalion,  he  was  severely  wounded 
and  left  on  the  battlefield,  where  he  was  found 


tic;  the  following  day  a  report  from  Innsbruck 
stated  that  he  was  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of 
the  Ausirians  and  would  be  tried  by  court-mar- 
tial for  high  treason.  Two  days  later  it  was 
announced  that  he  had  been  sentenced  to  death 
and  executed  on  13  July.  A  different  complexion 
was  given  to  the  stoiy  by  Signor  Area,  an 
Italian  deputy,  returned  from  the  front  on  17 
July.  He  stated  that  Battisti,  being  unable  to 
regain  the  Italian  lines  after  receiving  his 
wounds,  bad  committed  suicide  rather  than  fall 
into  the  hands  of  fais  enemies.  It  was  then 
assumed  that  the  Austrians  had  held  a  mock 
trial  on  the  body  and  afterward  hanged  it. 
Public  indignation  rose  faieh  in  Italy ;  on  20 
July  a  procession  marched  to  the  Capitol  in 
Rome  and  adopted  a  resolution  denouncing  the 
execution  of  Battisti  and  demanding  declara- 
tion of  war  against  Germany.  A  week  later 
an  English  newspaper  correspondent  affirmed 
that  Battisti  had  been  sent  to  Trent  and  tried 
and  hanged  within  40  hours,  'though  in  a  dy- 
ing condition.*  A  year  and  five  months  later, 
on  16  Dec.  1917,  the  New  York  Trnw  pub- 
lished a  reproductio'n  of  a  photograph  depicting 
Battisti  walking  unaided  to  hit  execution  under 
militaiv  escort.  Among  his  best  known  work^ 
are  'II  Trentino,  saKio  di  geografia,  fisica  e 
d'antropogeografia' ;  'Termini  geografici  rac 
colti  nel  Trentino.' 

BATTLE,  Kmm  Plonnner,  American  edu- 
cator: b  Franklin  County,  N.  C.  19  Dec  1831. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of  North 
Carolina,  1849;  received  the  degrees  A.B.,  A.M., 
LL.D.  from  Davidson  Collcse  and  from  the 
University  of  North  Carolina.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Secession  Convention,  1861 ;  State 
treasurer  of  North  Otrolina,  1866-48;  president 
of  the  University  of  North  Carolina,  1876-91 ; 
rnwned  to  become  professor  of  history,  1891- 
1907;  is  at  present  emeritus  professor  of  his- 
tory. University  of  North  Carolina.  He  has 
published  'History  of  the  University  of  North 
Carolina';  'History  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
North  Carolina';  'Trials  and  Judicial  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  New  Testament' ;  'Old  Schools 
and  Teachers  of  North  Carolma' ;  and  many 
historical  pamphlets. 

BATTLE.  An  encounter  between  two 
armies,  resulting  from  an  attempt  of  one  of 


,  Google 


Ibe  armies  to  attain  an  object  while  the  other 
opposes  the  attempt.  This  encounter  is  usually 
a  general  action  in  which  all  of  the  divisions  of 
the  armies  are  or  may  be  engaged.  Battles  are 
classified  as  defensive,  offensive  and  mixed. 
In  a  purely  defensive  battle  the  army  selects  a 
position  in  which  to  await  the  enemy  and  there 
to  give  battle  with  no  other  end  in  view  than 
to  hold  this  position  and  repulse  the  enemy.  In 
a  purely  onensive  battle  an  army  seeks  the 
enemy  and  attacks  him  wherever  be  is  to  be 
found.  A  mixed  battle  is  a  combination  of 
these  two.  All  other  things  being  equal,  an 
offensive  battle  offers  the  greatest  advantages, 
as  it  peimits  a  general  to  choose  his  point  of 
attack  and  gives  him  time  to  make  all  the 
preoarations  that  he  may  deem  necessary.  Not- 
wimstanding  the  practical  application  of  science 
in  warfare,  the  inventions  of  airplanes,  wireless 
telegraphy,  etc,  battles,  though  planned  and 
fou^t  almost  solely  on  tactical  principles,  have 
in  many  cases  important  strategical  bearings 
which  it  !s  the  province  of  an  able  general  to 
see  and  to  take  advantage  of.  Skilfully  com- 
bined strategical  marches,  when  ably  executed, 
may  alone  decide  the  fate  of  a  campaign,  with- 
out the  necessity  of  coming  into  collision  with 
the  enemy;  but  this  is  a  rare  case,  and  a  battle 
is  usually  the  necessary  sequence  to  an  import- 
— t  strategical  movement,  and,  if  welt  planned 


of  battle  the  general  combinations  made 
attack  one  or  more  ooints  of  an  enemy's  posi- 
tion ;  while  they  apply  the  term  fine  of  battle 
to  the  disposition  of  the  troops,  in  their  rela- 
tions to  each  other  for  mutual  co-aperation, 
acting  either  offensively  or  defensively.  What- 
ever may  be  the  disposition  of  the  troops,  the 
line  of  battle  of  any  considerable  force  will 
present  a  well-defined  centre  and  two  wings; 
thus  offering  to  an  assailant  one  or  more  of 
these  as  his  point  of  attack.  This  has  led  to 
dividing  orders  of  battle  into  several  classes, 
arising  from  the  necessary  disposition  of  the 
assailing  force,  as  it  moves  to  attack  one  or 
more  of  these  points.  If  an  equal  effort  Is 
made  to  assail  every  point  of  the  enemy's  line, 
the  assailing  force  must  necessarily  advance  on 
a  line  parallel  to  the  one  assailed,  and  this 
therefore  has  received  the  name  of  the  parallel 
order  of  batllt.  If  &e  line  of  ttie  assailing 
force  is  sensibly  perpendicular  to  that  of  the 
assailed,  the  disposition  b  said  to  be  the  per~ 
pendimior  order.  If  the  main  attack  is  made 
by  one  wing,  the  centre  and  other  wing  being 
held  back,  or  refused  as  it  is  termed,  the  posi- 
tions of  the  lines  of  the  two  parties  become 
naturally  obliaue  to  each  other,  and  this  is 
termed  the  obUque  order.  In  like  manner  the 
concavt  order  results  from  an  attack  by  both 
wings,  the  centre  being  refused,  and  the  convex 
order  from  refusing  the  wings  and  attacking 
by  the  centre,  etc  The  order  of  battle  should 
result  from  the  position  in  which  the  enemy's 
forces  are  presented  for  attack;  and  as  these, 
if  skilfully  disposed,  will  be  posted  so  as  to 
take  advantage  of  the  points  of  vantage  which 
&e  position  they  occupy  offers,  the  order  of 
battle  for  assaihng  may  vary  in  an  infinity  of 
ways.  Still  it  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  one 
order  is  not  superior  to  another,  or  that  the 
choice  between  them  is  one  at  pleasure.  In  the 
parallel  order,  for  example,  the  opposing  forces 


being  supposed  equal  in  all  points,  there  is  no 
reason  why  one  point  of  the  enemy's  line  should 
be  forced  rather  than  another,  and,  therefore, 
success  depends  cither  upon  destroying  bis 
whole  line,  or  simply  pushing  it  back;  as  chance 
atone  will  determme  a  break  in  any  part  of  his 
line.  In  the  oblique  order,  on  the  contrary,  one 
wii^  being  refused,  or  merely  acting  as  a 
menace,  the  other  may  be  strongly  re-enforced, 
so  as  to  overwhelm  the  wiug  opposed  to  it.  and, 
if  this  succeeds,  the  assailing  army,  1^  its 
simple  onward  movement,  is  gradually  tirought 
to  gain  ground  on  the  enemy's  rear,  and  to 
threaten  his  line  of  retreat.  Again,  in  crossinR 
a  river  on  a  bridge,  or  passing  through  any 
Other  defile  to  assail  an  enemy  opposing  this 
movement,  the  order  of  Itattle  becomes  neces- 
sarily convex,  the  extremity  of  the  defile  itself 
becoming  the  centre  from  which  the  assailing 
forces  radiate,  to  enlarge  their  front,  while 
they  are  obliged  to  sectire  the  defile  oa  eadi 
flank.  To  lay  down  rules  therefore  as  to  what 
order  of  battle  should,  in  every  case,  be  t 


decide  this  point  in  any  given  case.  As  to  the 
distribution  of  the  troops  behmgiDg  to  the 
separate  fractions  of  the  entire  force,  as  an 
army^  corps,  a  division,  etc.,  the  rule  is  to  so 
distribute  them  that  they  shall  l^{)t  under  the 
immediate  eye  of  their  respective  commanders 
and  support  each  other.  While  engineering  sci- 
ence is  now  applied  to  the  emergencies  of  mod- 
em warfare  in  order  to  facilitate  locomotion  and 
commimication,  and  while  die  modem  battle  is 
largely  decided  by  a  superiority  of  motor  trans- 

Erts,  transporting  men  from  one  part  of  the 
tttefield  to  another,  with  airmen  to  guide 
operations,  it  must  Ik  remeroliered  that  even  in 
the  highly  scientific  battle  of  to-day,  witli  vast 
and  new I^- invented  war  machinery  at  hand,  die 
infantry  is  the  principal  and  most  important 
arm,  which  is  charged  with  the  main  work  on 
the  field  of  battle  and  decides  the  final  issue  of 
combat.  The  role  of  the  infantry,  whether 
offensive  or  defensive,  is  the  rote  of  the  entire 
force,  and  the  utilization  of  that  arm  gives 
the  entire  battle  its  character.  The  success  of 
the  infantry  is  essential  to  the  success  of  the 
combined  arms.  If  the  hostile  lines  are  held 
by  good  infantry,  properly  led  and  supported 
by  proper  artillery,  fire  action  alone  will  not 
bring  about  a  decision.  For  this  purpose  the 
assault  will  bt  necessary.  See  Advance  Guam; 
Attack;  Outpost;  Pathols;  Reconnaissance; 
Strategy;  and  Tactics, 

BATTLE.  England,  market-town  in  Sas- 
sex,  situated  in  a  valley  seven  miles  northwest 
of  Hastings.  The  church  is  ancient,  and  con- 
tains some  fine  specimens  of  painted  glass  »nd 
numerous  antique  monuments.  Battle  was  long 
celebrated  for  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder. 
The  early  name  of  this  place  was  Senlac  and 
it  received  its  present  name  from  the  battle  of 
Hastings  which  was  fought  here.  In  memory 
of  the  battle  William  the  Conqueror  erected  the 
famous  Battle  Abbey  on  the  spot  where  Harold 
fell.  This  building,  the  ruins  of  which  have  a 
circumference  of  about  a  mile,  has. almost  en- 
tirely disappeared,  but  interesting  remains  of  a 
subsequent  building  exist,  including  the  gate- 
way, a  beautiful  specimen  of  die  decorated 
English  style.     One  portion  of   this  building 


G* 


BATTLB— BATTl-B  CRABK 


forms  a  nuuision,  the  residence  until  her  deadi 
of  the  Duchess  of  Gevelwid  Consult  Wakutt, 
'History  of  Battle  Abbey'  (18&) ;  Dachess  of 
Oeveland,  'The  Roll  of  Baltic  Abbey>  (1889). 
Pop.  2,996l 

BATTLE,  Law  of,  the  contest  between 
male  animals  for  possession  of  the  females, 
among  barbarous  nations.  Amotfg  certain 
tribes  of  the  North  American  Indians  the  men 
wrestled  for  any  women  to  whom  they  were 
attached-  With  the  Australians  the  women 
were  the  constant  cause  of  war,  both  between 
the  individuals  of  the  same  tribe  and  between 
distinct  tribes.  In  mammals  the  male,  says 
Darwin,  appears  to  win  the  female  much  more 
through  the  law  of  battle  than  through  the  dis- 
play of  his  charms.  The  most  timid  animals, 
even  the  hare,  will  fiKfat  denterately,  the  duel 
only  ending  by  the  death  ot^  one  of  the  par- 
ties. Male  moles,  squirrels  and  beavers  have 
been  seen  fighting  for  thdr  mate. 

BATTLS,  Trial  by.  or  Wager  of,  an  ot>- 
solete  method  of  deciding  cases,  whether  civil 
or  criminal,  by  personal  combat  between  the 
parlies  or  their  champions  in  presence  of  the 
court.  A  womaiL  a  priest,  a  peer  or  a  person 
physically  incapable  of  fighting  could  refuse 
such  a  trial.  'Hiis  mode  of  trial  ended  in  Scot- 
land  with  the  close  of  the  16th  century.  Consult 
Stephen,  'History  of  the  Criminal  Law  of 
England>  (1883);  Neilson,  'Trial  by  Combat' 
(1890). 

BATTLE  ABOVE  THE  CLOUDS,  Th^ 
the  name  given  to  that  portion  of  the  tottle 
of  (Hiattanooga  fought  on  Lookout  Uountain, 
Tenn.,  24  Nov.  1863.  See  Chattanooga,  Bat- 
tle OP. 

BATTLE  AXE,  a  military  weapon  much 
used  in  the  early  part  of  the  Middle  Ages,  par- 
ticularly by  those  who  fought  on  fooL  It  was 
not  uncommon,  however,  among  the  knights, 
who  used  also  the  mace,  a  species  of  iron  dub 
or  hammer.  Both  are  to  be  seen  in  the  diSer- 
enl  collections  of  old  arms  in  Europe.  The 
Greeks  and  Romans  did  not  employ  the  battle 
3X^  though  it  was  found  among  contemporary 
nations.  In  fact  the  axe  is  one  of  the  earliest 
weapons,  its  use  as  an  instrument  of  domestic 
industry  naturally  suggesting  its  application  for 

C poses  of  offense;  Dul,  at  the  same  time,  it 
always  been  abandoned  as  soon  as  the  art 
of  fencing,  attacking  and  guarding  was  culti- 
vated; because  the  heavier  the  blow  given  with 
ihii  instrument,  the  more  wil!  it  expose  the 
fighter.  It  never  would  have  remalnea  so  long 
in  use  in  the  Middle  Ages  but  for  die  iron  ar- 
mor which  protected  the  body  from  every 
thing  except  heavy  blows.  In  England,  Ire- 
land and  Scotland  the  battle  axe  was  much 
employed  At  the  battle  of  Bannockburn,  King 
Robert  Bruce  clave  an  English  champion  down 
to  the  chin  with  one  blow  of  his  axe.  The 
Lochaber-axe  remained  a  formidable  weapon 
in  the  hands  of  the  Highlanders  to  a  recent 
period  and  was  used  by  the  old  city  guard  of 
Edinburgh  A  pole  axe  is  a  long-handled  bat- 
tle axe. 

BATTLE  OP  THE  BLOODT  ANGLE. 
See  Spottsylvania  Court  Housf,  Battles  or. 

BATTLE  OF  THE  BOOKS.  The,  a  fa- 
mous work  by  Jonathan  Swift,  written  in  1697, 
but  remaining   in   manuscript   until    1704.     It 


was  a  travesty  on  the  endless  controversy  over 
the  relative  merits  of  the  ancients  and  mod- 
ems, first  raised  in  France  by  Perrault.  Its 
immediate  cause,  however,  was  the  position  of 
Swift's  patron.  Sir  William  Temple,  as  to  the 
genuineness  of  the  'Letters  of  Phalarig.>  The 
work  was  not  taken  with  entire  seriousness  by 
Swift's  contemporaries. 

BATTLE  CREEK,  Mich.,  city  of  Calhoun 
County,  midway  between  Detroit  and  Chicago, 
located  at  the  junction"  of  the  Battle  Creek 
and  Kalamazoo  rivers  and  on  the  main  trunk 
lines  of  both  the  Michigan  Central  and  Grand 
Trunk  railways,  48  miles  south  of  Grand 
Rapids.  Battle  Creek  is  in  the  centre  of  the 
best  farming  district  of  the  State,  having  with- 
in a  radius  of  15  miles  over  425,000  acres  of 
improved  land  with  $25^000,000  invested  in 
farm  properties.  Battle  Creek  is  known  as  a 
manufacturing  centre  and  has  a  national  repu- 
tation for  its  cereal  foods.  There  are  176  manu- 
facturing plants  employing  6,200  people.  Bat- 
tle Creek  manufactures  threshing  machines, 
traction  engines  and  steam  pumps  and  also 
printing  presses,  bread- wrapping  machines,  gas 
Stoves,  fibre  boxes,  box  board  paper,  wall  reg- 
isters, steel  paper  balers,  air  compressors,  brass 
and  aluminum  goods,  automatic  seating  ma- 
chines, bakers'  ovens,  hose  clamps,  high-power 
drills,  electric  bath  cabinets,  candies  and  cigars. 
There  are  several  lance  foundries  a    '  ' ' 


Grand  Trunk  Railroad  are  also  located  in  this 
city  and  this  is  a  divisional  centre  of  that  rail- 
road. Battle  Creek  has  a  large  sanatorium,  with 
thousands  of  visitors  yearly  and  neariy  1,000 
employees.  It  is  the  9th  city  in  size  in  the 
State  of  Michigan  but  the  first  city  in  per 
capita  bank  deposits,  with  $13,718,17122  and 
the  first  city  in  the  State  in  the  value  of  net 
factory  output  per  capita  of  population.  The 
city  is  also  a  leader  in  the  per  capita  of  savings 
deposits,  there  being  $484  for  every  man, 
woman  and  child  in  the  city.  It  is  the  4th 
city  in  the  State  in  the  annual  value  of  manu- 
factured ftrodncts,  having  325,248.000  in  1914- 
The  city  is  known  as  a  tiome-owning  city,  as 
72  per  cent  of  the  people  own  their  own  homes 
and  98  per  cent  are  American-born.  It  has 
over  SO  fraternal  societies,  a  woman's  club,  a 
charitable  union,  a  women's  league,  an  asso- 
ciated charities,  a  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  a  Y.  M.  C.  A., 
the  Alhelstan  Club,  a  social  organization  com- 
posed of  400  business  and  professional  men, 
and  a  Chamber  of  Commerce.  There  is  a 
public  library  costing  $70,000,  a  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
building  costing  $40,000,  both  the  gifts  of  the 
late  Charies  Willard;  a  fine  city  hospital,  the 
gift  of  John  Nichols;  to  this  has  been  added  a 
nne  addition,  the  gift  of  the  Rogers  family. 
There  are  12  schools  with  140  teachers,  and  a 
$350,000  central  high  school,  the  city  having 
invested  $1,000,000  in  schools  without  bonding. 
There  is  also  a  Catholic  school,  Adventist 
school  and  two  business  colleges.  There  are 
three  daily  papers  and  a  number  of  monthly 
publications.  Battle  Creek,  so  named  from  a 
pioneer  fight  with  Indians,  was  first  settled  in 
1832  by  families  from  New  York  and  New 
England.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  village  in 
1850  and  as  a  city  in  1859.  Since  1913  it  is 
under    a    commission    form    of    government. 


Google 


BATTLE  CREBK  SANITARIUH— BATTLE  OF  HALDON 


The  dtj  owns  a  £100^000  dual  water  systcni, 
has  a  paid  fire  an^l  police  department,  electric 
lights  and  gas  plant  and  two  telet^ne  sj^ems. 
It  has  an  assessed  valuation  of  $37,890,7811 
110  miles  of  streets,  16  miles  of  pavine,  44 
miles  of  sewer,  8yi  miles  of  street  lailway. 
There  are  nine  parks  of  102  acres.  Adjoining 
the  dty  is  Lake  Goguac,  surrounded  by  beau- 
tiful homes  and  estates.  There  are  16  lakes 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  that  abound  with  fish, 
and  State  highways  reach  all  parts  of  the 
county  from  the  city.  Battle  Creek  stands  3d 
among  the  cities  of  the  State  in  the  amount  of 
post-office  business.    Pop.  25,267. 

BATTLE  CREEK  SANITARIUH,  Th«, 
is  a  philanthropic  and  humanitarian  institution 
operating  under  a  perpetual  charter  which 
compels  the  use  of  all  the  profits  gained  to 
foster  the  spread  of  humanitarian  work.  More 
than  60  branches  of  the  parent  institution  have 
been  established  in  or  near  large  cities  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world,  under  the  title  of 
The  American  Medical  Missionary  Associa- 
tion, and  each  of  these  branches  conducts  a 
life-saving  business  on  Good  Samaritan  prin- 
ciples, ilie  or^niiation  began  its  work  in 
the  year  1866,  with  almost  no  capital  and  only 
one  patient;  in  a  small  two-story  frame  house, 
in  the  then  small  village  of  Battle  Creek, 
Mich.  The  incorporators  believed  that  Chris- 
tianity should  be  expressed  in  works  as  much 
as  in  faith,  in  curing  the  sick  and  healing  the 
wounded,  and  thus  preparing  the  unfortunate 
for  the  reception  of  moral  and  spiritual  in- 
spiration. 

The  Golden  Rule  is  the  foundation  prind- 
ple  of  the  institution.  It  has  grown  from  a 
small  bef^nnin^  to  the  immense  proportions  of 
the  present  time,  with  one  of  its  buildiiigs 
nearly  1,000  feet  in  length  and  six  stories 
in  height  and  numerous  omer  buildings  radiat- 
ing from  the  main  one  and  scatterea  about  it 
in  a  finely  wooded  park.  Fire  destroyed  the 
old  building  and  all  its  contents,  but  it  was 
soon  rebuilt  larger  and  better  than  before,  and 
has  grown   to  its  present  proportions. 

BATTLE  CRY  OF  FRBBDOH,  The,  a 
patriotic  song  of  the  American  Civil  War  W 
the  well-known  composer,  George  Frederick 
Root  (1861). 

'  BATTLE  OF  DORKING,  The,  a  reaKs- 
tic,  matter-of-fact  description  of  an  imaginary 
invasion  of  England  by  a  foreign  power,  by 
Gen.  (then  Lieut.-Col.)  Sir  George  Chesney. 
It  appeared  anonymously  first  in  Blackwood's 
Magazine  in  1871  and  has  since  been  reprinted 
untfer  the  title  'The  Fall  of  England'  After 
the  ignominious  defeat  of  the  French  at  Sedan, 
Chesney  foresaw  a  similar  fate  for  his  own 
country  unless  it  should  reorganiic  Its  army. 
In  the  story  fleet  and  army  are  scattered  when 
war  is  declared,  but  the  government  has  a 
sublime  confidence  that  British  luck  and  pluck 
will  save  the  country  now  as  hitherto.  To 
universal  surprise  and  consternation,  the  hos- 
tile fleet  annihilates  the  available  British 
squadron  and  the  enemy  lands  on  the  south 
coast.  Volunteers  are  called  out  and  respond 
readily;  but  ammunition  is  lacking,  the  com- 
missariat is  unorganized  and  the  men,  though 
brave,  have  neither  discipline  nor  endurance. 
The  decisive  battle  is  fought  at  Dorking,  the 
British  are  routed  and  England,  without  other 


alternative,  is  compelled  to  submit  to  the  humil- 
iating terms  of  the  conqueror. 

BATTLE  OF  THE  FROOS  AND  MICE, 
Th«,  an  andent  Gredc  mock  epic,  written  in 
hexameters.  Formerly  attributed  to  Homer. 
Modem  critics  are  of  the  opinion  that  the 
credit  of  authorship  should  be  given  to  Pigres 
(q.v.).    Only  316  lines  are  now  extant 

BATTLE-GROUND,  Ind.,  a  town  in  Tip- 
pecanoe County,  where  the  famous  battle  of 
Tippecanoe  was  fought  between  the  United 
States  troops  under  General  Harrison  and  the 
Indians  under  Tecum  seh  and  his  brother, 
•The  Prophet,"  7  Nov.  1811. 

BATTLE-HYMN  OF  THE  REPUB- 
LIC, American  song,  by  Itilia  Ward  How^ 
published  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly  in  1802.  and 
sui^  to  the  air  'John  Brown's  Body.* 


H*  lutli  looMd  'tb*  btcfiil  l«lilnli«  of  Uii  tKiibla  ■ 


They  havA  builded  Him  ui  altAr  in  the  ovcniofl  dcwm  uid 
I  can  mA  Hii  nshtaooi  laataiic*  bji  tlm  dim  and  Bariua 

I  tun  nad  ■  Stry  foavA  writ  in  bamiiiiad  mn  o<  stad: 

U«  tha  Haro.  t»ra  a[  wocoan.  ciiiih  th*  Mciiviit  whb  Id*  hMl, 

Rs  hu  loinlded  forth  the  trumpet  that  iIuU  Divet  (sOI  Rtnat; 
H(  ii  nftiiv  out  tha  hsu-ti  of  men  bdbre  Hi*  jadinHtat  leat: 
Oh,  be  (wiit.  my  loul.  to  uuwer  HimJ  tw  Jubikot.  my  featJ 


A*  he  diBd  to  make  men  holy,  lei  tn  die  to 
While  Ood  if  marchina  on. 

BATTLE   OF   THE   KEGS,   The.      See 
HoPKiNsoN,  FBAtfas. 

BATTLE  OF  MALDON,  The.  This 
fragment,  consisting  of  325  lines  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  verse,  celebrates  an  historical  occurrence 
of  the  year  991.  A  Viking  expedition  of  con- 
siderable sizCL  including,  among  other  leaders, 
the  celebrated  Olaf  Tryggveson,  descended  up- 
on the  east  coast  of  England,  and,  as  the  ^An- 
flo- Saxon  Chronicle*  mforms  us,  plundered 
Dswicfa.  The  Scandinavians  then  moved  down 
the  coast  to  Essex  and  landed,  near  Ualdon, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Blackwater.  Here 
they  were  met  by  the  military  forces  of  Essex 
under  the  ealdorman  Byrhtnoth.  After  a 
spirited  struggle,  the  English  were  defeated, 
and  Byrhtnoth  slain.  The  'Chronide'  con- 
tinues :  "In  this  same  year  it  was  resolved  that 
tribute  should  be  given,  for  the  first  time,  to 
the  Danes,  for  the  great  terror  they  occasioned 
hy  the  sea-coast'  To  this  timid  and  disas- 
trous policy  the  poem  affords  the  sharpest  con- 
trast; it  is  full  of  the  pride  and  defiance  of 
the  warrior,  of  the  undying  allef^nce  of  the 
thane  to  his  lord,  and  of  the  necessity  for 
vigorous  defense  against  the  common  foe. 
There  is  much  probability  that  it  was  designed 
not  only  to  record  a  heroic  struggle  against 
overwhelming  odds,  but  also  to  calT  the  Eng- 
lish to  a  spirited  resistance.  The  piece  wa^ 
probably  composed  not  long  after  uie    battle. 

.mz.d.,  Google 


BATTLE  HONUMBNT  — BAUDIH 


347 


Atthough  some  three  centuries  later  than 
■Beowulf,'  it  preserves  the  technique  and  the 
vigor  of  the  older  alliterative  poetry.  The 
manuscript  is  no  longer  extant,  but  the  lines 
were  copied  by  Hearne,  and  published  at  Ox- 
ford in  1726.  There  is  a  convenient  translation 
into  modern  English  verse  by  H.  W.  Lutnsden, 

frinled  by  Cook  and  Tinker  in  'Translations 
rom  Old  English  Poetiy,'  but  it  should  be 
observed  that  the  verse-fonti  does  not  repro- 
duce that  of  the  orif^nal. 

WlLUAU  WtTHERLE  LAWRENCE. 

BATTLB  HONUHENT,  a  monument  in 
Baltimore,  Md.,  erected  in  memory  of  those 
who  fell  in  defense  of  the  dtj^  when  it  was 
attacked  fay  the  English  forces'  in  September 
1814. 

BATTLE  OF  THE  SALIEHT.  Sec 
Spottsylvania  Qrjbt  House,  Battles  of. 

BATTLE  OP  THE  SPURS,  (1>  defeat 
of  the  French  by  the  Flemings  at  Courtrai, 
1302;  (2)  a  battle  of  Guinegate,  16  Aug.  1513, 
in  which  the  French  cavalry  were  defeated  by 
the  forces  of  Henry  Vlll  of  England  and  the 
Emperor  Maximilian.  It  was  thus  named  on 
account  of  the  numberless  gilt  spurs  gathered 
by  the  victors. 

BATTLEDORE  AND  SHUTTLE- 
COCK, a  popular  game  invented  in  the  14th 
century,  llie  implements  are  a  bat  shaped  like 
a  tenms  racket  and  strung  with  gut  or  covered 
with  parchment,  and  a  shuttlecock  consistinK 
of  a  cork  stuck  with  feathers,  which  is  batted 
to  and  fro  between  the  players. 

BATTLEPORD,  Canada,  a  town  of  Sas- 
katchewan province,  on  the  river  Battle  near 
its  juiKtion  witb  the  North  Saskatchewan, 
about  100  miles  from  Prince  Albert  The  Riel 
insurrection  began  near  Battleford.  It  was 
the  capital  of  the  Northwest  Territory,  18?6-83. 
Pop.  (1911)  1,335. 

BATTLEMENTS,  notched  or  indented 
parapets  used  in  fortificalions.  The  rising  parts 
are  called  cops  or  merlons;  the  spaces  by  which 
ihey  are  separated  crenels,  embrasures  and 
sometimes  loops.  The  object  of  the  device  is 
to  enable  the  soldier  to  shelter  himself  behind 
the  merlonL  whilst  he  shoots  through  the  em~ 
brasure.  The  bas-reliefs  of  Nineveh  and  the 
Egyptian  paintings  testify  to  the  antiquity  of 
this  form  of  structure.  There  is  no  nation  by 
which  it  has  not  been  adopted. 

BATTLESHIP.  See  Naval  Aichitec- 
nn£;  Wabshifs,  Moderh. 

BATWA,  bat'w»,  a  tribe  of  pygmies  living 
in  the  Wissmann  Falls  district  of  southem- 
ceutral  Africa.  They  are  sometimes  less  than 
four  feet  high,  but  well  shaped  and  well  de- 
Tekjped.  They  live  in  villages  and  are  under 
the  protection  of  the  Bakuba.  Their  food  con- 
sists of  meat,  wild  roots  and  a  few  vegetables 
wUch  they  cultivate,  Thdr  weapons  are 
knives,  bows  and  arrows,  ;>oisoned  vrith  the 
juice  of  the  root  of  a  species  of  Euphorbia. 
Their  household  furniture  is  very  simple,  and 
they  do  not  make  pottery,  weave  or  work  in 

.  BAUAN,    bow'^n.    or    BAUANO,    Philip- 

gties,  a  town  of  Luzon   in  the  province  of 
atai^s,  four  miles  northeast  of  the  town  of 


Batan^as.  The  town  manufactures  piiia  cloth 
embroidery  and  is  a  centre  for  the  marketing 
of  agricultural  products.     Pop.  39,094, 

BAUCHBR.  bo-sha,  Fransois,  French  hip- 
pologist:  b.  Versailles  1W6;  d.  Paris,  14  March 
1873.  He  is  remembered  because  of  his  method 
of  training  saddle  horses  and  his  book  'Meth- 
ode  d'  Equitation  basie  sur  des  nouveaux  prin- 
dpes'    (1842). 

BAUCIS,  in  mythology,  a  Phrygian  wo- 
man, the  wife  of  Philemon.  They  received 
Jupiter  and  Mercury  hospitably,  after  these 
gods  had  been  denied  hospitality  in  the  whole 
country  while  Iravelins  in  di^uise.  A  deluge 
destroyed  the  remainder  of  the  people,  but 
Philemon  and  Baucis,  with  their  cottage,  were 
saved.  They  be^ed  the  eods  to  make  their 
cottage  a  temple,  in  which  ihey  could  oiKciate  as 
priest  and  priestess,  and  that  they  might  die 
together;  which  was  granted.  Philemon  and 
Baucis  are,  therefore,  names  often  used  to  in- 
dicate faithful  and  attachtid  married  people. 
See  Philemon, 

BAUDELAIRE,  b6d-lar.  Charles  Pierre, 
French  poet;  b.  Pans,  9  April  1821 ;  d,  31  Aug. 
1867.  In  early  life  he  resided  for  some  time  in 
the  East  Indies,  and  on  his  return  devoted  him- 
self to  literature.  He  first  gained  some  repu- 
tation by  translations  from  the  works  of  Edgar 
Allan  Foe,  four  volumes  of  which  appeared  in 
1856-65,  re^rded  as  masterpieces  in  tneir  way. 
A  production,  however,  that  caused  ^eater 
sensation  was  a  collection  of  poems  designated 
<Les  Fleurs  du  Mai'  (1857),  which  had  to  be 
expurgated  as  the  result  of  proceedings  on  the 

girt  of  the  police  authorities.  This  work  gave 
audelaire  a  high  position  as  a  writer  of  the 
romantic  school,  and  evidenced  at  the  same 
time  his  curious  incUnation  for  repulsive  sub- 
jects. A  work  of  higher  tone  was  his  'Petits 
Poemes  en  Prose' ;  others  being  'Les  Paradb 
Artiticiels' ;  'Opium  et  Haschich' ;  a  mono- 
graph on  Theophile  Gautier;  and  'R.  Wagner 
et  Tannhauser  \  Paris.'  Apart  from  bis  verse 
however  Baudelaire's  finest  work  is  contained 
in  his  'Little  Poems  in  Prose.'  All  of  these 
arc  exquisitely  written,  and  in  many  of  them 
the  beauty  of  the  thought  is  equal  to  the  beauty 
of  the  language.  He  united  a  remarkably  keen 
analjrtical  faculty  with  a  powerful,  sombre 
im^ination.  Brooding  melancholy,  curiously 
tinctured  with  irony  inspires  the  solemn  music 
and  dream-like  imagery  of  his  best  verses.  The 
writer  whom  in  many  respects  he  resembles 
most  strongly  is  Ed^r  Allan  Poe.  Drink  and 
drugs  led  to  paralysis  and  an  early  death.  Con- 
sult James,  ^French  Poets  .  and  Novelists' 
(1884)  ;  Asselineau,  *Charles  Baudelaire  sa  vie 
et  son  ceuvre*  (1889)  ;  Symons,  A,,  'Poems  in 
Prose'   (London  1905). 

BAUDIN.  WS-diin,  NicolM,  French  sea- 
captain  and  botanist :  b.  on  the  island  of  Ki 
1750;  d.  16  Sept.  1803.  He  entered  the  mer- 
chant navy  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1786  went 
on  a  botanical  expedition  to  the  Indies,  sailing 
from  Leghorn  under  the  Austrian  fla^,  with  a 
vessel  under  his  own  command.  His  collec- 
tions in  this  expedition,  and  in  a  second  which 
he  made  to  the  West  Indies,  were  presented 
by  him,  on  bis  return  to  France,  to  the  gov- 
ernment, which  promoted  him  to  the  rank  of 
captain,  and  sent  him,  in  1800,  on  a  scientific 


Google 


BAUDIN    DES    ARDENNES  —  BAU BR 


Australia,     He   failed   to  penetrate 
of  that  country,  but  made  many 

observations  on  the  coast.    Half  of 


his    ret 

BAUDIN  DES  ARDENNES,  bo-dan- 
daz-ar-den,  Charles,  French  vice-admiral :  b. 
Sedan,  21  July  1784;  d.  Paris,  7  June  1854.  In 
1812  he  conducted  a  small  fleet  safely  into  the 
harbor  of  Saint  Tropei,  though  continuall>;  pur- 
sued by  English  cruisers.  In  1816,  he  resigned 
and  entered  the  merchant  service,  but  after  the 
July  revolution  (1830)  re-entered  the  navy.  In 
1838j  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear- 
admiral,  and  received  the  command  of  the  ex- 
pedition against  Mexico.  His  efforts  to  effect 
an  amicable  settlement  with  the  Mexican  gov- 
ernment proving  fruitless,  he  bombarded,  27 
Nov.  1838,  the  fortress  of  San  ^uan  de  Uttoa, 
which  surrendered  on  the  following  day.  Bau- 
din  treated  the  inhabitants  with  great  con- 
sideration and  permitted  1,000  Mexican  soldiers 
to  remain  in  the  city  to  maintain  order,  but  on 
the  Mexican  government  sending  re<enforce- 
ment^  he  was  compelled  to  resort  again  to 
hostilities,  which,  on  5  December  of  the  same 
^ear,  resulted  in  the  disarming  of  Vera  Cruz, 
in  the  complete  defeat  of  the  Mexican  army 
and  in  the  restoration  of  peace  between  the  two 
countries.  On  his  return  to  France,  he  was  for 
a  short  time  Minister  of  Marine  under  Louis 
Philippe,  la  March  1848  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  French  fleet  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  remained  stationed  for  some 
time  during  the  Italian  outbreak  ojf  the  Nea- 
politan and  Sicilian  coast.  In  the  following 
year  he  retired  from  active  service. 

BAUDISSIN,  bow'dis-sto,  Wolf  Friedrich 
Karl,  Count  von,  German  litterateur :  b.  Rant- 
lau,  30  Jan.  1789;  d.  Dresden,  4  April  1878. 
After  1827  he  resided  at  Dresden  where  he 
collaborated  with  Tieck  and  Schlegel  in  a  noted 
translation  of  Shakespeare.  The  translations 
contributed  by  Baudissin  are  those  of  'Henry 
VHP;  'Much  Ado  About  Nothing';  'Taming 
of  the  Shrew' ;  'Comedy  of  Errors' ;  'Measure 
for  Measure';  'All's  Well  that  Ends  Well'; 
'Antony  and  Oeojpatra':  'Troilus  and  Cres- 
sida' ;  'Merry  Wives  of  Windsor' ;  'Love's 
Labor's  Lost' ;  'Titus  Andronicus*;  'Othello': 
'King  Lear.'  He  published  'Ben  Jonson  und 
seine  Schule'  (1836)  ;  and  translation  from 
Moliire  (1865-67). 

BAUDISSIN,  Wolf  Wilbelm,  German 
theologian:  b.  Sophienhof,  Holstein,  26  SepL 
1847,  He  was  professor  at  Strassburg,  1876-81, 
at  Marburg,  1881-1900,  and  at  Berlin  from 
1900,  His  pubUcations  comprise  'Translations 
Anliqua;  Arabicse  Libri  JobiqUie  Supersunt' 
(1870);  'Studicn  zur  semitischen  Religions- 
geschichte'  (1870-78);  'Die  Geschichte  des 
Alttesiamenllichen  Priestcrthums  untersucht* 
(1889);  'August  Dillmann'  (189S) ;  'Ein- 
leilung  in  die  Biicher  des  Alten  Testamentes' 
(1901 ) ;  'Adonis  und  Esmun,  eine  LTnter- 
suchung  zur  Geschichte  des  Glaubens  an 
Aufcrstehungsgotter  und  an  Heilgotter'  (1911), 


28  Nov.  1821 ;  d,  (here,  24  Jan.  1892,  He  edited 
the  CoHStitulionnel  and  subsequently  the  Jtmr- 
nal  des  Economutes,  and  in  1^1  was  professor 
in  the  Ecole  des  Fonts  ct  Chauss^s,  He  pub- 
lished 'Des  rapports  dc  la  Morale  el  de 
I'Economie  Politique'  (1860)  ;  'Manuel  d'Econ- 
omie  Politique'  (1857) ;  'Publicistes  Mod- 
ernes'  (1862);  'Histoire  du  Luxe'  (1878-80); 
*Les  Populations  Agricoles  de  la  France' 
(1880-88). 

BAUDRY,  bff-drft  Paul,  French  painter: 
b.  La  Roche-sur-Yon,  7  Nov.  1828;  d,  17  Jan, 
1886,  He  studied  in  Paris  and  Rome,  Anong 
his  best  known  works  are  'Punishment  of  a 
Vestal  Virgin',  (1857),  and  the  'Assassination 
of  Marat'  (1867).  He  was  for  10  years  em- 
ployed in  decorating  the  foyer  of  the  Grand 
Opera  in  Paris.  His  famous  'Glorification  of 
the  Law'  on  the  ceiling  of  the  Palace  of  Jus- 
tice gained  him  the  medal  of  honor  in  1881  and 
is  generally  ranked  as  his  masterpiece.  He  wai 
elected  a  member  of  the  Academic  des  Beaiut- 
Arts  in  1870. 

BAUER,  bow>r,  Bnino,  German  philoso- 
pher, historian  and  Biblical  critic  of  the  ra- 
tional school:  b.  Eisenberg,  6  Sept,  1809;  d, 
Berlin,  15  April  1882,  Among  his  works  arf 
'Critique  of  the  Gospel  of  John'  (1840); 
'Critique  of  the  Synoptic  Gospels'  (1840); 
'History  of  the  French  Revolution  to  tbe 
Founding  of  the  Republic'  (1847);  'History 
of  Germany  during  the  French  Revolution  and 
the  Rule  of  Napoleon'  (1646);  'Critique  of 
the  Gospels'  (1850-51);  'Critique  of  tbe  Paul- 
ine Epistles'  (18S0);  'Philo,  Strauss,  Renan 
and  Primitive  C^iristianit^'  (1874);  'Christus 
und  die  Casaren,'  in  which  die  foundation  of 
Christianity  is  attributed  to  Seneca  (1877).  His 
work  displays  equal  learning  and  industry  but 
his  conclusions  are  far  from  hannonizing  wiib 
evangelical  thought, 

BAUER,  Caroline,  German  actres*:  b, 
Heidelberg,  29  March  1807;  d,  Zurich.  18  Oct 
1878,  She  made  her  debut  in  1822,  and  had 
achieved  a  brilliant  success,  in  comedy  and 
tragedy  alike,  when  in  1829  she  married  Prince 
Leopold,  afterward  King  of  the  Belgians.  Their 
morganatic  union  was  as  brief  as  it  was  un- 
happy; in  1831  she  returned  to  the  stage,  which 
she  quitted  only  in  1844.  on  her  marriage  to  a 
Polish  count.  An  &igiish  translation  of  ber 
'Posthumous  Memoirs'   appeared  in  1884, 

BAUER,  Edgar,.  German  publicist,  brother 
of  Bruno  Bauer :  b,  l^arlottenburg.  7  Oct. 
1820;  d.  Hanover,  18  Aug,  1886.  He  published 
various  works  of  an  historical  and  polemical 
nature,  strongly  tinctured  with  radicalism,  atid 
spent  live  years  in  prison  on  account  of  his 
'Streit  der  Kritik  mit  Kirche  und  Staat.'  Other 
books  by  him  are  'Die  Rechte  des  Herwwtums 
Holstein'  (1863);  'Die  Deutschen  und  ihre 
Nachbam'   (1870). 

BAUER,  Louia  A.,  American  magftctidan ; 
b,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  28  Jan.  1865.  He  was  as- 
tronomical and  magnetic  computer  for  thf 
United  States  CJjast  and  Geodetic  Sur\'cj, 
1887-92;  docent  in  mathematical  physics  in  ibe 
University  of  Chicago,  1895-96;  chief  of  divi- 
sion of  terrestrial  magnetism  of  Maryland  Geo- 
logical   Survey,    1896-99.      He    was    asstsiail 


Google 


BAUBH  — BAUH 


348 


professor  of  mathematics  in  the  Universtiy  of 
Cincinnati,  1897-99;  chief  of  division  of  ter- 
restrial magnetism  and  inspector  of  magnetic 
work.  United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Sur- 
vey, 1899-1906;  director  of  the  department  of 
terrestrial  ma^ctism,  Carnegie  Institution  lof 
WasbiDgton,  since  19(>4;  lecturer  in  terrestrial 
magnetism,  Johns  Hopkins  University,  since 
1899.  He  is  an  honorary  member  of  the  So- 
ciedad  Cientifica  Antonio  Alzate  of  Uexico, 
and  of  the  Royat  Cornwall  PoMecfanic  Society 
of  England,  and  a  member  of  the  permanent 
committee  on  terrestrial  magnetiun  and  at- 
mospheric electricity  of  the  International 
Meteorological  Conference;  also  a  member  of 
die  American  Philosophical  Society,  American 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  and  a  corre- 
sponding member  of  the  Gottingen  Royal 
Academy  of  Sciences  and  of  the  Portugal 
Academy  of  Sciences.  He  was  awarded  the 
Lagrange  pri/e  for  his  work  in  terrestrial  mag- 
netism by  the  Belgium  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences  in  1910,  and  the  Neumayer  gold  medal 
at  Berlin  in  1913;  author  of  various  publica- 
tions bearing  chiefly  on  terrestrial  magnetism 
and' cosmicaT  physics.  He  edits  and  publishes 
Terreilrial  Magnetism. 

BAUER,  Wllbelm,  German  inventor:  b. 
Dillingen  1822;  d.  Munich,  IS  June  1875.  He 
served  as  an  artilleryman  during  the  Schleswig- 
Holstein  War  (1848),  and,  meanwhile,  con- 
ceived the  plan  of  a  submarine  vessel  for  coast 
defense.  From  1851  to  1855  he  vainly  sought 
means  from  Austria,  France  and  England  to 
complete  his  experiment  but  Russia  finally 
adopted  his  scheme^  He  afterward  made  im- 
provexnents  in  torpedoes  and  in  submarine  guns. 

BAUERLB,  boi'Sr-ie,  Adolf,  Austrian 
dramatist  and  novelist:  b.  Vienna,  9  April  1786; 
d,  Basel,  20  Sept.  1859,    He  cultivated  with  much 


Vienna  Thtatre-Caxettt .  until  1847  the 
widely-read  paper  in  the  Austrian  monarchy, 
and  now  a  valuable  source  for  the  history  of  the 
stage  in  Vienna.  Of  his  numerous  plays  the 
following  became  known  also  outside  oi  Aus- 
tria: < Leopold's  Day'  (18!4>;  'The  Enchanted 
Prince*  (1818);  'The  Counterfeit  Prima  Don- 
na* (1818);  <A  Deuce  of  a  Fellow*  (1820); 
'The  Friend  in  Need.'  Under  the  pseudonym 
Orro  Horn  he  wrote  the  novels  'Therese 
Krones*  (1855)  and  'Ferdinand  Raimund' 
(1855),  full  of  the  personal  element  and  local 
anecdote. 

BAUSRNFBIND,  bow'im-fint,  Karl 
Maximilian  von,  German  engineer  and  geod- 
csist:  b.  Arzberg,  18  Nov.  1818;  d.  1894.  He 
was  professor  of  geodesy  and  engineering  in 
the  engineering  school  at  Munich,  and  long  a 
director  of  the  Technical  School  there  organ- 
ized according  to  his  plans.  He  invented  the 
prismatic  cross  employed  in  surveying,  and 
named  for  him,  and  wrote  'Elemente  der  Ver- 
mes sun  gskunde"  (1856-58);  <Zur  Briickenbau- 
kunde'  (1854):  <Zur  Wasserbaulnmde*  (1866). 
BAUERNFELD,  bow'fm-f^lt,  Eduard 
von,  Austrian  dramatist ;  b.  Vienna,  13  Jan, 
1802 ;  d.  Vienna,  9  Aug.  1890.  He  studied  law 
and  entered  the  government  service  In  1826, 
but  resigned,  after  the  revolutionaiy  events  of 


1848,  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  his  lit- 
erary pursuits.  A  brilliant  conversationalist, 
he  soon  became  a  universal  favorite  in  Vienna 
society.  Indmale  from  childhood  with  the 
genial  painter,  Moritz  von  Schwind,  and  the 
composer,  Franz  Schubert,  he  also  kept  up  a 
lifelong  intercourse  with  Grillpaner.  Among 
his  comedies,  distinguished  for  their  subtle  dia- 
logue  and  sprightly  humor,  particularly  the 
descriptions  of  fashionable  society  have  made 
his  great  reputation.  The  best  known  and  most 
successful  were  'Reckless  from  Love'  (1831); 
'Love's  Protocol'  (1831)  ;  'Confessions' 
(1834) ;  'Domestic  and  Romantic*  (1835)  ;  'Of 
Age'  (1846);  'Krisen'  (1851);  "Aus  der. 
Gesellschaft'  (1866).  His  serious  dramas  were 
less  popular.  His  collected  works  were  issued 
(1871-73). 

BAUHIN,  b5-an,  Gaspard,  Swiss  botanist 
and  anatomist;  b.  Basel  1560;  d.  1624.  He  was 
at  first  intended  for  the  Protestant  ministry, 
but  having  manifested  a  decided  inclination  for 
medicine  and  botany,  was  allowed  to  follow  it, 
and  studied  first  at  Basel  and  then  at  Padua. 
After  finishing  his  studies  he  traveled  over 
many  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  1580  returned  to 
Basel,  bringing  with  him  a  reputation  which 
immediately  secured  him  the  chair  of  Greek, 
and  in  1S89  that  of  anatomy  and  botany.  His 
fame  rests  chiefly  on  his  two  works,  'Pinax 
Theatri  Botanici'  and  'Thealrum  Anatomicum, 
Botanicum.'  Gaspard  and  his  brother,  Jean 
Bauhin,  have  been  happily  commemorated  by 
Unmeits,  who  gave  the  name  Bauhinia  to  a 
genus  of  plants. 

BAUHIN,  Jean,  an  eminent  Swiss  bota- 
nist: b.  Basel  1541;  d.  1613.  He  was  a 
brother  of  Gaspard  Bauhin,  and  distinguished 
himself  by  his  ardor  in  natural  history  pur- 
suits, in  prosecuting  which  he  traveled  over 
the  greater  part  of  the  Alps,  Italy  and  the  south 
of  France,  preparing  materials  for  a  'Historia 
Universalis  Plantarum  Nova  et  Absolutissima,' 
which  occupied  the  larger  portion  of  his  life 
but  was  not  published  till  1650,  at  Yverdon,  37 
years  after  his  death.  This  work,  in  which  he 
describes  5,000  plants,  divided  into  40  classes  or 
books,  is  considered  the  first  in  which  an  at- 
tempt was  made  to  give  a  regular  form  to 
systematic  botany. 

BAUHINIA,  a  genus  of  about  150  spedes 
of  tropical  trees,  shrubs  or  climbers  of  the 
family  Ctetaipiniacta,  with  beautiful,  showy, 
white  to  ptirple  blossoms ;  named  in  honor  of 
the  brothers  John  and  Gaspar  Bauhin  (q.v.). 
Some  spedes  are  called  mountain  ebony  from 
their  dark-colored  wood;  B.  racemosa.  the 
maloo  climber,  and  several  other  East  Indian 
climbing  species  are  used  for  makine  ropes; 
B.  variegata,  an  Indian  species  is  used  in  tan- 
ning, dyeing  and  medicine,  and  its  flower  buds 
for  pickles.  In  southern  Florida  and  southern 
California  several  spedes  are  very  popular  as 
ornamental  plants,  but  in  greenhouses  few  suc- 
ceed because  of  the  difficulty  of  securing  a  dry 
enough  atmosphere  without  injury  to  the  plants. 
D.  nataUnsis,  B.  variegata  and  B.  corymbosa, 
probably     the     most     satisfactory     greenhouse 


(Google 


8B0 


BAUMANN'S  CAVBRN— BAUMGARTBH-CRUSIUS 


ary  War.  He  arrived  in  Canada  in  1776,  and 
in  Burgoyne's  expedition  acted  as  lieutenant- 
colonel  of  the  Brunswick  dragoons.  He  was 
sent  out  with  800  men  and  two  pieces  of  ar- 
tillery on   a   foraging   expedition.     Near   Ben- 


fealed.    He  was  killed  16  Ai«.  1777. 

BAUMANN'S  (bou'm^ns)  CAVBRH 
(German,  Baumanns  HohU),  an  iDteresiing 
natural  cavern  in  the  Hair,  about  five 
miles  from  Blankenburg,  in  a  limestone 
mountain.  It  consists  of  six  principal 
apartments,  besides  many  smaller  ones, 
eveivwhere  covered  with  stalactites.  The 
eartny  ingredients  of  these  petrifactions  are 
held  m  solution  by  the  water  which  penetrates 
the  rock  and  deposits  a  calcareous  stone.  The 
name  of  this  cavern  is  derived  from  a  miner, 
who  entered  it  in  1672,  with  the  view  of  finding 
ore,  but  lost  his  way  and  wandered  about  for 
two   days  before  he  could  find  his  way  out 


BAUHBACH,  boum'baH,  Rudolf,  German 
poet:  b.  Kranichfeld,  Saxe-Meinii^en,  28  Sept. 
1840;  d.  22  Sept.  1905.  After  studying  natural 
science  in  Wurzbui^,  Leipzig,  Freiburg  and 
HddelberK,  he  lived  in  Austria  and  then  at 
Trieste,  where  he  devoted  himself  exclusively 
to  writing.  In  1885  he  removed  to  Meininf^en. 
He  most  successfully  cultivated  the  poetical 
tale,  based  upon  ancient  popular  legends.  His 
epics  include  <Z1atorg,>  a  Slovenic  Alpine  leg' 
end  (1875,  37th  ed.,  1^)  ;  'Horand  and  Hilda' 
(1879);  »Lady  Fair>  (1881);  'The  Godfather 
of  Death'  (1884) ;  'Emperor  Max  and  His 
Huntsmen'  (1888).  His  lyric  collections  are 
'Songs  of  a  Traveling  Journeyman'  (1878); 
'Minstrel's  Songs'  (18B2) ;  'From  the  High- 
w^'  (1882)  ;  'Traveling  Songs  from  the  Alps' 
(1883)  ;  'Adventures  and  Pranks  Imitated  from 
Old  Masters'  (1883);  'Jug  and  Inkstand' 
(1887);  'Thuringian  Songs'  (1891).  He  also 
published  some  excellent  prose:  'False  Gold* 
(1878),  a  historical  romance  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury; 'Summer  Legends*  (1881),  a  book  of 
^airy  tales;  and  'Once  Upon  a  Time'  (1889). 

BAUME,  bo^mft',  Antolnc,  distinguished 
French  chemist:  b.  Senhs.  26  Feb.  1728;  d.  15 
Oct.  1804.  He  obtained  the  professorship  of 
chemistry  in  the  Colle^  of  Pharmacy  at  Paris 
about  1752;  was  admitted  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  chiefly  in  return  for  some 
excellent  memorials  communicated  to  that 
body;  wrote  'Elements  of  Theoretical  and 
Practical  Pharmacy,'  which  went  through  nine 
editions  in  France  and  was  translated  into  most 
European  languages,  and  contributed  by  his 
discoveries  to  numerous  important  improve- 
ments in  the  arts,  particularly  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  sal  ammoniac,  soap  and  porcelain,  in 
nldin^  and  the  bleaching  of  silk  His  name  is 
familiar  from  the  areometer  which  he  invented 
and  which  is  still  in  use. 

BAUHGARTEN.  boum'gar-tSn,  Alexander 
Gottlieb,  German  pnilosopher  of  the  school 
of  Wolff:  b.  Berlin  1714;  d.  Frankfort-on-the- 
Oder  1762.  He  studied  at  Halle  and  was  for 
a  time  professor-extraordinary  there.  In  1740 
be  was  made  professor  of  philosophy  at  Frank- 
fort-on- the- Oder.  He  is  the  founder  of 
zsthetics  as  a  science  and  the  inventor  of  thia 


name;  He  derived  the  rules  of  art  from  Ae 
works  of  art  and  thdr  effects.  Hereby  he  ifis- 
tinguished  himself  advantageously  from  the 
theorists  of  his  time.  (See  Maratncs).  His 
ideas  of  this  science  he  first  developed  in  lui 
academical  discussion,  'De  Nonnullis  ad  Poemi 
Pertinentibus*  ( 1735) .  George  Fr.  Urier'9 
'Principles  of  all  Liberal  Sciences'  (1748^50) 
originated  from  his  suggestions.  Eight  years 
later,  Baumgarten  published  his  '.£sthetica' 
(1750-58),  a  work  which  death  prevented  him 
from  completing.  Consult  'Schmidt,  Lcibniti 
und  Baumgarten*  (Halle  1875). 

BAUMGARTEN,  Hermann,  Orman  his- 
torian :  b.  28  April  1825 ;  d.  19  June  1893.  He 
was  a  professor  of  history  in  the  University 
of  Strassburg  1872-^,  and  published  'Ge- 
schichte  Spaniens  zur  Zeit  der  fratuosischen 
Revolution'  (1861);  'Geschichte  Spaniens  vom 
Ausbruch  der  franzosiscben  Revolution  bis  auf 
unsere  Tage'  (1865-71);  'Kari  V  und  <Be 
deutsche  Reformation'   (1889). 

BAUMGARTEN,  HoriU  Julioa  Huimil- 
i>n  Paul  Muia,  Carman  clergyman  and  his- 
torian: b.  Rittershausen,  Germany,  25  July 
1860.  He  was  educated  at  the  universities  of 
Bonn,  Marburg,  Breslau,  Strassburg  and  Ber- 
lin, and  at  the  Accademia  dei  Nobili  Ecclesi- 
astici,  Rome.  He  began  the  practice  of  law 
in  1^ ;  engaged  in  historical  research  woik 
in  various  libraries  and  archives  of  EurMe  in 
1887  and  in  1888-89  was  assistant  at  the  Royal 
Prussian  Historical  Station  in  Rome.  He  w»i 
ordained  to  the  Catholic  priesthood  in  18M 
and  held  various  ecclesiastical  offices  in  Rome. 
He  traveled  Europe  and  the  United  States  k 
the  interests  of  scientific  research ;  was  presi- 
dent of  the  seventh  section  of  the  second  lotei^ 
national  Congress  of  Christian  Archzology, 
Rome  1900;  and  secretary  of  the  fifth  Inter- 
national Congress  of  Catholic  Scholars,  Munich 
1900.  He  is  a  member  of  several  scientific  and 
historical  societies  and  has  received  numerous 
decorations  and  medals.  He  is  the  author  of 
'Die  deutschen  Hexenprozesse'  (1883);  'Hat 
das  System  Kneiff  eine  soziale  Bedeutu^f' 
(1892);  'Giovanni  Baltista  de  Rossi'  (IffiB); 
'II  dizionario  di  erudizione  storico-ecclesiastica 
del  Moroni  ricerche  intomo  alia  proprieti 
litteraria  di  esso>  (1896);  'CMe  Katholische 
KJrche  in  Deutschland,  der  Schweiz,  Luxem- 
burg, tmd  Oesterreich-Ungarn'  (1900;  rev.  ed, 
1907) ;  'Verfassung  und  Organiration  der 
Kirche*  (1906)  ;  'Ke  Werke  von  Henry  Charlts 
Lea  und  verwandte  Biicher'  (1908);  etc. 
He  is  editor  of  'Die  tCatholische  Kirche  unserer 
Zeit  und  ihre  Diener'  (3  vols.,  1899-1901)  and 
a  contributor  to  the  Theolo^ucht  Revue,  Alt- 
gemeines  Litteratvrblatl,  Lttterariscke  Ru»i- 
schmt  and  an  occasional  contributor  to  vanons 
scientific  periodicals. 

BAUMGARTBN-CRUSIUS,  Lodwif 

Friedrich  Otto,  German  Protestant  theolc^ao; 
b.  Merseburg,  31  July  1788;  d.  Jena,  31  May 
1843.  He  studied  theology  in  Leipzig;  became 
the  universih'  preacher  in  1810;  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Jena,  in  1817;  and 
became  widely  known  as  a  foremost  champion 
of  religious  liberty.  He  was  a  learned  and 
original  thinker,  but  bis  writing  is  often  o^ 
scure.  His  publications  include  'Introducuon 
to  the  Study  of  Dogmatics'   (1820);  (Manual 


Digitized  byGoOl^lc 


BAUUG  ARTNER  —  B  AUS8ST 


Ml 


of  Christian  Ethics'  (1827)  ;  'OutKnes  of  Bibli- 
cal Theology*  (1828);  'Outlines  of  Protestant 
Dogmatics*  (1830);  <Tcxt-book  of  the  His- 
tory of  Doctrines'  (1832);  'Schleiennacher, 
His  Method  of  Thought,  and  His  Value' 
(1834);  'Considerations  on  Certain  Writings 
of  Lainennais'   (1834),  etc 

BAUHGARTNER,  Alexander,  Swiss 
writer:  b.  Saint  Gall  1841.  He  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  1860,  and  after 
completing  his  theological  studies  in  England, 
made  a  study  of  Scandinavian  literature  in 
Stockholm  and  Copenhagen,  He  published 
'Goethe's  Jugend'  (1879);  'Longfellow's  Dich- 
tungen'  (1878) ;  'Calderon,*  a  festival  play 
(Iffil);  'Goethe  und  Schiller'  (1886);  'Der 
Alte  von  Weimar'  (1886)  ;  a  translation  from 
the  old  Icelandic  of  Eystein  Asgninsson ;  and  a 
history  iti  ririit  volumes  of  the  world's  liter- 
ature  (1897). 

BAUMGARTNBR,  Andreas  von,  Aus- 
trian statesman:  b.  23  Nov.  1793.  at  Friedberg 
in  Bohemia;  d.  1865.  He  was  connected  tor 
many  years  with  the  teaching  of  mathematics 
■  \.i ; :_ii..  _r. lo->«    _.  t^ ii«;_ 


relinquidi  his  academical  our  suits.  Subse- 
quently he  became  connectea  with  the  direc- 
tion of  the  imperial  porcelain,  tobacco  and  other 
manufactures  in  I84I,  with  the  establishment 
of  electric  telegraphs,  and  at  the  end  of  1847 
with  the  chief  management  of  the  construction 
of  railways.  After  the  revolution  of  1848  he 
occupied  for  a  third  time  a  seat  in  the  Austrian 
Cabinet  as  Minister  of  the  Mining  Depanment 
and  of  Public  Works.  In  May  18S1  he  became 
Minister  of  Finance  and  Commerce,  and  in  135S 
was  made  president  of  the  Austrian  Academy 
of  Sciences.  In  1861  he  entered  the  House  of 
Peers  of  the  Reichsrath.  His  principal  works 
are  on  mechanical  science  applied  (□  arts  and 
industry.  His  most  popular  work  is  the  'Na- 
turlehrc,'  which' has  passed  through  many  edi- 
tions and  was  a  textbook  in  all  the  schools  of 

BAUR,  hour,  Ferdinand  Christian,  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  theologians  of  modem  (Ger- 
many, founder  of  the  "New  Tubingen  School 
of  Theology* :  b.  Schmiden,  where  his  father 
was  pastor,  21  June  1792;  d.  2  Dec.  1860.  At 
the  University  of  Tubingen,  which  he  entered 
in  1809,  he  devoted  five  years  to  theological 
stu<Ues,  and  in  1817  became  i)rofessor  in  the 
seminary  at  Blaubenren,  While  holding  this 
position  he  published  his  first  work,  'Symbol- 
ism and  Mythology,  or  the  Natural  Religion 
of  Antiquity'  (1824-25),  by  which  his  eminent 
theological  abilities  were  so  clearly  manifested 
that  in  1826  he  received  a  call  to  Tiibingen  as 
ordinary  professor  in  the  evangelical  faculty 
of  that  untveruty.  This  position  he  continued 
to  occupy  till  his  death.  His  chief  works  be- 
long to  the  two  departments  of  the  history  of 
the  Christian  dogmas  and  New  Testament  crit- 
icism, in  both  of  which  his  views  have  had  the 
most  powerful  effect  upon  the  theology  of  the 
present  day.  His  most  important  works  be- 
longing to  the  first  class  are  'The  Christian 
Gnosis,  or  the  Christian  Plulosophy  of  Reli- 
gion' (1835);  'The  Christian  Doctrine  of  the 
Atonement'  (1838);  'The  Christian  Doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation'   (1841-43)  ; 


'Compendiimi  of  the  History  of  Christian  Dog- 
mas' (1847).  To  the  second  class  belong  'The 
So-called  Pastoral  Epistles  of  the  Apostle  Paul' 
(1835) ;  'Paul  the  Apostle  of  Jesus  Christ,  His 
Life  and  Labors,  His  Epistles  and  His  Teach- 
ing* (1845)  ;  'Critical  Inquiries  Concerning  the 
Canonic  Gospels,  Their  Relation  to  One  An- 
other, Their  Origin  and  Character'  (1847).  He 
also  wrote  the  'History  of  Christian  Doctrine 
from  the  Origin  of  Christianity  Down  to  the 
End  Of  the  18th  Century,'  a  series  of  volumes 
between  1853-63.  Consult  Nash,  H.  S.,  'His- 
tory of  the  Hij^er  Criticism  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament' (New  York  1901). 

BAUR,  Frederick  Wilhelm  von,  Russian 
military  engineer :  b,  Hanau,  Germany,  1735;  d. 
Saint  Petersburg  1783.  He  early  adopted  a 
military  life,  entered  the  British  service  in  1755 
and  in  1757  he  obtained  the  rank  of  general 
and  engineer-in-chief.  Frederick  II  of  Prus- 
sia ennobled  him.  In  1769  be  entered  into  the 
service  of  Catherine  II,  Empress  of  Russia,  and 
was  emi>loyed  against  the  Turks.  The  Empress 
had  a  high  notion  of  his  talents,  and  employed 
him  in  making  the  aqueduct  of  Tsarskoe-Selo 
for  supplying  Moscow  with  water,  and  in  deep- 
ening the  canal  near  Saint  Petersburg,  at  the 
end  of  which  he  constructed  a  large  harbor, 
and  completed  other  important  undertakings. 
Baur  had  for  his  secretary  the  celebrated  Kot- 
zebue,  who  directed  in  his  name  the  German 
theatre  at  Saint  Petersburg. 

BAUR,  (jnstav  Adolf  Lndwig,  Carman 
theologian;  b.  Hammelbach  1816;  d.  1889.  He 
was  appointed  a  professor  at  Giessen  in  1847, 
and  in  1870  at  Leipzig.  He  belonged  to  the 
Scbletermacher  school  and  was  the  author  of 
'Grundziige  der  Homiletik'  (1848);  'Boetius 
und  Dante'  (1874)  :  'Die  Vorchristliche  Eriie- 
hung'  (1884). 

BAUSHAN,  Benjamin,  American  Re- 
formed (German)  clergyman:  b.  Lancaster,  Pa., 
28  Jan.  ISM;  d.  Reading,  Pa,  8  May  1909.  He 
founded  Saint  Paul's  Reformed  Church,  Read- 
ing, Pa.,  1863,  and  was  its  pastor  until  his 
death.  He  published  'Sinai  and  Zion'  (1860; 
7th  ed.,  1885)  ;  'Wayside  Gleanings  in  Europe' 
(1876);  'Bible  Characters*  (1893);  'Catechet- 
ics  and  Catechetical  Instruction*  (1893) : 
'Precepts  and  Practice'  (1901) ;  and  edited 
The  Guardian  {1867-82) ,  ani  Reformirttr  Hwt- 
freund  (1882). 

BAUSSBT,  \A-sA,  Lotds  Pranu^  (Cakdi- 
nal),  French  ecclesiastic:  b.  Pondicherry,  In- 
dia, 14  Dec.  1748;  d.  Paris,  21  June  1824.  His 
father,  who  held  an  important  position  in  the 
French  Indies,  sent  young  Bausset  to  France 
when  he  was  but  12  ^ears  of  age.  He  was 
educated  by  the  Jesuits,  and  became  bishop 
of  Alais  in  1784.  Having  signed  the  protest 
of  the  French  bishops  against  the  civil  consti-  ' 
tution  of  the  clergy,  he  emigrated  in  1791,  but 
in  the  following  year  returned  to  France,  was 
lOon  arrested,  and  imprisoned  in  the  old  Con-  . 
vent  of  Port  Royal,  where  he  remained  until 
after  the  fail  of  Robespierre.  After  the  restor- 
ation of  Louis  XVIII,  in  1815,  he  entered  the 
Chamber  of  Peers;  the  following  year  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  French  Academy;  and, 
in  1817,  he  received  the  appointment  oi  cardi- 
nal.     He    wrote    the    'History    of    Finelon* 


,  Google 


3S8 


BAUTAIN  —  BAVARIA 


(180B-09),  at  the  request  of  the  Abbot  Emery, 
who  had  in  his  possession  the  MSS.  of  ibe 
illustrious  archbishop  of  Cambray.  The  work 
had  gfeat  success,  and  its  author  was  awarded, 
in  1810,  the  second  decennial  prize  of  the  Insli- 
hite,  for  the  twst  biography.  His  'History  of 
Bossuet*  (1814)  was  less  favorably  received. 


18  Oct.  1867.  He  entered  the  Church,  and  be- 
came a  priest  in  1828;  resigned  his  professor- 
ship   in    1830i    and   later   was   suspended   as   a 

friest  because  of  his  work,  'La  Morale  de 
Evangile  cotnparee  El  la  Morale  dcs  Phiioso- 
phes' ;  but  was  reinstated  in  1841.  He  was  made 
dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Letters  at  Strassburg 
in  1838,  and  subsequently  director  of  the  College 
of  Jwilly.  At  a  still  later  period  he  was  trans- 
ferred to  Paris,  and  made  viear-Reneral  of  the 
Metropolitan  diocese.  He  was  also  appointed 
a  member  of  the  theological  faculty  of  Paris. 
His  writings  include  'Philosophie-psychologie 
experimentale'  (1839)  ;  'Philosophie  moraTe> 
(1842) ;  'Philosophie  du  Christianisme* 
(1835) ;  'La  Religion  et  la  Libert*  eonsiderfes 
dans  leurs  rapports*  (1848);  'La  Morale  de 
I'Evangile  comparee  aux  divers  systfenes  de 
morale*  (18S5),  etc. 

BAUTZEN,  bout'sSn,  or  BAUDISSIN. 
bow'desen,  Germany,  a  manufacturing  town  in 
Saxony,  noted  for  its  production  of  textile 
fabrics,  leather,  paper,  etc.  It  overlooks  the 
river  Spree,  30  miles_  northeast  of  Dresden, 
and  is  encircled  by  ancient  walls  and  moat  now 
converted  into  promenades.  The  cathedral 
church  of  Saint  Peter  is  used  by  both  Protest- 
ants and  Roman  Catholics,  ii  being  divided  into 
two  portions  for  the  purpose.  The  town  con- 
tains many  schools,  a  museum,  art  gallery  and 
three  libraries.  At  Bautien  Napoleon,  with 
13a000  men.  defeated  the  aUied  armies  of  Rus- 
sia and  Prussia,  20-21  May  1813.  Pop.  32,76a 
BAUXITE,  or  BEAUXITE,  bo'rit  (from 
Baux,  or  Beaux,  near  Aries,  France,  where  it 
occurs),  a  native,  hydrated  oxide  of  aluminum, 
having  the  formula  Ali0.2H/>.  It  has  a 
specific  gravity  of  about  2.5,  and  its  hardness 
ranges  from  1  to  3.     It  occ 


y-like  deposits.  Sesquioxide  of 
is  usually  present  in  considerable  quantity,^ 
sometimes  lo  the  extent  of  50  per  cent,^part 
of  it  replacing  aluminum,  and  part  occurring 
merely  as  an  impurity.  Bauxite  is  found  in 
many  parts  of  the  world.  One  of  the  moat 
interesting  deposits  b  at  Irish  Hill,  near  Lame. 
county  Antrim,  Ireland,  where  it  occurs  in 
the  iron  measures  together  with  lignite.  At 
this  place  three  layers  of  it  are  known,  having 
an  aftgrepile  thickness  of  about  50  feet  The 
finest  grade  from  Irish  Hill  is  almost  free  from 
iron,  containing  as  little  of  that  metal  as  good 
china  clay.  Analyses  have  shown  that  the 
,  color  of  lauxite  is  no  criterion  of  the  freedom 
of  the  mineral  from  iron,  since  a  white  variety 
containing  3.67  per  cent  of  FeiO,  is  known, 
while  a  certain  strongly  red  variety  showed, 
upon  analysis,  but  3  75  per  cent,  and  a  yellow 
specimen  contained  14.39  per  cent  In  the  Unit- 
ed States  hauxile  occurs  m  considerable  quanti- 
ties    in     Saline    and     Pulaski    counties.    Ark., 


and  in  a  deposit  extending  from  (^alboun  Coiui- 

K,  Ala.,  eastward  into  (Borgia.  Bauxite 
irms  the  principal  ore  of  the  metal  aluminum 
The  Amencan  deposits  of  bauxite  are  well 
suited  to  the  production  of  aluminum,  as  ore 
can  be  bad  in  quantity  that  contains  as  littlt 
asl  per  cent  of  iron  oxide,  and  3  per  Mnt  of 
silica.  Bauxite,  in  some  localities,  is  undoubt- 
edly an  alteration  product  of  basaltic  rocks, 
while  in  other  localities  (especially  in  the  United 
States)  it  has  very  likely  been  deposited  by 
hot  springs.  The  deposits  of  Georgia  and 
Alabama  are  thought  to  have  resulted  from 
hot  spring  the  waters  of  which  were  ren- 
dered add  by  passing  throu^  pyritic 
shales.  The  sulphuric  acid  is  believed  to 
have  reacted  with  shale  beds  changing  tbc 
kaolin  to  aluminum  sulphate.  As  this  passed 
on  upward  through  limestone  beds,  the  reac- 
tion freed  Al.O,  as  follows:  Al,(SO.)-K:aC0, 
■=  3CaSO.-|-AI.O,+3Ca.  The  gelatinous  AU). 
was  then  deposited  as  bauxite.  The  Arkansas 
deposits  are  believed  to  be  residual  from  the 
weathering  of  syenite.  In  addition  to  its  use  as 
an  ore  of  aluminum,  bauxite  forms  an  important 
source  of  alum.  Its  day-like  form  is  known  as 
wocheinite,  on  account  of  its  occurrence  at  Wo- 
cbein,  in  Styria.  The  world's  product  of  bauxite 
was  in  1910  about  31^000  tons ;  1914  about  350,000 
tons;  and  1915  something  over  500,000  tons; 
the  average  value  in  the  United  States  being 
about  $3  per  ton.  Of  the  1915  production  the 
United  States  is  credited  with  297,000  tons; 
France,  180,000;  United  Kingdom,  20,000;  Italy, 
10,000 ;  Japan,  250 ;  India,  1 10;  all  other  countries, 
2,600.  Consult  Hayes,  C.  WilUrd,  'Bauxite' 
(Sixteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  United  Statw 
Geological  Survey,  Part  3,  Washington  1896): 
Branner,  'The  Bauxite  Deposits  of  Arkansas' 
(Journal  of  Geology,  Vol.  V,  1897,  p.  263); 
Mead,  J.  W.,  'Bauxite  Deposits  of  Arkansas' 
(Ecdn.  Geol,  Vol.  X.  I91S,  p.  28).  See  Alumi- 
num; Mineral  Pboduction  of  the  United 
States. 

BAVARIA  (German,  Bayem;  French,  B* 
tiire),  a  Idngdcnn  in  the  south  of  Germany,  the 
second  largest  state  of  the  empire,  composed  of 
two  isolated  portions,  the  larger  comprising 
about  twelve- thirteenths  of  the  monarchy, 
boimded  on  the  east  by  Bohemia  and  Upper 
Austria;  on  the  south  bv  Salzburg  and  the 
Tyrol;  on  the  west  by  Wiirtemberg,  Baden, 
Hesse- Darmstadt  and  Hesse-Nassau ;  and  on 
the  north  by  Hesse-Nassau,  Wdmar,  Meinin- 
een,  Reuss,  Coburg-Gotha  and  the  Idngdom  of 
Saxony,  It  lies  between  lat.  47°  16'  and  50° 
34'  K.,  and  long.  8°  59*  and  13°  Sff  E.  The 
smaller  portion,  the  Pfaii  or  Palatinate,  lies 
west  of  the  Rbine,  whcb  forms  its  eastern 
boundary,  and  is  separated  from  the  main  Ms 
by  Wurtembeiv,  Baden  and  Hesse-Daraistadl. 
It  is  included  between  lat.  48°  57'  and  49°  50" 
N.,  and  long.  7°  4'  and  8°  31'  E,;  and  ii 
hounded  south  by  Alsace-Lorraine,  west  hf 
the  Prussian  Phine  province,  and  north  br 
Hesse- Darmstadt  and  the  Prussian  Rhine  prov- 
ince. Bavaria  is  estimated  to  contain  an  ar** 
oF  30,346  English  square  miles,  and  is  divided 
into  eight  drclcs  (Krcise),  which  were  formerly 
named  after  the  rivers  that  watered  them;  bot 
an  edict  of  29  Nov.  1837  pave  the  drdei  aw 
names   and    new   boundanes.     The   foUownS 


t,zcd=y  Google 


Oberbarvra  (upper  Bavaru) . . 
KndB-baycn)  Oowv  Bbtuu). 

Pfnk  (PatatiiuU) 

Oberptili    (upper     PnUticnti 

ud  Regen^uTE  (R&tiitnn).. 

Obafranksn  (npper  Pisoemu) 

Uitutfrasksn    (middle      " 

Onterfrmnken ' '  ('lower' '  9t\ 

Bit,)  ud  AKiuSeabani. 

Schnbes  (SmbiaJ   and 

Toul 


868,  RM 
t82,SiJ 

753,177 


The  capita)  is  Munich  (q.v.),  and  the  other 
princinal  dtics  are  Nuremberg,  Auesburg, 
Wunburg  and  RHensbur^  or  Ratisbon  (qq.v.), 
Mountaiaa.— Bavaria  is  a  hilly  rather  than 
a  mouDtainaus  country.  A  larse  portion,  more 
especially  south  of  the  DanuSe,  is  a  plateau 
country  of  considerable  elevation,  and,  indeed, 
the  whole  of  the  main  portion  of  the  tdngdom 
may  be  described  as  an  upland  valley,  averag- 
ing about  1,600  feet  above  the  sea-level,  inter- 
sected by  numerous  laree  streams  and  ridges  of 
low  hills.  On  all  sides  it  is  surrounded  by 
hills  of  a  greater  or  less  altitude,  either  quite 
Upon  the  frontier  or  only  at  small  distances 
from  it  The  whole  southern  frontier  is  formed 
by  a  branch  of  tbe  Noric  Alps,  offsets  from 
which  project  far  into  the  southern  plateau  of 
Bavaria,  forming  the  Algauer  Alps,  tbe  Bava- 
rian Alps  and  ihe  Saliburger  Alps.  Beside* 
numerous  peaks  which  these  ranges  contain, 
varying  from  4,000  (o  8,000  feet  high,  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  named  as  being  above  the  latter 
number :  The  Zugspitze,  9,720  feel ;  the  'Watz- 
mann,  &900  feet;  the  Hochvogel,  8,460  feet; 
tlie  Madeler  Gabel,  8,650  feet.  Passing  along 
the  valley  of  the  Inn  and  across  the  Danube, 
we  come  to  the  Bohemian  frontier,  formed  by 
the  Bohmerwald  Mountains  running  southeast 
to  northwest  and  lowering  down  a(  the  valley 
of  the  Eger.  The  highest  peaks  in  this  range 
arc  the  Rachel.  5,102  feet,  and  the  Arbcr,  5,185 
feet.  Crossing  the  Eger  we  meet  with  the 
Fichlelgebirge,  presenting  the  Schneebcrg,  3,455 
feet  high,  and  the  Ochsenkopf  3.360  feet  West 
from  this  range,  and  along  tne  frontier  of  the 
Saxon  ducal  territories  and  Hesse- Cass  el,  run 
hills  of  moderate  elevation,  under  various 
'  names,  Frankenwald,  Rhoneebir^e,  etc.,  no 
peaks  of  which  attain  an  elevation  of  more 
than  3,327  feet.  The  western  mountain  bound- 
ary of  the  Bavarian  Valley  is  formed  north  of 
the  Main  by  the  Spessartwald  Range,  and  in 
the  kingdom  of  Wurtemberg  by  the  Alb  or 
Alp.  Tne  only  noteworthy  interior  ranges  are 
in  the  northwest  the  Stelgerwald;  and  in  the 
northeast,  running  in  a  southwesterly  direction 
from  the  Fichtelgebirge,  the  Franconian  Jura; 
a  low  limestone  range,  containing  numerous  re- 
markable stalactitic  caves.  The  Pfalz  or  Palat- 
inate is  traversed  b^  the  northern  extremity  of 
the  Vosgcs,  the  highest  peak  in  this  locality 
being  the  Konigstuhl,  2,162   feet. 

LakM.— The  lakes  of  Bavaria  are  neither 
'very  numerous  nor  of  very  great  extent,  though 

TOI_3  — 2J 


u^per  part  of  the  southern  plateau:  the  smaller 
within  the  range  of  the  Noric  Alps.  The  most 
reroaricable  of  the  former  are.  Lake  Ammer, 
about  10  miles  long  by  three  and  three-quarters 
broad,  1,736  feet  above  the  sea;  Lake  Wurm 
or  Stamberg,  about  12  nnles  long  by  three 
broad,  1399  feet;  and  Lake  Chiem,  seven  miles 
long  by  seven  and  one-half  broad,  1,651  feet 
above  the  sea.  Of  the  smaller,  the  more  re- 
markable are  Lake  Tegern,  about  three  nules 
long,  2,586  feet;  Lake  Walcfaen,  2,597;  Konigs- 
See,  five  miles  long,  1,975  feet;  and  various 
others  upward  of  2,000  feet  above  the  sea- 
level.  Most  of  tbe  lakes  are  wdl  supplied 
with  fish. 

Rivers.— Bavaria  belongs  wholly  to  the 
basina  of  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine,  with  the 
exception  of  a  very  small  portion  in  the  north- 
east comer,  which  through  the  Elger  and  Thu- 
ringian  Saale  appertains  10  tlie  basin  of  the  Elbe- 
The  river  Danube  intersects  the  main  portion 
of  the  kingdom  west  to  east  nearly  in  the  centre, 
Bitd  before  it  enters  the  Anstnan  dominions 
at  Passau,  where  it  is  still  925  feet  above  tbe 
•ea,  it  receives  on  its  right  bank  the  rivers 
lller.  Lech  and  Isar,  which  have  their  sources 
in  the  Noric  Alps,  and  the  Inn,  besides  numer- 
ous smaller  streams;  and  <m  its  left  bank,  the 
Woroitz,  Altmiihl,  Nab  and  Regcn,  besides 
other  lesser  streams.  The  Main  traverses 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  nortbem  part  of  this 
portion  of  the  kingdom  from  east  to  west,  and 
IS  navigable  for  steam  vessels  from  Bamberg 
to  the  Rhine.  It  is  connected  with  the  Danube 
by  the  Ludwigs  Canal,  the  most  important  in 
Bavaria.  Its  principal  aiHuenls  are  the  Regnitz 
and  the  Saale.  In  tbe  Palatinate  there  are  no 
streams  of  any  importance,  the  Rhine  being 
merely  a  boundary  river.  Lai^e  tracts  ot 
marsh/    land   are  characteristics    of    southern 

Climftte.— If  we  except  the  vall^  of  the 
Rhine,  and  the  valley  of  tbe  Main  m  lower 
Franca nia,  Bavaria,  even  including  tbe  Pa- 
latinate, is,  in  comparison  with  other  German 
states,  a  cold  country.  The  average  tempera- 
ture ot  the  year  is  about  47°  F. ;  winter,  30° : 
spring  47*;  summer,  63°;  and  autumn^  47  . 
The  rainfall  averages  from  23.5  inches  in  the 
Rhine  Palatinate  10  over  78  inches  in  southern 
Bavaria. 

Soil,  Vegcution,  etc.— Bavaria  is  one  of 
the  most  favored  countries  in  Germany  in  re- 
spect of  the  fruitfulness  of  its  soil,  due,  no 
doubt,  in  a  considerable  degree,  to  the  undulat- 
ing nature  of  the  country,  to  the  numerous 
streams  by  which  it  is  watered  and  to  being 
nearlv  wholly  composed  of  Jura  limestone  In 
the  plains  and  valleys  the  soil  is  capable  of  pro- 
ducing all  kinds  of  crops,  but  not  till  lately  were 
the  natural  advantages  of  the  country  turned  to 
good  account.  Ignorance  and  idleness  opposed 
a  barrier  to  improvement,  which  it  took  the 
utmost  efforts  of  an  enlightened  government, 
aided  by  the  general  spread  of  education,  to 
remove.  Now  a  spirit  of  agricultural  enter- 
prise pervades  the  kingdom,  many  co-operative 
societies  have  been  formed,  improved  methods 
of  cultivation  have  been  introduced  and  large 
tracts  of  waste  land  have  been  reclaimed  and 
brought  under  the  plow.  To  the  general  produc- 
tions of  the  soil  may  be  added  tobacco  and 


,i,z=,i=,  Google 


fruit,  of  which  taree  quantities  are  Erown  in 
the  valleys  of  the  Main  and  the  Rhine.  In  the 
circles  of  Mittelfranken  and  Scbwaben-Neu- 
burg,  the  hop  plant  is  cultivated  to  a  consider- 
able extent.  Nearly  one-half  of  the  total  area 
is  now  under  cultivation  and  one-sixth  under 
grass.  In  1912  the  areas  under  the  chief  crops 
were:  Wheat,  725,937  acres,  yielding  489,785 
metric  tons;  rye,  1.417,972  acres,  yielding  929.- 
644  metric  tons;  summer-barley,  903,440  acres, 
yielding  668.780  metric  tons;  oats,  1,267,388 
acres,  yielding  744,661  metric  tons;  potatoes, 
927,01S  acres,  yielding  4,708,746  metric  tons; 
hay,   3,208,037   acres   yielding  4,883,742   metric 

In  1913  there  were  43,690  acres,  which 
yielded  ^658  metric  tons  of  hops.  The  vine  is 
chiefly  grown  in  the  circles  of  Pfali  and  Un- 
terfranken.  The  latter  produces  the  Franconian 
wines  ;  the  best  wines  of  the  fonner  are  pro- 
duced near  Deidesheim  and  Wachenheim.  The 
celebrated  Stein wein  and  Leistenwein  are  the 
produce  of  the  southern  slope  of  the  Marien- 
Durg,  near  the  town  of  Wurzbur^.  In  1912 
there  were  altogether  51,625  acres  under  vines, 
yielding  12,652,^2  gallons  of  wine.  The  for- 
ests of  Bavaria,  composed  chiefly  of  fir  and 
pine  trees,  cover  nearly  a  third  of  its  entire 
surface  and  yield  a  large  revenue,  estimated  at 
about  $10,000,000  annually.  About  49  per  cent 
belongs  to  private  persons,  34  per  cent  to  the 
State  and  the  rest  chiefly  to  the  communities. 
Land  is  rented  for  grazing  and  much  timber 
is   annually   exported,   together   with   pola^es. 


products  are  salt,  coal  and  iron.  Some  of  the 
mining  works  belong  to  the  state  and  contrib- 
ute something  to  the  public  revenue ;  but  the 
minerals  are  not  wrought  to  the  extent  they 
might  be.  The  coal  output  in  I9I3  was  1,895,715 
metric  tons;  iron  ore,  450,074  tons;  pig-iron, 
195,606  tons;  cast-iron  wares,  201,050  tons; 
sulphuric  acid,  163.343  tons.  The  chief  salt 
works  are  at  Rosenheim.  Graunstein.  Reichen- 
ital!  and  Berchtesgaden.  There  are  celebrated 
mineral  springs  at  Kissingen  and  Reichenhall. 
Plumbago   is    found  in   several   places   and   is 

Erincipally  manufactured  into  pencils.  Porce- 
lin  clay  of  the  finest  quality  likewise  abounds 
in  some  localities,  the  best  being  obtained  in 
the  district  of  Wunsicdel  on  the  upper  Main. 
Lithographic  stones  are  another  important  pro- 
duction. In  the  breeding  of  live-stock  Bavaria 
is  only  excelled  by  Prussia  among  the  German 
states.  In  1912  the  number  of  horses  was  401,- 
990;  of  rattles  and  asses,  700;  cattle,  3,560,723; 
sheep,  474,000;  swine,  1,814,418;  goats,  315,122; 
fowfs,  10.319,000.  Wild  fowl  are  abundant.  The 
wolves  and  bears  with  which  the  forests  of 
Bavaria  were  at  one  time  infested  are  nearly 

HftniifactiireB.— The  manufactures  of  Ba- 
varia are  singly  not  very  important,  being 
mostly  on  a  small  scale  and  conducted  by  indi' 
viduals  of  limited  capital.  The  principal  arti- 
cles manufactured  are  linens,  woolens,  cottons, 
silks,  leather,  paper,  glass,  earthen,  iron  and 
steel  ware,  jewelry,  etc.,  but  the  supply  of  some 
of  these  articles  ii  inadequate  to  the  home  con- 
sumption. Of  leather,  paper,  glass  and  iron- 
ware rather  targe  quantities  are  exported. 
There    arc    also   tobacco    and   beet-sugar    fac- 


tories, tanneries  and  chemical  works.  The  op- 
tical and  mathematical  instruments  made  ar 
Munich  are  the  best  on  the  Continent  and  are 

Erized  accordingly.  But  the  most  important 
ranch  of  manufacture  in  Bavaria  is  the  brew- 
ing of  beer  —  the  universal  and  favorite  bev- 
erage of  the  country.  The  per  capita  produc- 
tion was  about  60  gallons  in  1912;  total  amount 
brewed  was  424,605,764  gallons.  The  amount 
of  alcohol  produced  was  3,581,028  gallons.  The 
beer,  however,  is  not  only  consumed  in  the 
country  of  its  production,  but  is  sent  to  all 
parts  of  Germany  and  even  as  far  as  America 
and  India.  A  portion  of  the  industrial  popu- 
lation maintain  themselves  by  weaving  linen 
and  by  die  manufacture  of  articles  in  wood 
(some  of  which  are  of  beautiful  workman- 
slup),  and  by  the  felling  and  hewing  of  timber. 
Among  the  exports  are  com,  timber,  wine, 
cattle,  leather,  glass,  hops,  fruit,  beer,  iron  and 
steel  wares,  machinery,  fancy  articles,  toj's, 
colors,  lucifer  matches,  stoneware,  etc.  Among 
the  imports  are  coffee,  cacao,  tea,  cotton,  to- 
bacco, drugs,  copper,  oil,  siucet,  dyestuffs,  silk 
and  silk  goods,  lead,  etc. 

TruiBportation. —  From  its  poMtion  Ban- 
ria  enjoys  a  considerable  portion  of  tranut 
trade,  much  facilitated  by  the  good  roads  th^t 
traverse   the   country   in    all    directions,     Tht 

plete.  The  Danube,  the  Rhine,  the  Main,  ibc 
Regnitz,  etc.,  afford  ample  scope  for  inland 
navigation,  besides  the  Konig  Ludwig  Canal, 
which  connects  the  Main  near  Bamberg  with 
the  AUmiihl  a  short  distance  above  its  em- 
bouchure in  the  Danube,  thus  establishing  direct 
water  communication  through  the  Rhine  be- 
tween the  North  Sea  and  the  Black  Sea.  The 
railway  system  has  been  carried  out  on  an  ex- 
tensive scale.  The  lines  are  partly  state  prop- 
erty, partly  private.  The  number  of  miles  in 
operation  amounted  in  1914  to  5,173  miles,  of 
which  5,102  miles  were  normal  gauge  and  71 
miles  narrow  gauge.  The  railway  debt  was 
$485,165320,  and  the  gross  receipts  from  the 
state  railways  $77,083ja)0.  The  state  also  pos- 
sesses two  canals.  Bavaria's  foreign  trade  is 
embraced  in  that  of  the  German  Customs 
Union.  In  1913  there  were  19,626  miles  of 
telegraph  lines. 

EdacBtion  and  Ait<~The  department  of 
education  is  under  the  superintendence  o(  the 
Superior  Board  of  Education  and  Ecclesiasti- 
cal Affairs.  A  complete  system  of  inspection 
is  established  throughout  the  country,  the  re- 
ports of  the  inspectors  including  not  only  the 
number  and  proficiency  of  the  scholars,  but 
also  the  conduct  of  the  teachers,  the  state  of 
the  buildings  and  the  nature  and  extent  of  the 
funds  available.  It  is  necessary  in  Bavana, 
before  admission  can  be  obtained  into  any 
higher  school,  to  have  passed  a  satisfactoiy 
examination  in  the  lower  school.  Not  only 
must  all  candidates  for  ofHces  under  the  state 
pass  ejtaminations,  but  examinations  are  held 
of  apprentices  in  trade  who  wish  to  become 
masters,  and  even  of  the  officers  in  the  army 
on  promotion.  In  1911-12  there  were  7.7B 
elemenury  schools,  with  19,109  teachers  m 
1,064,579  pupils;  333  agricultural  schools,  witB 
6,847  pupils,  besides  442  winter  schools,  with 
1,877  pupils.  Attendance  at  school  is  com- 
pulsory from  6  to  16  years  of  age    There  tn 


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three  nniversities  in  Bavaria  —  two  of  which 
(Uunich  and  Wiiritnirg)  are  Roman  Catho- 
lic and  one  (ErlanKcn)  Pcotestant.  In  1913-14 
the  University  of  Munich  had  265  professors 
and  instmctois  and  6,802  pupils;  tliat  of  Wiin- 
bur^,  101  professors  and  instructors  and  1^15 
pupils;  and  that  of  Erlangen,  81  professors 
and  instructors  and  1,341  pupils.  There  are 
also  several  lycea,  43  eyinnasia,  numeraus 
Latin,  normal  and  polytechnic  schools,  besides 
academies  of  arts  and  sciences,  fine  arts,  hor- 
■  ticulture,  etc.  The  capital,  Munich  (pop.  1915 
about  630,000),  contains  a  library  of  about  1,- 
100,000  voltunes  and  5(^000  USS.,  several  sden- 
tiGc  and  literary  institutions,  acadeoiies  and 
national  societies,  and  extensive  collections  of 
works  of  art. 

Bavaria  enioys  the  honor  of  having  origi- 
nated a  school  of  painting  of  a  high  order  of 
merit,  known  as  the  Nuremberg  school,  founded 
about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century  by  Albert 
Durer  (q.v.^,  a  native  of  that  town,  whose 
works  are  httle,  if  at  all,  inferior  to  those  of 
his  great  Italian  conteniporaries.  Hans  Hol- 
bein (q.v.),  who  excelled  Diirer  in  portrait, 
though  far  behind  him  in  historical  painting, 
was  also  a  native  of  Bavaria,  having  been  bom 
at  Augsburg  about  1460.  To  these  celebrated 
names  have  been  added  those  of  the  eminent 
sculptors  Kraft  and  Vischer  (qq.v.),  both  also 
Bavarians;  the  former  bom  probably  at  Nu- 
remburg  about  1450-55  and  the  latter  about 
1460.  The  masleniiece  of  the  latter  distin- 
guished artist  is  the  bronie  shrine  of  Saint 
Sebaldus  in  Nuremberg,  esteemed  a  marvel  of 
art  for  beauty  of  design  and  delicacy  of  work- 
manship. The  mast  celebrated  of  Kraft's  works 
is  the  remarkable  tabernacle  in  stone  affixed 
against  one  of  the  columns  of  the  choir  of  the 
church  of  Saint  Lawrence,  also  in  Nurembei^, 
The  restoration  of  Bavarian  pre-eminency  w 
modem  times,  in  connection  with  the  fine  arts. 


music  and  the  protector  of .._„ 

Rdigkm.— The  religion  of  the  state  is 
Roman  Catholicism,  which  embraces  more  than 
seven-tenths  of  the  population.  The  remainder 
are  principally  Protestants  and  Jews.  In  1910 
the  Roman  Catholics  numbered  4362,233 ; 
Protestants,  1,942,385 ;  Jews,  SS.065.  The  pro- 
portion between  Cathoucs  and  Protestants  has 
scarcely  varied  during  the  last  three-quarters 
of  a  century.  All  citiiens,  whatever  thdr  creed, 
are  equally  admissible  to  the  same  public  func- 
tions and  employments,  and  possess  the  same 
dvil  and  political  ri^ts.  The  articles  of  the 
concordat  concluded  with  the  Pope  are  sub- 
ordinate in  their  application  to  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  state.  By  an  ordinance  of  Louis  I 
females  arc  prohibited  from  pronouncing  any 
monastic  vow  tmtil  having  passed  their  33d 
year.  The  dioceses  of  Bavaria  comprise  two 
archbishoprics,  Munich  and  Bamberg;  and 
six  bishoprics,  Augsburg,  Ratisbon,  Eichstadt, 
Passau,  Wursburg  and  Spires.  The  Salaries 
are  paid  by  the  government.  The  Protestant 
Church  is  tmder  a  ^eral  consistory  and  three 
provincial  consistories.  In  Bavaria  marriage 
between  individuals  having  no  capital  cannot 


take  place  without  the  consent  of  the  principal 
persons  appointed  to  superintend  the  poor  m- 
stitutions,  who,  if  they  grant  such  Hbefty  where 
there  are  no  means  of  supporting  the  children 
that  may  spring  from  such  marriage,  render 
themselves  liable  for  their  maintenance.  The 
law  is  intended  to  prevent  improvident 
marriages. 

Poople.— In  personal  appearance  the  Bava- 
rians are  stout  and  v^orous,  well  adapted  to 
bear  the  fatigues  of  war,  and  are  generally 
considered  good  soldiers.  Of  a  lifter,  gayer 
temperament  than  the  Prussians,  they  are  some- 
times accused  of  being  indolent  and  somewhat 
addicted  to  drinking,  but  are  brave,  patriotic 
and  faithful  to  their  word.  Their  manners  and 
customs  toward  the  close  of  the  18th  century 
were  described  as  very  coarse,  and  they  were 
said  to  be  deeply  imbued  with  superstitious 
bigotry;  but  since  the  more  general  diffusion 
of  knowledge  a  great  change  for  the  better  has 
taken  place.  Many  of  the  oeasantry  wore  long, 
loose,  snuff-colored  coats,  lined  or  et^ed  with 
pink,  and  studded  in  front  with  silver  or  white 
metal  buttons,  thrown  open  to  display  a  smart 
waistcoat  of  various  and  brilliant  colors ;  their 
hats  were  often  ornamented  with  artificial 
flowers.  Many  of  the  Bavarian  women  are 
handsome,  lively  and  graceful.  They  dress 
smartly  and  display  much  taste  in  their  attire. 
Some  of  them  wear  black  silk  handkerchiefs, 
decorated  with  flowers  or  ribbons,  tied  tightly 
around  their  heads;  some  caps  of  silver  or 
gold  tissue,  and  all  have  their  hair  neathr 
braided.  German  is  the  language  spoken,  with 
local  peculiarities,  but  Bavarians  have  never 
been  conspicuous  for  the  cultivation  of  their 
native  tongue. 

Conatitutioii.— Bavaria  became  a  member 
of  the  North  German  Confederation  by  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles,  23  Nov.  187a  and  now 
forms  part  of  the  German  empire,  but  possesses 
certain  special  privileges  in  regard  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  army  railways  and  posts, 
and  the  collection  of  revenue  for  its  separate 
budget.  It  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  the 
crown  being  hereditary  in  the  male  line,  or  if 
that  fails,  in  the  female  line.  The  executive  is 
in  the  hands  of  the  kin^  but  a  ministry  of 
seven  members  is  responsible  for  his  acts,  and 
he  is  advised  by  a  state  council  consisting  of 
the  seven  ministers,  nine  other  members  and 
one  royal  prince.  The  executive  power  is  exer- 
cised joinUy  by  the  king  and  Parliament,  con- 
sisting of  an  upper  and  lower  House.  The 
former  is  composed  of  princes  of  the  royal 
family,  the  great  officers  of  state,  the  two  arch- 
bishops, the  head  of  certain  noble  families,  and 
about  30  other  hereditary  councillors,  a  bishop 
named  by  the  king,  the  president  of  the  Prot- 
estant General  ConMStory,  and  a  certain  num- 
ber of  life  members  appointed  by  the  Crown, 
which  must  not  exceed  one-third  of  the  heredi- 
tary cotmcitlors.  The  number  of  deputies,  or 
members  of  the  lower  House,  is  fixed  at  163, 
being  at  an  average  rate  of  one  for  every 
38/)00  inhabiUnls.  They  are  elected  for  six 
year^  since  6  April  1906,  by  direct  secret  vote, 
to  which  every  citizen  over  25  years  old,  who 
has  paid  a  direct  tax  for  at  least  a  year,  is 
entitled.     Bavaria  is    represented  in   me   Im- 

grial   Bundesrat   by  six  jnembers,  and  i 
■ichstag  t^  48.    In  regard  to  local  a  ~ 


il  admi[us|;r»-  . 

Lioogle 


tion  the  country  is  divided  into  eight  provinces, 
or  government  districts,  subdivided  into  ad- 
ministrative districts.  Each  government  dis- 
trict has  a  provincial  government  consisting 
of  two  boards,  one  for  the  management  of  the 
police,  schools,  etc.,  and  [he  other  for  the  man- 
agement of  financial  affairs ;  and  each  has  a 
landrat,  consisting  of  representatives  of  the 
districts,  towns,  clergy,  landed  nobility  and 
university,  if  there  be  one.  The  budget  is  voted 
for  two  years.  The  estimates  for  1914-15 
balanced  at  $196,267,182.  The  total  debt  for 
1911  amounted  to  $606,820,789,  of  which  $478,- 
328,800  were  for  railways.  The  army  is  raised 
by  conscription  —  every  man  being  liable  to 
serve  from  1  January  of  the  year  in  which  be 
completes  his  20th  year  —  and  it  forms  an 
independent  part  of  the  army  of  the  German 
empire,  namely:  1st,  2d,  3d  Bavarian  army 
corps.  In  the' time  of  peace  it  is  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  king  of  Bavaria,  but  in  time  of 
war  it  is  placed  under  that  of  the  German 
Emperor  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  whole 
German  army.  The  period  of  service  is  two 
years  in  the  ranlcs,  five  in  the  reserve,  five  in  the 
Landwehr  or  second  army  line,  sii  in  the 
Landsturm  for  home  defense,  cavalry  and  horse 
artillery  three,  four,  three  and  six.  On  a  peace 
footing  the  Bavarian  army  is  between  72,000 
and  73,000  men.  No  Bavariati  can  settle  or 
marry,  except  by  definite  appointment,  till  he 
has  fulfilled  Ms  military  liabilities. 

History. —  The  earliest  inhabitants  of  what 
is  now  known  as  Bavaria  were  a  Celtic  tribe 
who  were  conquered  by  the  Romans  about  IS 
L.c  The  distnct  became  part  of  the  Rorrran 
provinces  of  Noricum  and  vindelicia,  later  in- 
corporated with  Raetia.  After  the  fall  of  th* 
Western  empire  in  the  Sth  century  the  territory 
was  overrun  by  various  Germanic  tribes;  prob- 
ably descendants  of  the  Marcomanni.  and 
Quadi;  who  were  called  Boiarii,  because  they 
came  from  Bojerland  or  Bohemia.  These 
Boiarii  soon  were  made  tributary  by  the  Franks, 
and  were  ruled  over  by  dukes  of  the  Agilolfing 
family,  probably  of  Prankish  descent,  as  early 
as  the  6tb  century.  In  the  8th  century  the 
bishdprics  of  Satzburs,  Freising,  Regensburg 
and  Passau  were  founded  or  restored,  Charle- 
magne made  Bavaria  a  part  of  his  kingdom, 
and  on  the  death  of  the  monarch  the  kings  of 
the  Franks  and  Germans  governed  it  by  their 
lieutenants.  In  1070  Bavaria  passed  into  the 
possession  of  the  family  of  Guclphs,  and  in 
1180  it  was  transferred  by  imperial  grant  to 
Otho,  Count  of  Wittelsbach.  In  1214  the 
family  came  into  possession  of  the  Rhenish 
Palatinate,  but  this  was  separated  from 
Bavaria  in  the  following  century.  In  1623 
Duke  Maximilian  of  Bavaria  received  the  title 
of  Imperial  Elector,  and  five  years  later  ac- 
quired the  upper  Palatinate.  In  1777,  on  the 
extinction  of  the  direct  Bavarian  line  of  the 
Wittelsbach,  the  succession  passed  to  the  Elector 
Palatin,  Charles  Theodore,  and  thus  the  Pala- 
tine, to  which  were  added  the  duchies  of  Juliers 
and  Berg,  was  reunited  to  Bavaria,  In  1799  the 
Duke  Maximilian  Joseph  of  Zweibrucken  came 
into  possession  of  all  the  Bavarian  territories. 
The  Peace  of  Lunfville  <9  Feb.  1801)  essen- 
tially affected  Bavaria,  While  it  lost  the  Palat- 
inate and  the  duchies  of  Zweibrticken  and 
Julich,  it  obtained,  on  the  other  hand,  by  an 


imperial  edict  of  1803  an  indemnificalion  by 
which  it  gained,  in  addition  to  the  amount  lost, 
a  surplus  of  2,109.  square  miles  and  216^000 
inhabitants. 

In  1805  Bavaria,  having  espoused  the  side  of 
Napoleon,  was  raised,  by  the  Treaty  of  Press- 
burg,  to  the  rank  of  a  kingdom,  with  some 
furmer  accessions  of  territory,  most  of  whicb 
were  confirmed  hy  the  treaties  of  1814  and  181S, 
by  which  also  a  great  part  of  the  lands  of  tbt 
Palatinate  was  restored  In  1818  Bavaria 
entered  on  a  period  of  constitutional  refomi 
and  on  26  Mav  of  that  year  the  ConstitutiQa 
was  proclaimeo.  In  1648  the  conduct  of  King 
Louis  I,  in  maintaining  an  open  liaison  wiA 
Lola  MonteE,  who  became  supreme  in  the  state 
had  thoroug^lf  alienated  the  hearts  of  his  sub- 
jects, and  quickened  that  desire  of  political 
change  which  had  previously  existed.  The 
people,  early  in  March  1848,  demanded  immedi- 
ate convocation  of  the  chambers,  liberty  of  the 
press, .  public  judicial  trials ;  also  that  electoral 
reform  should  be  granted,  and  that  the  army 
should  take  an  oath  to  observe  the  Constitutioa, 
The  King  having  refused  to  grant  these  de- 
mands, tumults  occurred,  and  King  Louis  an- 
nounced his  resignation  of  the  sceptre  to  bis 
son,  Maximilian  II,  under  whom  the  reforms 
and  modifications  of  the  Constitution  wete 
carried  out.  Maximilian  died  in  1064  and  wu 
succeeded  by  Louis  II.  In  the  war  of  1866  Ba- 
varia sided  with  Austria,  in  consequence  of 
which  it  was  obliged,  by  the  treaty  of  ZZ  AuRUSt 
in  the  same  year,  to  cede  a  small  portion  ol  its 
territory  to  Prussia,  and  to  pay  a  war  indemmtjr 
of  $12,150,000.  Soon  after  Bavaria  entered  into 
an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  Prus- 
sia, and  in  1867  joined  the  Zollverein  under 
Pnis^n  regulations.  In  the  Franco-Germaa 
War  of  1870>>'7I  Bavaria  look  a  prominent  par^ 
and  since  1871  it  has  been  one  of  the  constit- 
uent states  of  the  German  empire,  represented 
in  the  Bundesrath  by  6,  in  the  Reichst^  by  4S 
members.  In  1886  King  Ludwig  II  committed 
suidde  through  alienation  of  mind.  His  brother 
Otto  succeeded  but  he  being  also  insane,  ti) 
uncle,  Luitpold,  became  regent.  On  12  D«, 
1912  he  was  succeeded  as  regent  by  his  son 
Louis,  who,  gelding  to  popular  demand,  was 
proclaimed  king  as  Ludwtg  III,  5  Nov.  1911 

Aft^T-    AS\    u^Qrc      j.nnlinjkvn««it    ^^     q    lunltiC    Killg 

'  Statistik  dcs 

„ ,,__.ished  '       '      "     ■ 

tiches  Bureau)  ;  Denk  und  Weiss, 
Bayemland;  Vateriindische  Geschichte  VoQc- 
stiimlich  Dargestellt  (Munich  1906J;  Doe- 
berl,  M,,  'Entwidcelungsgeschichte  Bayerfii' 
(Munich  1912) ;  (^tz,  <GeoKrai^sch-hit- 
torisches  Handbiich  von  Bayern'  (Munich  139S- 
98)  ;  Giimbel,  W.,  <(;eologie  von  Bayern'  (Cai- 
sel  1884-94) ;  Heigel,  K.  T.,  <Die  Wittelsbacher' 
(Munich  1895)  ;  Haushofen,  M.,  'Qberbayera 
Munchen  and  tKiyerisches  Hochland'  in  'Laoo 
und  Leute'  (Vol.  VI;  Bielefieid  1910);  Hurd, 
J.,  '  En  Allemagne,  la  Bavi^re  et  la  Saxe' 
(Paris  1911);  Kinfcl,  K.,  <Das  bayerischt 
Hochland  mit  seinen  Konigs-Schlossem  una 
Seen>  (Leipsiz  1914)  ;  Koestler,  C,  'Handbuch 
*ur  Gehiels  und  Ortskunde  des  Konigrficb 
Bayern>  (Munich  1895) ;  Norman,  G.,  'A  Biiei 
History  of  Bavaria'  (Munich  1906)  ;  Piloty,  R-, 
'Verfassungs-kunde  des  Konigrrichs  Baytm 


BAVIAD  AMD  HAVIAD— BAXTER 


(Gotha  1878-49);  Pdtd.  C.  <Handbucfa  des 
Stasis  iind  Vcrwaltunzsrecht  fur  das  Konig- 
nich  Bayem>  (Mtinidi  1900);  Pooie,  A.  L., 
•Henry  the  Uon>  (Oxford  1912)  ;  Reizlcr,  S., 
'Geschichte  Baycms'  (Gotba  18W-1914) ; 
Rheinhardstottiier,  K.,  editor,  'Forschungen 
rur  Geachichte  Baycms  >  (BerUn  189J-1908). 

Charles  LBaNAKD-SruAKT. 

Henri  F.  Kuin. 
BAVIAD    AND    MMVlATi,    The,    two 
satires,    by    William   GifFord.     It    was    through 
these  that  the  author,  who  later  was  the  first 


a  band  of  English  writers,  who  had  formed 
themselves  into  a  kind  of  mutual  admiration 
society.  It  is  an  imitation  of  the  first  satire  of 
Perseus,  and  in  it  the  author  not  CMily  attacks 
the  'Delia  Cruscans,*  but  all  who  sympathize 
wkh  them.  The  'Mseviad*  (1795)  is  an  imita- 
tion of  the  10th  satire  of  Horace,  and  waa 
called  forth,  the  author  says,  'by  the  reappear* 
ance  of  some  of  the  scattered  enemy.* 

BAVIECA,  b^-wyilq,  the  favorite  bor«e 
of  the  Cid. 

BAVIUS,  MARCUS  and  M£VIUS,  sull 
notorious  as  two  miserable  poets  and  presume 
luous  critics,  satirized  by  Virgil.  The  words  are 
often  used  to  signify  bad  or  malevolent  poetl. 

BAWBEK,  bor-be'  (French,  bas  billom, 
'low*  or  'debased  billon*),  a  coin  originally 
minted  in  Scotland  Itom  an  alloy  of  copper 
with  a  very  small  amount  of  silver,  called  ba- 
ton, and  having  at  different  timei  a  value  vary- 
ing from  1^  to  3  cents.  The  coin  it  no  longer 
isined,  but  the  term  is  used  in  Scotland  to 
mean  a  half-penny  (a  cent)  or  a  very  small 

BAX,  SmCBt  Belfort,  English  socialist: 
b.  Leamington,  23  July  18S4.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  London  and  Germany;  followed 
Journalism  in  Germany  as  foreign  correspond- 
ent in  1880-81 ;  and  returning  to  England,  be- 
came one  of  the  founders  of  the  English  so- 
cialist movement.  In  1885  he  aided  in  starting 
the  Socialist  League.  He  has  written  a  large 
number  of  works  on  socialistic  and  historical 
subjects. 

BAXTER,  JsmM  Phinney,  American 
author;  b.  Gotham,  Me.,  23  Uardi  1831.  A 
successful  merchant  and  manufacturer,  he  wa> 
six  times  mayor  of  Portland,  Me.,  to  which 
he  presented  the  land  and  buildmg  for  a 
pubhc  library.  He  presented  also  a  memorial 
hbrai^  and  museum  to  his  native  town,  erected 
on  his  father's  estate.  A  devoted  student  of 
the  history  of  his  native  State,  he  has  pub- 
lished 'Geoive  Cleeve  of  Casco  Bay>  (1885)  ; 
'Journal  of  Lieutenant  W.  Digby*  (1888) ;  'Sir 
Ferdinando  Gorges  and  His  Province  of  Maine' 
(1890) ;  'The  Pioneers  of  New.France  in  New 
England'  (1894) ;  <A  Memoir  of  Jacques  Car- 
ticr  with  a  New  Translation  of  His  Voyages' 
(1905);  'The  Greatest  of  Literary  Problems' 
(1915).  He  published  19  volnmes  of  'A  Docu- 
mentary History  of  Maine,'  and  many 
other  historical  and  literary  monographs.  He 
was  long  the  president  of  the  Portland  Sav- 
ings Bank,  and  president  and  director  of  Other 
mstitutions.  Initiated,  organized  and  was  first 
pre«denl  of  the  Associated  Charities  of  Port* 


hnd  also  Uie  Portland  Society  of  Art;  staned 
it)  first  art  school  in  1884;  president  of  the 
Maine  Historical  Society,  the  Portland  Benevo- 
knt  Society  and  the  New  England  Historical 
Genealogical  Society;  a  member  of  the  council 
of  Ae  American  Antiquarian  Society,  member 
of  the  American  Historical  Society,  Massa- 
chusetts Historical   Society   the   American   So- 

iet^  of  Art*  and  Sciences,  and  other  literary 

•;._  _.  iiome  and  abroad. 


«11«;  Tenn.,  11  Feb.  185^  He  traveled  _. 
Europe,  studied  law  and  reported  the  decisions 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Tennessee,  9  volumes. 
He  became  prominent  in  railroad  enterprises, 
particularly  m  schemes  devoted  to  the  opening 
up  of  the  mineral  and  timber  resources  of  his 
State.  He  was  president  of  the  Memphis  & 
Charleston  Railroad  before  reaching  the  age  of 
30,  and  he  organized  and  built  the  Tennessee 
Central  Railroad,  of  which  corporation  he  was 
president  He  was  instrumental  in  the  found- 
ing and  extension  of  industrial  towns,  and  was 
a  member  of  the  Tennessee  senate. 

BAXTER,  Lucy  E.  (Barnes),  English  art 
writer:  b.  Mere,  WilUhire,  about  1835;  d.  Flor- 
ence, Italy^  10  Nov.  1902.  She  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  William  Barnes,  the  Dorset  poet,  and 
wrote  over  the  pen  name  of  Leader  Scott. 
After  her  marriage  to  Mr.  S.  T.  Baxter  in 
1867,  she  resided  in  Italy,  where  she  was  made 
an  honorary  member  of  the  Accademia  delle 
Belte  ArtL  She  was  the  author  of  ^The 
Painter's  Ordeal' ;  "A  Nook  in  the  Apennines* 
(1879) ;  lives  of  Fra  Bartolommeo,  Andrea  del 
Sarto,  Fra  Angelico  and  Lucadella  Robbia; 
'The  Renaissance  of  Art  in  Italy'  (1882); 
'Messer  Aniolo's  Household,  a  Unique  Cento 
Florentine  Story'  (1882) ;  'Ghiberti  and  Dona- 


'Sculpture,  Renaissance  and  Modem'  (1886) ; 
'Tuscan  Studies  and  Sketches'  (1887) ;  'Life 
of  William  Barnes'  (1888);  'Vincigliata  and 
Mariano'  (1891) ;  'The  Orti  Orcellari'  (1893); 
'Echoes  of  Old  Florence)  (1894);  'The  Castle 
of  Vincigliata'  (1897);  'The  Cathedral  Build- 
ers,' her  most  important  work  (1899) ;  'Filippo 
di  Ser  Bnmellesco'   (1901). 

BAXTER.  Richard,  English  divine:  b. 
near  Shrewsbury  1615;  d.  8  Dec.  1691.  After 
recdving  a  somewhat  desultory  and  defective 
education  he  was  sent  to  London  under  the 
patronage  of  Sir  Henry  Herbert,  master  of  the 
revels;  out  he  soon  relumed  to  the  country  to 
Study  divinity,  and  in  1638  received  ordination 
in  the  Cliurch  of  England,  In  16«  he  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  universal  approbation  of  the 
doctrine  and  discipline  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, nsuallv  known  as  the  et  ctflera  oath,  and 
in  tne  following  year  he  became  minister  at 
Kidderminster,  with  the  best  results  to  the 
morality  of  the  town.  When  the  civil  war 
broke  out  he  sided  with  the  ParUament,  and 
after  the  battle  of  Naseby  accepted  the  appoint- 
ment of  chaplain  to  Colonel  Whalley's  regi- 
ment. He  is  said  to  have  been,  die  whole  of 
this  time,  a  friend  to  the  establishment,  accord- 
ing to  his  own  notions.  In  1647  he  retired,  in 
consequence  of  ill  health,  from  his  military 
chaplainship,  and  when  he  recovered  preached 
agamst  the  Covenant.  He  even  endeavored  to 
persuade  the  soldiery  not  to  encounter  the  Scot- 
tish  troops  who  came  Into  the  kingdom  v^ 

Cioogle 


BAXTER  — BAY 


Chules  11,  «n<]  did  not  hesitate  to  express  an 
open  dislike  to  the  usurpation  of  Cromwell, 
llie  fact  is  that  Baxter  held  civil  liberty  to  be 
of  secondary  consequence  to  what  he  esteemed 
true  religion,  and  appears,  from  a  sermon 
preached  before  Cromwell,  to  have  deemed  the 
toleration  of  separatists  and  sectaries  the  grand 
evil  of  his  government  After  the  Restoration 
he  was  made  one  of  the  King's  chaplains  and  a 
commissioner  of  die  Savoy  Confereace  to  draw 
up  the  reformed  liturgy.  The  active  persecu- 
tion of  the  Non-Conformists  soon  followed;  and 
upon  the  passing  of  the  act  against  conventicles 
he  retired,  and  preached  more  or  less  openlv 
as  the  act  was  more  or  less  ri^dly  enforceo. 
After  the  accession  of  James  II,  m  168S,  he  was 
arrested  for  some  passages  in  his  'Commentary 
on  the  New  Testament'  supposed  to  be  hostile 
to  Episcopacy,  and  was  tried  for  sedition.  The 
violence  of  Jeffreys,  who  would  hear  neither  the 
accused  nor  his  counsel,  produced  a  verdict  of 
guilty  on  the  most  frivolous  grounds.  He  was 
sentenced  to  two  years'  imprisonment  and  a 
heavy  penalty,  which,  after  a  short  confinement, 
the  King  remitted.  Henceforward  Baxter  lived 
in  a  retired  manner  till  his  death.  His  wife 
dheerfulty  shared  all  his  sufferings  on  the  score 
of  conscieoce,  both  in  and  out  of  prison.  The 
character  of  Baxter  was  formed  by  his  age ; 
his  failing  was  subtle  and  controversial  theol- 
ogy; his  excellence,  practical  piety.  In  divinity 
he  sought  to  establish  a  resting  place  between 
strict  Calvinism  and  high-church  Arminianism, 
by  the  admission  of  election  and  the  rejection 
of  reprobation.  Christ,  he  considered,  died  for 
some  especially  and  for  all  generally;  that  is 
to  say,  all  possess  the  means  of  salvation.  A 
body  called  Baxterians  long  acknowledged  these 
disbnctions;  and  the  Non- Conformist  clergy, 
after  the  Revolution,  were  divided  between  this 
body,  the  pure  Calvinists,  and  the  high-church, 
passive- obedient  Arminians.  Baxter  was  a 
voluminous  'writer;  hia  'Saints'  Everlasting 
Rest,*  and  the  'Call  to  the  Unconverted,'  have 
been  extraordinarily  popular.  In  1830  an  edi- 
tion of  his  'Practical  Works*  appeared  in  23 
octavo  volumes.  The  chief  authority  for  the 
facts  of  his  hfe  is  the  'Reliquia;  Baxterianse' 
of  Sylvester,  consisting  of  autobiographical 
matter.  Consult  Orme,  W.,  'Life  and  "Times 
of  Richard  Baxter'  (London  1830) ;  Tulloch, 
J.,  'English  Puritanism  and  its  Leaders'  (Lon- 
don 3d  ed.  1883). 

BAXTER,  Robert  Dudley,  English  poKt> 
ical  economist:  b.  Doncaster,  Yorkshire,  1827; 
d.  May  187S.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege Cambridge,  and  in  1866  became  a  member 
of  ihe  Statistical  Society  of  London.  He  wrote 
and  published  'Railway  Extension  and  its  Re- 
sults' (1866)  ;  'National  Income  of  the  United 
Kingdom'    (1868);    'Taxation   of    the   United 


World'    (1871),  etc. 

BAXTER,  Sylvettcr,  American  journalist: 
b.  West  Yarmouth,  Mass.,  6  Feb.  1850.  After 
several  years  on  the  Boston  Daily  Advertiser, 
beginning  in  1871,  was  long  on  the  staff  of  the 
Boston  Herald;  was  editor  of  the  Mexican 
Financier,  of  Outing  and  of  The  Attlomobile. 
the  second  motor-vehicle  journal  started  in 
America;  correspondent  of  Boston  Daily  Ad' 
vertiitr  and  Boston  Herald  in   Gennaiv>  oi 


Boston  Herald  and  Mew  York  S»n  in  Ucxico, 
of  the  Outlook  in  South  America.  In  Boston 
was  active  in  organizing  the  metropolitan  park 
system  and  was  secretary  of  the  prelinunary 
MetropoUtan  Park  Commission.  His  interest  in 
civic  improvements  led  him  to  organize  the 
Metropolitan  Improvement  League,  of  which 
he  has  for  some  years  been  secretary ;  this  led 
to   the   appoitmient   of    the   Metropohtan    Im- 

Srovements  Commission  hy  State  authority  and 
e  was  its  secretary  while  for  two  years  it 
studied  important  problems  for  Greater  Boston. 
He  first  suggested  the  or^nization  of  Boston 
and  its  suburban  communities  into  a  federated 
metropolis  as  a  Greater  Boston,  which  was 
realized  to  the  extent  of  constituting  metropoli- 
tan districts  for  parks,  sewerage  and  water- 
supply.  In  1888-89,  as  secretary  of  the  Hemen- 
way  Southwestern  Arclueo logical  Exaedftion, 
he  was  associated  with  Frank  Hamilton  Gush- 
ing in  his  important  explorations  in  Arizona, 
representing  the  expedition  at  the  Americanist 
Congress  in  Berlin  in  1888.  In  1899  he  organ- 
ized an  expedition  to  study  and  place  on  record 
as  many  of  the  important  examples  of  post' 
Columbian  architecture  in  Mexico  as  might  be 
practicable.  The  result  was  an  elaborately 
illustrated  work  entitled  '  Spanish- Colonial 
Architecture  in  Mexico.'  Among  his  othtt 
writings,  beside  numerous  uncollected  contribu- 
tions to  the  leading  magazines,  including  essays, 
sketches,  short  stories  and  poems,  are  ''Ilic 
Cruise  of  a  Land- Yacht'  (a  story  of  travel  in 
Mexico,  for  boys)_;  'Berlin,  a  Study  of  Munic- 
ipal Government  in  Germany,'  'The  Old  New 
World,'  an  account  of  the  work  of  the  Hemen- 
way  expedition's  work  in  Arizona ;  'Greater 
Boston,*  'Old  Marblehead>  and  'The  Quest  of 
the  Holy  Grail,'  Also,  in  association  with 
Charles  Eliot,  the  greater  part  of  the  report  of 
the  Metropolitan  Park  Commission  for  Bos- 
ton, made  in  1893  ~  regarded  as  an  exception- 
ally important  contribution  to  the  literature  of 
public  parks. 

BAXTERIANS.  See  Baxtck.  Richaui 
BAY,  in  architecture,  a  term  used  to  signify 
the  magnitude  of  a  building.  Thus,  if  a  bam 
consists  of  a  floor  and  two  heads,  where  i\u.y 
lay  com,  they  call  it  a  bam  of  two  bays.  These 
bays  are  from  14  to  20  feet  long,  and  floors 
from  10  to  12  broad,  and  usually  20  feet  long, 
wbidi  is  the  breadth  of  the  bam.  It  is  also 
used  to  denote  the  divisions  of  a  church  or 
cathedra]  from  floor  to  roof,  as  indicated  t/f 
the  pillars  or  arches;  as,  a  church  of  ei^t 
bays. 

In  botany,  the  name  of  several  trees  and 
shrubs,  as  sweet  bay  {Laurut  nobilii)  the  laurel 
(q.v.)  of  the  poets,  used  for  crowning  heroes 
in  ancient  times  and  for  church  decoration  at 
tije  present.  It  has  stiff,  dull-green  leaves  some- 
times used  to  flavor  culinary  dishes.  Its  sweet, 
fragrant,  aromatic,  cherry-like,  purple  fruils  are 
edible.  This  tree  is  widely  cultivated  tor  orna- 
ment in  Europe  and  America,  and  is  probamf 
the  most  popular  tub-plant  used  in  open-air 
restaurants,  esplanades,  etc.,  on  accoimt  of  its 
ability  to  withstand  neglect,  abuse  and  shear- 
ing. Several  hundred  Biousand  specimens  are 
•  used  annually  on  the  two  continents.  The  bar 
laurel  is  better  known  as  the  cherry  laum 
{Prmtus  laurocerasut). 
sic  acid,  and  were  at  one  ti 


I   as   the  cherry  laurd 

Its  leaves  yield  pna- 

le  time  extensirdy  ned 


BAY-BIRDS  — BAY  CITY 


M  a  poison.  Tlie  loblolly  bay  (Cordonia  liii- 
OKthtu),  white  bay  (Magnolia  glauca),  and  red 
bay  (Ptrsea  carolinmsis},  arc  well-known 
natives  o{  the  southeastern  United  States.  The 
name  rose  bay  b  given  to  divers  evergreen  rho- 
dixlendrons,  to  oleander  and  sometimes  to 
Epilobiitm  angustifolutm.  The  California  bay- 
tree  is  Umbtuntaria  ctdifomica.  The  bay-tree 
from  which  bay  rum  (q.v.)  is  distilled  is 
Myrcia  acru.    See  Laukel;  Macnoua. 

In  geography,  an  arm  of  the  sea,  extending 
into  the  land.  It  is  generally  applied  to  smaller 
bodies  of  water  than  gulfs,  of  the  same  general 
geographical  character,  though  the  teims  'gulf* 
and  *bay*  are  used  sometimes  interchangeably 
and  much  to  the  confusion  of  geographical 
science.  The  word  is  of  Saxon  origin  and  sig- 
nifies an  angle.  It  should  properly  be  applied 
onl^  to  arms  of  the  sea  whicn  are  widest  at 
dieir  departure  from  the  main  line  of  sea  coast. 


whose  width  is  nearly  the  same  tbroughc...  _ 
great  part  of  their  extent 

BAY-BIRDS,  or  BEACH-BIRDS,  a 
sportsmen's  name,  in  particular  use  along  the 
south  shore  of  Long  Island,  M.  Y.,  for  snipe, 
curlews,  sand-pipers,  avocets  and  other  limi- 
coline  birds  that  frequent  the  shores  and  bays 
of  estuaries.    Compare  Shorb-bikds. 

BAY  CITY,  Mich.,  city,  county-seat  of  Bay 
County,  is  located  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Saginaw  River,  four  miles  from  its  mouth  on 
Saginaw  Bay,  from  which  it  takes  its  name. 
ana  at  the  head  of  deep  water  navigation.  It 
is  108  miles  northwest  of  Detroit  and  is  con- 
nected with  the  Michigan  Central,  Pere  Mar- 
quette, Grand  Trunk  and  the  Detroit  and  Macki- 
nac railway  systems.  It  is  the  principal  market 
town  of  a  large  area  of  the  Saginaw  Valley 
and  "Thumb"  region  of  the  lower  peninsula, 
the  most  fertile  section  of  the  State.  The  river 
is  navieable  for  the  largest  lake  vessels  up  to 
this  point.  West  Bay  City,  directly  across  the 
river,  was  joined  to  Ba^  City  1  April  1905  by 
a  soecial  act  of  the  legislature. 

Msnufacturea.—  Ba)[  City  is  an  important 
manufacturing  centre,  its  principal  industries 
beiiiK  coal,  salt,  lumber,  sugar,  alcohol,  beer, 
macEinery  and  chemicals.  It  has  the  only 
alcohol  plant  in  the  State  which  produces  proof 
alcohol  from  the  refuse  molasses,  a  by-product 
of  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar.  Its  chemi- 
cal works  is  one  of  the  largest  in  die  world, 
pToducins  alkalis,  soda  ash,  salt,  etc.  There 
are  three  large  beet  sugar  refineries,  two  of 
them  being  in  West  Bay  City.  Over  a  dozen 
coal  mines  are  tn  operation  in  the  county.  It  is 
the  port  of  entry  of  150,000,000  feet  of  lumber, 
imported  annually  from  Canada,  upper  Michi- 
gan and  the  Lake  Superior  district,  which  is 
worked  up  in  over  a  score  of  local  planing  mills, 
box  factories  and  other  wood-working  plants. 
It  has  one  madiine  shop  which  is  one  of  the 
biggest  in  the  country  and  its  woodenware  fac- 
tory is  the  biggest  m  the  worid.  The  United 
Stales  census  of  manufactures  for  1914  re- 
corded 142  industrial  establishments  of  factopr 
grade  within  the  city  limits,  eraployinR  4,658 
persons,  of  whom  3,771  are  wage  earners,  re- 
ceiving annually  $2,129,000  in  wages.  The  capi- 
tal invested  aggre^ted  $10,618,000,  and  the 
value  o£  the  year's  output  was  $ll,l]9/)00:  of 


diis,  $4,716^000  was  the  value  added  by  manu- 
facture. 

Trade  and  Commerce.— The  commerce  of 
Bay  City  has  changed  in  character  during  re- 
cent years.  Up  to  25  years  ago  the  sawing  of 
pine  lumber  was  the  chief  industry  along  the 
Saginaw  River,  hut  because  of  the  exhaustion 
of  the  pine  forests,  this  industry  has  declined. 
Instead  of  exporting  lumber,  as  it  formerly 
did,  its  shipments  amounting  to  850,000,000  feet 
in  some  years.  Bay  Citv  now  brings  in  heavy 
shipments  of  mixed  timbers,  which  is  later  ex- 
ported in  the  form  of  manufactured  articles. 
Fish,  coal,  alcohol,  salt  and  sugar  also  form 
important  items  in  the  total  shipments.  The 
annual  commerce  of  the  city  amounts  to  about 
$50^,000. 

Rsilroada  and  Water  Commnnlcfttion. — 
Bay  City  is  the  division  headquarters  of  the 
Michigan  Central  Railroad,  the  Mackinac,  Bay 
Oty  and  Detroit,  and  Bay  City  and  Jackson 
divisions  centring  here.  It  is  also  the  north- 
ern terminal  of  the  C.  H.  D.  and  Pere  Mar- 
Siettc  system,  the  northern  terminal  of  the 
rand  Trunk  and  the  southern  terminal  of  the 
Detroit  and  Mackinac  Railroad.  It  has  59  milea 
of  street  railways  and  is  connected  with  Sagi- 
naw, 14  miles  to  the  south,  by  electric  railway. 
Two  routes,  one  to  Lapper,  Pontiac  and  Detroit; 
and  the  other  to  Caro,  Cass  Cit^,  Bad  Axe  and 
Harbor  Beach ;  also  a  third  rail  system,  ^ing 
from  Bay  Ci^  directly  to  Detroit  without 
change 

City  and  Coimty  Government. —  Bdng  the 
coimty  seat.  Bay  City  contains  the  county  court- 
house and  all  the  county  ofRces,  besides  a  city 
hall  costii^  $200,000.  The  charter  election  is 
held  annually  on  the  first  Monday  in  April 
The  mayor  holds  office  tor  two  years,  the  comp- 
troller for  four  years  and  the  treasurer  and 
recorder  for  two  vears.  The  total  expenses  of 
the  city  during  tne  year  ending  1  June  1916 
were  $560,437.  The  valuation  as  assessed  foe 
taxation  purposes  was  $26,355,768  in  1916.  The 
public  debt  of  the  municipality  is  $1,281,500,  of 
which  $342,500  represents  water  bonds.  The 
rate  of  taxation  in  1916  was  $11.60  on  every 
$1,000  of  assessed  value. 

Banks  and  Loan  Companiea.— Bay  City 
has  five  banking  institutions  with  an  aggregate 
capital  of  $950,000  and  a  surplus  of  $755,000. 
In  1915  the  undivided  profits  were  $183,313,  and 
the  deposits  amounted  to  $10,290,929.  There 
are  two  building  loan  associations;  the  Mutual 
Building  and  Loan  Association  of  Bay  County 
(capital  $2,000,000)  and  the  Savings.  Building 
and  Loan  Association  of  Bay  County,  capital 
$1,000,000). 

E^catiODj  Religion,  etc. —  There  are  two 
hi^  schools  in  the  city  and  nine  other  school 
buildings,  employing  a  superintendent,  several 
principals  and  229  teachers.  The  school  at- 
tendance for  1916  was  13,542.  A  county  normal 
training  school  and  kindergarten  schools  are 
maintamed  in  connection  with  the  public  school 
system.  In  addition  there  are  the  Bay  City 
Business  College,  the  Holy  Rosary  Academy, 
the  Mercy  Hospital  Training  School  for 
Nurses,  the  Oral  School  for  the  Deaf.  There 
are  three  libraries,  holding  a  total  of  nearly 
80,000  volumes.  Religion  and  charity  in  Bay 
Oty  are  represemed  by  its  36  churches  and  mis- 
sions: 12  private  and  parochial  schools ;  Jbrec 


Google 


800 


BAY   Cmr  — BATAHO 


charitable  institutions  and  three  ho^intals.  Bay 
Gly  has  two  daily  newspapers  and  sevenil 
weekly  publications. 

Hiatory.— The  iirst  white  settler  located 
here  in  1831,  being  employed  by  the  Kovemment 
to  teach  the  Indians  fanning,  in  accordance 
with  a  treaty  signed  widi  the  Chippewas  in 
1819,  whereby  they  ceded  this  territory  to  the 
United  States.  There  were  two  reservationi, 
comprising  about  3,000  acres  within  what  is 
now  the  corporate  limits  of  the  municipality. 
A  larse  part  of  this  land  fell  into  the  hands  of 
one  Steven  V.  R.  Riley  who  lived  with  the 
Indians  for  many  years  and  married  one  of 
their  women.  In  1836  his  son,  John  Riley,  sold 
a  lar^e  tract  of  this  land  to  a  company  of 
Detroit  merchants,  who  began  laying  out  a 
settlement  Six  years  later  these  pioneers  ac- 
quired from  the  Saginaw  Bay  Company  that 
territory  which  was  then  known  as  lower  Sagi- 
naw, which  considerably  enlarged  their  prop- 
erty. After  1844  the  settlement  began  to  de- 
velop rapidly  with  the  growing  demand  for 
white  pine  lumber,  which  could  be  had  along 
the  river  above  the  settlement  in  unlimited 
quantities,  then  the  richest  pine  forests  known 
in  the  United  Sutes.  In  1859  the  settlement 
was  incorporated,  though  it  did  not  receive  iti 
city  charter  until  1865. 

Population^  According     to     the     Federal 


;*  figures  of  1900  the  population  of  Bay 
_._^  was  then  27,628.  Five  years  later  fol- 
lowed  the   consolidation   with  West   Bay   City, 


lich  then  gave  the  municipahty  a  popula 
estimated  at  40,000.     In  1910  the  census  figures 
showed  a  population  of  45,116. 

BAY  CITY,  Tex.,  town  and  county-seat 
of  Matagorda  County,  25  miles  from  the  Gulf 
coast,  and  85  miles  south  by  west  of  Houston, 
on  the  Colorado  River,  and  on  the  Gulf,  Colo- 
rado and  Santa  Fc,  the  Saint  Louis,  Browns- 
ville and  Mexico,  and  the  Galveston,  Harris- 
burg  and  San  Antonio  railroads.  It' is  situ- 
ated in  a  thriving  agricultural  region,  in  which 
the  principal  crops  arc  cotton,  com,  sugar  cane, 
rice  and  fruit.  It  has  cotton  gins,  ice-making 
and  dairying  establishments,  and  rice  mills. 
Bay  City  was  settled  in  1895.     Pop.  3,156. 

BAY  ISLANDS,  Honduras,  a  group  of 
islands  in  the  Bay  of  Honduras,  150  milei 
southeast  of  Beiize,  known  as  Ruatan,  Guanaja 
(or  Bonacca),  Utilla,  Barbareta,  Elena,  Morat 
and  the  Puercos  Islands.  They  were  discov- 
ei^d  by  Columbus  30  July  1502,  and  it  was  from 
Guanja  that  he  nrst  sighted  the  mainland  of 
America.  Their  ownerutip  was  long  a  matter 
of  dispute  between  Spain  and  England,  and 
later  between  England  and  the  republic  of 
Honduras.  In  1852  the  group  was  declared  a 
colony  of  Great  Britain  by  royal  warrant,  and 
this  action  involved  the  United  States  in  the 
dispute,  that  government  claiming  that  the 
seizure  was  a  violation  of  the  Qaylon-Buiwer 
treaty  (q.v.).  Negotiations  dragged  along 
slowly  for  several  years,  but  finally  — in  1859 
—  Great' Britain  rccogtuzed  the  claim  of  Hon- 
duras to  the  islands.  A  practical  protectorate 
was,  however,  maintained  by  Great  Britain  over 
the  group,  and  the  inhabitants  (who  number 
about  5,000)  avowed  British  allegiance.  In 
1903  Great  Britain  formally  renounced  all  juris- 
diction, and  title  to  the  Bay  Islands  is  now 
clearly  vested  in  Honduras. 


BAY  LAGOON,  Philippines,  a  frcsh-watn 
lake  in  the  northern  part  of  Luzon.  This  lake 
is  connected  with  Manila  Bay  by  the  Patig 
River,  and  from  its  centre  rises  a  high  vol- 
canic island.  It  is  about  20  miles  in  extent 
from  north  to  south,  and  about  47  miles  from 
east  (o  weat.  In  1899  it  was  made  a  naval 
headquarters  for  the  United  States. 

BAY  PSALM  BOOK,  the  title  of  the  first 
book  published  in  the  American  colonies.  It 
was  printed  by  Stephen  Daye  at  Cambridge  in 
1640,  and  was  the  product  of  the  joint  labors 
of  Revs.  Richard  Maihcr,  Thomas  Wilde  and 
John  Eliot.  It  was  revised  in  I6S0  and  was 
long  in  use  in  New  England 

BAY  SAINT  LOUIS,  Miss.,  city  and 
county-seat  of  Hancock  County,  55  miles  north- 
east of  New  Orleans,  on  the  Louisville  and 
Nashville  Railroad,  and  on  the  Jordan  river. 
It  is  a  favorite  summer  resort  ana  a  shell  road 
along  the  beach  is  of  great  interest.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Saint  Stanislaus  College  and  the  Con- 
vent of  Saint  Joseph.  The  chief  industries  arc 
those  connected  with  oyster  raising,  fishing, 
fruit-growing  and  farming.     Pop.  3,338. 

BAY  SALT,  the  coarse-grained  salt  found 
in  salt-marshes  and  along  ocean  shores,  where  it 
is  formed  by  the  spontaneous  evaporaiion  of 
sea-water.  The  name  is  supposed  to  refer  to 
the  Bay  of  Biscay,  on  whose  shores  extensive 
deposits  of  "bay  salt*  occur, 

BAY  STATE,  the  popular  name  of  Massa- 
chusetts which  prior  to  the  adoption  of  the 
United  States'  Constitution  had  been  known  u 
the  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony. 

BAYA,  or  BAYA  SPARROW,  a  sparrow- 
like  weaver-bird  (Ploceus  philipfinus),  which 
the  people  of  India  and  the  Malay  countries 
often  keep  about  their  houses,  not  only  in  cage^ 
but  as  a  free  pet  trained  to  do  a  variety  oi 
clever  tricks,  even  to  find  small  articles,  to 
'  carry  notes  to  certain  places,  and  to  steal 
ornaments  from  the  hair  of  visitors.  See 
Weaves  Bibd. 

BAYAD,  a  cat  fish,  Bogus  bayad,  a  b^ 
edible  fish  found  in  abuniLnce  in  the  river 
Nile;  distinguished,  however  from  the  electric 
catfish  of  the  same  waters. 

BAYADERES,  ba-y)-darz,  in  the  East 
Indies,  young  girls,  from  10  to  17  years  of  agb 
who  are  instructed  in  dancing,  singing  and 
acting  little  plays.  They  are  trained  under  the 
care  of  women,  who  are  experienced  in,  all 
female  arts,  and  particularly  in  that  of  pleasing. 
These  procure  from  the  lowest  classes  of  the 
people  the  most  beautiful  girls,  of  seven  or 
eight  years  of  age,  and  instruct  them  in  all  the 
arts  of  their  profession  (especially  dancing  and 
singing),  the  object  of  which  is  to  amuse  tht 
rich  and  minister  to  their  passions.  Thar 
presence  is  considered  necessary  even  at  the 
smallest  public  entertainments,  though  ihey  arc 
known  to  be  mere  prostitutes.  After  their  17tb 
year,  when  their  first  charms  have  faded,  the]' 
retire  to  a  pagoda  under  the  protection  of  the 
Brahmins,  who  scruple  not  to  pocket  the  gViU 
of  their  prostitution.  This  word  is  from  ih* 
Portuguese    word    bailadetra,    from    bailor,  to 

BAYAMO,  ha-yi'mfi,  Cuba,  a  town  tthox 
name  is  incKssolubly  connecteo  widi  the  Ten 


BAYAHOM — BA  Y  AKD 


Years'  War  and  the  revolution  of  1895.  Thm 
the  Cuban  nstional  air  received  the  name 
'Bayamese  Hymn.'  The  reiiublican  movement 
of  1868  originated  here  and  in  the  neigfaboring 
town  of  Yara ;  and  her«  General  Garcia  received 
the  message  tliat  Lieutenant  Rowan  delivered 
to  him  before  the>  War  of  1898  between  the 
United  States  and  Spain.  Bayamo  was  founded 
in  the  early  years  of  the  Spanish  conquest  It 
is  situated  on  the  Rio  Bayamo,  an  afihient  of 
the  Canto,  Cuba's  largest  river,  in  the  province 
of  Oriente.  It  is  an  agricultural  and  commer~ 
dal  centre,  though  formerly  its  importance  was 
much  greater.    Fop.  about  4,000. 

BAYAMON,  Porto  Rico,  town  five  miles 
southwest  of  San  Juan,  on  the  American  rail- 


works,  and  an  oil  refinery.  Fruit'growing  and 
sugar  cultivation  are  extensively  carried  on  in 
the  neighborhood.  The  town  has  a  public 
school,  a  college  and  several  churches.  Nearby 
are  the  ruins  of  Pueblo  Viejo  (Old  Town)  or 
Caparra  the  earliest  Spanish  settlement  in 
Porto  Rico,  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Ponce  de  Leon  in  1509.  Pop.  5,272;  municipal 
district  29,986. 


bis  seat  at  once  on  taking  it  His  successor, 
George  R.  Riddle,  dving  four  years  later  after 
die  war,  he  accepted  an  election  to  fill  out  his 
own  unexpired  term,  to  March  1869;  duriti]g 
most  of  the  time  was  chairman  of  the  judi-  - 
ciary  committee,  and  gained  an  honorable  celeb- 
rity for  his  punctilious  sense  of  public  honor 
in  the  matter  of  the  Credit  Mobilier  (qv.).  His 
son,  Thomas  F.  (q.v.),  was  chosen  to  succeed 
him  by  the  same  le^shture  which  had  elected 
Inmself,  the  only  instance  of  the  kind  in  Ameri- 
can history.  He  lived  qnietl^  at  WilmingUm 
during  the  remainder  of  nis  life. 

BAYARD,  John,  American  patriot:  b. 
Bohemia  Manor  Md..  11  Aug.  1738;  d.  7  Jan. 
1807  (for  his  descent,  see  Bayard  Family). 
He  was  a  prominent  Philadelphia  merchant 
member  of  the  Sons  of  Liberty,  and  later  of 
the  Provincial  Congress,  1774-75,  and  of  the 
Council  of  Safety;   colonel  of  infanlni  a 


1835;  d.  14  Dec.  1862.  Passing  his  boyhood  in 
Iowa,  he  entered  West  Point,  1852,  and  became 
a  cavalry  lieutenant;  then  cy)tain  in  August 
1861,  colonel  of  volunteers  in  September,  bnga- 
dier-gcneral  the  following  April ;  and  after 
serving  in  the  Shenandoafi  and  northern  Vir- 
ginia campaigns,  was  mortally  wounded  at 
Fredericksburg. 

BAYARD,  JvDM  Aiheton  (Ist),  Ameri- 
can statesman:  b.  Philadelphia,  28  July  1767; 
d  6  Aug.  1815.  He  was  adopted  by  his  uncle. 
Col.  John  (q.v.),  graduated  at  Princeton,  1784; 
studied  law,  and  settled  in  Wilmington,  DeL, 
permanently.  In  1796  he  was  elected  (Federal- 
ist) representative  in  Congress  and  became  the 
leader  of  the  party  in  the  House,  noted  as  a 
constitutional  lawyer ;  and  when  the  peculiar 
system  of  presidential  elections  at  that  time  had 
tied  Jefferson  and  Burr  for  the  presidency. 
though  Jefferson  was  the  only  one  really  voted 
for.  Bayard  threw  his  vote  for  Jefferson  and 
elected  him  as  the  less  obnoxious  of  the  two. 

John  Adams  appointed  him  Minister  to  France, 
ut  he  declined.  He  served  in  the  House  till 
1803 ;  in  1804  he  was  elected  to  the  Senate,  and 
held  the  seat  till  1813,  voting  against  the  War 
of  1812.  He  was  made  peace  commissioner  in 
1813  by  Madison,  and,  decKning  the  ministry  to 
Russia,  was  one  of  those  who  concluded  the 
Treaty  of  Ghent,  December  1814,  but  died 
shortly  after  his  return. 

BAYARD,  James  Asheton  (2d),  AiBerican 
statesman,  son  of  the  foregoing;  b.  Wilming- 
ton, Del..  IS  Nov.  1799;  d.  there,  13  June  1^ 
He  became  a  lawyer  of  high  rank  in  Wilming- 
ton, United  Slates  attorn^  for  Delaware  under 
Van  BureiL  and  was  elected  United  States 
senator,  1851,  1857  and  1863,  as  a  Democrat; 
but  on  the  last  occasion  the  'iron-clad*  oath  of 
sUeKiance  being  required  of  public  officers  at 
that  tiine,  Mr.  Bayard  entered  a  protest  a^inst 
it  as  »  violation  of  State  rights,  and  reugned 


speaker  of  its  house.  He  furnished  a 
Congress  and  fitted  out  one  of  the  earhest 
efficient  privateers.  In  1785  he  was  elected  to 
Congress.  Somewhat  impoverished  by  his 
sacrifices  in  the  Revolution,  he  removed  per- 
manently to  New  Briinswiclc  N.  }.,  where  he 
was  mayor,  coimty  jud^e  and  leading  magnate. 


a  Arm  Federalist,  of  high  character. 


BAYARD,  Nicholas,  American  colonial 
official:  b.  Alphen,  Holland,  about  1644;  d.  New 
Yorlc  1707.  (Sec  Batakd  Family).  He  was 
double  nephew  of  Peter  Stuyvesant,  by  blood 
and  marriage ;  became  his  private  secretary  and 
HurvCTOr  of  the  province,  secretary  of  it  after 
the  English  conquest,  and-  mayor  in  1685.  He 
was  commander-in-chief  of  the  militia  of  the 
province,  and  one  of  the  three  resident  coun- 
cillors; and  had  to  fiee  to  Albany  for  his  life 
on  Leisler's  usurpation  after  Andros'  overthrow, 
but  was  made  councillor  anew  on  Leisler's 
downfall.  On  Kidd's  arrest  for  piracy  in  1699, 
Bayard,  like  all  Governor  Betlomont's  officials, 
was  accused  of  complicity,  and  visited  London 
to  clear  himself ;  but  the  old  hates  of  the  Leis- 
ler  time  pursued  him,  and  on  char^  of  attempt- 
ing to  introduce  popery,  piracy  and  slavery  into 
New  York  he  was  condemned  to  death  for  high 
treason.  King  William's  death  intervening 
however,  he  was  released  and  restored  to  his 
by  an  order  in  council. 


BAYARD,  ba-yar,  Pierre  TerraU  (Chev- 
alier de),  French  soldier:  b.  Chateau  Bayard, 
near  Grenoble,  about  1475 ;  d.  30  April  1524.  He 
was  descended  from  one  of  the  most  noble 
families  in  Dauphiny,  and  at  tbe  age  of  13  be- 
came page  to  the  Duke  of  Sav^,  at  that  time 
an  ally  of  France.  Charies  Vllf.  struck  by  his 
skill  and  grace  in  riding,  asked  that  he  be  trans- 
ferred to  his  service,  and  accordingly,  as  a 
preparation  to  being  attached  to  the  royal  suita 
TOung  Bayard  was  placed  in  the  household  oE 
Paul  of  Luxembourg,  Comte  de  Ligny,  where  he 
was  taught  all  the  feats  of  arms  and  niceties  of 
chivalry  which  were  then  held  necessary  to 
constitute  a  gentleman  and  a  soldier. 

His  first  experience  in  war  was  in  the  wild 
and  daring  march  of  Charles  VIII,  with  a  small 
unsupported  army,  through  the  whole  length  of 
Italy,  to  invade  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  which 
was  won  and  lost  in  a  few  di^  with  equal 


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ease;  and  in  that  campaign,  he  greatly  diatin- 
guishcd  himself,  taking  with  his  own  hand  a 
,  stand  of  colors  in  the  battle  of  Verona.  After 
this,  while  serving  in  an  invading  army  in  Italy, 
after  a  batik  fouriit  near  MtlaiL  in  the  heat  of 
pursuit  he  entered  that  city^  pell-mell  with  the 
fiwitives,  and  was  made  prisoner,  but,  in  con- 
sideration of  his  astonishing  valor,  was  sent 
back  without  ransom  by  Luaovico  Sforia,  to- 

5 ether  with  his  horse  and  arms.  In  Apulia  he 
efeated  a  Spanish  corps  commanded  by  Alonzo 
de  Soto-Mayor,  who  broke  his  parole  and 
slandered  Bayard,  in  return  for  which  the  latter 
challenged  and  slew  him  in  single  combat,  and 
afterward,  according  to  some  authorities,  cov 
ered  the  retreat  of  the  whole  French  army  and 
defended  the  brit^e  over  the  Liris,  now  the 
Garigliano,  single-handed  against  half  an  armjr. 
For  this  feat  he  received  an  augmentation  of  his 
armorial  bearings,  a  porcupine  bristling  with 
spears,  with  the  motto  Vires  agminis  unus  kabd. 
A  real  type  of  the  ideal  knight-errant  of 
romance,  wherever  honor  was  to  be  won  or 
danger  mcurred,  Bayard  was  there.  Desper- 
ately wounded  in  the  assault  of  Brescia,  he  was 
carried  to  the  house  of  a  nobleman  who  had 
R^d,  abandoning  his  wife  and  daughters  to  the 
fate  which  befalls  women  in  a  sacked  city,  and 
from  which  the  wounded  enemy  alone  preserved 
them.  Half- recovered  from  his  wounds,  he 
joined  Gaston  de  Foiit  before  Ravenna,  where 
with  his  own  hand  he  took  two  Spanish  stand- 
ards and  converted  a  retreat  of  the  enemy  into 
a  rout.  Jn  the  subsequent  wars  with  Ferdi- 
nand the  Catholic  of  Spain  he  displayed  the 
same  chivalric  valor  and  the  same  generalship 
among  the  Pyrenees  which  he  had  displayed  in 
his  boyhood  among  the  passes  of  the  Alps  and 
Apennines.  In  the  dark  days  which  clouded  the 
latter  years  of  Louis  XII,  when  Henry  VIII 
brought  his  English  archers  to  back  the  Ger- 
man Maximilian  in  Flanders,  and  Tirouanne 
and  Toumay  went  down,  with  but  feeble  resist- 
ance, before  the  allies,  Bayard  was  the  same  in 
adverse  as  he  had  been  in  prosperous  fortunes. 
He  was  forced  to  surrender  at  the  disgraceful 
battle  of  the  Spurs,  but  again  his  glory  to  be 
taken  under  circumstances  of  such  honor  caused 
King  Henry  to  set  him  at  liberty  with  his  horse 
and  arms,  unransomed.  It  was,  however,  in 
his  noon  of  manhood  that  bis  glocr  shone  the 
brightest  When  Francis  I  invaded  Italy  after 
hi^  accession  to  the  throne  of  France,  it  was 
Bayard  who  was  the  precursor  of  his  march ; 
whn  made  Prosper  Colon n a,  at  the  very  moment 
of  his  belief^  that  he  had  ambushed  and  sur- 
prised him,  his  prisoner ;  who,  in  a  word,  paved 
the  King's  way  to  the  magnificent  battle  of 
Marigrano.  In  that  tremendous  conflict,  he  per- 
formed prodigies,  and  contributed  more  than 
any  or  all  beside  to  change  what  once  seemed 
a  lost  fight  into  a  victory.  At  its  close  his 
sword  conferred  the  accolade  on  the  shoulder 
of  his  King,  Frands  I,  who  deemed  it  honor 
enough  to  take  knighthood  at  the  hand  of  such 
a  paladin  as  Bayard.  The  fortunes  of  war, 
proverbially  fickle  and  changeful,  were  never 
more  so  than  at  this  e^och ;  and  when,  a  short 
time  later,  Charles  V  mvaded  Champagne,  his 
wonderful  defense  of  the  open  town  of 
M^iercs  alone  prevented  his  penetrating  to  the 
heart  of  France,  of  which,  by  this  exploit,  he 
deserved,  as  he  obtained  the  name  of  savior. 
His  next  war  was  hii  last     Genoa,  ever  an 


unwilling  conquest  of  the  French  arms,  re- 
volted; and,  under  the  command  of  Bonnivet, 
Bayard  was  sent  to  reduce  the  city  to  obedience 
and  chastise  the  rebels.  In  the  first  instance 
success  attended  their  advance;  but,  after  the 
surrender  of  Dodi,  fortune  again  changed,  antL 
foot  by  foot,  the  Frettch  were  beaten  out  of 
their  conauests.  In  retreating  through  the  Val 
d'Aosta  the  French  rear  was  beaten,  Bonnivet 
was  severely  wounded,  and  the  safely  of  the 
army  was  committed  to  Bayard,  if  he  per- 
chance might  save  it.  In  passing  the  nver 
Sesia  in  the  presence  of  a  superior  enemy,  ai 
Bayard  was  covering  the  rear  and  pressing  hard 
upon  the  Spaniards,  who  were  fast  giving  way 
before  his  impetuous  charge,  he  was  shot 
through  the  right  side  Iw  a  slone  from  an 
arquebus,  which  shattered  his  spine.  'Jesu,  my 
God  !•  he  cried,  "I  am  a  dead  man.*  And  then 
commanding  that  he  should  be  placed  erect,  in 
a  sitting  posture  with  his  back  against  a  tree, 
with  his  face  to  the  Spaniards,  and  the  cross- 
hilt  of  his  sword  held  up  as  a  crucifix  before 
him,  he  confessed  his  sins  to  his  esquire,  sen! 
his  adieux  to  his  King  and  country,  and  died  in 
the  midst  of  weeping  friends  and  admiring 
enemies.  With  his  fall  the  battle  was  ended 
The  French  lost  everything, —  standards,  drums, 
baggage,  ordnancCj— and  their  retreat  to  France 
became  a  flight  Bui  there  was  most  grief  that 
th^  had  lost  Bayard.  His  body  remained  in 
the  hands  of  the  Spaniards;  but  tiiey  embalmed 
and  returned  it  to  France  unsolicited.  A 
simple  bust,  with  a  brief  and  modest  Latin  in- 
scription, in  the  church  of  the  Minorites,  in 
Grenoble,  erected  in  1823.  is  die  only  monu- 
ment to  one  of  the  purest  aiid  most  beautiful 
characters  in  medixval  history,  the  chevalitr 
taut  peur  rt  sans  reprocke. 

Ba^rd's  life  was  written  by  Symphorini 
Champier  in  1S2S,  and  two  years  later  by  his 
secretary,  Jacques  Jeffrey,  known  as  the  *Ioyal 
servitor.*  Other  accounts  have  been  translated 
by  E  Walford  (London  1867). 

BAYARD,  Thomaa  Pnncu,  American 
statesman,  son  of  James  A.  (2d)  :  b.  Wilming- 
ton, Del,  29  Oct  1828;  d.  26  Sept.  1898.  Ht 
was  intended  for  a  business  career,  and  was 
placed  in  a  New  York  house,  his  elder  brother 
being  designed  to  carry  on  the  family  succession 
for  public  life;  hut,  the  latter  dying  in  1^ 
Thomas  returned  to  Wilmington,  studied  law 
with  his  father,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1851.  He  was  appointed  United  States  district 
attorney,  but  resigned  the  next  year;  removed 
to  Philadelphia  1855  and  practised  law  two 
years,  then  returned  permanently  to  Wilming- 
ton. He  and  his  father  were  Peace  Democrats, 
unalterably  opposed  to  the  war,  publicly  de- 
nounced it,  and  gave  no  help  to  its  prosecution. 
Elected  to  the  Senate  to  succeed  his  father,  he 
took  his  seat  4  March  18^,  and  served  by  suc- 
ceuive  re-elections  till  1885.  He  was  one  of  the 
leading  Democratic  figures,  member  of  the 
finance,  judiciary  and  other  important  com- 
mittees, and  its  president  pro  tempore  in  1881 ; 
was  on  the  Electoral  Commission  of  1876;  con- 
tinued to  champion  the  party  doctrines  and  was 
one  of  the  most  prominent  candidates  for  the 
presidency  before  both  Democratic  national 
conventions  of  1880  and  18&t.  On  4  March 
1885  he  was  appointed  Secretary  of  Slate  in  the 
Cabinet  of  President  Qeveland;   and  in  this 


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BAYAfiD  FAMILT— BAYER 


position  had  bis  share  of  important  and  vexa- 
tiaus  questions,  such  as  the  Bering  Sea  seal- 
fishery  matter,  and  treaties  with  Great  Britain 
and  Russia.  He  was  United  States  Ambassador 
to  Great  Britain  1893-97,  in  Clevdand'a  second 
term,  the  first  minister  to  hold  the  title  of 
ambassador. 

BAYARD  FAMILY,  a  remarkable  succes- 
sion of  American  public  leaders,  statesmen  and 
jurists,  identified  lor  two  and  a  half  centuries 
with  the  Middle  States  from  New  York  to 
Maryland,  and  tor  a  century  and  a  quaf-ter  al- 
most continuously  in  public  service.  They 
descended  from  a  family  of  French  Huguenot 
refugees,  whose  ancestor  was  a  Paris  theolog- 
ical professor  driven  to  Holland  to  escape  perse- 
cution about  1580,  His  son  Samuel  became  a 
wealthy  Amsterdam  merchant  and  married  the 
accomplished,  energetic  and  capable  sister 
(Anna)  of  Peter  Stuyvesani,  the  last  governor 
of  the  Dutch  New  Netherlands,  who  himself 
married  Bayard's  equally  accomplished  sister 
Judith,  a  ereat  lady  of  her  time.  Samuel  died 
in  Holland;  and  his  widow  with  her  three  sons 
accompanied  her  brother  to  Manhattan  Island, 
where  she  look  up  an  estate  of  200  acres,  in- 
cluding the  site  of  the  Astor  Library.  Of  these 
sons,  Nicholas  became  secretary  of  New 
Netherlands  and  later  of  English  New  York; 
mayor,  commander'in-chief  of  the  colony's 
mihtia,  and  practically  the  head  of  the  colony 
~  a  perilous  honor  which  twice  brought  him 
to  the  verge  of  destruction.  His  brother 
Peter,  however,  though  not  personally  con- 
spicuous, became  the  ancestor  of  the  distin- 
guished Bayards  of  the  18th  and  19th  centuries. 
Peter's  son  Samuel  joined  the  Labadists  (see 
Labadie,  Jean),  a  sect  of  communists  other- 
wise much  like  the  Quakers,  and  removed  to 
Maryland  Of  his  grandsons,  G>1.  John  was  a 
leading  Philadelphia  merchant,  patriot  and 
soldier,  representative  in  Congress,  a  county 
magnate  in  Maryland  till  after  the  Revolution, 
later  judge  and  Federalist  pillar ;  his  son 
Samuel,  lawyer,  clerk  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
United  States  claim  aaeiM  and  judge,  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  New  York  Historical 
Society  and  lite  American  Bible  Society.  Cot 
John's  twin  brother,  Dr.  James  A.,  was  father 
of  James  A.,  the  noted  Federalist  statesman 
of  Jefferson's  and  Madison's  time,  leader  of 
the  Federalists  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, and  the  one  whose  vote  gave  die  presi- 
dency to  Jefferson  instead  of  Burr,  senator 
and  peace  commissioner.  The  two  sons  of  the 
latter  Tames  A.,  Richard  H.  and  James  A.  <2d), 
were  both  United  States  senators  of  distinction 
from  the  State  of  Delaware,  the  one  a  Whig 
and  riie  odier  a  Democrat  — the  only  instance 
of  the  kind  in  the  United  States  history;  the 
former  also  chosen  chief  justice  of  Delaware. 
The  son  of  James  A.  (2),  'Thomas  F.,  was  also 
senator  to  succeed  his  father;  so  that  father, 
two  sons  and  grandson  represented  Delaware 
in  the  Senate  47  years  between  1805  and  1885. 
Thomas  F.  was  further  a  member  ■  of  the 
Electoral  Commission  of  187(^  and  Secretary 
of  State  tmder  Geveland.  This  imique  record 
oF  distinguished  public  position  is  the  more 
noiaHe  that  it  has  been  on  the  highest  plane 
of  pnblic  character  as  well  as  capacity  —  con- 
spicuous for  dignity,  probi^  and  scrupulous 
Mnse  of  those  oAicial  propneties  which  shun 


the  appeanmce  of  evil  and  therefore  bar  out  its 
reahty, 

BAYAZID,  or  BAYEZBBD,  Turkey  in 
Asia,  a  town  in  the  pashalic  of,  and  140  milei 
southeast  from.  Erzerum,  southwest  of  Mount 
Ararat,  from  the  base  of  which  it  is  sepaTa.ted 
by  a  lava-covered  plain  10  miles  wide.  It  is 
situated  on  the  dechvity  of  a  rugged  eminenc^ 
the  summit  of  which  is  fortified  and  surrounded 
by  a  wall  and  ramparts.  The  town  is  in  a 
ruinous  state ;  most  of  the  houses  are  small  and 
ill  built,  and  the  streets  are  extremely  filthy. 
Besides  the  extensive  palace  of  the  Pasha,  the 
town  contains  two  Uiristian  churches,  Uiree 
mosques  and  the  famous  monastery  of  Kara- 
Keleeseh,  celebrated  for  its  beautiful  arch- 
itecture and  antiquity.     Pop.  5,0(X). 

BAYAZID,  ba-yi-ied',  I  and  II.  See 
Bajazet. 

BAYBAY,  bin^I.  PhiKppines,  a  town  of 
the  province  of  Leyte,  situated  on  the  west 
coast,  40  miles  southwest  of  Tanahan.  Pop, 
17,36>. 

BAYBERRY.     See  Candle  Berry. 

BAYER,  bi'er  Gottlieb  Siegfried.  Gennan 
philologist,  grandson  of  Johann  B^rer :  h. 
Konigsbcrx  1694;  d.  Saint  Petersburg,  21  Feb. 
1738.  He  displayed  from  his  earliest  childhood 
a  singular  passion  for  Chinese  and  other  East- 
ern languages.  He  studied  the  Coptic  at  Ber- 
lin, under  La  Crosse,  Arabic  at  Halle,  imder 
Solomon  Negri,  and  at  the  same  time  opened  a 
correspondence  with  the  missionaries  in  India, 
in  orcfer  to  obtain  more  information  about  the 
Sanskrit  and  Hindustani.  On  the  foundation 
of  the  academy  of  sciences  in  Saint  Petersburg 
in  1726,  he  tiecame  professor  of  Greek  and 
Roman  antiquities.  Besides  his  extraordinary 
knowledge  of  languages,  Bayer  was  an  eminent 
historical  and  arduEolo^cal  scholar.  His  mon- 
ument is  his  work  published  in  1730,  'Museum 
Sinicum,  in  quo  ^inicx  linguic  et  literaturic 
ratio  explicatur,)  containing  a  Chinese  gram- 
mar, a  grammar  of  the  dialect  of  Shin-Shu, 
and  many  interesting  notices  on  Chinese  Utera- 
ture. 

BAYER,  Johann,  Gennan  astronomer:  b. 
Augsburg  1572;  d.  1660.  He  is  celebrated  for 
a  large  wor^  pubfisbed  in  1603,  under  the  title 
of  'Uranometria,'  and  republished  in  1627 
under  the  title  of  'Coslura  Stcllarum  Chris- 
tianum,'  which  contains  a  minute  description 
and  a  catalogne  of  the  constellations.  He 
changed  the  name  because  he  had  withdrawn 
the  heathen  names  of  the  constellations,  and 
supplied  their  names  by  others  taken  from  the 
Bible,  taking  those  of  the  northern  cpnstella- 
tions  from  the  New,  and  those  of  the  southern 
constellations  from  the  Old  Testament,  and 
giving  the  names  of  the  12  apostles  to  the  signs 
of  the  Zodiac.  His  letters  were  adopted  by 
Flamsteed  and  others,  and  are  now  universally 
used,  but  the  heathen  names  have  kejrt  their 
ground.  He  contributed  much  to  the  simplifi- 
cation of  astronomical  science,  by  avoiding  the 
old,  unintelligible  nomenclature  and  by  denoting 


..  __  a  good  student  of  law  and  an  able  the- 
ologian. He  was  settled  as  minister  over  dif- 
ferent parishes,  and  so  zealous  in  his  advocacy 
of  Protestantism  that  he  was  called  'Os  Pn>- 


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BAYBR  —  BATLK 


testantiuin.*     The  Emperor  Leopold  nmobled 

BAYER,  Karl  Robert  Bmerich  von,  Aus- 
tro-Gennan  novelist,  who  wrote  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Robert  Byb:  b.  Bregenz,  15  April 
183S;  d.  1903.  He  wai  &  very  popuUr  and 
exceedingly  prolific  story-leller,  and  his  valumt- 
nous  fiction  largely  dealing  with  military  life^ 
had  a  wide  circulation.  Amons-  his  best-known 
novels  are  'The  Struggle  for  Life'  ;  *Masks> ; 
<A  Secret  Dispatch' ;  <The  Road  to  Fortune* ; 
'Ueadow  Maidenhair' ;  'The  Ir 


BAYSUX,  ba-ye^  an  ancient  town  of 
France,  department  Calvados,  18  mites  north- 
west of  Caen.  It  possesses  many  antique 
houses  of  singular  appearance,  and  has  a 
beautiful  cathedral  dating  from  the  IZth  to  the 
15th  century,  with  a  crypt  under  the  choir  of 
several  centuries  earlier.  Its  noble  portal  and 
three  towers  render  it  especially  noteworthy. 
The  local  industries  include  the  manufacture  of 
porcelain  and  lace,  bonnet-making  and  cotton 
spinning.  There  is  a  public  library^  and  mu- 
seum, in  which  one  of  the  most  interesting 
relics  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  preserved.  See 
Bateux  Tapestjiv. 

BAYEUX  TAPESTRY,  a  celebrated  piece 
of  medifeval  embroidery  of  sewed  work 'orig- 
inally found  in  the  cathedral  of  Bayeux,  in  the 
library  of  which  town  it  is  still  preserved. 
The  fact  that  such  a  tapestry  existed  was 
brought  to  light  hy  M.  Lancelot,  who  communi- 
cated a  description  of  an  illuminated  drawing 
of  a  portion  of  it  to  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions and  Belles-lettres  in  1724,  This  led  to  the 
discovery  of  the  tapestry  itself  in  1728^^  where- 
upon various  speculations  arose  as  to  its  date, 
its  origin  and  its  purport.  According  to  tra- 
dition It  is  a  contemporary  representation  of 
the  invasion  and  conquest  of  England  by  the 
Normans,  and  the  discussions  upon  it  have 
proved  that  tradition  is  rit^i.  It  is  thus  not 
only  valuable  as  a  relic  of  the  art  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  but  it  has  also  great  historical  value; 
inasmuch  as  it  supplies  several  details  of  the 


exact  picture  of  Norman  costumes  and  i 


Bosed  to  have  been  worked  by 
alilda.  Queen  of  William  the 
Conqueror,  assisted  by  her  attendants,  and  to 
have  been  presented  by  Odo,  bishop  of  Bayeux, 
the  half-brother  of  William,  to  the  church  in 
which  it  was  found.  But  later  researches  have 
led  to  the  belief  that  the  tapestry  was  made  to 
the  order  of  Bishop  Odo;  of  the  actual  makers 
—  certainly  women  —  nothing  is  known. 
Whether  this  be  so  or  not,  it  is  regarded  as 
certain  that  the  tapestry  is  not  later  than  the 
11th  century.  During  the  French  Revolution 
the  tapestry  was  in  great  danger  of  being 
destroyed.  In  1803  it  was  removed  to  Paris  by 
order  of  Ka]>oleoii,  and  when  he  was  meditat- 
ing the  invasion  of  Britain  be  caused  it  to  be 
carried  from  town  to  town  and  exhibited  be- 
tween the  acts  in  the  theatres.  It  was  brought 
back  to  Bayeux  in  1804,  when  it  was  placed  in 
the  hotel  de  villc,  instead  of  the  cathedral,  its 
former  resting-place.  The  length  of  the 
tapestry  is  230  feet,  and  its  height  20  inches. 
1*    :..    :»    ».«    .^..>ii.«k    ..*««.    ^t    h^A.>. .......«:»« 


It 


.    excellent 


of 


the  late  Professor  Freeman  calls  it  a  contem- 
ppraiy  work.  Consult  I.  C.  Bruce's  'Baycnx 
Tapestry!  (iggS)  gmd  Marwnan's  'Tainssetit 
de  Bayeux*  (Paris  1902).    Sec  TApraiwv. 

BAYLE,  b&l,  Pierre,  French  critic  and  phi- 
losopher, son  of  a  Calvinist  minister:  b.  Carlat, 
near  Foix  (Latiguedoc),  1647;  d.  Rotterdam, 
28  Dec  1706.  At  the  age  of  19  he  entered  the 
College  of  Puylaurens,  to  finish  his  studies. 
All  bctoks  were  e^erly  devoured  by  him;  hb 
taste  for  logic  led  him  particularly  to  study 
religious  controversies,  but  Amyot's  'Plutarch' 
and  'Montaigne*  were  his  favorite  works.  In 
Toulouse  he  studied  philosophy  with  the  Jesuits. 
The  arguments  of  his  professors,  and  still  more 
his  friendly  discussions  with  a  Catholic  priest 
who  dwelt  near  him,  confirmed  his  doubts  of 
the  orthodoxy  of  Protestantism,  so  thai  he  re- 
solved to  change  his  rdigion.  His  family,  how^ 
ever,  tried  all  means  to  regain  him,  and  after 
|7  months  he  returned  to  his  old  faith.  To 
escape  from  the  punishment  of  perpetual  ex- 
communication which  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  then  pronounced  against  apostates,  he 
went  to  Geneva,  and  thence  to  Copct,  where 
Count  Dohna  intrusted  him  with  the  education 
of  bis  sons,  where  he  studied  the  philosophy 
of  Descartes,  But  after  some  years  he  returned 
to  France  and  settled  in  Rouen,  where  he  wa* 
employed  in  teaching.  In  1675  he  obtained  the 
philosophical  chair  at  Sedan,  where  he  tau^t 
with  distinction  until  the  suppression  of  this 
academy  in  1681.  He  was  afterward  invited  to 
discbarge  the  same  duties  at  Rotterdam.  Hit 
appearance  of  a  comet  in  1680  induced  him  to 
publish,  in  1682,  his  'Pens6es  Diverses  sur  la 
Comete,*  in  which  he  discussed  varions  subjects 
of  metaphysics,  morals,  theology,  historj;  and 
politics.  It  was  followed  \>y  his  'Critique 
Gto^rale  de  I'Histoire  du  Calvinisme  de  Maim- 
bourg.*  This  work  received  with  equal  appro- 
bation by  the  CathoUcs  and  Protestants,  and 
esteemed  by  Maimbourg  himself,  excited  the 
jealousy  of  his  colleague,  the  theologian  Jerieu, 
whose  'Refutation  du  P.  Maimbourg*  had  not 
succeeded,  and  involved  Bayle  in  man^  disputes. 
He  afterward  undertook  a  periodical  work. 
'Nouvelles  de  U  Republique  des  Lettres,'  in 
1684.  The  death  of  his  father  and  of  his  two 
brothers,  together  with  the  religious  persecu- 
tions in  France,  induced  him  to  write  lus  'Com- 
mentairc  Philosopluque  *  on  the  words  of  the 
Gospel:  'Compel  them  to  come  in*:  which  is 
not  equal  in  merit  to  his  other  works,  Bayle 
himself  was  unwilling  to  acknowledge  it;  but 
Juricu,  who  probably  recc^ized  its  author  by 
the  seal  with  which  toleration  is  defended  in 
this  work,  attacked  it  with  violence,  and  hit 
influence  was  sufHcient  to  lead  the  magistrates 
of  Rotterdam  to  remove  Bayle  from  the  office 
in  1693.  He  now  devoted  all  his  attention  to 
tibe  composition  of  bis  '  Dictionnaire.  His- 
torique  et  Critique,*  which  he  published  in 
1695-97.  This  was  the  first  work  which  ap- 
peared under  his  name.  Jurieu  opposed  him 
anew,  and  caused  the  consistory,  in  which  be 
had  the  greatest  influence,  to  make  a  severe 
attack  upon  him.  Bayle  promised  to  remove 
everything  which  the  consistory  deemed  offai- 
sive;  but  finding  the  public  had  other  views,  and 
preferring  the  satistaction  of  hit   readers  to 


Google 


BAYLEN  —  BAYLOR 


who  both  attacked  his  religion :  others  perie- 
cuted  him  as  the  enemy  of  us  sect  and  his  new 
countiv.  The  best  editions  of  his  'Dictionnaire 
Histonque'  are  that  of  1740,  in  four  volumes 
folio  (Amsterdam  and  Leyden)  and  that  in  16 
volumes,  published  1820-24  at  Paris.  Consult 
Carzes,  A.,  'P,  fiayle,  sa  vie,  ses  ideis'  .  .  . 
(Paris  1905). 

BAYLEN,  bi'lin'.  or  BAILBN,  Spain,  * 
town  in  the  province  of  Jaen,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Sierra  Morena,  22  miles  north  of  Jaen.  It  com- 
mands the  road  leading  from  Castile  into 
Andalusia,  and  derives  its  celebrity  from  the 
events  which  took  place  in  its  vicinity  leading 
10  the  'Capitulation  of  Baylen,*  signed  20  July 
IStB,  when  General  Dupont,  and  about  20,000 
French  troops  under  his  command,  surrendered 
to  the  Spaniards  on  condition  of  theii'  being 
conveyed  to  France  by  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment; but  the  latter  stipulation  was  not  carried 
into  effect.  The  incapacity  of  Dupont  was 
mainly  instrumental  in  bringing  about  this  re- 
sult, whidi  inspired  the  Spaniards  with  confi- 
dence and  was  always  regarded  by  Napoleon  as 
the  principal  source  of  the  Frendi  disasters  in 
the  Peninsula.  Galena  and  zinc  blende  sre 
mined  in  the  vicimty.    Pop.  (1910)  8,334. 

BAYLEY,  James  RooMvelt,  American 
fheo!c«ian:  b.  New  York,  23  Aug.  1814:  d. 
Newark.   N.  J..  3   Oct    1877.     He  studied  at 


was  ordained  a  pr...    ..  ... 

chair  of  belles-lettres  at  Saint  John's  College, 
Fordham,  and  was  its  acting  president  in  1846. 
After  serving  as  secretary  to  Archbishop 
Hughes,  he  was  consecrated  the  1st  bishop  of 
Newark,  N.  J.,  in  1853.  In  1872  he  became 
archbishop  of  Baltimore,  Md.  He  was  the 
founder  of  Seton  Hall  College  and  several 
other  institutions.  His  'Pastorals  for  the  Peo- 
ple* and  'History  of  the  Catholic  Church  on 
the  Island  of  New  York,'  are  his  chief  writ- 
ings. 


Y.,  17  Aug.  1801.  After  studying  medicine  in 
England,  chiefly  in  the  London  Hospitals  and 
under  £>r.  Hunter,  he  returned  to  America  in 
1776  as  a  surgeon  in  General  Howe's  army,  but 
settled  in  New  York  the  following  ^ear.  He 
was  the  first  professor  of  anatomv  m  (^lun- 
bia  College  (1792)  and  for  a  time  health  officer 
of  the  port  of  New  York,  where  his  vigorous 
advocacy  of  proper  quarantine  laws  was  finally 
successful.  A  careful  student  of  his  profession, 
he  sttggvsied  a  new  method  of  treatment  for 
croup  and  maintained  (1797)  that  in  its  origin 
yelloMT  fever  was  due  to  local  causes  and  was 
not  contagious.  He  published  'Cases  of  the 
Angina  Tracheatis,  with  the  Mode  of  Cure* 
(1781)  :  'Essay  on  the  Yellow  Fever>  (1797)  ; 
'Letters  on  Yellow  Fever*  (1798). 

BAYLBY,  wnUam  Shirler,  American  geol- 
ogist:  b-  Baltimore,  Md.,  10  Nov.  1861.  He 
-was  graduated  at  Johns  Hopkins  in  1883  and 
received  the  Ph.D.  from  the  same  institution 
in    18S6.     He  became  United  States  geologist 


of  the  Federal  Geological  Survey  and  professor 
of  geolc^y  at  die  University  of  Illinois.  For 
some  time  he  was  associate  editor  of  the  Amer-  ■ 
icon  Naturalist,  and  after  its  establishment  in 
1905  was  the  managing  editor  of  Economic 
Geology.  He  was  also  professor  of  geology  at 
Colby  College.  He  is  the  author  (with  C.  R. 
Van  Hise)  of  the  'Report  on  the  Geology  of 
the  Marquette  Iron  District  of  Michigan';  of 
the  'Report  on  the  Geology  of  the  Menominee 
District,*  in  the  same  State,  and  joint  author 
of  reports  on  other  iron-bearing  districts  of 
the  Lake  Superior  renon.  He  is  author  also 
of  'Iron  Mines  and  Mining  in  New  Jersey* 
and  of  several  textbooks  on  crystallography  and 
mineralogy  and  he  has  been  a  frequent  contrib- 
utor Jo  scientific  journals.     He  is  a  member  of 


BAYLIES,  b&ITz,  FnmdB,  American  states- 
man, member  of  Congress  from  Massachu- 
setts for  several  sessions;  b.  1784;  d.  Taunton, 
Mass.,  28  Oct.  1852.  In  the  presidential  con- 
test which  finally  resulted  in  the  election  of 
John  Q.  Adams,  he  threw  the  only  electoral 
vote  for  Jackson  that  was  given  from  New 
En^and.  He  was  for  a  short  time  Minister 
to  Brazil.  He  published  in  1828  a  history  of 
the  old  colony  of  Plymouth. 

BAYLISS,  Clara  Kem,  American  author 
and  journalist:  b.  near  Kalamazoo,  Mich.,  5 
March  1848.  She  published  'In  Brook  and 
Bayou*  (microscopy) ;  'Lolami,  the  Little 
Cliff-Dweller*  (1901)  (republished  in  Lon- 
don) ;  'Lolami  in  a  Tusayan  Pueblo' ;  'The 
Evolution  of  the  Boy*  (1905);  'Two  Little 
Algonkin  Lads*  (1905);  'Old  Man  Coyote*; 
'The  Song  of  the  Sky-People;  'Myths  of  the 
Zuani  Indians*;  'Significance  of  the  Piasau* ; 
'An  Illinois  Sun  Myth' :  'Three  Philippine 
Legends';  'Indian  Moimos  of  Pike  Cavntv' ; 
talks  and  articles  on  the  sterilization  of  defec- 
tives and  habitual  criminals;  and  various  other 
scientific  ardueological  and  educational  arti- 
cles. 

BAYLISS,  Sir  Wyke,  English  artist:  b. 
Madeley,  21  Oct.  1835 ;  d.  London,  6  April  1906. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Royal  Acadenw  and 
was  president  of  the  Royal  Society  of  British 
Artists  from  1888.  His  paintings  include  'La 
Sainte  Chapelle'  (1865);  'Saint  Mark's,  Ven- 
ice* (1880);  'Saint  Peter's,  Rome'  (1888); 
'The  Cathedral,  Amiens  (1900);  'The  Golden 
Duomo,  Pisa'  (1892),  etc  His  publications 
include  'The  Witness  of  An'  (lS76)  ;  'The 
Enchanted  Island'  (1888);  'The  Likeness  of 
Christ  Rex  Rcgura*  (1898);  'Five  Great 
Painters  of  the  Victorian  Era*    (1892), 

S^ 

BAYLOR,  Robert  Emmett  Bicdioe, 
American  lawyer;  b,  Lincoln  County,  Ky,,  10 
May  1793 ;  d.  Gay  Hill,  Tex.,  6  Jan,  1874.  In 
the  War  of  1812  he  served  under  Colonel  Bos- 
well  and  took  part  in  the  engagement  near 
Fort  Meigs.  Admitted  to  the  bar  in  Kentucky, 
he  later  removed  to  Alamaba  (1820),  acquired 
a  large  practice  and  became  prominent  in  poli- 
tics, bring  a  representative  in  Congress,  1829- 
31.  Later  he  emi^ratfcd  to  Texas,  then  a  repub- 
lic, and  was  a  district  jud^  for  25  years.  A 
\aya\  member  of  the  foptist  denominatipi!,  be 

Google 


BAYLOR    UNIVERSITY  — BAYONBT 


(Cave  lari^ely  in  money  and  land  to  establishing 
one  of  lis  colleges  at  Independence  ( 1845) 
and  in  recognition  of  his  munificence  it  was 
named  Baylor  University  (q.v.). 

BAYLOR  UNIVERSITY,  a  coeducational 
inslitution  in  Waco,  Tex.,  controlled  by  the 
Baptist  Church.  It  was  founded  in  1845  on  a 
charter  granted  by  the  republic  of  Texas  and 
named  for  Robert  E.  Baylor  (q.v,).  Its  first 
location  was  in  Independence,  Tex, ;  it  was 
provided  with  a  university  course  in  1851;  in 
1861  President  Burleson  (who  had  been  its 
head  for  10  years)  and  the  entire  faculty  re- 
signed and  organized  a  university  in  Waco, 
Tex.,  giving  it  the  name  of  that  ciiy.  The  two 
institutions  were  consolidated  in  1868,  the 
earlier  one  being  removed  to  Waco  and  Presi- 
dent Burleson  continuing  at  the  head  of  the 
institution.  At  the  close  of  191S  the  university 
reported:  Professors  and  instructors,  84;  stu- 
dents, 1,209;  volumes  in  the  library,  28.570; 
grounds  and  buildings  valued  at  $800,000;  pra- 
ductive  funds,  $263,124;  income,  $125,461.  The 
university  maintains  an  undergraduate  college, 
a  preparatory  school,  known  as  Baylor  Acad- 
emy, a  department  of  fine  arts  and  a  depart- 


and     'Rou^ 


Tex. 


of    medicine    and   pharmacy  at    Dallas, 


BAYLY,  Ad«  Ellen,  a  popular  English  nov 
etisL  best  known  as  Edna  Lyall:  b.  Brighton, 
25  March  18S9;  d.  Eastbourne,  8  Feb.  1903. 
She  has  written  'Won  by  Waiting'  (1879); 
'Donovan'  (1882);  <Wc  Two'  (1884);  'In 
the    Golden    Days'    (1885);    'Knight   Errant' 


'How  the  Children  Raised  the  Wind'  (1895) 
'Aulobiography  of  a  Truth'  (1896)  ;  'Wayfar- 
ing Men'  (18W);  »Hope  the  Hermit'  (1898); 
'In  Spite  of  All'  (1901)  ;  'The  Hinderers' 
(1902),  etc  Although  her  novels  arc  decidedly 
romantic,  their  aim  is  to  depict  the  develop- 
ment o[  character. 

BAYLY,  I-ewia,  Welsh  prelate :  d.  26  Oct. 
1631.  He  was  the  author  of  'The  Practice  of 
Piety,*  a  very  popular  religious  book  which  had 
great  influence  on  Bunyan.  It  not  only  passed 
through  many  English  editions,  but  was  also 
translated  into  the   Indian  lani^age  by  John  - 


1797;  d.  London,  22  April  1839.  He  began  the 
study  of  law  under  his  father,  and  later  went 
to  Saint  Mary  Hall,  Oxford,  in  order  to  prepare 
for  the  Church;  but  abandoned  both  and  de- 
voted himself  to  literature.  He  gained  great 
popularity  with  some  songs,  and  several  dramas 
and  novels  hy  htm  also  hit  the  public  taste. 
With  Henry  Bishop  he  published  'Melodies  of 
Various  Nations.'  Among  his  songs  some  of 
the  best-known  are  'Isle  of  Beauty' j  'The 
Soldier's  Tear' ;  '  We  Met  —  'twas  in  a  CTrowd' ; 
and  'She  Wore  a  Wreath  o£  Roses.'     His  best 


'Loves  o£  the  Butterflies' ;  and  'Songs  of  flic 
Old  Chateau,'  are  volumes  of  songs  and  bal- 
lads; and  his  other  works  include  'Kindness  in 
Women,'  a  collection  o£  tales;  'Parliamentary 


Letters     and     other     Poems,' 
Sketches  of  Bath.' 

BAYLY,  ThORiM  Henry,  American  states- 
man: b.  Accomac  County,  Va.,  1810;  d.  22  June 
18S6.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1830.  and 
was  for  several  years  a  member  of  the  general 
assembly  of  his  State.  In  1842  he  was  elected 
judge  of  the  Circuit  Superior  Court  of  law,  an 
office  which  he  resigned  in  1844,  when  elected 
a  representative  in  the  national  Congress;  and 
b^  successive  re-elections  he  held  the  latter  po- 
sition till  his  death.  As  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee on  ways  and  means,  he  was  the  leader 
of  the  House  during  many  sessions,  and  was 
highly  respected  by  men  of  al\  parties,  as  well 
for  his  urbanity  and  dienity,  as  for  his  ability. 
The  family  home  in  which  he  died  was  estab- 
lished by  his  ancestors  from  England  in  166t^ 
and  it  is  remarkable  that  he  held  fust  the  same 
public  offices  that  bad  been  filled  by  his  father. 

BAYNE,  Peter,  Scottish  writer:  b.  Fod- 
derty,  Scotland,  19  Oct.  1830;  d.  London,  10 
Feb.  1896.  He  studied  theolo^  at  Edinburgh 
and  philosophy  under  Sir  William  Hamilton, 
and  was  editor  successively  of  the  Glasgow 
Commotiwealtk-  Edinburf^  [Vilness^-  London 
Dial;  and  Weekly  Review;  and  associate  editor 
of  the  Christian  World.  He  was  author  of 
'The  Christian  Life;  Social  and  Individual^ 
(1855);  'Essays  Biogi-aphical,  Critical  etc.' 
0859h  'Life  and  Letters  of  Hiwfa  Miller' 
(1871);  'Testimony  of  Christ  to  (jhristianity' 
(1862);  'The  Days  of  Jeiebel.*  a  drama 
0872) ;  'The  C:hief  Actors  in  the  Puritan 
Revolution'  (1878);  'Life  of  Martin  Luther* 
(1887). 

BAYHES,  Thomas  Spencer,  English  plu- 
losopher:  b.  Wellington,  Somersetshire,  Mardi 
1823;  d.  29  May  18^.  He  was  educated  at 
Bath,  Bristol  College,  and  the  University  of 
Edinburgji,  where  he  became  (1851-55)  assist- 
ant to  Sir  William  Hamilton,  then  pro- 
fessor of  logic.  In  1857  he  was  appointed  ex- 
aminer in  logic  and  mental  philosophy  in  the 
University  of  London;  became  (1857-64)  as- 
sistant editor  of  the  Daily  News,  to  which 
he  contributed  many  noteworthy  articles  on 
the  American  Civil  War,  and  at  this  time  wrote 
for  several  literary  journals,  such  as  the 
Athmitum  and  the  Literary  Gojselte.  In 
1864  he  was  elected  professor  of  logic,  rhetoric 
and  metaphysics  in  the  University  of  Saint 
Andrews.  Besides  his  contributions  to  reviews 
he  published  a  translation  of  the  'Port  Royal 
Logic,'  with  notes  (1851);  and  an  'Essay  on 
the  New  Analytic  of  Logical  Forms'  (1852). 
He  was  appointed  editor  of  the  ninth  edition  of 
the  'Encyclopedia  Britannica'  (being  subse- 
quently assisted  by  Prof,  Robertson  Smith). 

BAYOMBONG,  bi-yam-bong',  Philipjunes, 
the  capital  of  the  province  of  Naeva  Viicaya, 
Luzon,  situated  on  "'  "' — "  "'  -  '■•■•- 
centre  of  a  fertile  r 
3,691. 

BAYONET.  A  short  sword  or  sharp- 
pointed  weapon  (usually  triangular  in  cross- 
section)  fittra  on  to  the  muizle  of  a  musket  or 
similar  weapon,  so  as  to  give  the  soldier  in- 
creased means  of  offense  and  defense.  The 
name  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  town  of 
Bayonne  in  France,  where,  it  is  stated,  it  was 
first  invented  in  164ft    The  first  Mgiment  whidi 


=y  Google 


appears  to  have  had  bayonets  attached  to  their 
muskets  waa  the  Gretiadier  Guards,  as  far 
back  as  the  year  1693.  It  is  stated  by  Macau- 
lay  that  in  consequence  of  the  awkward  mode 
of  attaching  the  basnet  the  Enelish  lost  the 
battle  of  Kilhecrankie,  as  the  Highlanders  were 
upon  the  troops  before  they  could  convert  their 
fire-locks  into  pikes.  The  bayonets  then  used 
were  called  bayoneU-di'mantke,  and  bad  handles 
which  Stted  into  the  muizks  of  the  giuis,  bnt 
at  a  later  date  were  introduced  the  bayonels-i' 
doitille  or  socket- bayonets  having  sockets  which 
enabled  the  bayonets  so  to  be  used  as  not  to 
interrupt  the  firing.  The  use  of  pikes  went  out 
when  that  of  bayonets  came  in.  It  seems  very 
probable  that  the  first  bayonet  was  a  dagger, 
which  the  musketeer  stuck  by  means  of  its 
handle  into  the  muzzle  of  bis  weapon  to  shield 
titro  from  a  cavalry  charge^  and  that  the  useful- 
ness of  the  contrivance  suggested  a  pennanent 
arrangement. 

Bayonets  are  now  made  with  great  rapidity 
and  the  process  of  manufacture  is  very  simple. 
Two  pieces  of  metal  are  first  selected,  vii.,  a 
piece  of  the  best  cast  steel,  7  inches  long  t^ 
^  inch  square,  and  a  piece  of  the  best  wroug^t- 
iTon  rod,  4  inches  long  by  about  1  inch  in 
thickness.    The  steel  is  to  form  the  blade,  and 


ployed  to  give  a  rough  outline  of  the  required 
shape.  Then  comes  the  action  of  a  swaging' 
machine,  with  dies  which  come  down  upon  the 
metal  in  great  force  and  counter-dies  beneath 
the  metal.  The  metal  is  then  annealed;  turned 
in  a  cutting- machine  to  remove  a  wire-edge 
thrown  up  in  the  act  of  stamping;  cut  to  a 
proper  length,  and  [he  socket-end  made  square; 
drifled  and  bored,  to  make  the  socket  hollow ; 
^ped  and  furrowed  along  the  blade;  beat  at 
the  neck;  hardened  and  tempered;  and  finished 
by  a  numerous  train  of  minor  operations.  The 
bayonet-charge  is  now  one  of  the  most  terrible 
maneuvers  of  trained  infantry,  in  which  «ach 
nation  fancies  itself  to  excel  all  others. 

In  close-quarter  engagements  there  is  no 
weapon  more  foimidable;  from  its  length  and 
weight  the  thrust  of  the  bayonet  gives  a  terrible 
wound,  and  its  force  is  such  that  there  is  great 
difficulty  in  parrying  the  attack.  Like  other 
small-arms,  it  is  most  serviceable  when  handled 
on  scientific  principles;  and  the  art  of  using  it 
to  advantage  is  so  simple  as  to.  be  very  easily 
acquired,  while  the  exercise,  from  the  weight 
of  the  rifle,  admirably  aids  in  developing  the 
muscles  of  all  parts  of  the  body. 

A  sword-bayonet  is  quite  widely  used,  es- 
pecially for  the  short  rifles  of  the  lirirt  infantry, 
the  carbines  of  the  artillery,  etc  It  is  a  com- 
pound of  the  sword  and  tfie  bayonet,  as  its 
name  indicates,  having  a  sword-like  blade  with 
only  one  edge,  and  being  capable  of  being 
fastened  to  the  muzzle  of  the  gun  like  the  bay- 
onet. OHnions  as  to  the  present  utility  of  bay- 
onets differ  widely,  many  authorities  consider- 
ing them  of  little  importance.  While  the 
result  of  a  battle  is  often  determined  by  the 
employment  of  smokeless  powder  and  long- 
raiwe  and  rapid-firing  rifles  in  surprises  and 
meht  attacks,  the  bsq^met  may  be  used  to 
"   'uitage,   as   was  freqaently  proved  in   the 


Boer  \ 


INNB  307 

While  the  infantry  soldier  relies  mainly  on 
fire  action  to  disable  the  enemy,  j-et  he 
must  be  instructed  in  the  use  of  the  nfle  and 
bayonet  in  hand-to-hand  encounters,  the  object 
of  all  such  instruction  being  to  teach  the  soldier 
how  to  make  effective  use  of  the  rifle  and  bay- 
onet in  personal  combat ;  to  make  him  quick 
and  proficient  in  handling  the  rifle;  to  give  him 
an  accurate  eye  and  a  steady  hand,  and  to  give 
him   confidence  in  the  bayonet  in  offense  and 

BAYONNE,  ba-yon,  France,  a  cathedral 
town  and  a  fortress  of  the  first  class  in  the 
department  of  the  Basses- Pyrinies.  It  is  sit- 
uated at  the  confluence  of  the  Nive  and  the 
Adour,  about  four  miles  from  the  Bay  of  Bis- 
cay. These  rivers  fom  a  harbor  caj»ble  of 
athnitting  vessels  of  considerable  size.  The  har- 
bor  is  safe  and  commodious,  and  has  three 
lighthouses  at  its  entrance.  They  <Uvide  the 
town  into  three  parts,  namely,  Great  Bayonne 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nive,  Little  Bayonne 
between  the  rivers  and  Saint  Esprit  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Adour.  A  citadel,  built  by 
Vauban,  on  the  summit  of  an  eminence  in  the 
suburb,  commands  the  harbor  and  the  city. 
The  cathedral  is  a  beautiful  building  dating 
from  1213,  restored  in  the  19th  century  and  fur- 
nished with  two  towers.  The  arsenal,  one  of 
the  finest  in  France,  and  the  mint  are  among 
the  other  buildings  of  Bayonne.  The  city  has 
a  considerable  trade  with  Spain,  Portugal  and 
South  America,  and  masts  and  other  timber  for 
shipbuilding,  from  the  Pyrenees,  are  exported 
to  Brest  and  other  ports  of  France.  Ships  are 
built,  and  woolens,  chocolate,  soap,  brandy, 
leather,  linen  goods,  glass,  etc.,  are  manufac- 
tured. Other  exports  include  wine,  tars  and 
resins,  minerals,  grain,  chocolate  and  the  famous 
Bayonne  hams.  Among  the  lower  class  the 
ancient  Biscayan  or  Basque  lan^age  b  spoken. 
Catherine  de  Uedid  had  an  important  inter- 
view with  the  Duke  of  Alva  in  Bayonne,  June 
1565,  at  which  it  is  said  the  massacre  of  Saint 
Bartholomew  was  arranged.  The  meeting  of 
Napoleon  with  the  King  of  Spain,  Charles  IV, 
and  the  Prince  of  the  Asturias,  took  place  here 
in  May  1608,  when  the  latter  transferred  their 
ri^ts  to  the  Spanish  territories  in  Europe  and 
India  to  the  French  Emperor.     Pop.  27386, 

BAYONNB,  bi-yon',  N.  J.,  city  in  Hudson 
Coun^  on  New  York  harbor,  the  Kill  von  lOill. 
and  Newark  Bay,  the  Morris  Canal  and  the 
Central  Railroad  of  New  Jersey,  seven  miles 
southwest  of  New  York.  It  was  formed  by 
the  tmion  of  a  number  of  former  villages  and 
early  Dutch  settlements  (Pamrapo.  BayontK, 
Centerville  and  Bergen  Point),  and  is  prin- 
cipally engaged  in  coal  shipping  and  the  refin- 
ing and  exporting  of  petroleum,  the  works  for 
the  latter  being  connected  by  pipe  lines  with 
New  York  Philadelphia.  Baltimore  and  other 
cities.  Other  industries  are  the  manufacture 
of  motor  boats,  wire,  silk,  chemicals,  ammonia 
and  colors  ready  mixed  paints,  electrical 
and  gas  engines,  structural  iron,  silk  goods,  in- 
sulated wire,  boiler  factories  and  large  smelt- 
ing and  refiiuRg  works.  The  United  States 
census  of  manufactures  for  1914  recorded  121 
industrial  establishments  of  factory  grade,  em- 
ploying 11399  persons,  of  whom  10,149  were 
wage  earners,  receiving  $6,771,000  annuallyin 
wages.     The  capital  invested  aggr^ated  IS?,- 


>gle 


B  A  YOmra — BAZAINB 


653,000,  and  the  value  of  the  year'*  output  w»s 
$98,206,000;  of  this,  ^513,000  was  the  value 
added  by  manufactupe.  The  city  has  adopted 
the    commission     form    of    government.     The 


and  the  fine  Hudson  County  Boulevard 
nates  at  Bayonne.  The  dty  has  an  important 
public  library,  recreation  grounds  and  bathing 
establishments.    Pop.  65,000. 

BAYONNE,  Treaty  of,  a  treaty  of  peace 
agreed  to  4  May  I80S,  and  signed  on  the  next 
day,  between  Napoleon  and  Charles  IV,  King 
of  Spain.  The  latter  resigned  his  kingdom, 
and  Napoleon  engaged  to  maintain  its  infinity, 
and  to  preserve  the  Roman  Catholic  reU^on. 
His  son,  Ferdinand  VII,  confirmed  the  cession 
10  May. 

BAYONNE  CONFERENCE,  a  confer- 
ence held  at  Bayonne,  June  1565,  between 
Charles  IX  of  France,  the  Queen  mother, 
Catherine  de  Medici,  Elizabeth,  Queen  of  Spain, 
and  the  Duke  of  Alva,  envoy  of  Philip  II,  to 
arrange  plans  for  the  repression  of  the  Hugue- 
nots. 


Italy  an , .__.  

flag,  and  by  the  provisions  of  this  declaration, 
known  as  the  Bayonne  Decree,  France  is  sup- 
posed to  have  confiscated  more  than  300  Amer- 
Kan  vessels.  The  decree  was  issued  ostensibly 
with  the  view  of  helping  the  United  States  to 
enforce  the  cmbai^o  of  1807  and  on  the  pre- 
sumption that  all  such  vessels  must  be  sailing 
under  false  colors  and  thus  indirectly  benefiting 
the  English  cause.    See  Continental  System. 

BAYOU,  bl'oo,  probably  a  corruption  of 
the  French  word  boyau,  a  'gut*  or  ■channel.* 
Its  strict  signification  is  a  stream  which  is  not 
fed  by  springs,  but  flows  from  some  other 
stream  or  from  a  lake;  but  it  is  not  infre- 
quently used  in  America  as  synonymous  with 
"creek."  The  term  is  very  little  employed  ex- 
cept in  the  States  of  Louisiana,  Texas  and 
Arkansas. 

BAYOU  STATE,  the  name  often  given  to 
the  State  of  Mississippi 

BAYRBUTH,  bi-roit,  or  BAIRBUTH, 
Bavaria,  on  the  Red  Main,  41  miles  northeast 
of  Nuremberg,  capital  city  of  the  government 
district  of  Upper  Franconia.  The  principal 
edifices  are  the  old  palace  now  occupied  Iqr 
public  offices,  the  new  palace,  with  garden  and 
parii  open  to  the  public;  the  opera  hous^  a 
gymnasium,  and  Uie  national  theatre,  con- 
structed after  the  design  of  the  composer  Wag- 
ner. Among  the  interesting  private  houses  are 
die  Villa  Wahntried,  the  former  residence  of 
Richard  Wagner,  who  is  buried  in  its  grounds, 
and  the  house  of  Jean  Paul  Rtchter.  In  the 
Central  Cemetery  are  the  graves  of  Jean  Paul 
Richter  and  the  composer  Franz  Liszt.  Bai- 
reuth  has  numerous  educational  and  charitable 
institutions.  There  are  manufactures  of  cotton 
and  woolen  goods,  sewing  machines,  leather,  ■ 
earthenware  and  agricultural  and  musical  in- 
struments. There  are  also  breweries,  distilleries 
and  brick-kilns.  This  town  is  popularlv  known 
as  the  mecca  of  the  Wagncrites.  In  1872,  partly 
from  ftmds  collected  from  patrons  and  partly 


bv  the  organization  of  the  so-called  Wagner 
societies,  there  was  begun  the  erection  of  a 
theatre  for  the  production  of  Wagner's  works. 
It  was  opened  in  1876  with  a  grand  perform- 
ance of  his  'Ring  of  the  Nibelungen,'  andsince 
then  music  lovers  have  been  attracted  to  Bai- 
reuth  from  all  over  the  world.  The  theatre 
occupies  a  site  on  a  hill  overlooking  the  town 
and  IS  reached  by  a  broad  avenue  of  shade  trees. 
In  connection  with  the  theatre  is  a  school  for 
the  training  of  voices  to  participate  in  the 
Wagner  festivals.  Baireuth  fell  to  the  Bur- 
t  of   Nuremberg  in   " 

jitudes    was    ceded 

Pop.   (1910)  34.547. 

BAYRHOFPER,  blrlidf-fir.  Karl  The- 
odor,  German  Hegelian  philosopher  and  radical 
politician;  b.  Marburg  1812;  d.  Jordan.  Wis., 
3  Feb.  IgSS.  He  was  professor  of  lAilosophy 
at  Marburg,  taldng  the  chair  in  IMS.  but  in 
1846  his  radical  views  caused  his  expulsion. 
During  the  brief  rule  of  liberaUsm  in  Hesse 
he  was  chosen  president  of  the  chamber;  but, 
in  1853,  was  forced  to  flee  to  the  United  Sutes. 
Among  other  works  he  wrote  'On  Cadiolicism 
in  Germany';  'Idea  and  History  of  Philoso- 
phy' ;  'Fundamental  Problems  of  Metaphysics,' 
etc 

BAZA,  ba'th^,  Spain  *  (andent  Basti).  a 
city  in  the  province  of  and  53  miles  east- 
northeast  from  (jranada.  in  a  valley  north  of 
the  Sierra  Baza.  The  environs  yield  wine  and 
hemp,  grain,  fruit,  oil;  sheep,  cattle  and  mules 
are  reared;  and  there  are  some  manufactures, 
chiefly  of  leather  pottery,  sombreros,  and  flour 
and  oil  mills.  Baza  is  famed  in  early  Spanish 
history,  more  espedally  in  that  of  Granada.  In 
1489  it  was  taken  from  the  Moors  by  the 
Spaniards,  after  a  siege  of  nearly  seven  months. 
In  1810  the  French^  under  Marshal  Soult,  here 
defeated  the  Spaniards  under  Generals  Blake 
and  Frdrc.    Pop.  15,964. 

BAZAtNE,  b4-zfin,  Achille  Fraagois, 
French  military  officer:  b.  Versailles,  13  Feb. 
1811;  d.  23  Sept.  1888.  He  entered  the  army  in 
1831,  served  in  Algeria,  in  Spain  against  the 
Carhsts  and  in  the  Crimean  War.  He  joined 
die  Mexican  expedition  under  General  Forey, 
was  present  at  the  siege  of  Puebla,  and  shortly 
afterward  was  the  first  to  enter  the  City  of 
Mexico.  In  1863  he  obtained  the  chief  com- 
mand, was  made  a  marshal  of  France  in  1864. 
and  remained  in  Mexico  with  the  Emperor 
Maximilian.  When  Napoleon  III  abandoned 
the  Emperor,  Bazaine  tned  vttinly  to  persuade 
him  to  abdicate  the  throne  voluntarily.  In  187(^ 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco- Prussian  War, 
he  commanded  the  3d  army  corps,  and  capitu- 
lated at  Meti,  after  a  seven  weeks'  siege,  with 
an  army  of  170,000  m^n.  For  this  act  he  was 
tried  by  court-martial  in  1871,  found  guilty  of 
treason  and  condemned  to  death.  This  sentence 
was  commuted  to  20  years'  seclusion  in  the  Isle 
of  Saint  Marguerite,  off  the  south  coast  of 
France,  from  which  he  escaped  and  retired  to 
Spain,  where  an  attempt  was  made  to  assassin- 
ate him.  His  widow,  who  had  clung  faidifully 
to  him  in  his  adversitv  and  had  plotted  success- 
fully for  his  escape,  died  in  the  City  of  Uexico, 
8  Jan.  1900.  She  was  a  woman  of  aristocratic 
birth  and  much  beauty.  See  La  Bmgire, 
'L'aflaire  Baiaine*  (1874);  L'H*ri»so»i,  <La 
l^ende  de  Metz>  (1888). 


t,zcd=y  Google 


B  AZALOSTTB — BAZOCHB 


BAZALGBTTB,  \Ax-iU)et',  Sm  Joupb 
Winiun,  English  civil  engineer :  b.  Enfield, 
England.  1819;  d  London,  1  March  1891.  As 
chief  engineer  of  the  London  board  of  worki 
be  built  nuny  miles  of  sewers  and  embank- 
ments, three  of  the  Thames  badges  and  the 
well-known  Thames  embankments.  He  was  an 
expert  authority  on  questions  of  municipal 
engineering. 

BAZAN,  ba-zan,  Don  C£ur  d«.  See  Don 
C^SAB  DE  BazaV. 

BAZAN,  b^-thad,  Emilia  Pardo.  See  Pab- 
EO  Bazan,  Emilia. 

BAZAHCOURT,  b^-zan-koor,  .C6ur 
(Babon  Dc),  French  military  historian:  b. Paris 
letOi  d.  there,  25  Jan.  1865.  He  was  ofGcial 
historiographer  to  Napoleon  III,  whom  he  ac- 
companied in  several  campa^s.  He  published 
<L'exp£dition  de  Crim&  jtisqu'i  la  prise  de 
Scbastopol*  (1856);  <La  campagne  d'lulie  de 
1859';  'Les  expeditions  de  Chme  el  Cochin- 
chine'  (1861-62);  'Histoire  dc  Sidle  sous  la 
domination  des  Normands'  (1846)  ;  and  the 
novels  <Georges  la  Moniagnard'  (1851);  <No- 
blesse  oblige'  (1851) ;  'La  Princesse  Pallianci> 
(1852). 

BAZANCOURT,  Jean  Baptute  Marin 
Antoine  Lecat  de,  French  generah  b.  Val-de- 
MoUe  <Oise),  19  March  17^;  d.  17  Ian.  1830. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  Italian  cam- 
paigns ;  distinguished  himself  and  was  wounded 
at  the  siege  of  Saint  Jean  d'Acre;  fought  in 
the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  and  was  a  member  of 
the  court-martial  which,  on  21  March  J8M,  pro- 
nounced the  sentence  of  death  upon  the  Due 
d'Enshien.  In  1606  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  in  1808 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier-general, 
while  in  the  same  year  he  was  created  baron 
■of  the  empire,  and  went  as  commander  to  Ham- 
burg with  a  mission  connected  with  the  conti- 
nental blockade.  He  withdrew  from  service  in 
1815. 

BAZAR,  or  BAZAAR,  a  market-place  in 
the  East,  the  word  being  Arabic  in  origin. 
Some  bazars  are  open,  some  covered  over.  As 
the  Orientals  live  almost  entirely  out  of  doors, 
the  bazars  of  populous  cities,  besides  their  mer- 
cantile importance,  are  of  consequence  places 
of  social  intercourse.  In  the  Oriental  tales,— 
for  instance,  in  the  'Arabian  Nights,' —  the 
bazars  occupy  a  very  conspicuous  place.  The 
word  bazar  has  also  been  imported  into  Europe, 
where  it  is  used  in  much  the  same  sense  as  in 
the  Elast.  Amone  English-speaking  people  it  is 
frequently  amilied  to  a  temporary  sale  of  fancy 
goods  contributed  gratuitously  and  sold  to 
raise  a  special  fund. 

BAZARD,  b^-zar,  Amand,  French  socialist : 
b.  Paris  1791;  d.  29  July  1832.  After  the 
Restoration  he  helped  to  found  the  Revolution- 
ary Society  of  the  'Amis  de  la  V^riti,'  and 
in  1820  an  association  of  French  Carbonari.  In 
1825,  impressed  with  the  necessity  of  a  total 
reconstruction  of  socieQ'^  he  attached  himself 
to  the  school  of  Saint-Simon,  and  became  one 
of  the  editors  of  a  toumal  termed  Lf  Produc- 
teur.  In  1828  he  delivered  at  Paris  a  series 
of  lectares,  the  substance  of  which  was  pub- 
lished in  the  'Exposition  dc  la  doctrine  de 
Saint-Simon*  (1828-30),  of  which  the  first  part 
was    by    Bazard,  the  second  being  chiefly  the 


composition  of  Enfantin.  He  and  Enfantin  be- 
came the  acknowledged  leaders  of  the  school. 
After  the  July  Revolution  (1830),  a  larger 
scope  was  afforded  to  the  Saint- Simonians.  The 
masses  were  attracted  by  the  doctrine  that  all 
social  institutions  ought  to  have  for  their  end 
the  moral,  intellectual  and  physical  amelioration 
of  the  poor.  In  a  short  time,  Hazard  and  his 
friends  had  created  a  new  sodety,  living  in  the 
midst  of  the  old,  with  peculiar  laws,  manners 
and  doctrines.  But  Hazard's  connection  with  it 
was  of  short  duration.  He  differed  from  En- 
fantin on  the  doctrine  of  the  emancipation  of 
women,  and  in  1831  seceded  in  disgust.  His 
efforts  to  fotmd  a  school  of  his  own  proved 
unsuccessful,  and,  during  a  heated  discussion 
with  his  former  friend,  Enfantin,  he  was 
struck  with  apoplexy,  from  the  effects  of  which 
he  died. 

BAZAS,  town  in  the  department  of  Gironde, 
France,  on  the  Beuve,  about  33  miles  southeast 
of  Bordeaux,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail. 
It  overlooks  the  river  from  a  rocky  eminence 
and  was  once  a  well  fortified  town,  the  remains 
of  its  walls,  built  in  the  13ih  century,  being  still 
visible  In  the  times  of  the  Romans  it  was 
known  as  (^trum  Vasatum.  Among  its  at- 
tractions are  a  cathedral  of  (rt)thic  architecture 
and  an  old  monastery  now  used  as  a  college. 
Until  1792  it  was  the  seat  of  a  bishopric. 
Leather  and  woolen  goods  and  hats  are  manu- 
factured here.    Pop.  (1911)  4,704. 

BAZIGARS,  ba-zc-garz',  a  tribe  of  nomadic 
Indians  dispersed  throu^out  the  whole  of  Hin- 
dustan. They  are  divided  into  seven  castes; 
their  chief  occupation  is  that  of  jugglers,  acro- 
bats and  tumblers,  in  which  both  males  and 
females  are  equally  skilful.  They  present  many 
features  analogous  to  the  gypsies  of  Europe. 

BAZIN,  Ren£  Fransois,  French  novelist: 
b.  Angers,  26  Dec  1853.  Craduatit^  from  a 
law  college  in  Paris,  he  became,  in  1878,  pro- 
fessor of  law  at  the  university  in  his  native 
city.     In   1903  he  was  elected  a  member  of^  the 


He  ranks  as  one  of  the  foremost  of  present-d^ 
French  novelists,  but  he  has  also  written  many 
books  of  travel  and  observation,  one  of  whid^ 
'The  Italians  of  To-day'  (1904),  has  been 
widely  read  among  Americans.  His  novels  are 
'Stephanette'  (1^4);  'Les  Noellet'  (1890); 
'Madame  Corentin'  (1893);  'Humble  amour' 
(1894)  ;  "De  toute  son  ame'  (1897)  ;  'La  terre 
qui  raeurt'  (1899);  'Les  Oberle'  (1901);  'Do- 
natienne'  (1903);  'L'ame  alsadenne'  (1903); 
'L'isolee'  (1905);  <Le  bl*  qui  Iftve'  (1907); 
'Le  mariage  de  Mademoiselle  Gimel' ■  (1908; 
English  translation  1913).  Among  his  works 
of  non-fiction  are  'A  I'aventure'  (1891); 
'Sidle'  (1892);  <TerTe  d'Espagne'  (1896); 
'Croquis  de  France  et  d'Orient'  (1901)  ;  "Word- 
Sud  Am^rique,  Angleterre,  Corse,  Spitiberg* 
(1913). 

BAZOCHE,  ba-z6'3c^  or  BASOCMK 
(corruption  of  Basilica),  a  brotherhood  formed 
by  the  clerks  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris  at 
the  time  it  ceased  to  be  the  Grand  Council  of 
the  French  king.  The  government  of  the  order 
was  vested  in  a  chief  known  as  *Ie  roi  de  la 
Bizoche.*  who  had  his  retinue  after  the  manner 
of  real  kings  and  maintained  a  mock  court 
The  organization  was  divided  into  chapters^^at 


Cioog'le 


370 


BAZTAN  — BBACH 


the  head  of  each  being  a  captain,  who,  together 
with  the  members  of  his  division,  wore  a 
special  uniform  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
members  of  the  other  chapters.  Such  chapters 
were  also  found  in  other  parts  of  France  where 
local  parliaments  were  maintained.  The  order 
was  in  existence  as  early  as  1303,  for  in  that 
year  IGng  Philip  conferred  on  it  the  privilege 
of  holding  an  annua.1  festival  at  which  were 
presented  dramatic  performances  In  which  cur- 
rent events  were  freely  satirised.  In  15W  the 
order  was  granted  the  permission  to  hold  these 

¥!rformances  in  the  salon  of  the  Royal  Palace. 
he  most  popular  of  these  farces  was  a  mock 
trial  called  "Palhelin,*  which  was  first  presented 
in  1480.  These  crude  performances  had  a 
powerful  influence  in  the  latter  development  of 
the  French  stage,  the  comedies  of  Moliire 
being  founded  on  them.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  nrst  agitations  that  finally  had  their  climax 
in  the  great  French  Revolution,  the  guild  look 
an  active  part  in  politics.  It  was  finally  dis- 
banded by  the  general  decree  of  13  Feb.  1791. 
Consult  Fabre's  'Etudes  historiques  sur  les 
Bazoches*  (2d  ed.,  Paris  1875). 

BAZTAN,  baz-tan',  or  BASTAN,  a  Pyre- 
nean  valley  in  the  extreme  north  of  Spain,  hav- 
ing a  length  of  nine  miles  and  an  average 
breadth  of  four  miles.  It  is  inhabited  by  about 
8,000  people,  who  form,  under  Spanish  super- 
vision, a  diminutive  republic,  at  the  head  of 
which  is  the  mayor  of  Elizondo.  The  citizens 
of  this  republic  rank  with  the  Spanish  nobility 
and  hold  special  privileges,  which  were  gi^tnted. 
them  for  former  services  to  the  Spanish  Crown. 
BAZZINI,  bat-se-ne,  Antonio,  Italian 
musician  and  composer;  b.  Brescia  1818;  d. 
1897.  Already  at  the  age  of  15  he  was  an 
accomplished  soloist  on  the  violin,  and  two 
years  later,  at  the  age  of  17,  be  was  director 
of  the  choir  in  one  of  the  largest  churches  of 
his  native  city.  Beginning  in  1&43,  he  studied 
for  four  years  at  Leipzig,  though  he  had  al- 
ready, two  years  previously,  made .  a  concert 
tour;  taking  in  Germany,.  France  and  England. 
During  this  period  he  made  the  personal  ac' 
quaintance  of  Paganini  and  was  deeply  in- 
fluenced by  him.  Later  he  devoted  himself 
more  to  composition,  becoming,  first,  professor 
of  composition  in  the  Conservatory  of  Milan, 
tbtn  director.  Among  his  chief  compositions 
are  an  opera,  'Turandot'  (produced  in  1867). 
a  S}-mphonic  poem,  < Franc esca  da  Rimini' 
(1890),    and   five   string   quartets. 

BDELLIUM,  del'II -fim,  an  aromatic  pum 
found  in  different  countries,  but  brought  chiefly 
from  Arabia  and  India.  It  resembles  myrrh  in 
its  appearance,  and  is  hence  often  fraudulently 
substituted  for  it.  It  is  obtained  from  Commi- 
phora mokul  and  C.  agaliocha.  It  has  a  sweet 
smell  but  bitter  taste,  softens  readily  between 
the  fingers  before  the  fire  and  dissolves  par- 
tially in  alcohol  and  still  more  in  water.  A  bet- 
ter varie^  of  bdellium  is  that  produced  by  the 
west  African  C.  africana;  it  is  used  in  plasters. 
The  bdellium  mentioned  in  Scripture,  in  Hebrew 
bedkolackh,  is  rendered  in  the  Septuagint 
of  Gen.  ii,  12,  anthrax  (literally,  "burning 
coal") — the  carbuncle,  ruby  and  garnet  (Lid- 
dell  and  Scott),  the  red  sajwhire  (Dana); 
while  in  Num.  xt,  7,  it  is  translated  kryttalhs 
~  rock  ciystal.    Some  modem  writes,  follow- 


ing the  Septuagidt  translation,  make  it  a  nun- 
erals,  as  are  the  gold  and  onyx  stone  with  whidi 
it  is  associated  in  Gen.  ii,  12,  while  the  Rabbiu 
Bochart  and  Gescnius  consider  that  it  was  a 
pearl  or  pearls. 


Moses  Yale  Beach,  and  after  receiving  an  edu- 
cation in  the  Uonson  Academy  at  Monson, 
Mass.  he  was  assodated  with  lus  father  in  the 
publishing  business  of  the  New  York  ^kh.    In 


Monson,  Mass.,  and  purchased  the  Scitntific 
American  from  Rufus  Porter,  combining  with 
the  business  of  publisbing  that  of  soliciting  i»l- 
ents.  In  1847  he  invented  a  typewriter  which 
printed  raised  letters  on  a  strip  of  paper,  b- 
tended  for  the  blind,  and  was  awarded  a  gold 
medal  at  the  Crystal  Palace  Exposition,  This 
machine  is  noteworthy  as  the  first  to  cover  a 
prmdple  developed  into  the  modern  typewriter, 
vii^  a  basket  of  levers  arranged  in  a  circle, 
and  delivering  tbdr  impression  on  a  common 
centre.  In  1867  he  constructed  a  suspended 
tube  eight  feet  in  diameter  by  100  feet  lotw, 
through  which  passengers  were  carried  bade 
and  forth  in  a  tightly  fitting  car,  as  the  air  was 
exhausted  from  or  forced  into  the  tube  by  a 
rotating  fan.  He  also  devised  means  for  trans- 
letters  through  a  tube  under  the  street, 


portm^  li 
by  which 


I  street  letter- 


His  most  important  invention, —  a  shield  for 
tunneUng  under  streets  or  rivers  without  dis- 
turbing the  surface, —  was  made  in  1868,  and 
became  known  as  the  Beach  shield.  It  resem- 
bled 3  gigantic  hogshead  with  the  heads  re- 
moved, Uie  front  circular  edge  being  sharp,  and 
the  rear  end  having  a  thin  iron  nood.  This 
cylinder  is  propelled  slowly  forward  througti 
the  earth  by  several  hvdraulic  rams  forced  out 
from  the  rear  of  the  shield,  by  the  operation  of 
a  single  hydraulic  pump,  a^inst  the  completed 
tunnel  in  the  rear.  By  this  method  only  the 
amount  of  earth  to  be  occupied  by  the  tunnel 
is  excavated.  After  the  shield  is  forced  for- 
ward the  hydraulic  rams  are  pushed  back,  and 
in  the  thin  hood  at  the  rear  a  new  section  of 
the  tunnel  is  constructed.  In  1869,  by  means 
of  such  a  shield,  Mr.  Beach  constructed  a  tun- 
nel nine  feet  in  diameter  under  Broadway,  New 
York,  from  the  comer  of  Warren  street  souOi 
to  a  point  opposite  the  lower  side  of  Murny 
street,  and  in  1870  a  car  was  sent  to  and  fro 
on  tratJcs  through  this  tunnel  by  pneumatic 
power  —  the  first  underground  transit  in  Sen 
York.  From  1872  to  1876  Mr.  Beach  edited  m 
annual  cublication  entitled  Science  Record, 
published  by  the  Scienti^l:  American.  In  1876 
he  originated  the  Scientific  Ameriean  Safpjt- 
meni,  devoted  to  the  puolication  of  scientiBc 
matters  in  exlenso,  taken  largely  from  ex- 
changes and  foreign  publications.  He  was  also 
instrumental  in  be^nning  the  publication  of  the 
Scientific  American  BuUders'  Monthly. 

BBACH,  Cfauln  Fisk,  American  clergy- 
man: b.  Hunter,  N.  Y„  5  Sept.  1827;  d.  25  M»y 
1908,  He  studied  theol<«y  at  Auburn  "ITieolog- 
ical  Seminary,  N,  Y,  was  pastor  of  Presby- 
terian churches  1854-73,  editor  and  publisber 
National    Presbyterian    1873-9S.      He    r-""' 


Google 


oUes  and  Industrial  Trusts*    (1 

BEACH,  Cbarlei  Fisk,  Jr^  American  legal 
writer:  b.  Kentucky,  4  Feb.  1854.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  New  York  1881,  and  prac- 
tised in  that  city  tilt  1896,  but  since  the  last 
named  date  has  practised  in  London  and  Paris. 
His  especial  Aeld  is  railway  and  corporation 
law,  and  he  has  published  treatises  on  'Receiv- 
ers* {1887) ;  *Wills>  (1888) ;  'Railways' 
(1890);  'Private  Corporations'  (1891);  'Mod- 
em Equity  Jurispnidence'  (1892)  ;  'Public 
Corporations'  (1893)  ;  'Modern  Equity  Prac- 
tice' (1894) ;  'Injunctions'  (1895) ;  'Insur- 
ance' (I89S);  'Contracts'  (1897);  'Contribu- 
tory Negligence'   (3d  ed.,  1899). 

BEACH,  DKvid  Nelson,  American  clergy- 
man :  b.  Orange,  N.  J  30  Nov.  1848 ;  graduated 
from  Yale  College  1872,  and  from  Yale  Divin- 
itj;  School  1876.  Entering  the  Congregational 
ministry  he  was  successively  pastor  of  Congre- 
gational churches  in  Westerly,  R.  I.,  1876-79; 
Wakefield,  Mass.,  1879-84;  Cambridge,  Mass., 
1884-96;  Minneapolis  (1896-98);  Denver  from 
1899.  He  was  active  in  banishing  the  saloon 
from  Cambridge  and  was  prominent  in  advo- 
cating a  modified  Norwegian  liquor  system  in 
Massachusetts,  He  has  written  'Plain  Words 
on  Our  Lord's  Work'  (1886)  ;  'The  Newer  Re- 
ligious Thinking'  (1893) ;  'The  Intent  of 
Jesus'  (1896);  ^Statement  of  Belief  (1897): 
all  advocating  church  unity  and  rational 
theology. 

BEACH,  Frederick  Converse,  American 
editor:  b.  New  York,  27  March  1848.  In  1855 
he  removed  to  Stratford,  Conn.,  where  he 
received  an  education  at  public  and  private 
schools.  In  1864,  as  a  pastime,  he  began  the 
practice  of  photography  with  his  father,  Alfred 
Ely  Beach  (q.v.),  and  has  continued  his  inter- 
est in  the  art  ever  since.  In  1866  he  suggested 
to  the  commissioner  of  patents  the  utility  and 
practicability  of  photo-lithographing  the  United 
Slates  patents,  a  plan  which  was  subsequently 
adopted.  In  1868  he  was  graduated  from  the 
Shdlield  Scientific  School  of  Yale  University 
with  the  dwree  of  Ph.B.  In  1869,  after  en- 
gaging in  the  business  of  patent  solicitor  at 
Washington,  D,  C,  he  returned  to  New  York 
and  was  appointed  assistant  superintendent  of 
the  construction  of  the  Beach  pneumatic  tunnel 
under  Broadway,  New  York  (see  Bbacb,  Al- 
fred Elv).  Subsequently  he  took  up  the  manu- 
facture of  electrical  instruments.  In  1877  he 
entered  the  oHice  of  the  Scientific  American, 
assistine  his  father,  and  after  the  la  Iter's 
demise  he  became  one  of  the  editors.  He  has 
made  extensive  experiments  in  photography  and 
written  much  relating  to  the  art.  In  1884  he 
founded  the  Society  of  Amateur  Photographers 
of  New  York,  the  name  of  which  was  afterward 
changed  to  the  Camera  Club  of  New  York.  In 
1885  he  assisted  in  organizing  the  American 
Lantern  Slide  Interchange.  In  1889  he  was 
Instrumental  in  establishing  a  monthly  magazine 
entitled  The  American  AmaieitT  Photographer 


BEACH,  Hn.  H.  H.  A.  (Amy  Marcv 
Cheney),  American  composer:  b.  Henniker, 
N.  H.,  5  Sept  1867.  She  studied  music  from 
childhood,  and  made  her  first  appearance  in 
public  as  a  pianist  at  the  Boston  Music  Hall 
when  16  years  old.  She  has  composed  a  mass 
in  £  flat :  'The  Rose  of  Avontown,*  a  cantata 
for  female  voices;  a  Gaelic  symphony j  a  sym- 
phony, anthems,  songs  and  compositions  for 
various  musical  instruments  and  full  orches- 
tras. 

BEACH,  Harlaa  Pue,  American  mission- 
ary :  b.  South  Orange;  Ni  J^  4  April  1854.  He 
was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1878  and  at  Andover 
Theological  Seminary  in  1883.  During  1878-80 
he  taught .  at  Phillips  Andover  Academy;  in 
1883  he  went  to  China  as  a  missionary,  remain- 
ing there  six  years.  Soon  after  his  return  he 
became  head  of  the  School  for  Christian 
Workers,  Springfield,  Mass.,  and  in  1895  edu- 
cational secretary  of  the  Student  Volunteer 
Movement  for  Foreign  Missions.  Since  1906 
he  has  been  professor  of  theory  and  practice 
of  missions  at  Yale  University.  He  has  con- 
tributed extensively  to  various  periodicals,  is 
advisory  editor  of  The  Missionary  Revteui  of 
Ike  World  and  furnishes  the  annotations  for 
American  missionary  literature  to  the  Inter- 
national Review  of  Missions,  Edinburgh.  His 
publications  include  'Dawn  on  the  Hills  of 
T'ang'  (1898);  "Knights  of  the  Labanim;  or 
Four  Typical  Missionaries*  (1896)  ;  'New  Tes- 
tament Studies  in  Missions'  (1899):  'Geog- 
raphy and  Atlas  of  Protestant  Missions'  (1902)  ; 
'Princely  Men  in  the  Heavenly  Kingdom' 
(1903) ;  'India  and  Christian  Opportunity' 
(1904). 

BEACH,  Miles,  American  jurist:  b.  1840; 
d.  1902.  He  was  graduated  at  Union  College, 
Schenectady,  studied  law  and  practised  in  Troy. 
When  27  years  of  age  he  removed  to  New 
York  and  in  1879  was  elected  judge  of  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas,  holding  that  office  till 
1894,  when  he  passed  to  the  bench  of  die  Su- 
preme Court  of  the  State. 

BEACH,  Hoses  Sperrr,  American  in- 
ventor  and  editor:  b.  Springfield,  Mass.,  5  Oct. 
1822;  d.  25  July  1892.  He  was  the  son  of 
Moses  Yale  Beach  (q.v.),  and  in  184S  he  mar- 
ried Qiloe  Buckingham,  of  Waterbury,  Conn., 
and  in  the  same  year  became  joint  proprietor, 
with  George  Roberts,  of  the  Boston  Daily 
Times.  Soon  after  this  he  became  associated 
with  his  father  and  brother  in  the  publication 
of  the  New  York  Sun,  and  acquired  the  sole 
ownership  of  it  in  1851.  transferring  it  in  1868 
to  Charles  A.  Dana.  It  was  while  he  was  con- 
ducting the  publication  of  the  Sun  that  fie 
invented  and  made  several  important  improve- 
ments in  printing-presses,  which  were  patented, 
a  few  now  being  in  use.  Among  them  were 
the  feeding  of  roll  paper  to  the  press  instead  of 
flat  sheets,  apparatus  for  wetting  the  paper 
prior  to  printing  and  another  improvement  for 
cutting  off  sheets  after  printing;  also  a  method 
of  adapting  newspaper  presses  to  print  both 
sides  of  the  sheet  at  the  same  time,  as  is  now 
customary.  In  1867  he  visited  the  Holy  Land, 
on  the  steamer  Quaker  City,  in  compa.ny  with 
the  distinguished  party  of  which  'Mark  Twain* 
was  a  member,  and  whose  experiences  formed 
the  basis  of  Twain's  book,  'The  Innocents 
Abroad.)     Hr.  Beach  broufdit  hack  an  oKvc- 


,  Google 


872 


BEACH  —  BEACHES 


tree  from  the  Mount  of  Olives,  from  which  was 
made  a  pulpit  stand  that  is  at  present  in 
Plymouth  Church,  Brooklyn. 

BEACH,  Moses  Yale,  American  inventor 
and  publisher:  b.  Wallingford,  Conn.,  15  JaiL 
1800;  d-  17  July  1868.  He  received  a  common- 
school  education  and  before  he  was  21  married, 
and  with  a  partner  opened  a  cabinet  factory 
at  Northampton,  Mass.  In  1822  he  established 
himself  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  where  he  was 
very  successful.  He  expended  considerable 
money  on  a  stem-wheel  steamboat,  the  first  to 
ply  on  the  Connecticut  River  above  Hartford. 
A  powder  engine  intended  for  its  propulsion 
proved  ineffective.  In  1829  he  obtained  an  in- 
terest in  a  paper-mill  and  removed  to  Sauger- 
ties,  N.  Y.,  where  his  inventive  faculty  produced 
a  rag-cutting  machine,  which  he  patented  and 
which  is  still  used  in  all  paper-mills.  In  1835 
he  purchased  from  his  brother-in-law,  Benja- 
min Day,  the  New  York  Sun,  the  first  penny 
paper  (then  a  comparatively  new  sheet),  and 
to  Mr.  Beach  was  due  the  subsequent  growth 
and  popularity  of  that  newspaper.  In  1846 
President  Polk  sent  Mr,  Beach  on  a  secret  mis- 
sion to  Mexico.  In  1847  Mr.  Beach  retired 
from  active  business  and  settled  in  his  native 
town,  where  he  died. 

BEACH,  Rex  (Eluncwood).  American 
author :  b.  Atwood,  Micb..  1  Sept.  1877.  After 
graduating  from  Rollins  College,  Winter  Park, 
Fla.,  he  studied  law  at  the  Chicago  College  of 
Law.  His  success  as  a  storywntcr,  however, 
diverted  him  from  the  legal  profession.  Among 
his  best  known  works  are  'Pardners'  (1905); 
»The  Sjioilers>  (1906);  'The  Barrier'  (1907); 
'The  Silver  Horde'  (1909);  'Going  Some> 
(1910);  'The  Ne'er-do- Well  >  (1911);  'The 
Net>  (1912):  'The  Iron  Trail>  (1913);  'The 
Auction  Block*  (1914) ;  'The  Heart  of  the  Sun- 
set' (191S);  'Rambow's  End>  (1916);  'Laugh- 
ing Bill  Hyde>  (1917). 

BEACH.  See  Coast;  Dune;  Ocean; 
Lake;  Shore;  Shore  Lines. 

BEACH-FLEA,  one  of  a  group  of  small 
amphipod  Crustaceans  (Orchesiia  agilis)  which 
abound  under  sea  wrack  near  high-water  mark. 
When  the  dry  weed  is  lifted  they  will  be  seen 
leaping  like  neas,  by  means  of  the  last  three 
pairs  of  abdominal  legs.  They  are  brown,  of  the 
same  color  as  the  weed  and  wet  sand  beneath, 
about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  length  or  about 
one-half  as  large  as  the  larger  and  more  south- 
ern kind  of  beach-flea  {Talorchesda  tongicor- 
tiis),  which  is  nearly  an  inch  long.  Consult 
Arnold,  'Sea  Beach  at  Low  Tide.' 

BEACH-GRASS.    See  Amh 


BEACH  PLANTS.  Plants  living  nonnally 
on  shores,  particularly  of  the  sea,  or  on  the 
contiguous  dunes  and  marshy  strips,  are  usually 
characterized  by  fleshiness,  leatheriness,  downi- 
ness or  dense  hairiness.  This  is  true  of  the 
maritime  members  of  families  otherwise  quite 
different  in  appearance,  and  these  peculiarities, 
resemblinp-  those  of  plants  living  in  other  saline 
and  and  localities,  are  devices  resulting  from 
adaptation  to  similar  desert  conditions,  for  the 
beach  sands  become  very  hot  and  naturally  re- 
ceive practically  no  water  from   either  sea  or 


land,  and  are  unable  to  conserve  the 
Thus  the  strand  becomes  a  strip  of  desert.  The 
succulence  and  unciuousness  of  such  common 
plants  as  the  seaside  goldenrod  (SoHdago),  of 
the  saltmarsh  and  smooth  aster  (Alter),  of 
certain  huge  tropical  morning  gloriet  ilpO' 
intra),  of  the  marsh- rosemary  XStatice).  of  the 
yellow  sand-verbena  (Abrotiia)  and  others,  arc 
evidence  of  efforts  on  their  part  to  store  such 
water  as  may  fall  upon  thetn,  in  the  cells  of 
their  swollen  tissues,  and  also  to  prevent  its 
evaporation  through  the  stomata.  Some  plants, 
as  the  Poly  go  Delia  and  the  marsh- samphire 
(Saiicomia),  have  further  reduced  their  tran- 
spiring surface  by  assuming  a  cylindrical  shape 
with  scale-like  leaves.  Terete  also  arc  the  bases 
of  the  leaves  of  the  saltwort  (Salspla)  which 
are  armed,  against  the  attacks  of  animals  wish- 
ing to  forage  on  their  juicy  foliage,  by  stout 
prickles.  Many  of  these  fleshy  plants  also  con- 
tain salts  in  their  tissues  that  are  strongly 
retentive  of  water;  the  saltwort  having  for- 
merly been  burned  to  obtain  soda  from  its 
ashes.  Others,  like  some  tamarisks,  exude  salts 
that  form  a  crust  over  the  stomata  pits  in  the 
daytime  but  by  attracting  dew  and  the  moisture 
in  the  air  and  becoming  liquefied  furnish  a  cer- 

The  bearberry  (Arctostafihylos) ,  the  bay- 
berry  (Myrifa)  and  the  beach  plum  (Fninw) 
exhibit  the  leathery  and  pubescent  type  of 
foliage  calculated  to  resist  drought  by  restrain- 
ing transpiration  by  means  of  the  thickened 
skin  and  hair.  The  pale  pubescent  under-surface 
of  the  latter's  leaves  occurs  on  plants  living 
near  water,  and  is  designed  to  keep  arising 
moisture  from  settling  m  and  flooding  the 
stomata. 

Velvety  pubescence  on  all  surfaces  attaining 
to  the  same  end  is  present  in  the  marshmallow 
{Alfh^a)  and  the  clotbur  (XaHthiutn).  Many 
of  the  salt-marsh  plants  are  decidedly  hair^'. 
serving  the  purpose  of  controlling  evaporation 
and  preserving  the  leaf  from  too  much  moisture. 

Some  of  these  beach-plants  are  useful  aids 
in  preventing-  the  shifting  of  sands  and  dunes, 
the  most  important  being  the  coarse  grasses, 
marram  (Ammophila)  and  sea-Iyme  (Elymns), 
whose  tough  long  roots  interweave  mrou^ 
the  sand,  forming  a  mat  that  holds  it  in  place. 
The  beach  thus  reclaimed  is  gradually  settled 
upon  bv  sundry  other  sand-binding  plants,  as 
the  baylierry,  bearberry,  abronias,  beach  plums, 
etc. ;  and  certain  trees  as  the  tamarisk,  some 
species  of  pines  and  cedars  are  also  found 
there  or  may  be  planted.  Consult  Marilaun,  A. 
Kemer  von,  'Natural  History  of  Plants' ; 
Scribner,  F.  L.,  'Sandbinding  Grasses'  (reprint 
from  Yearbook  of  Agriculture,  1898),  and 
'Economic  Grasses'  (United  States  Division 
of  Agron.,  Bulletin  14) ;  'Stock  Ranges  of 
Northwestern  California'  (Bulletin  12,  Bureau 
of  Plant  Industry,  United  Slates  Department 
of  Agriculture). 

Helen  Ingebsoll. 

BEACH-PLUM.    See  PttiM. 

BEACH-ROBIN.     See  Brant-biw. 

BEACHES,  Raised,  terraced,  level  stretdies 
of  land,  consisting  of  sand  and  Kravcl,  and 
lying  at  a  considerable  distance  above  and  away 
from  the  sea,  but  bearing  sufficient  evidences  of 
having  been  at  one  time  sea  beaches.  They  are 
quite  common  along  the  t»asts  of  continents  in 


Google 


BEACH  FLAmS 


I  Ooldeorod 


iizodsi  Google 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


BEACHY   HEAD  —  BEACONSFIBLD 


878 


the  higher  latitudes.    In  California  auch        

occur  as  high  as  1,500  feet  above  the  present 
sea- level,  while  the  coasts  of  Scotland  are 
marked  by  a  series  of  terrtkces  succeedin);  each 
other  at  distances  of  from  10  to  25  feet.  That 
the  materials  composin;^  the  beaches  were  de- 
posited beneath  the  sea  is  proven  by  the  marine 
character  of  the  fossils  which  are  often  found 
in  abundance.  The  existence  of  raised  beaches 
is  of  Importance  to  the  geologisl,  as  it  affords 
direct  evidence  of  changes  of  level  between  the 
sea  and  the  land  in  comparatively  recent  times, 
and  explains  the  widespread  occurrence  of  sedi- 
mentary rocks  over  continental  areas.  Many 
large  lakes  are  also  fringed  by  terraces,  but  in 
this  case  they  have  resulted  from  a  lowering  of 
the  water  level  and  not  from  coastal  movements. 

BEACHY  HEAD,  England,  a  promontory 
on  the  coast  of  Sussex,  about  three  miles  south- 
west of  Eastbourne ;  height  532  feet.  Here  a 
combined  Dutch  and  English  fleet  of  57  vessels 
under  Lord  Torrington  was  defeated  by  a 
French  fleet  of  70  ships  under  Tourville,  in 
IMO.  In  1838  a  revolving  light  was  erected 
here,  285  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  visible 
in  clear  weather  from  a  distance  of  28  miles. 
This  was  superseded  in  1902  by  a  new  light- 
house built  in  the  sea,  about  600  feet  from  the 
cliff,  and  123  feet  high. 

BEACON,  N.  Y.,  city  of  Dutchess  County, 
00  the  Hudson  River,  and  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral &  Hudson  River  and  the  Central  New  Eng- 
land division  of  the  New  York,  New  Haven  & 
Hartford    railroads,   60  miles   north   of    New 


Landing;  it  was  incorporated  in  May  1913,  and 
holds  the  first  charter  under  the  commission 
form  of  government  granted  in  New  York 
Slate.  Lying  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Beacon,  on 
the  upper  margin  of  the  Highlands  of  the  Hud- 
son, and  extending  westward  to  the  shores  of 
the  river  itself  at  the  lower  end  of  Newburgh 
Bay,  its  scenery  is  unrivaled.  An  inclined  rail- 
way runs  up  the  western  slope  to  the  summit 
of  Mount  Beacon,  from  which  a  far-famed 
view  of  mountain,  plain  and  river  is  enjoyed, 
and  where  a  summer  colony  makes  its  home. 
The  city  of  Newburgh  across  the-  bay  is  con- 
nected with  Beacon,  by  ferry.  Beacon  has  11 
churches,  a  hospital,  a  library,  two  national 
banks  and  two  savings  banks,  and  the  Sargent 
Industrial  Free  School  for  Girls.  The  city 
conducts  three  grade  schools  and  a  high 
school,  paid  fire  department,  municipal  water- 
works and  a  sewage  disposal  works.  The 
industries  of  the  city  are  varied  and  im- 
portant, embracing  some  of  the  larger  fac- 
tories along  the  Hudson,  Thw-  include 
chiefly  wool  and  straw  hats,  rubber  goods 
and  embroidery,  with  smaller  plants  devoted  to 
making  tools  and  other  iron  products,  silk- 
flirowing,  paper  boxes  and  brick.  The  United 
Sbles  census  of  manufactures  for  1914  showed 
41  establishments  of  factory  grade,  employing 
2,033  persons,  1,806  being  wage  earners  re- 
ceiving annually  $958,000  in  wages.  The  capital 
uivested  aggregated  $3,849,000,  and  the  year's 
output  was  valued  at  $3320,000;  of  this,  $1,778,- 
000  was  die  value  added  by  manufacture.  There 
are  three  newspapers,  two  daily  and  one  weekly. 
P<^  (1910)  I0fi29. 


BEACON,  a  conspicuous  mark  or  signal 
either  used  to  alarm  the  country  in  case  of 
invasion,  or  as  a  guide  to  mariners.  The  alarm 
beacon  was  usually  fire  placed  on  the  tops  of 
high  hills,  the  flames  of  which  could  be  seen  at 
a  great  distance  by  night,  and  the  smoke  by 
day.  They  were  in  great  use  for  rousing  the 
border  on  an  invasion  either  by  Scotdi  or 
English.  A  beacon  to  mariners  is  either  a  land- 
mark erected  on  an  eminence  'near  the  shore,  or 
a  floating  signal  moored  in  shoal  water. 

BEACON  HILL,  one  of  the  original  three 
hitis  of  the  peninsula  of  Boston.  It  is  north  of 
Boston  Common,  and  received  its  name  from 
the  fact  that  the  public  beacon  was  fixed  upon 
its  summit  in  the  earliest  colonial  period.  It 
has  been  much  reduced  in  height,  and  the  State 
House  now  occupies  its  highest  position. 
Beacon  street  extends  in  a  westerly  direction 
over  the  hilt,  skirting  the  Common  and  Public 
Garden.     See  Boston. 

BEACONSFIELDj  b4k'6ns-feld  or  W- 
kdns-feld,  Benjamin  Disraeli  {Earl  of),  Eng- 
lish statesman:  b.  21  Dec.  1304;  d.  19  Apnl 
1881.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Isaac  DTsraeli 
(see  DTSBAELI,  Isaac),  the  well-known  author 
of  the  'Curiosities  of  Literature';  his  mother 
also  being  of  Jewish  race.  Little  is  recorded  of 
his  early  education,  though  it  is  certain  he 
never  attended  a  public  school  or  a  university. 
After  the  death  of  his  father  in  1816,  Isaac 
D'Israeli  abandoned  the  principles  of  Judaism; 
and  young  Benjamin  was  in  1817  l^ptized  into 
the  Church  of  England.  He  was  apprenticed  to 
a  firm  of  attorneys,  but  did  not  remain  long  in 
this  uncongenial  occupation.  His  father's  posi- 
tion gained  him  an  easy  entrance  into  society, 
and  before  he  was  20  he  was  a  frequenter  of 
such  salons  as  those  of  Lady  Blessington,  and 
he  became  a  well  known  man  about  town. 

In  1826  he  published  'Vivian  Grey,'  his 
first  novel,  a  work  which  became  very  popular, 
and,  considering  the  youth  of  its  author,  dis- 
plays remarkable  cleverness  and  knowledge  of 
the  world.  He  now  traveled  for  some  time, 
visiting  Italy,  Greece,  Turkey  and  Syria  and 
gaining  experiences  which  were  afterward  re- 
produced in  his  books.  In  1831.  another 
novel,  'The  Young  Duke,'  came  from  his 
pen.  It  was  followed  by  *Contarini  Fleming' 
(1832)  ;  'Alroy'  (1833) ;  'The  Revolutionary 
Epic'  (a  poem,  1834)  ;  'Henrietta  Fleming' 
(1837);  and  'Venetia>  (1837).  Other  wnt- 
ings  of  this  period  are  'A  Vindication  of  the 
Ei^lish  Constitution'  (1834) ;  and  'Atarcos,  a 
Tragedy'    (1839). 

His  father  having  acquired  a  residence  near 
High  Wycombe,  Buckinghamshire,  young  Dis- 
raeli attempted  to  get  elected  for  this  borou^ 
in  1832.  He  came  forward  as  a  Radical  or 
'people's"  candidate  as  against  the  Whigs,  and 
he  was  supported  by  the  Tories,  as  well  as  by 
Hiune  and  O'Connell,  but  was  dtrfeated.    At  the 

Seneral  election  after  the  passing  of  the  Reform 
ill  he  again  unsuccessfully  contested  Hi^h 
Wycombe,  and  the  like  ill-fortune  attended  him 
on  another  attempt  in  1835,  as  also  at  Taunton 
the  same  year.  On  the  latter  occasion  he  ap- 
peared in  the  character  of  a  decided  Tory,  and 
his  change  of  political  opinions  naturally  oc- 
casioned a  good  deal  of  comment.  To  this 
period  belongs  the  noted  passage  of  arms  be- 
tween him  and  O'Cotinell,  which  was  signalised 


Google 


874 


BBACONSFIELD 


by  a  strength  of  lanKuase  happily  rare  betneen 
public  men  in  these  days. 

At  last,  however,  he  g^ned  an  CRtrance  to 
the  House  of  Commons,  being  elected  for 
Maidstone  in  1837,  His  first  speech  was  treated 
with  ridicule ;  he  had  to  stop  abruptly  and  sit 
down,  but  he  finished  with  the  prophetic  dec- 
laration that  the  time  would  come  when  the 
House  would  he^r  him.  In  1S39  he  married 
the  widow  of  his  colleazue  in  the  representa- 
tion  of  Maidstone,  a  lady  IS  years  older  than 
himself.  The  union  was  a  very  happy  one.  At 
the  general  Section  of  1841  be  was  sent  to  Par- 
liament  by  Shrewsbury.  He  had  now  gained 
some  reputation,  and  for  some  years  he  was  an 
enthusiastic  supporter  of  Sir  Robert  Peel. 
About  this  time  he  became  leader  of  what  was 
known  as  the  "Younp  England"  party,  the  most 
prominent  characteristic  of  which  was  a  sort 
of  sentimental  advocacy  of  feudalism.  This 
spirit  showed  itself  In  ffis  two  novels  of  'Con- 
ingsby;  or.  The  New  Generation,'  and  "Sybil; 
or,  The  New  Nation,*  published  respectively  in 
1844  and  1845. 

For  some  years  previous  to  the  downfall  of 
Sir  Robert  Peel  in  1846  he  was  most  persistent 
and  bitter  in  his  hostility  to  this  statesman, 
whom  he  had  so  recently  supported,  being  the 
advocate  of  protection  against  the  free-trade 
policy  of  Sir  Robert.  His  clever  but  truculent 
speeches  of  this  period  greatly  increased  his 
reputation,  and  by  1S47  he  was  recognized  as 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Tory  oarty.  He  pur- 
chased the  manor  of  Kugfaenden  in  Buclang- 
hamshire,  was  in  the  above  year  elected  for 
this  county,  and  retained  his  seat  till   raised 


raphy>  of  the  Pi 


leader  in  the  Com- 


His  first  appointment  to  office  was  in  Feb- 
ruai7  1852,  when  he  became  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  under  Lord  Derby.  In  December, 
however,  .the  ministry  was  defeated,  and  Mr. 
Disraeli  again  became  leader  of  a  Conservative 
Opposition,  A  keen  disappointment  was  ex- 
perienced on  the  breakdown  of  the  Aberdeen 
ministry  in  1855,  when  Lord  Derby,  who  was 
distrustful  of  Disraeli,  refused  to  form  a  min- 
istry. He  remained  out  of  office  till  IBSS,  when 
he  again  became  Chancellor  of  the  Excnequer 
with  Lord  Derby  as  his  chief.  As  on  the  for- 
mer occasion  his  tenure  of  office  was  but  short ; 
a  reform  bill  which  he  had  introduced  causing 
die  defeat  of  the  government  and  their  res^- 
nalion  after  an  appeal  to  the  country.  During 
the  next  six  years,  while  the  Palmcrston  gov- 
ernment was  in  office,  Mr.  Disraeli  led  the  oppo- 
sition in  the  lower  House  with  conspicuous 
ability  and  courage.  He  strongly  counselled  a 
policy  of  strict  neutrality  during  the  American 
Civil  War.  He  spoke  vigorously  against  the 
Reform  Bill  brought  forward  in  1866  by  the 
Russell- Gladstone  government ;  bnt  when,  soon 
after,  he  came  into  power  along  with  his  chief, 
Lord  Derl^,  the  demand  for  reform  was  so 
urwent  that  he  decided  to  "dish  the  Whigs* 
and  to  bring  in  a  reform  bill  himself.  Accord- 
ingly, in  August  1867,  a  measure  by  which  the 


partiamentaty  reprcMntation  was  reformed  be- 
came law,  being  piloted  through  Parliament 
by  Mr.  Disraeli  with  remarkable  tact  and  dex- 
terity. The  Confederation  of  Canada  was  also 
carried  through. 

In  February  1868  he  reached  the  summit  of 
his  amlntion,  becoming  Premier  on  the  resigna- 
tion of  Lord  Derby,  but  being  in  a  minority 
after  the  general  election  he  had  to  give  up 
office  the  following  December,  In  1874  he  again 
became  Prime  Minister  with  a  strong  Conservar 
tive  majority,  and  he  remained  in  power  for  six 
years.  This  period  was  marked  by  his  eleva- 
tion to  the  peerage  in  1876  as  Earl  of  Beaooiu- 
field.  and  by  the  prominent  part  he  took  in  re- 
gard to  the  Eastern  Question  and  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  in  1678,  when  be 
visited  the  German  capital.  In  the  sprinR  of 
1880  Parlianient  was  rather  suddenly  dissolved, 
and,  the  new  Parliament  showing  an  over- 
whelming Liberal  majority,  he  resigned  office, 
though  he  still  retained  the  leadership  of  his 
party.  Not  long  after  this  the  publication  of 
a  novel  called  'Endymion'  (1880:  his  previous 
one,  'Lothair,'  had  been  published  10  years  be- 
fore) showed  Aat  his  intellect  was  still  vig- 
orous. His  l^sical  powers,  however,  were 
now  giving  way,  and  ne  died  after  an  illness 
of  some  weeks'  duration,  and  was  buried  at 
Hughenden.  His  wife,  who  was  created  Vis- 
countess  Beaconsfield   in    1668,    died   in    1872, 

The  career  of  Lord  Beaconsfield  forms  one 
of  the  most  striking  romances  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury. Bom  of  an  alien  and  despised  race,  and 
at  the  outset  of  his  career  regarded  as  a  mere 
man  of  fashion  and  a  fop,  by  his  own  talents 
he  raised  himself  to  the  head  of  the  aristocratic 
party  in  English  politics,  the  leadership  in 
which  bad  always  been  a  preserve  for  mem- 
bers of  the  patncian  caste.  IHsraeli  was  pre- 
eminently the  ardiitect  of  his  own  fortunes,  and 
for  the  eminence  to  which  he  finally  attained 
he  had  to  fight  every  inch  of  the  ground,  and 
especially  against  the  distrust  of  his  own  i>arty 
which  he  "educated'  in  the  principles  of  Tory 
democracy,  much  a^inst  its  own  inclinations. 
He  was  endowed  with  great  intellectual  power, 
a  patience  and  resourcefulness  that  were  inex- 
haustible, unflinching  courage  and  rcmaricable 
tact  and  ability  in  the  art  of  managing  men. 
As  a  House  of  Commons  man  he  was  showy 
rather  than  solid,  but  in  wit,  sarcasm,  epigram 
and  vituperative  power  he  was  a  master.  *He 
was  one  of  the  three  statesmen  in  the  House  of 
Commons  of  his  own  generation,*  says  John 
Morley,  *who  had  the  ^ft  of  large  and  spacious 
conception  of  the  place  and  power  of  En^and 
in  the  world,  and  of  the  policy  by  which  she 
could  maintain  it."  "The  faculty  of  slo'w,  re- 
flective brooding  was  hia,  and  he  often  saw 
deep  and  far."  Comparison  is  sometimes  made 
between  his  legislative  output  and  that  of  his 
great  rival,  Gladstone,  which  is  much  larger; 
but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  from  18S2 
to  1895  the  latter  was  a  principal  figure  on  the 
stage,  whereas  it  was  on^  in  the  six  years  be- 
tween 1874  and  18S0,  when  Disraeli  ivas  a 
septuagenarian,  that  he  held  office  with  a  soKd 
majority  at  his  back.  His  novels  are  open  to 
criticism  on  many  grounds,  especially  on  ac- 
count of  the  stilt^  rhetoric  which  defaces 
th6m ;  but  he  had  imagination  and  fancy,  wit 
and  epigrammatic  power,  and  is  unexceUed  ks 

,i,..>i=,Googlc 


BE  ACONSPISLD  —  BEAK 


9T5. 


a  poTtrayer  of  certain  Biistocratk  ty^.  Their 
success  on  [lublication  owed  soroetlung  to  the 
art  with  which  he  introduced  real  personages 
mto  them    under  a   more   or   less   penetrable 

KbUographT.^ —  The  defioitive  and  final 
*LJfe»  o£  Lord  Beaconsfield  is  that  now  isstt- 
ing,  based  on  Disraeli's  letters  and  papers  and 
omcr  authentic  documents.  Between  1908-16 
four  volumes  had  been  issued  The  work  was 
placed  under  the  editorship  of  W.  F.  Uouy- 
penny,  whose  death  occurred  after  two  vol- 
umes had  been  published,  when  the  task  was 
taken  up  bv  G.  t.  Buckle.  Disraeli's  'Home 
Letters  ana  Correspondence  with  His  Sister,' 
with  additional  letters  and  notes  by  his  brother 
Ralph,  were  reissued  in  1S87.  His  'Speeches,' 
edited  bv  T.  E.  Kebbcl,  were  published  in  188L 
Biographies  have  been  written,  among  others 
by  G.  Brandes  (translated  by  Slurge,  London 
1880)  ;  J.  A.  Froude  (^London  1890)  ;  Theodore 
Martin  (London  1881) ;  Wilfrid  Mcynell 
(London  1903) ;  and  an  unfriendly  one  by  T.  P. 
O'Connor  (revised  1904).  Consult  also  Sir 
William  Fraser's  'Disraeli  and  His  Day' 
(1^1}.  An  appreciation  of  his  powers  as  a 
novekst  appears  in  the  second  series  of  'Hours 
in  a  Library,'  in  which  the  Author,  Leslie 
Stephen,  laments  "the  degradation  of  a  prom- 
ising novriist  into  a  prime  minister.* 

D.  S.  Douglas. 
BEACONSFIELD,  Africa,  town  of  Cape 
Colony,  in  Griqualand  West,  formerly  known 
as  Du  Toit's  Pan.  It  lies  a  little  to  tbe  east  of 
Kimberlc];,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  tram- 
way, and  is,  like  it,  an  upgrowth  of  the  cQamond 
fields.  It  is  well  supplied  with  churches,  schools 
and  hotels.    Pop.  14.294. 

BEACONSFIELD,  England,  market-town 
in  Bucldngfaam shire,  24  miles  west  by  north  of 
London.  It  is  situated  on  higfa  ground,  and  its 
name  is  supposed  to  have  ori^nated  from  a 
beacon  once  set  up  there.  The  remains  of 
Edmund  Burke,  who  resided  at  Gregories  in 
this  parish,  are  deposited  in  the  parish  church; 
and  the  churchyard  contains  a  monument  in 
honor  of  the  poet  Waller,  to  whom  the  manor 
belon^d,  as  it  still  does  to  his  descendants.  It 
gave  Its  name  to  the  title  of  Benjamin  Disraeli, 
Earl  of  Beaconsfield.    Pop^  2,511. 

BSADLE.  (1)  An  officer  in  an  EngUsh 
university,  whose  chief  duty  is  to  walk  with 
a  mace  in  a  public  procession.  The  University 
of  Oxford  hu  four  and  Cambridge  two  beadles 
<or  bedels),  those  in  the  former  being  attached 
to  each  of  the  faculties  of  law,  medicine,  arts 
and  divinity.  (2)  An  inferior  parish  officer, 
whosi  business  is  generally  to  execute  the  or- 
ders of  tbe  vestry,  by  wbom  he  is  appointed 
These  parochial  beadles  were  originally  officers 
given  to  the  rural  deans  to  cite  the  clergy  and 
church-ofEcers  to  visitations,  and  for  other 
purposes.  In  some  parts  of  Great  Britain 
beadles  act  as  town  cners. 

BEADS,  small  perforated  ornaments,  gm- 
ersJly  of  a  round  shape  and  made  of  glass,  but 
also  of  gold  silver  and  other  metals,  paste, 
coral,  gems,  etc.  The  use  of  tbem  as  ornaments 
t)el<Higs  to  very  early  times,  and  this  use;  Still 
continued,  has  made  them  an  important  article 
of  trade  with  aavaKc  tribes-  Glass  beads  are 
supposed  to  have  been  manufactured  tv  tbe 
"' '-' re  than  3,000  years  B.C.     Beads 


have  been  found  in  the  ruins  of  Assyrian 
temples,  also  as  decorations  of  Egyptian  mum- 
mies, and  in  the  graves  of  the  ancient  Greeks, 
Komans  and  Britons.  The  manufacture  of  glass 
beads  was  introduced  into  modern  Europe  by 
the  Italians,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Venice 
it  is  still  an  important  branch  of  industry.  On 
the  island  of  Murano  alone  several  thousand 
workmen  are  employed  in  this  manufacture. 
Birmingham  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  manufac- 
ture of  beads  in  Great  Britain.  For  their  use 
in  religion  see  RoSABV. 

BEAGLE,  a  small  hunting  dog;  in  general 
appearance  a  diminutive  fox  hound,  solidiv 
bmit,  well  set  upon  straight  fore  legs,  with 
plenty  of  bone  in  proportion  to  its  size,  good 
hard  feet  and  a  broad  deep  chest  with  ample 
lung  capacity.  It  is  of  good  disposition,  and 
clever  and  mdustrious  in  the  field  In  color 
and  marking  it  much  resembles  the  fox  hound 
black,  white  and  tan  being  the  more  common 
colors,  and  these  in  more  or  less  solid  or  pied 
masses.  In  its  original  hom^  Great  Britain, 
there  are  both  rough  and  smooth  varieties,  but 
the  typical  American  beagle  is  smooth-haired 
Beagles  vary  in  height  from  12  to  IS  inches, 
and  while  excellent  trackers  are  not  so  fast  but 
that  thev  can  be  fallowed  on  foot,  a  very  com* 
mon  SDort  in  Great  Britain.  Their  voices  are 
exceedingly  musical  and  justify  the  name  some- 
times given  them  of  'buglers.*  They  are  prin- 
cipally used  for  rabbit-hunting.  In  former 
times  a  very  diminutive  breed  was  in  favor, 
according  to  one  authority,  no  larger  than  well- 
grown  kittens  —  so  small,  m  fact,  that  it  is  said 
a  whole  pack  could  be  carried  afield  in  a  pair 
of  panniers  slung  across  a  pony's  back. 


veys  of  the  coast  of  Pat^^nia  and  odier  SouUi 
American  shores  and  waters,  and  later  making 
a  voyage  around  the  world  The  expedition, 
which  started  from  Plymouth  27  Dec  1831  and 
returned  2  Oct.  1836,  had  for  its  naturalist  the 
famous  Charles  Darwin.  It  was  on  board  the 
Baagle    that   'the    theory    of    evolution    orig- 

BEAGLE  ISLAND,  an  island  discovered 
bv  Admiral  Fitzroy  during  a  voyage  in  H.  M.  S. 
BiagU.  The  channel  of  the  same  name  is  on 
the  south  side  of  the  island  of  Tierra  del  Fuego. 

BEAK,  or  BILL,  the  projecting  jaws  or 
snout  of  a  bird  or  other  animal,  when  prolonged 
into  an  instrument  for  seizing  or  penetrating 
cAjects,  and  formed  of  hard  materials,  as  bone, 
or  covered  with  a  rigid  envelope,  as  of  horn 
or  chitin.  It  is  most  characteristic  of  birds, 
where  ft  is  called  "bill*  or  *neb,*  and  forms 
the  principal  means  for  obtaining,  as  well  as 
devouring  food  (except  in  most  birda  of  prey), 
and  where  it  takes  on  a  great  variety  of  shapes 
and  characteristics  adapted  to  special  habits  and 
purposes  (see  Butits).  A  more  or  less  similar 
prolongation  of  mouth-partx  occurs  in  many 
other  animals,  however,  and  receives  a  similar 
name.  Among  mammals,  the  ducUiill  (q.v.)  is 
a  conspicuous  example  of  a  true  mammal  with 
the  lips  formed  into  a  homy  bill  much  like  that 
of  a  duck,  and  similarly  used.  The  turtles  have 
homy,  projecting  parrot-like  jaws  of  the  same 
sort;  and  a  curious  imitation  of  this  occurs 
among  cephalopod  moUusks.    The  prolonged 


Google 


BEAL  — BKALE 


jaws  of  various  fishes,  as  of  gnrs  (*billfish*), 
sturgeons,  etc.,  receive  the  term  (techniealiy 
roitrum),  and  these  are  often  bird-like,  as  in 
the  case  of  Che  spoon-billEd  catfish.  The  term 
is  also  borrowed  by  entomologists  to  describe 
the  elongated  mouth-parts  of  many  insects,  such 
as  blood-sucking  flies,  juice-sucking  plant-bugs, 
weevils  and  other  forms.  The  prolonged  tubu- 
lar or  trou^-like  parti  (canals)  of  many  gas- 
tropod shells  protecting  the  siphon,  and  the 
prominent  umbos  of  such  bivalve  shells  as  the 
cockles,  clams  and  fresh-water  mussels,  are  also 
termed  'beaks,* 

BEAL,  bel,  George  Lsfayette,  American 
militarv  officer;  b,  Norway,  Me,,  21  May  1825; 
d.  11  Dec.  1896,  When  the  Civil  War  broke  out 
he  was  captain  of  the  Norway  light,  infantry, 
and  witli  this  company  was  mustered  into  the 
1st  Maine  regiment  for  the  three  months'  cam- 
paigii.  At  the  end  of  this  service  he  was  com- 
missioned colonel  of  the  I9th  Maine  infantry, 
which  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Cedar  Moun- 
tain and  Antietam  and  covered  the  retreat  of 
General  Banks  from  Winchester  to  Williams- 
port,  Va.  He  was  mustered  out  with  his  regi- 
ment in  May  1863 ;  volunteered  again ;  was 
made  colonel  of  the  29th  Maine,  and  promoted 
to  brigadier- general  of  volunteers  30  Nov.  1864, 
for  his  services  in  the  Red  River  campaign.  On 
15  Jan.  1866  he  was  mustered  out  of  service 
with  the  brevet  of  maior-general  of  volunteers. 
In  1680-85  he  was  adjutant-general  of  Maine, 
and  1888-94  State  treasurer. 

BEAL,  Samuel,  English  Orientalist:  h. 
Devonport.  27  Nov-  1825;  d.  20  Aug.  1889.  He 
was  graduated  from  Trinity  C''llege,  Cambridge, 
in  1847,  was  head  master  of  Bramham  College 
from  1848  to  1650,  and  ordained  priest  in  1852. 
He  entered  the  navy,  acting  as  chaplain  and 
naval  instructor  between  1852  and  1877,  when 
he  retired.  He  served  in  the  China  War.  1856- 
58.  On  bis  retirement  he  was  elected  professor 
of  Qiinese  at  University  College,  London,  a 
post  he  held  tilt  his  death.  His  principal  work 
consisted  in  tracing  the  early  history  of 
Buddhism  in  ori^al  Chinese  records.  He 
published  'Fah-Hian  and  Sung-Yun,  Buddhist 
Pilgrims  from  China  to  India,  400  A.D.-5I8* 
(1669);  'A  CJitena  of  Buddhist  Scriptures' 
<1871)i'TheLegendof  SakyaBuddha>  hS!S)i 
'Abstract  of  Four  Lectures  on  Buddhist  Litera- 
ture in  China'  (1882);  'Si-Yu-Ki;  or  Buddhist 
Records  of  the  Western  World'  (tratislatcd 
from  the  Chinese  of  Hiuen  Tsiang,  1885),  and 
several  other  books. 

BEAL,  WUliara  Junes,  American  botanist : ' 
b.  Adrian,  Mich.,  U  March  1833.  He  was 
graduated  A.B.  at  the  University  of  Michigan 
in  1859;  A.M.,  1862;  SB.,  Harvard.  1865; 
M.S.,  University  of  Chicago,  1^5;  (hon. 
Ph.D„  University  of  Michigan  1880;  D.Sc, 
Michigan  State  Agricultural  College,  1905). 
Teacher  natural  science.  Friends'  Academy 
and  Howland  Institute,  Union  Springs,  N.  Y., 
1859-68;  professor  of  botany,  University  of 
Chicago,  1868-70;  lecturer  on  botany,  1871; 
professor  of  botany  and  horticulture,  1871-81 ; 
professor  oC  botany  and  forestry  and  cu- 
rator of  botanical  museum,  18^!-) 903;  pro- 
fessor of  botany,  I903"10 ;  since  ementus 
professor,  Michigan  State  Agricultural  Col- 
lege ;  director  State  Forestry  Commission, 
ial8-92.     First  president  Society  for  the  Pro- 


motion of  ^nculturai  Sdence,  1881-82;  Asso- 
ciation Botanists  of  United  States  Experiment 
Stations,  1888;  first  president  Michigan  Stale 
Academy  Science,  1894 ;  president  Michigan 
State  Teachers'  Association,  1881 ;  member 
Botanical  Society  of  America;  American 
Pomology  Society;  fellow  of  the  American  As- 
sociation for  the  Advancement  of  Scienct. 
He  published  'The  New  Botany'  (1881); 
'Grasses   of  North  America'    (Vol.    " 


BBALE,  Dorothea,  English  teacher:  b 
London,  21  March  1831;  d.  9  Nov.  1906.  Sht 
became  mathematical  tutor  in  Queen's  Coll^ 
in  1849  and  later  Latin  tutor  in  the  school; 
and  head  teacher  in  the  Clergy  Daughtcis' 
School,  Casterton,  in  1857.  In  1858  she  was 
appointed  principal  of  Cheltenham  Ladies'  Col- 
leg^  the  first  proprietary  girls'  school  in  Eng- 
lanct  founded  four  years  earlier  on  a  capital 
of  $10,000.  When  she  took  up  office  there  wen 
59  pupils;  in  1912  ihere  vrere  1,000,  with  12Q 
teachers.  During  ber  term  $800,000  had  been 
spent  on  buildings,  and  at  the  close  the  a.a- 
nual  income  was  $300,000.  Her  life  was  given 
to  ihe  coUeee^to  which  she  bequeathed  the 
residue  of  her  esUte,  amounting  to  $250,000 
—  and  she  was  a  pioneer  in  the  higher  educa- 
tion   of    women.      Her    publications     include 


Girls'  Schools,*  etc. 

BBALE,  Edward  FitiKerald,  Americas 
dipkMnatist;  b.  Washington,  D.  C.  4  Feb.  1822; 
d.  22  April  1893:  graduated  at  the  United 
Sutes  Naval  Academy  18*2  and"  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Mexican  War  was  ass^ed  to  duty 
in  California  imdcr  Commodore  Stockton.  Af- 
ter the  war  he  resigned  his  naval  commission 
and  was  appointed  superintendent  of  Indian 
affairs  for  California  and  New  Mexico.  H( 
was  commissioned  brigadier-general  in  the 
anny  by  President  Pieree.  He  served  in  the 
Union  army  in  the  Civil  War  and  at  its  close 
engaged  in  stock-raising  in  L-os  Angeles,  CaL 
till  1676,  when  President  Grant  appointed  him 
United   Stales   Minister   to   Austria. 


March  1906.  He  was  the  son  of  Lionel  John 
Beale,  M.R.C.S.  He  was  educated  at  King's 
College    School    and   King's    College,    London. 


..  id  general  and  morbid  anatomy  ii 
lege,  London.  In  the  same  college  he  held  in 
succession  the  professorships  of  pathology  and 
of  the  principles  and  practice  of  medicine,  but 
in  1896  he  retired  from  the  latter  post.  He 
was  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  and  foi 
some  years  acted  as  treasurer  of  the  Roj-al 
Microscopical  Society.  His  published  worlr< 
deal  with  medical,  anatomical,  physiological  and 
biological  subjects,  the  microscope,  etc-  AniOTip 
the  most  important  are  'How  to  Work  with 
the  Microscope*;  'Protoplasm;  or.  Life,  Mat- 
ter and  Mind'  ;  'Life  and  Vital  Action  a 
Health  and  Disease' ;  'The  PhysiologicaJ 
Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Man'  (in  collab- 
oration with  Dr.  Todd  and  Sir  W.  Bow 


.Google 


BBALB— BEAN 


87T 


BBALB,  TnuctoD,  American  dipIoiDBt :  b. 
San  Francisco,  Cal.,  6  March  1856.  Graduat- 
ing from  Pennsylvania  Military  College  in 
W4,  he  studied  law  at  Columbia  University 
and  was  then  admitted  to  the  bar.  But  instead 
of  practising  law,  he  spent  the  next  13  years 
in  the  management  of  his  father's  ranch  in 
Cahfomia.  In  1891  he  was  sent  to  Persia  as 
United  States  Minister.  The  following  year 
he  was  sent  to  Serbia.  Rumania  and  Greece, 
where  he  acted  as  Minister  plenipotentiary. 
From  1894  to  1896  he  traveled  in  eastern  Asia, 
visiting  Chinese  Turkestan  and  Siberia.  He 
has  been  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  maga- 
zines on  international  questions.  He  is  the 
author  of  'The  Man  Versus  the  5tate>  (1916). 
BBALL,  John  Yonng,  Confederate  guer- 
rilla: b.  Vir^ma,  1  Jan.  1835;  d.  24  Feb.  186S. 
He  was  appomted  acting  master  in  the  Confed- 
erate naval  service  in  1863.  On  19  Sept  1864 
he  and  a  number  of  followers  took  passage  on 
the  Lake  Erie  steamer  Philo  Parsons  and  at  a 
^ven  signal  took  possession  of  the  vessel,  mak- 
mg  prisoners  of  the  crew.  They  also  scuttled 
anotter  boat,  the  Island  Queen,  and  tried  to 
wreck  a  railroad  train  near  Buftalo,  N.  Y.  In 
-spite  of  a  proclamation  of  Jefferson  Davis  as- 
suming responsilrility  for  tins  expedition,  Beall 
was  banged  on  Governor's  Island,  N.  Y.,  on 
the  ground  thai,  if  acting  under  orders,  he 
should  have  shown  some  badge  of  authority. 

BBAM,  in  architecture,  a  long,  straight  and 
strong  piece  of  wood,  iron  or  steel,  especially 
one  holding  an  important  place  in  some  struc- 
ture and  serving  for  support  or  consolidation; 
often  equivalent  to  girder  (q.v.).  In  a  balance 
it  is  tbe  part  from  ue  ends  of  which  the  scales 
are  suspended.  In  a  loom  it  is  a  cylindrical 
piece  of  wood  on  wtuch  weavers  wind  tbe 
warp  before  weaving;  also  the  cylinder  on. 
which  the  cloth  is  rolled  as  it  is  woven.  In 
shipbuilding,  one  of  several  strong  transverse 
pieces  of  timber  stretching  across  the  ship 
from  one  side  to  the  other,  to  support  the  decks 
and  retain  the  sides  at  their  proper  distance,* 
with  -which  they  are  firmly  connected  by  means 
of  strong  Icnees  and  sometimes  of  standards. 
They  are  sustained  at  each  end  by  thick  string- 
ers on  the  ship's  side  called  shelf-pieces.  The 
niain-beam  is  next  abaft  the  main-roast.     'The 


she  lies  entirely  on  her  side,  so  that  the  beams 
are  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  surface  of  the 
water.  An  object  is  said  to  be  "a-beam"  when 
it  is  in  a  line  with  the  beams  of  the  ship  and 
a.ccordingly  at  right  angles  to  its  length. 

BKAH  BNGINS.  See  Steau  Evant. 
"  BEAH-TREE,  White  {Pyrus  ario).  a 
European  and  Asiatic  tree  of  the  family  Mala' 
eta,  rarel}r  exceeding  50  feet  in  height,  often 
cultivated  in  dry  and  exposed  situations  for  its 
ornamental  leaves,  which  are  bright  dark-green 
above  and  light  beneath ;  and  for  its  lar^e  ter- 
minal coiymbs  of  flowers  which  appear  tn  late 
spring  followed  by  showy  orange-red  or  scar- 
let, acid  and  astringent  fruits  which  resemble 
tbose  of  the  service-berry  and  which  are  used 
to  make  a  kind  of  beer.    Its  hard,  fine-grained 


wood  is  made  Into  cog-wheels.  It  is  closely 
related  to-  the  mountain-ash  (q.v.). 

BEAN,  Nehemiah  S,,  American  inventor: 

b.  Gilmanton,  N.  H.,  1818;  d.  20  July  1896.  He 
learned  the  machinist's  trade,  and  in  the  winter 
of  I857-5S  built  his  first  steam  fire  enpne, 
which  he  named  the  Lawrence,  and  sold  it  to 
the  city  of  Boston.  In  1859  he  took  the  man- 
agement of  the  Amoskeag  Locotnotive  Works 
in  Manchester,  where  he  had  been  employed  in 
1847-50.  Dunn^  I8S9  he  built  the  "Araoskeag 
Steam  Fire  Engine  No.  1,'  the  first  of  a  class 
of  engines  which  now  is  used  everywhere. 

BEAN,  Tarleton  Hoffman,  American  ich- 
thyologist: b.  Bainbridge.  Pa.,  8  Oct.  1846, 
M-E,  State  Normal  School,  Millersville,  Pa., 
1866;  M,D.,  Columbian  (now  George  Washing- 
ton) University,  1876;  M.S.,  Indiana  University, 
1883.  He  was  curator  of  the  department  of 
fishes  United  States  National  Museum,  1880- 
95;  director  of  the  New  York  Aquarium,  1895- 
98;  and  subsequently  Slate  fish  culturistof  New 
York  from  1906.  He  was  editor  of  the  Pro- 
ceedings  and  Bulletins  of  the  United  States 
National  Museum.  Washington,  1878-86,  and 
of  the  'Report  and  Bulletin  of  the  United 
States  Fish  Commission,*  Washington,  188»- 
92;  was  assistant  in  charge  of  the  division  of 
fish  culture  in  the  United  States  Fish  Commis- 
sion, 1892-95;  acting  curator  of  fishes  at  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New 
York,  1897,  In  1893  he  represented  the  United 
States  Fish  Commission  at  the  World's  Colum- 
bian Exposition,  and  in  1895  at  the  Atlanta 
Exposition.  In  1899  he  was  appointed  director 
of  forestry  and  fisheries  of  the  United  States 
Commission  to  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1900, 
and  chief  of  the  departments  of  fish,  game  and 
forestry  at  the  Saint  Louis  Exposition,  1902- 
05.  He  was  made  chevalier,  Legion  of  Honor 
and  officer  of  Merite  Agricole,  France;  knight 
of  the  Imperial  Order  of  the  Red  Eagle,  Ger- 
many; Order  of  the  Rising  Sun,  Japan;  mem- 
ber of  the  American  Forestry  Association  and 
the  American  Fisheries  Society,  also  member 
of  the  Danish  Fisheries  Society,  and  the  Bio- 
logical Society  of  Washington.  His  publications 
include  'The  Fishes  of  Pennsylvania'  (1893)  ; 
'The  Salmon  and  Salmon  Fisheries' ;  'Oceanic 
Ichthyology'  (with  late  George  Brown  Goode) 
(1896) ;  'The  Fishes  of  Long  Island*  (1902) ; 
<The  White  World>  (part  author),  (1902) ; 
'The  Food  and  Game  Fishes  of  New  York' 
(1903) ;  'The  Basses,  Fresh-water  and  Marine> 
(part  author),  (1905);  'The  Fishes  of  Ber- 
muda* (1906).  He  also  contributed  articles 
to  Forest  and  Stream. 

BBAN,  a  plant  of  the  family  Fabacea,  or 
legumes.  Orinnally  the  smooth  kidney- shaped, 
flat-sided  seed  of  the  broad  bean,  Vicia  faba, 
it  is  now  applied  to  various  genera,  usually  with 
a  specific  epithet,  as  Lima  bean,  etc. 

The  broad  bean  (^Vicia  faba)  is  the  bean  of 
history.  Its  origin  is  doubtful,  but  it  is  prob-- 
ably  a  native  of  southwestern  Asia  and  north- 
ern Africa.  It  is  much  grown  in  Europe,  es- 
pecially in  England,  but  the  hot  dry  summers 
prevent  its  cultivation  in  most  parts  of  the 
United  States,  It  is  grown  successfully  in  the 
maritime  provinces  of  Canada,  and  in  other 
parts,  with  com  and  sunflowers,  to  make  ensi- 
lage.   It  is  an  annual  plant,  growing  from  two 


Google 


to  four  feet  hi^  erect,  with  thick  angular 
stems;  flowers  usua1l)[  white  with  black  on  the 
wings.  The  pods,  which  contain  the  thick  Bat- 
tened seeds,  vary  from  two  to  four  inches  up 
to  18  inches  lone.  The  common  varieties  are 
the  Broad  Windsor  and  Mazayati;  they  are 
quite  hardy  and  should  be  sown  early.  The 
soils  best  suited  are  heavy  loams  and  clays. 
The  sreen  seeds  are  eaten  as  a  vegetable,  or,  if 
allowed  to  mature,  are  ground  and  used  as 
feed  for  horses  and  cattle.  The  straw  is  fed 
to  cattle. 

The  kidney-bean  of  Europe  is  known  in  the 
United  States  as  the  bean,  Phtueolus  vulgaris; 
it  embraces  all  the  common  field,  garden,  snap 
and  string  beans,  both  bush  and  climbing.  The 
French  know  it  as  the  haricot.  It  is  probably 
a  native  of  South  America,  and  was  introduced 
into  Europe  during  the  16th  century.  Over  150 
varieties  are  in  cultivation;  the  growers  usually 
group  them  into  bush-  and  pole-beans.  The 
bush-beans  embrace  the  'field  beans*  grown  for 
dry  shelled  seeds,  also  the  green-podded  and 
yellow-podded  garden,  string  or  snap  beans. 
The  pole- beans  are  usually  grown  for  use 
while  green.  Bush-beans  do  well  on  a  good 
warm  loam.  The  yellow-podded  varieties  and 
pole- beans  require  a  richer  soil.  They  should 
not  be  planted  until  danger  from  frost  is 
over,  and  require  constant  cultivation  while 
growing.  Leading  field  varieties  are  white 
marrowfat,  navy  or  pea  bean,  medium  and  the 
kidneys :  in  string-beans,  early  Valentine,  string- 
less  green-pod,  refugee,  etc. :  in  yellow-podded 
beans,  black  wax,  golden  wax,  kidney  and 
white.  Consult  Bulletins  87  and  115,  Cornell 
Experiment  Station.  For  forcing  pole-beans 
under  glass,  see  Baileji's  'Forcing  Book' ;  Bulle- 
tin 62,  New  Hampshire  Experiment  Station. 

The  Lima  bean  (P.  lunalui)  is  the  most 
popular  pole-bean.  It  is  of  South  American 
ongin,  but  is  now  grown  in  various  parts  of 
this  country,  most  of  the  seed  being  raised  in 
California.  The  short,  flat,  slightly  kidney- 
shaped  seeds  arc  enveloped  in  flat,  broad  i>ods. 
The  soy-bean  (q.v.)  (.Glycine  hispida)  is  a 
bushy,  erect,  hairy  plant  which  bears  pea-like 
seeds  in  small  pods.  It  is  a  native  of  Chma  and 
Japan,  where  it  is  largely  grown.  It  is  used  for 
forage  and  soiling.  The  cowpea  (q.v.)  {Vigna 
catjang)  is  generally  used  for  forage,  soilmg, 
hay  and  green  manuring.  The  scarlet  runner 
(P.  muUijlora!)  is  a  perennial.  It  is  grown 
largely  for  ornament,  but  in  England  the  seeds 
and  pods  are  eaten  as  a  vegetable.  The  Adzuki 
bean  (P.  radialtts)  is  a  native  of  Japan,  and  a 
recent  introduction  in  America.  Consult  Bulle- 
tin 32,  Kansas  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 
The  frijole  (P,  spp)  is  grown  in  the  Southwest- 
em  States  and  in  Mexico,  where  it  is  a  staple 

Other  important  Oriental  beans,  but  not 
very  common  here,  are ;  Mun^faeans  (P. 
mitngo)  ;  various  species  of  Dolicbos,  as  the 
asparagus-bean  (D,  seiguipedalis) ;  and  the  lo- 
cust or  c&roh  bean  (Ceralonia  silitfua),  the 
pods  of  which  are  sold  by  confectioners  as 
Saint  John's  bread.  The  sweet  pulp  which  sur- 
rounds the  seed  is  eaten,  especially  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, The  pods  and  seeds  are  ground  and 
used  extensively  as  feed  for  cattle  and  other 
animals.  The  velvet-bean  (species  of  Mucmna) 
is  often  grown  for  an  ornament;  also  for  for- 


age and  soil  renovation  in  the  southern  States, 
It  ripens  seed  only  in  the  Gulf  States.  The 
beans  and  pods,  when  ground,  are  fed  to  cattit. 
The  cooked  green  beans  have  caused  illness  in 
those  who  have  eaten  them.  In  1899,  I5,0H 
acres  of  green  beans  were  grown,  yielding 
1,512,642  bushels,  or  an  average  of  100.8  bushels 
per  acre.  The  five  leading  States  in  bean  cul- 
tivation are  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Florida, 
California  and  Virj^nia. 

Uses  and  Feeding  Valnes.—  The  seeds  and 
sometimes  the  pods  are  used,  either  green  or 
dry,  as  food  for  man  and  animals.  Some  sfc- 
cies  are  grown  for  forage,  hay  or  green  manur- 
ing. Owing  to  their  nitrogen-gathering  pro- 
pensities they  all  aid  in  soil -re  novation. 

The  average  percentage  composition  is: 


II 


With  man,  on  qn  average,  90  per  cent  of  the 
diy  matter  is  digestible;  80  per  cent  of  die  pro- 
tein; 96  per  cent  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract; 
and  80  per  cent  of  the  ether  extract.  String- 
beans  or  green  shell  beans  are  usually  boiled 
and  served  in  various  wa^s.  In  composition 
they  compare  favorably  with  other  vegetables. 
Dry  beans  are  baked  with  salt  pork  or  beet 
and  used  for  soups  and  other  dishes.  They  art 
a  cheap,  nutritious  food,  rich  in  starch  and  in 
the  proteid,  legumin;  hence  they  may  be  used 
to  replace  meat  in  the  diet.  It  the  skins  are 
removed  they  are  easier  of  digestion  and  are 
not  so  liable  to  cause  flatulency ;  the  latter  is  due 
to  the  production  of  methane  hy  fermentation 
in  the  intestines.     Shell-  and  string-beans  are 

E reserved  by  evaporation  or  canning,  String- 
eans  are  also  preserved  with  salt.  Cooked  dry 
beans  are  canned.  Bean  flour  consists  of  beans 
ground.  Bean. meal  is  used  in  Europe  as  feed 
for  horses,  cattle  and  hogs.  Bean  cake  is^  the 
residue  after  the  oil  has  been  extracted;  it  i» 
fed  to  cattle  in  northern  China,  Bean  curd  is 
eaten  by  the  natives  of  northern  'China, 

Bean  DiKUea. —  Pod-rust ;  anthracnose 
(Collitofriehtim  lindemutkiattum),  a  funpis 
which  attacks  the  stems,  leaves  and  fruit  "I™ 
disease  may  be  carried  over  in  the  seed,  the 
affected  ones  being  recognized  by  the  yellow 
or  brown  discoloration,  A  black  discoloration 
with  ensuing  brittleness  marks  the  progress  of 
the  disease  on  the  leaves.  The  selection  o( 
sound  seed,  immediate  removal  of  infected 
plants  and  spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixiure 
are  recommended.  The  bean-rust  (Udomycts 
bhajeoli)  appears  as  small  brown,  nearly  circu- 
lar and  slightly  elevated  dots  on  the  leaves. 
These  discharge  a  brown  powder,  the  spores 
of  the  disease.  Spraying  with  Bordeaii%  nur- 
ture is  recommended.  Blight  (PfcytoP*"""' 
phaseoli)  attacks  the  Lima  bean,  SprajTpB 
with  copper  compound  is  recommended.  The 
bean-weevil  (Bruckus  obtectus)  may  injure  tne 
beans  when  stored.  After  harvesting,  treat  the 
seed  two  or  three  times,  at  intervals  of  three  or 
four  weeks,  with  carbon  tnsulplilde. 


Google 


BEAN — BBABBBRR Y 


379 


Consult  Dc  Candoll^^NativityoftlKBcMi': 
Gray  and  Trumbull,  "Origin  of  Cultivated 
Plants,"  American  Journal  of  Sdence,  XXVI, 
130;  Bailey,  'Standard  Cyclop«dia  of  Horti- 
culture.' 


BBAN-GOOSB  (Atuer  segelum),  a  spe- 
cies of  European  wild  goose,  distinguished  from 
the  true  wild  goose  JA.  ferus)  by  its  com- 
paratively small  and  sbort  bill,  which,  as  far 
as  the  nostril,  is  black,  and  above  it  of  a  reddish 
flesh  color,  whereas  that  of  the  gray  lag,  or 
true  wild  goose,  is  orange-red,  with  a  touch  of 
grayish- white.  They  feed  generally  on  high 
grounds,  considerably  inland,  selectioK  particu- 
larly young  wheat,  stubbles  sown  down  for 
grass,  and,  in  spring,  fields  sown  with  beans, 
their  fondness  for  which  is  supposed  to  have 
given  them  their  name.  They  breed  chiefly 
within  the  Arctic  Circle,  but  their  nests  arc 
often  found  in  large  numbers  in  the  Hebrides. 
The  beaa-goose  bang  rather  less  in  size  than 
the  common  wild  goose,  but  having  the  same 
color,  is  sometimes  provincially  called  the  small 
gray  goose. 

BEAN  WEEVIL,  a  beetle,  Brunckiu  ob- 
Itctus,  which  is  smaller  than  the  pca-weeviL 
measuring  .15  of  an  inch  in  length.  Compared 
with  that  insect  it  is  lighter  and  more  uni- 
fonn  in  color,  being  of  a  lawny  gray,  with- 
out the  white  spots  so  conspicuous  in  B.  pisi. 
The  uniform  tawny  gray  elytra  are  spotted 
with  a  few  oblong  dark  spots,  situated  be- 
tween the  slria^  the  antemue  also  differ  in 
having  the  four  basil  joints  more  reddish  than 
in  B,  piii,  while  the  terminal  joint  is  red.  The 
legs  also  arc  much  redder.  The  eggs  are  laid 
on  the  outside  of  &e  bean;  the  young  hatch 
and  bore  in,  and  there  may  be  eight  or  10  grubs 
in  a  single  bean.  The  chrysalis  lies  in  a  cavity 
in  the  bean  just  large  enough  to  receive  its 
body.  The  b^  remedy  is  carefully  to  examine 
the  beans  in  the  autumn  and  before  sowing 
time,  when  the  presence  of  the  weevil  can  be 
easily  detected  by  the  transparent  spots  made 
by  the  larva.  These  should  be  burned  and  such 
beans  as  are  apparently  uninjured  should  be 
soaked  for  a  minute  in  boiling-hot  water,  so 
thai  no  beetles  be  overlooked. 

BEAR,  or  Here,  a  species  of  barley  (q.v.). 

BEAR  FLAG  WAR,  a  rising  against  the 
Mexican  government  in  1846,  by  a  small  body 
of  emijfrants  from  the  United  States  who  had 
settled  in  California,  thought  to  have  been  in- 
cited by  Capt.  John  C.  Frftnont  (q.v.).  He  was 
then  commanding  a  small  detachment  of  Ameri- 
canlroops  in  California  and  a  few  Americans 
having  proclaimed  a  repubUc  in  Sonoma  and 
raised  a  flag  on  which  was  a  figure  of  a  bear, 
FVetnont  joined  the  insurgents  with  his  troops. 
The  Mexican  War  began  m  the  following  Ju^ 
Md  the  Bear  Fls^  War  then  became  a  part  of 
the  American  siiieme  for  the  conquest  of 
California. 

BEAR  ISLAND.  An  arctic  island  in 
Barents  Sea,  about  200  miles  north -northwest 
of  North  Cape,  Norway,  discovered  by  Barents 
(1596).  Deserted  with  the  decadence  of 
whaling,  it  now  becomes  a  land  of  economic 
importance.     Extensive  deposits  of  low-grade 


coal,  easily  miaed,  have  been  found,  the  strata 
of  the  north  coast  being  some  six  feet  thick, 
The  development  of  the  industry  has  been 
commenced  (^  a  Norwegian  corporation,  which 
maintains  a  permanent  colony,  with  additions 
in  summer.  A  wireless  station  is  under  installa- 
tion, and  the  constniction  of  port  faulities  is 
planned. 

BEAR  LAKE,  Great,  a  body  of  water  in 
Canada,  so  named  on  account  of  its  situation 
directly  under  the  Arctic  Grde,  and  therefore 
under  the  constellation  Ursa  Major.  It  is  of 
very  irregular  shape,  having  Ave  arms  project- 
ini(  out  of  the  main  bo^,  and  its  greatest 
diameter  is  150  miles.  The  principal  supply  of 
the  lake  is  Dease  River,  which  enters  it  from 
the  northeast  Its  outlet  is  on  its  southwestern 
extremity,  at  the  bottom  of  Keith  Bay,  through 
Bear  Lake  River,  which  empties  into  Mackenzie 
River.  The  surface  of  Bear  Lake  is  not  more 
than  200  feet  above  the  Arctic  Ocean;  conse- 
quentty  its  bottom  must,  like  many  of  the  north- 
western lakes,  lie  considerably  below  the  level 
of  the  sea.  Great  Bear  Lake  abounds  in  fish 
of  man;^  varieties,  among  which  the  herring- 
salmon  is  noted.  The  second  land  expedition, 
under  Franklin,  in  1825,  wintered  on  the  western 
shore  of  this  lake,  near  its  outlet,  where  they 
built  Fort  Franklin.  Dr.  Richardson,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  expedition,  mentions  a  curious  cir- 
cumstance concerning  the  singing  of  birds  of 
this  lake,  that  when  they  first  appeared  after 
the  long  Arctic  winter  they  serenaded  their 
mates  at  midnight,  and  were  silent  during  the 
day.  The  waiers  of  the  lake  are  so  clear  that 
a  white  substance  can  be  distinctly  discerned  at 
the  depth  of  90  feet  The  lake  is  situated  about 
250  miles  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  about 
the  same  distance  south  of  the  Arctic  Sea  and 
400  miles  northwest  of  Slave  Lake.  It  is  the 
basin    of    a    water-shed    of    about    400   miles 

BEAR  MOUNTAIN,  the  des^ation  of  a 
hiil  some  750  feet  in  height,  situated  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  Daupoin  County,  Pa.  In 
its  vicinity  are  valuable  deposits  of  anthracite 

BEAR  RIVER,  a  river  in  Utah  about  400 
miles  long,  which  rises  in  a  spur  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  about  75  miles  east  of  Great  Salt 
Lake,  takes  flrst  a  northwesterly  and  then  a 
southeasterly  direction,  formbg  nearly  a  letter 
V,  of  which  more  than  half  the  entire  length 
is  in  Oregon  Stale,  and  finally  empties  into 
the  Great  Salt  Lake.  Its  valley  is  about  6,000 
feet  above  the  sea-!evel.  At  the  bend  of  the 
river  in  Oregon,  and  about  45  miles  from  Lewis 
River,  are  found  the  famous  Beer  and  Steam- 
boat springs,  which  are  highly  impregnated  with 
magnesia  and  other  mineral  substances;  also 
a  geological  formation  in  the  vicinity,  of  Lower 
Cretaceous  (q.v.)  age,  which  carries  some  coal. 


BEARBERRY,  the  name  ai^lied  to  the 
species  of  Aretostapkylos,  a  genus  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  family  Ericaeem.  It  includes 
the  two  species,  A.  uva-urti  and  A.  alpina,  both 
of  which  are  American.  The  flowers  are  rose- 
colored,  the  berry  of  the  uva-urti  is  red.  while 
that  of  the  other  is  black.  The  mansanita  of 
California  is  A.  mantamta  ox  A.  p»ngetu.     I{ 


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reaches  a  heigbl  of  30  feel,  and  forms  dense 
thickets,  impenetrable  by  man  or  cattle.  By 
reason  of  an  active  glycoside,  arbutin,  bearberry 
is  a  very  efficient  unnary  antiseptic,  useful  in 
cystitis,  pyelitis  and  urethritis.  The  arbutin  is 
decomposed  in  the  urine  into  hydrochinon  and 
other  bodies.  Its  antiseptic  properties  are  due 
to  the  phenol  hydrochinon.  The  extract  of  the 
plant  is  used  for  dyeing  and  tanning  leather. 

BEARD,  Daniel  Carter,  American  artist 
and  author :  b.  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  21  June  1850. 
He  received  his  academic  education  at  Coving- 
ton, Ky.,  and  went  to  New  York  in  1878.  He 
studied  at  the  Art  Students'  League,  New  York, 
1880-84;  and  made  illustrations  for  Harper/, 
Century,  Scribner's,  Life,  books  (of  which  the 
most  notable  is  Mark  Twain's  'Connecticut 
Yankee'),  etc.  He  was  originator  and  in' 
structor  of  the  pioneer  class  in  illustration  and 
teacher  of  animal  drawing  in  the  Woman's 
School  of  Applied  Design,  1893-1900,  believed 
to  be  the  first  organized  class  in  animal  drawing 
in  the  world  He  was  editor  of  Recreation, 
1905-06;  became  a  member  of  ihe  Flushing 
board  of  education  and  of  the  Queens  Borou^ 
library  board;  vice-president  of  the  Mark  Twain 
Library,  of  Redding,  Conn. ;  member  of  several 
zoological  societies;  president  of  the  Society  of 
Illustrators ;  president  of  the  Cam^  Fire  Club 
of  America;  national  scout  commissioner  of  the 
Boy  Scouts  of  America.  An  enthusiast  in  out- 
door life  he  was  the  originator  and  founder  of 
the  first  boy  scout  society,  from  which  the 
English  scouts  and  others  were  modeled,  and  be- 
came chief  scout  of  the  department  of  wood- 
craft. Culver  (Ind.)  Military  Academy.  Mount 
Beard,  the  peak  adjoining  Mount  McKinley, 
discovered  by  the  Browne  and  Parker  expedi- 
tion, was  named  after  him.  He  also  founded 
the  Dan  Beard  Outdoor  Scout  School,  with 
headquarters  at  Flushing,  L.  I.  Besides  his 
illustrative  work  he  has  pubhshed  'Ameri- 
can Boys'  Handy  Book'  (1882)  ;  'Moonlight 
and  Six  Feet  of  Romance*  (1890);  'Outdoor 
Handy  Book'  (1900);  'Jack  of  All  Trades' 
(1900)  ;  'Field  and  Forest  Handy  Book' 
(1906);  'New  Ideas  for  Out  of  Doors'  (1906); 
'Dan  Beard's  Animal  Book'  (190?);  'Boy 
Pioneers  and  Sons  of  Daniel  Boone'  (1909); 
'The  Buckskin  Book  and  Buckskin  Calendar' 
(1911);  'Boat  Building  and  Boating'  (1911); 
'Shelters,  Shacks  and  Shanties'  (1914); 
'Handicraft  and  Recreation  for  Giris' ;  'What 
a  Girl  Can  Make  and  Do';  'The  American 
Girls'  Handy  Book'  ;  'Things  Worth  Doing 
and  How  to  Do  Them.' 

BEAKD,  James  Henry,  American  painter: 
b.  Buffalo,  N.  Y..  1814;  i  4  April  1893.  He 
became  a  portrait  painter  in  Cincinnati,  and 
tainted  portraits  of  Henry  Clay  and  odier  dis- 
tinguished men.  In  1846  he  exhibited  his  'Caro- 
lina Emigrants'  at  the  National.  Academy  in 
New  York,  of  which  he  was  elected  an  honorary 
member  in  1848.  In  1870  he  removed  to  New 
York,  and  in  1872  was  elected  a  full  member 
■  of  the  National  Academy.  Subsequently  he 
devoted  himself  to  animal  painting.  Among  his 
better  known  works  are  '  Mutual  Friend' 
(1875);  'Consultation'  (1877);  'Blood  Will 
Tell'  (1877)  ;  'Don  Quijcote  and  Sancho  Pania' 
(1878);  'Heirs  at  Law'  (1880);  'Which  Has 
Pre-emption?'  (1881);  'Detected  Poacher> 
(1884);    'Don't  You  Come  Here'    and   'The 


Mississippi  Flood'  (I88S);  'A  Barnyard'  and 
''Li  Yer  Gimme  Some?   Say!'  (1886). 

BEARD,  Richard,  American  theologian:  h. 
Sumner  County,  Tenn.,  27  Nov.  1799;  d.  Leb- 
anon, Tenn.,  2  Dec  1860.  He  was  graduated 
from  Cumberland  College,  Princeton,  Ky.,  in 
1832;  was  professor  of  languages  there,  1832- 
38;  president  1843-53.  In  1854  he  was  called  to 
the  chair  of  systematic  theology  in  Cumberland 
University,  Lebanon,  Tenn.,  a  position  held  un- 
til his  death.  He  was  one  of  the  ablest  scholars 
and  most  conspicuous  figures  in  the  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  Church.  He  published  'Why  I 
Am  a  Cumberland  Presbyterian'  (1874);  'Sys- 
tematic Theolo^,'  a  standard  work  regarded 
as  the  crystalfiiation  of  the  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  form  of  thought  and  faith. 

BEARD,  Thomas  Franda,  commonly 
known  as  Fbamk  Beabd,  American  artist:  b. 
Cincinnati,  6  Feb,  1842;  d.  1905.  During  die 
Civil  War  he  served  in  the  7th  Ohio  regiment, 
and  acted  as  a  special  artist  for  the  Harper 
publications.  As  an  artist  he  devoted  himself 
especially  to  character  sketches.  From  the  age 
of  12  he  contributed  pictures  to  the  leading 
American  magazines.  As  a  lecturer  he  had 
great  success  before  Chautauqua  and  other 
audiences.  He  accompanied  his  talks  by  crayon 
sketches  on  a  blackboard.  The  title  of  his  hnt 
lecture  was  'Chalk-Talk,'  whence  die  word 
originated.     In   1881   he  occupied  the  chair  of 

tnetics  at  Syracuse  University.    He  published 

-----  ,...«.  .  .f    /.ooj,. 


BEARD,  WiUiam  Holbrook,  American 
painter:  b.  Paincsville,  Ohio,  13  April  1825;  d 
New  York,  20  Feb.  1900;  brother  of  James  H. 
Beard.  He  was  a  traveUng  portrait  painter 
from  1846  till  1851,  when  he  settled  m  BufFaki. 
N.  Y.  After  several  years  of  foreign  study 
and  travel  he  settled  in  New  York  in  186a  In 
1862  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy.  His  works  include  genre  and  alle- 
gorical pictures,  but  he  was  most  popular  in 
painting  animals,  especially  bearj,  whose  ac- 
tions he  humanized  in  a  satirical  and  pleasing 
manner.  He  made  many  studies  of  decorative 
architecture.  Among  his  most  popular  works 
are  'Power  of  Death'  (1859);  'Bears  on  a 
Bender'  (1862);  'Bear  Dance'  (1865);  "March 
of  Silenus'  (1866)  ;  'Flaw  in  the  Title'  (1867) ; 
'Darwin  Expounding  his  Theories'  and  'Run- 
away Match'  (1876)  ;  'Divorce  Court'  (1877) ; 
'Bulls  and  Bears  in  Wall  Street'  (1879); 
'Voices  of  the  Night'  (1880)  ;  'Spreading  the 
Alarm'  (1881);  'In  the  Glen'  (1882);  'Cattle 
Upon  a  Thousand  Hills'  (1883);  'UTio's 
Afraid?'  (1884);  'His  Majesty  Receives'  and 
'Office  Seekers'  (1886).  etc  He  published 
"Humor  in  Animals,'  a  collection  of  his 
sketches   (1885), 


BEARD,  the  hair  on  the  chin,  cheeks  and 
upper  lip  of  men.  It  differs  from  the  hair  on 
the  head  by  its  greater  hardness  and  its  form.' 
The  beard  begins  to  grow  at  the  time  of  pu- 
berty. The  connection  between  the  beard  and 
puberty  is  evident  from  this,  among  other  cir- 
cumstances, that  It  never  grows  in  the  case  of 
eunuchs  who  have  been  such  from  childhood; 
but  the  castration  of  adults  does  not  cause  tbt 
loss  of  the  beard.  According  to  Casar,  tht 
Germans  thought,  and  perhaps  justly,  the  law 


BXARD  —  BRARDSLBY 


881 


gro>yth  of  the  beard  favorable  to  the  (leveto|>- 
ment  of  all  the  powera.  But  there  are  cases  id 
which  this  circumstance  is  an  indication  of 
feebleness.  It  frequently  takes  place  in  men 
of  tender  constitution,  whose  pale  color  indi- 
cates little  power.  The  beards  of  different 
nations  afiord  an  interesting  stu^.  Souk  have 
hardly  any,  others  a  great  profusion.  The  lat- 
ter generally  consider  it  as  a  great  ornament ; 
the  former  pluck  it  out;  as,  for  instance,  the 
American  Indians,  The  character  of  the  beard 
differs  with  that  of  the  individual,  and,  in  the 
case  of  nations,  varies  with  the  climate  food, 
etc.  Thus  the  beard  is  generally  dark,  dry, 
hard  and  thin  in  irritable  persons  of  full  age; 
the  same  is  the  case  with  the  inhabitants  of  hot 
and  dry  countries,  as  the  Arabians,  Ethiopians, 
East  Indians,  Italians,  Spaniards.  But  persons 
of  very  mild  disposition  have  a  light-colored, 
thick  and  slightly  curling  beard;  Ue  same  is 
the  case  with  inhabitants  of  cold  and  humid 
countries,  as  Holland,  Britain,  Sweden.  The 
difference  of  circumstances  causes  all  shades 
o£  variety.  The  nature  of  the  nourishment 
likewise  causes  a  ^eat  variety  in  the  beard. 
Wholesome,  nutritious  and  digestible  food 
makes  the  beard  soft ;  but  poor,  dry  and  in- 
digestible food  renders  it  hard  and  bristly. 

In  general  the  beard  has  been  considered 
with  all  nations  as  an  ornament  and  often  as 
3  mark  of  the  sage  and  the  priest.  Moses  for- 
bade the  Jews  to  shave  their  beards.  With 
the  ancient  Germans  the  cutting  off  another's 
beard  was  a  high  offense :  with  the  East  In- 
dians it  is  severely  punished.  Even  now  the 
beard  is  regarded  as  a  mark  of  great  dignity 
among  many  nations  in  the  East,  as  the  Turks. 
The  custom  of  shaving  is  said  to  have  come 
into  use  in  modem  limes  during  the  reigns  of 
Louis  XIII  and  XIV  of  France,  both  of  whom 
ascended  the  throne  without  a  beard.  Courtiers 
and  inhabitants  of  cities  then  began  to  shave, 
in  order  to  look  like  the  king,  and  as  France 
soon  took  the  lead  in  all  matters  of  fashion  on 
the  Continent  of  Europe,  shaving  became  gen- 
eral ;  but  it  was  only  from  the  beginning  of  the 
18lh  century  that  shaving  off  the  whole  beard 


The  English  clergy  by  and  by,  probably  in 
imitation  or  those  ofwestern  Europe,  began  to 
shave  the  beard  and  until  the  time  of  William 
the  Norman,  the  whole  of  whose  army  shaved 
the  bear<L  there  prevailed  a  bearded  class  and  a 
shaven  class,  in  short,  a  lauy  and  a  clergy,  in 
England.  In  forbidding  the  clergy  to  wear 
beards  Gregory  Vll  (1084)  appealed  to  the 
custom  of  antiquity.  The  higner  classes  in- 
dulged in  the  moustache,  or  the  entire  beard, 
from  the  rngn  of  Edward  III  down  to  the 
17th  century.  The  beard  then  gradually  de- 
dined  and  the  court  of  Charles  I  was  the  last 
in  which  even  a  small  one  was  cherished. 
Shaving,  amongf  many  ancient  nations,  was  the 
mark  of  mourning;  with  others  it  was  (he  con- 
trary. Plutarch  says  that  Alexander  introduced 
shaving  among  the  Greeks  bv  ordering  his  sol- 
diers to  cut  otf  their  bearos;  but  it  appears 
that  this  custom  had  prevailed  before  among 
the  Macedonians.  The  Romans  began  to  shave 
about  296  B.C.  when  a  certain  Ticinius  Uena,  a 
barber  from  Sicily,  introduced  this  fashion, 
Scipio  Africanus  was  the  first  who  shaved  ev- 
ery day.  The  day  that  a  young  man  first 
shaved  was  celebrated  and  the  first  hair  cut  oS 


was  sacrificed  to  a  deity.  Hadrian,  in  order 
to  cover  some  large  warts  on  his  chin,  renewed 
the  fashion  of  long  beards;  but  it  did  not  last 
long.  In  mourning  the  Romans  wore  a  long 
beard,  sometimes  for  years.  They  used  scis- 
sors, razors,  tweezers,  etc,  to  remove  the 
beard.  The  public  barbers'  shops  {lonstrina), 
where  the  lower  classes  went,  were  much  re- 
sorted to;  rich  people  kept  a  shaver  (tonsor) 
among  their  slaves.  Army  regulations  gener- 
ally prohibit  the  wearing  of  beards^  wlule  in 
the  navy  beards  are  permitted.  Physicians  sug- 
gest that  the  heard  should  be  suffered  to  grow 
on  the  chin  and  throat  where  tendencies  to 
throat  disease  exist. 


.  _.  _t  rdii^,  i"i.    J.,  1  rtu.  lojo, 

r  Augusta,  Ga.,  H  Nov.  1903.     Appointed 

acting-midshipman  5  March  1850,  he  served  in 
the  Cast  Indies  in  1851-55  participating  in  one 
battle  and  several  skirmishes  with  the  Chinese 
army  at  Shanghai.  Graduating  from  the  Naval 
Academy  1856,  he  passed  through  all  grades 
of  the  service  to  rear-admiral  1895  and  retired 
1  Feb.  189a  During  the  Gvil  War  he  com- 
manded the  monitor  Nantucket  in  the  attack 
of  the  ironclad  fleet  on  the  defenses  of  Charles- 
ton Harbor,  7  April  1863,  and  captured  the 
Confederate  steamer  Florida  at  Bahia,  Brazil. 
In  1870  he  took  the  steam-tug  Palos  to  the  East 
Indies,  carrving  on  her  the  first  United  States 
flag  ttirough  the  Suez  Canal  In  1879-80  he 
discovered,  surveyed  and  named  Glacier  Bay, 
Alaska.  He  was  the  author  of  a  number  of 
valuable  official  reports,  especially  those  on 
'The  Strength  of  Metals,>  'Resources  of  Alas- 
ka' and  'Present  Condition  of  Affairs  in  Ha- 
waii' (1897),  published  as  Senate  executive 
documents;  'The  Strength  of  Wrought  Iron 
and  Chain  Cables>   (1880). 


tone,  France,  16  March  1898.  He  was  very  pre- 
cocious, drew  at  four  and  sold  his  copied  com- 
positions at  11.  At  the  age  of  15  he  had  pro- 
duced a  sketchbook  of  marked  originality.  He 
received  no  special  instruction  in  drawing,  but 
studied  prints  and  drawings  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum. He  was  possessed  also  of  extraordinary 
musical  talent  and  was  partial  to  Wagner. 
After  leaving  school  he  was  placed  in  an  ar- 
chitect's oflice,  which  ill-health  soon  obliged 
him  to  leave  and  accept  a  clerical  position.  At 
this  time  he  was  befriended  by  Bume-Jones 
who  gained  him  admission  to  the  Westminster 
Art  School.  He  remained  there  but  a  few 
months.  In  1892  he  began  his  illustration  of 
<Le  Mori  d'Arthur*  These,  in  the  pre-Ra- 
phaelite  style,  were  followed  by  others  which 
showed  Japanese  and  French  Rococo  influences. 
In  1894-95  he  was  art  editor  of  the  Yellovi 
Book,  in  which  aweared  some  of  his  best  work. 
About  this  time  he  illustrated  the  'Bon  Mot 
Library*;  the  'Pall  Mai!  Budget,'  and  Oscar 
Wilde's  'Salome.'  In  1896  he  illustrated  the 
'Rape  of  the  Lock,'  and  'Lysistrata.'  To  this 
year  also  belongs  the  famous  frontispiece, 
'Voipone,'  considered  one  of  the  world's 
greatest  i>en  drawings.  Beardsley  contracted 
tnberculosis,    embraced    the    Roniaa    Catholic 


.Google 


BBARDSLBY — BEARINGS 


faith  at  Bournemouth  in  1897,  and  visited 
Prance  in  the  following  year  where  he  died. 

Beardsley's  style  was  original  and  unique  in 
several  respects.  He  ranks  high  among  the 
illustrators  of  his  time  because  of  his  remark- 
able  execution,  conception  and  line  mastery. 
Collections  of  his  drawings  have  been  issued 
under  the  titles  'Book  of  Fifty  Drawings  by 
Aubrey  Beardsley,>  leit  by  Ajrmer  Vallance 
{1897);  'Second  Book  of  Fifty  Drawings' 
(1899)  ;  'The  Early  Work  of  Aubrey  Beards- 
ley'  (1899);  'The  Late  Work  of  Aubrey 
Beardsley'  (1901).  Letters  and  poems,  etc.,  in 
'Under  the  Hill'  (1904).  Consult  the  biogra- 
phies by  Robert  Ross  (1908)  and  Arthur  Sy- 
monds   (1905). 

BEARDSLEY,  John  Davia,  American 
soldier  and  railway  ofRcial :  b.  Woodstock,  N. 
B.,  1  Jan.  1837.  He  engaged  in  mercantile  and 
lumbering  pursuits  at  Grand  Falls.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  in  1861  he  left  his 
lumber  mill  on  the  Saint  John  River  to  his 
partner,  entered  the  Maine  volunteers  and  was 
soon  made  first  lieutenant  of  the  lOth  Maine 
volunteers.  He  was  employed  to  guard  the 
railroad  from  Baltimore  and  Harper's  Ferry, 
was  present  at  the  battles  of  Winchester  and 
Cedar  Mountain,  being  taken  prisoner  at  the 
latter.  After  three  months  in  Libby  Prison 
he  was  exchanged.  He  was  present  at  Chan- 
cellorsville  and  at  Gettysburg  and  in  the  fall 
of  1863  was  sent  to  Tennessee.  He  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  29th  Maine,  who  were  soon  dis- 
patched by  sea  from  New  Orleans  to  Fortress 
Monroe  to  reinforce  Grant  on  the  Potomac 
The  destination  was  changed  to  Washington 
and  they  were  up  in  time  to  help  in  repulsing 
the  Confederate  general.  Early,  from  the 
outskirts  of  the  capital.  He  was  next  with 
Sheridan's  corps  in  the  Valley  campai^,  was 

tromoted  major  in  the  109th  regiment  m  1864. 
[e  resigned  m  March  1865  to  raise  a  regiment 
of  sharpshooters  but  before  it  could  be  ef- 
fected the  collapse  of  the  Confederacy  occurred. 
In  1897  he  was  appointed  by  the  governor  of 
Maine  a  commissioner  for  the  erection  of 
monuments  at  (jcttysburg  in  commemoration 
of  the  soldiers  of  Maine  who  fell  there.  After 
the  war  he  went  into  business  at  Richmond, . 
Va„  where  he  continued  until  1873,  removing 
thence  to  Cairo,  W.  Va.  In  1878  he  went  to 
Arkansas,  where  he  built  a  narrow-gauge  rail- 
road from  Hope  to  Washington,  Ark.  In  1882 
he  changed  the  gauge  of  the  road  and  extended 
it  to  Nashville.  It  is  known  as  the  Arkansas 
and  Louisiana  Railroad.  Beardsley  sold  it  to 
Jay  Gould  in  1886  and  in  1887  began  the  con- 
struction of  the  Louisiana  and  Northwest  Rail- 
road from  Magnolia,  Ark.,  to  Natchitoches, 
La.  This  road  was  sold  to  a  syndicate  in  190S. 
Following  this  he  built  an  electric  system,  a 
light  and  power  plant,  an  ice  plant  and  an 
amusement  park  at  Mineral  Wells,  Tex. 

BEARDSLEY,  Ssmuel,  American  jurist: 
b.  Hoosick,  N.  Y.,  9  Feb,  1790;  d,  Utica,  N.  Y., 
6  May  I860.  On  leaving  the  common  school 
he  look  up  the  study  of  medicine,  but  aban- 
doned it  for  law.  In  1813  he  was  a  member  of 
the  militia  that  defended  Saekett's  Harbor. 
Two  years  later  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  and 
became  judge-advocate  of  the  militia.  In  1823 
he  was  State  senator  from  the  fifth  district 
of  New  York.    He  was  appointed  attorney  for 


the  northern  district  of  New  York  by  Presi- 
dent Jackson  and  was  a  member  of  Congress 
in  1831^36  and  1843-45.  From  1S36  to  1838 
he  was  attorney-general  of  the  State  of  New 
York,  He  became  associate  judge  of  the  Su' 
preme  Court  of  New  York  in  1844  and  three 
jrears  later  succeeded  Judge  Bronson  as  chief 
justice.  On  his  retirement  he  devoted  himself 
to  the  practice  of  his  profession. 

BEARDSTOWN,  III.,  dtjr  in  Cass  County, 
45  miles  northwest  of  Springfield,  on  the 
Illinois  River  and  on  the  Saint  Louis  division 
of  the  Burlington  Railroad  which  has  its  re- 
pair and  other  shops  at  Beardstown.  There 
are  manufactures  of  flour,  lumber  and  window 
screens  as  well  as  important  cooperage  works, 
fishing  and  ice-pactdng  industries.  The  city 
has  a  fine  park,  two  great  bridges  across  the 
river,  mumd^  waterworks,  a  Cam^e  li- 
brary, and  its  city  hall  is  the  former  courthouse 
in  which  in  1854  Abraham  Lincoln  won  the 
Armstrong  murder  trial.  Named  after  Thomas 
Beard,  who  first  settled  here  in  1820,  Beards- 
town  was  plotted  in  1827  and  in  1832  was  a  base 
oof  war  supplies  for  the  Black  Hawk  expetfi- 
tion  against  the  Indians.  It  received  a  city 
charter  in  1896.    Pop.  (1910)  6,107. 

BEARING,  in  fiatrigation  and  surveying, 
signifies  the  angle  made  ty  any  given  line  wiOi 
a  north  and  south  line.  The  bearing  of  an  ob- 
ject is  the  direction  of  a  line  from  the  observer 
to  that  object 

In  architteture,  the  space  between  the  two 
fixed  extremities  of  a  piece  of  timber,  or  be- 
tween one  of  the  extremities  and  a  post  or 
wall  placed  so  as  to  diminish  the  unsupported 
length.  Also  and  commonly  used  for  the  ins- 
tance or  length  which  the  ends  of  a  piece  of 
timber  lie  upon,  or  are  inserted  into,  the  walls  of 

In  mechanict,  (a)  The  portion  of  an  axle 
or  shaft  in  contact  with  the  colbr  or  boxing, 
(b)  The  portion  of  the  support  on  which  a 
gudgeon  rests  and  revolves,     (c)   One  of  the 

fieces  resting  on  the  axle  and  supportioE  (he 
ramework  of  a  carriage,  (d)  One  of  the  diairi 
supporting  the  frame  wo  ric  of  a  railway  carriage 
or  truck. 

In  heraldry,  a  chaige ;  anything  included 
within  the  escutcheon.  Generally  in  the  plural, 
as  armorial  bearings. 

BEARINGS,  And-frlctlon.  Anti-frtc^OD 
bearings  are  bearings  involving  the  prind^ 
of  rolHng  friction,  as  distinguished  from  sliding 
friction.  An  ordinary  shaft  turning  in  a  plahi 
journal  slides  around  on  a  layer  of  some  lubri- 
cating substance.  If  the  lubricant  is  good  and 
properly  applied,  little  energy  or  power  is  loS 
in  the  heat  produced  by  rubbing  friction.  I' 
not,  then  much  heat  is  produced,  often  to  such 
an  extent  that  the  oil  or  grease  is  set  on  firt 
dried  up,  thereby  causing  a  so-called  'hot  box* 
~     journal     The  starting  friction  of  a  i^io 


under  a  heavy  load,  the  film  of  the  lubricant  is 
penetrated  and  contact  of  metal  with  metal  ts 
established.  To  overcome  this  contact,  uotii 
the  bearing  has  moved  far  enough  to  ing  dtc 
film  of  oil  between,  the  points  of  contact  ^ai". 
requires  much  more  power.  Careful  test! 
show  the  coefficient  of  rest  to  be  from  .W  "> 
.13  as  compared  with  .05  to  .08  for  the  co- 


BBARH  — BEARS 


efficient  of  motion.  Bearings  involving  rolling 
friction  are  entirely  different  in  this  teifect. 
Slight  lubrication,  largely  to  prevent  rusting, 
is  needed.  Between  the  shaft  and  th«  wheel 
or  other  bearing  ia  interposed  either  a  series 
of  balls  or  rollers  of  hardened  metal,  usually 
steel,  or  a  steel  alloy,  arranged  to  revolve  be- 
tween the  two  surfaces. 

Ball  bearings  came  into  general  use  with 
the  advent  of  the  modem  bicycle;  th^  have 
been  highly  developed  in  automobile  practice, 
and  have  come  into  general  ase  in  light  machin- 
ery to  reduce  friction,  being  markedly  superior 
lo  plain  bearings,  especially  in  case  of  starting. 
The  balls  are  made  m  a  greai  number  of  sizes, 
and  positioned  in  bearings  in  numerous  ways. 
Since  small  pieces  of  metal  heat  and  cool  rapid- 
ly, it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  temper  steel  balls 
exactly  as  desired.  To  have  a  long  life  each 
ball  must  be  uniformly  hardened  as  deeply  as 
possible.  Much  ingenuity  has  been  displayed 
m  securing  accurate  tempering,  and  an  exceed- 
ingly ^ooa  average  of  balls  are  marketed  at 
surprisingly  low  cost.  In  addition  to  hardness, 
uniformity  of  size  and  surface  polish  are  essen- 
tial. The  only  way  to  know  precisely  what  ia 
the  structure  and  strength  of  a  particular  ball 
is  to  brealc  it  up.  However,  by  microphotoe- 
raphy  experts  are  able  to  judge  very  accurately 
the  character  of  balU. 

It  is  apparent  that  a  series  of  balls,  traveling 
in  a  circular  raceway  in  a  machineiy  bearing 
must  occasionally  strike  each  other,  jam  and 
rub  the  surfaces  in  contact  in  opposite  direc- 
tions. Except  for  this,  sliding  friction  is  wholly 
eliminated  in  a  properly  designed  ball  bearing, 
and  the  balls  simply  roll  on  the  surfaces.  To 
produce  a  good  bearing  it  is  essential  that  the 
balls  shall  be  as  nearly  perfect  as  can  be,  and 
in  practice  good  balls  will  show  variations  of 
only  1-10,000  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  If  the 
balls  in  a  bearing  varv  in  size,  the  larger  balls 
must  bear  nearly  all  the  strains  and  the  sooner 
ciystallize  and  brealc  The  surfaces  against 
which  the  balls  bear  are  sometimes  flat,  but 
tisually  at  least  one  surface  must  be  curved 
to  keep  the  balls  in  position ;  often  both  sur- 
faces are  curved.  The  radius  of  curvature  of 
the  raceway  against  which  the  balls  bear  must 
always  be  less  than  the  curvature  of  the  ball, 
else  there  will  be  sliding  friction.  The  less 
number  of  balls  there  are  in  a  bearing  the  teas 
will  be  the  number  of  contact  ^ints,  and  the 
less  the  friction.  But  if  there  is  a  heavy  load 
to  carry,  it  is  necessary  to  have  many  balls, 
and  thus  distribute  the  load.  It  has  been 
demonstrated  that  the  speed  of  rotation  has 
little  effect  on  the  carrying  capacity.  Marked 
and  numerous  variations  in  speed  and  load,  as 


a  large  margin  or  surplus  of  strength.  A  good 
ball  bearing  will  have  a  coefficient  of  friction 
of  approximately  0-0015. 

bJi  ■     ■ 

I  shaft,^  and  sometimes  for  angular  load,  the 
positiwiing  of  the  bearine  surfaces  determin- 
ing how  they  operate.  In  designing  a  ball  bear- 
ing, the  engineer  must  consider  the  load  or 
stress  to  be  placed  on  it  constantly,  and  also  in 
exceptional  instances;  he  must  also  bear  in  mind 
the  different  speeds  of  rotation  to  which  it 
will  be  subject.    If  it  is  a  bearing  on  a  vehicle 


axle,  carrying  a  wheel,  he  will  fix  the  inner 
raceway  firmly  to  the  axle,  but  mount  the  outer 
raceway  looady  on  the  wneel  with  a  "slip-fit." 
By  properly  shaping  his  raceway  he  can  make 
the  bearing  carry  tM  end-thrust  of  the  axle  as 
well  as  the  supported  load. 

Designs  of  oall  bearings  have  been  made 
with  alternate  small  idle  balls  between  the  larger 
working  balls,  with  a  view  to  reducing  back 
rotation  or  jamming,  but  these  have  not  been 
widely  adopted.  Another  arrangement  is  to. 
stagger  the  balls  —  that  is  arrange  them  (his 
).  This  is  accomplished  by  build- 


e  some  advantages  in  such  i 

For  heavy^  loads  roller  bearings  are  superior 
to  _  ball  bearings.  Hardened  steel  rollers  of 
uniform  size  are  mounted  in  a  cylindrical  case, 
that  positions  them  so  that  they  are  kept  slightly 
apart.  They  may  then  be  introduces  into  the 
journal  box  by  slipping  over  the  shaft  By  ex- 
tending the  length  of  the  journal  box,  and  using 
a  sufficient  number  o£  rollers,  almost  any  load 
can  be  carried  with  a  minimum  of  friction.  A 
24-inch  diameter  shaft,  provided  with  a  36-inch 
journal-box,  carrying  38  one-and-a-half  inch 
rolls,  was  made   to  cariy  a   load  of  575,000 

Eunds.  Since  1900  the  use  of  roller  bearings 
s  become  very  common.  Both  ball  bearings 
and  roller  bearings  require  lubrication,  thouni 
very  much  less  Oian  plain  bearings  need.  It 
is  a  mistake  to  suppote  that  they  can  be  run 
absolutely  without  oil  It  is  very  necessary 
that  such  bearings  be  kept  free  from  grit  or 
dirt,  as  tfaese  will  cut  the  balls  or  rollers  in  a 

Other  and-friction  bearings  are  made  by  the 
use  of  anti-friction  metals,  that  is,  soft  alloys, 
as  babbitt  metal,  which  is  placed  in  the  bearing 
to  carry  the  steel  or  iron  shaft. 

BKARN,  ba-arn,  a  former  province  of 
France,  at  the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  with  the 
title  of  a  principality;  about  42  miles  long  and 
36  broad.  It  now  forms  part  of  the  department 
of  the  Basses-Pyrfnfes.  Il  belonged,  with 
Navarre,  to  Henry  IV,  when  he  obtained  the 
crown.  The  plain  country  is  very  fertile,  and 
the  mountains  are  covered  with  iir  trees,  while 
within  are  mines  of  copper,  lead  and  iron,  and 
the  little  hills  are  planted  with  vines,  which 
yield  good  wine.  Pau  is  the  chief  town.  There 
IS  a  peculiar  and  well-marked  dialect,— the 
Bernese, —  spoken  In  this  district,  which  has 
much  more  affinity  with  the  Spanish  than  wirti 
the  French.  It  contains  a  certain  number  of 
Greek  elements,  which  some  believe  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  ancient  Greek  colonists 
established  in  Gaul.  The  people  have  retained 
many  Old  World  manners,  customs  and  super- 
stitions, as  well  as  their  old  costume.  Consult 
Bordenare,  'Histoire  de  B£am  et  Navarre' 
(1873). 

BEARS,  a  family  {Vrsidtr)  of  large,  heavy, 
long-haired,  plantigrade  carnivorous  mammals, 
scattered  throughout  all  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere and  some  parts  of  the  tropics.  They 
are  absent  from  Africa  (except  the  Atlas 
Mountains,  which  zoologically  belong  to 
Europe)  and  from  Australasia.  In  their 
structure  and  dentition  they  are  allied  to  die 
dogs  on  one  hanti^  and  to  the  badgers,  w^sels, 

Google 


384  BB 

skunks,  etc.  (MusUlida),  on  the  other.  The 
head  is  broad,  and  the  jaws  extended  and  racher 
narrow,  but  not  so  powerful  as  those  of  dogs 
or  hyenas;  while  the  teeth  are  complete  and 
large,  the  molars  especially  being  broad  and 
tuberculous,  fitting  them  well  for  crushing  the 
vegetable  fare  so  largely  eaten  by  this  group. 
The  skeleton  is  massive ;  the  limbs  are  of  great 
strength  and  furnished  with  long  and  powerful 
claws  for  digging  and  use  in  fighting.  The 
■whole  sole  of  the  foot  rests  upon  the  ground, 
leaving  a  footprint  much  resembling  that  of  a 
man.  Ordinanly  they  move  about  rather  slowly 
and  clumsily,  yet  all  except  the  heaviest  bears 
climb  trees,  and  the  largest  scramble  over  rocks 
or  ice  with  surprising  agility;  and  all,  when 
urged  by  rage  or  fear,  can  get  over  the  ground 
at  great  speed,  their  gait  being  a  lumbering  but 
effective  gallop.  Their  ears,  though  small,  are 
highly  developed,  and  their  hearing  is  perhaps 
of  more  service  lo  them  than  is  their  eye-sight; 
but  neither  equals  in  keenness  the  nose,  which 
seems  to  be  extremely  sensitive.  In  respect  to 
food,  bears  are  truly  omnivorous,  taking  flesh, 
fish  or  vegetable  tnalerials  as  circumstances 
favor.  They  seize  such  small  animals  of  the 
woods  as  cannot  avoid  them^  and  near  settle- 
ments raid  the  herds  of  swine  and  flocks  of 
sheep  and  cattle,  especially  in  search  of  the 
young  ones.  All  bears  eat  fish,  and  some,  like 
the  Polar  and  the  Kadiak  bear,  live  almost 
wholly  upon  this  diet,  catching  the  fishes  clev- 
erly from  the  shore  by  a  stroke  of  the  paw,  or 
going  into  the  water  after  them.  lieptiles, 
crabs,  crayfish,  etc.,  are  eaten  also;  and  insects 
form  a  large  part  of  their  fare,  especially  ants 
and  honey- maJcing  bees  and  wasps.  They  dig 
up  ant  hills  and  overturn  rotting  logs  and 
stumps  for  the  former,  and  seardi  out  and 
tear  to  pieces  the  combs  of  the  latter,  well  pro- 
tected against  stings  by  their  long  hair.  They 
also  eat  succulent  leaves  and  herbage,  certain 
roots,  fruit,  and  especially  sweet  acorns  and 
berries,  of  which  they  are  exceedingly  fond. 
The  Rocky  Mountain  Indians  used  to  bum 
over  certain  tracts  of  mountain-side  annually 
in  order  to  kee^  the  oaks  low  and  promote  the 
growth  of  certam  berry-bearing  btiuies  in  order 
to  attract  the  bears.  They  drink  a  great  deal 
of  water,  enjoy  going  into  it  and  will  swim 
long  distances. 

Sears  are  nowhere  very  numerous,  each  pair 
or  family  occupying  a  district  and  keeping  it 
fairly  well  to  itself.  When,  as  frequently  hap- 
pens, three  or  four  are  seen  together,  they  are 
likely  to  be  old  and  young  of  the  same  family. 
Their  home  is  usually  some  cave  or  crevice 
among  rocks,  a  hollow  tree,  a  tangle  of  wind- 
thrown  logs  or  a  dense  thicket.  Tnere,  in  the 
early  spring,  are  born  the  young,  usually  two, 
sometimes  four;  and  in  the  case  of  the  Arctic 
species,  this  often  happens  under  the  .snow,  be- 
fore the  female  is  released  from  her  hiberna- 
tion. The  young  remain  with  the  mother  until 
fully  grown,  ana  when  they  are  little  she  guards 
and  controls  them  with  great  solicitude  and 
will  rush  at  an  intruder.  At  other  times  bears 
are  rather  shy  and  will  usually  endeavor  to  re- 
treat, yet,  when  brougjil  to  bay,  fi^t  with  great 
courage  and  are  among  the  most  dangerous 
animals  man  can  encounter.  Their  attack  is 
made  with  both  teelh  and  claw,  striking  down 
or  clasping  the  foe  in  a  crushing  embrace  and 


then  tearing  him  with  the  teeth.  They  can 
easily  be  tamed,  however,  remain  friendly  and 
prove  intelligent  and  docile  to  a  limited  ex- 
tent. They  submit  well  to  confinement,  endure 
change  of  climate  and  breed  readily  in  cap- 
tivity. The  close  family  likeness  throu^out  the 
group  has  made  thdr  distinction  into  natural 
species  a  matter  of  much  dispute  and  uncer- 
tainty. Everyone  recognizes  the  great  white 
"Polar*  or  "ice*  bear  of  the  Arctic  region 
{Urati  maritimus')  as  distinct.  Its  elongated 
body,  long,  pointed  head,  slender  limbs,  lar^ 
haip'-soled  feet,  and  cream-white  coat  are  quite 


enormous  strength.  These  bears  a 
throughout  the  icy  drcumpolar  regions,  and 
wander  a  vast  distance  away  from  the  coast  on 
the  ice,  sometimes  swimming  many  miles.  They 
often  winter  and  their  young  are  bom  on  the 
floes.  They  live  mainly  upon  seals,  young  wal- 
ruses and  fish,  which  they  scoop  out  of  the 
surf  and  from  the  coast  rivers  where  they  come 
to  breed,  but  in  summer  obtain  various  other 
kinds  of  food,  including  marine  grass  and  shore 
herbage.  The  writings  of  Arctic  explorers 
abound  in  accounts  of  this  wide-spread  species 
and  should  be  read  by  those  who  wish  to  know 
more  of  their  habits,  Anodier  sub-Arctic  bear 
that  seems  undoubtedly  distinct  is  the  glacier  or 
«blue»  bear  of  the  Mount  Saint  Elias  Alps  on 
the  coast  of  Alaska,  first  described  by  Dall 
in  1895  and  named  Urstu  emmotui.  It  is 
the  smallest  of  all  bears  —  not  larger  than  a 
half-^rown  grizzly,  and  bluish-black,  with  a 
dorsal  stripe,  the  ears  and  the  outer  surfaces  of 
the  limbs  Jet  black;  black  and  silver  is  the 
prevalent  color  of  the  sides,  neck  and  rump; 
the  belly  and  inside  of  the  legs  are  white;  sides 
of  the  nose  bright  tan  color.  Very  little  is 
known  of  its  habits  or  of  the  extent  of  its  lim- 
ited range. 

The  other  American  bears,  called  black,  griz- 
zly, cinnamon.  Barren -Ground,  brown,  Kaoiak, 
and  so  on,  are  so  confusingly  alike  that  some 
conservative  naturalists  re^rd  them  all  as 
merely  varieties  of  one  species,  altered  by  cli- 
mate and  food  and  a  tendency  to  individual 
variation ;  and  it  has  even  been  said  that  there 
was  no  real  specific  distinction  between  them 
and  the  Old  World  bears,  which  also  present 
differences  that  blend  confusingly  together 
when  many  specimens  are  compared.  Others 
regard  the  differences  as  not  only  of  specific 
value,  but  place  some  of  the  forms  in  separate 
genera.  The  latest  monographer  of  the  Ameri- 
can Ursidtt  recognizes  no  less  than  eight  spe- 
cies on  this  continent,  besides  the  Polar  bear 
and  the  spectacled  bear  of  the  Andes  {Ursut 
omaftw),  which  is  diought  by  other?  to  be 
merely  an  isolated  variety  of  the  black  bear 
that  somehow  has  acquired  whitish  rings  around 
its  eyes.  The  black  bear  (Urstu  Americantu) 
is  the  most  wide- spread  of  these,  being  found 
in  all  the  forested  re((ions  of  the  continent 
north  of  Mexico  and  still  remaining  wherever 
a  large  patch  of  forest  or  a  range  of  moun- 
tains or  rough  hills  give  it  a  harbor,  whence  it 
may  raid  the  pasture-lots  and  iHg  sties  of  fron- 
tier farmers,  especially  in  early  spring  when 
wild  food  is  scarce.  Black  bears  climb  trees 
easily,  travel  about  a  great  deal  and  are  often 
captured    and    tamed.     Thty    are    timid    and 


Google 


1  AatrioB  BUck  Ban  (Drui  Amtricaniu)  S  Black  B«*i  of  the  RinuUru  UounUio*  (Uiiiu  toianai 

1  Btenn  Beat  (Drnu  uclos)  *  Ittlaj  Bcu  {Vtwia  Hiknaiu) 


iGooi^le 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


secretive,  and  rarely  are  dangerous  unless 
wounded  or  cornered  and  enraged.  The 
color  of  this  bear  is  properly  black,  but  brown, 
reddish  ('cinnamon')  or  even  yellowish  ex- 
amples are  frequently  seen.  The  nose  is  always 
tan-colored.  In  size  they  average  about  five 
feet  and  never  reach  the  dimensions  of  a  large 
griizly.  The  bears  of  Florida  and  of  Texas 
are  each  regarded  by  some  as  separate  species, 
but  most  naturalists  consider  them  to  be  merely 
ge<4^phical  races.  The  Barren-Ground  bear 
{Ursus  richardsotii)  is  a  large,  whitish-brown 
species  dwelling  on  the  brushy  plains  north- 
west of  Hudson  Gay,  which  there  is  good  rea- 
son to  believe  is  aa  isolated  American  race  of 
the  European  brown  bear. 

The  grizzly  bear  (Uritu  horribiUt)  of  the 
mountains  of  western  North  America  is  one  of 
the  largest,  and  perhaps  the  most  to  be  feared, 
of  any  of  the  family.  It  is  found  from  the 
Black  Hills  and  the  Badlands  of  Dakota  west- 
ward to  the  Pacific  coast,  and  from  Mexico  to 
northern  Alaska.  A  large  specimen  is  nine  feet 
in  length  and  will  weigh  1,000  pounds,  but  the 
si^e  varies  greatly.  So  does  the  color,  which 
ranges  from  reddish-brown  to  hoary  gray. 
Hence  several  varieties  are  recogniied  by  hunt- 
ers, such  as  "cinnamons,*  "silver-tips*  (in  which 
the  tips  of  the  hairs  are  white)  and  'grizzlies.' 
The  typical  form  may  be  described  as  yellow- 
ish-brown, with  a  reddish  mane,  black  dorsal 
stripe  and  dark-colored  legs.  In  form  th^  are 
tnasuvt;,  with  broad,  squarish  heads  and  im- 
mensely muscular  bodies.  They  cannot,  or,  at 
any  rate,  do  not,  climb  trees,  but  they  scramble 
about  the  roughest  mountains  or  through  a 
dense  forest  with  surprising  a^hty  and  can  run 
very  rapidly  on  occasions.  Tliey  seem  rarely,' 
if  ever,  to  nibemate  and  go  about  aione  or  m 
pairs,  eating  all  sorts  of  food,  but  seizing  and 
pulling  down  large  prey  when  an  opportunity 
oSers,  In  former  days  even  a  bull  buSalo  was 
unable  always  to  resist  their  strength  and  they 
constantly  attacked  them  and  the  deer.  At 
present  the  cattle  and  horses  upon  the  ranges 
in  some  parts  of  the  West  suner  from  iheir 
ravages.  Thotwh  so  mighty,  and  when  at  bay 
or  enraged  probably  not  less  dangerous  to  en- 
counter than  a  lion  or  tiger,  they  will  usually 
avoid  and  flee  from  man  and  do  not  seem 
quarrelsome,  the  tradition  of  a  constant  enmity 
between  thero  and  the  black  bears  not  finding 
support  in  facts.  The  grizzly  is  easily  the  most 
terrible  of  the  game  animals  of  North  America 
and  one  of  the  most  formidable  in  the  world; 
but  different  bears  varj*  greatly  in  tempera- 
ment and  according  to  circumstances.  The  In- 
dians and  experienced  hunters  of  the  West, 
however,  have  learned  to  hold  all  of  the  race  in 
the  highest  respect.  Much  the  same  statement 
will  apply  lo  the  Barren-Ground  bear,  already 
mentioned,  and  to  the  Alaskan  bears  to  be 
spoken  of  presently.  The  grizzly  is  still  to  be 
bund  throughout  most  of  its  range,  though  no 
longer  numerous  except  in  the  wilder  parts  of 
the  Rocky  Uountains,  in  the  northern  parts  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada  and  in  the  high  mountains 
northward  from  Oregon  to  Alaska,  where  the 
^Tgest  ones  arc  now  to  be  obtained.  The 
Kadiak  bear  is  a  brownish  species  or  variety 
(Urius  middendorffi)  dwelling  on  Kadiak  Is- 
land. Alaska,  and  the  neighboring  mainland. 
Spedmens  of  it  exceeding  in  size  any  other  bear 

TOt.3  — IS 


have  been  obtained,  and  weighii^  1,200  pounds. 
Whether  it  will  prove  to  be  a  distinct  species 
remains  to  be  seen.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
Dalli  or  the  Sitk^  hear  (Ursiu  dalti).  Both 
are  dark  brown  or  grizzled  and  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish   externally    from    other   bears    of   the 

The  bears  of  the  Old  World  have  been  di- 
vided into  many  species  by  earlier  naturalists, 
but  are  now  regarded  as  more  nearly  connected. 
The  best  known  is  the  common  brown  bear  of 
Europe  and  Asia  (Ursus  arctoi).  It  is  of  large 
size,  reaching  about  eight  feet  in  length  in  the 
bigger  European  specimens,  and  is  usually  of 
some  shade  of  yellowish -brown,  reddish- brcrwn 
or  black  but  varies  greatly.  It  is  eicceedingly 
difficult  to  distinguish  from  the  American  bears 
and  passes  by  indeterminate  variation  into  the 
so-called  species  of  Siberia,  Japan  and  the 
Himalayan   region,   the   differences   being   such 


nieht  come  from  varying  climate  and  habi- 
,  thus  those  of  the  high  Himalaya  are 
laller   and    lighter    in    color,    etc.      Althou^ 


long  ago  extinct  m  Great  Britain,  it  still  lingers 
in  the  wilder,  more  mountainous  '  parts  of. 
Europe  and  is  numerous  in  the  forests  of  Rus- 
sia, the  Caucasus,  on  the  Lebanon  range  _  of 
Asia  Minor  (where  it  is  called  the  Syrian 
bear),  in  the  Atlas  Mountains  of  Morocco  and 
throughout  Asia  north  of  the  Himalayas.  The 
largest  are  those  of  Kamchatka,  where  they 
are  numerous  and  bold  and  live  in  summer  al- 
most wholly  on  salmon,  as  do  the  Kadiak  and 
other  Alaskan  bears  east  of  Bering  Sea.  This 
is  the  bear  most  often  seenin  menageries,  where 
it  breeds  readily,  and  is  also  led  about  bj- 
•bear-tamers'  and  taught  certain  clumsy  'danc- 
ing" tricks.  The  Tibetan  or  •blue*  bear 
(,Urs%tJ  prttinosiu)  is  a  little-known  species  re- 
garded as  distinct.  Two  other  quite  distinct 
species  of  bear  belonc  to  the  Indo-Malayu). 
region.  One  is  the  slotn-bear  or  honey-bear  of 
India,  a  large  animal  which  in  its  jungle  home 
is  one  of  the  most  dangerous  carnivores  of  the 
Indian  forests,  yet  is  often  tamed  and  led  about 
the  cotintry  t^  Hindu  jugglers,  who  called  it 
'aswail,*  etc.  Jt  is  black,  imusually  shaggy, 
and  has  a  prolonged  mobile  snout,  a  very  long 
toi^ue  and  no  teeth  in  the  front  of  the  mouth 
(after  the  milk  teeth  drop  out),  making  its 
facial  ^maces  very  comicat.  Another  very 
distincbve  feature  is  the  large  yellowish  cres- 
cent on  its  breast.  It  is  an  ague  climber  and 
exceedingly  fond  of  robbing  the  nests  of 
honey-makinK  beei.  These  facts  are  recorded 
in  its  name  (Ursus  or  Uelursus)  fabialtts. 

The  Malayan  sun  bear,  or  "bnianK"  (Ursus, 
or  Helarclos,  Malayanus),  is  a  smaller  species 
inhabiting  the  forests  of  the  Malayan  Peninsula 
and  islands  eastward  to  Borneo.  Its  coat  is 
short  and  fine,  black  in  color,  marked  on  the 
breast  with  a  white  or  orange  crescent,  and  the 
lips  and  tongue  are  remarkably  long  and  flexi- 
ble. It  feeds  mainly  on  ants,  which  it  gathers 
with  its  glutinous  tongue  after  digging  up  their 
hills,  for  which  its  long  claws  are  well  fitted. 

Fossil  bears,  commonly  called  'cave  bears,* 
have  been  found  in  the  Quaternary  bone-brec- 
cia of  many  caves  of  Europe,  Morth  and  South 
America.  Some  are  closely  allied  to  or  iden- 
tical with  living  ipedes;  others,  as  the  Cali- 
fornia and  South  American  cave  bears,  are 
referred  to  a  distinct  genus,  ArctolherwHm.    in 


Google 


BEAS  —  BKATIFIC  ATION 


the  Tertiaiy  straU  o£  the  OU  WorW  occur 
remains  of  a.  series  of  animab  {Arnpkicy^M, 
Hyanarcfoi,  eto.)  which  appear  to  connect  the 
bears  with  primitive  Cama»,  inditating  thai 
they  are  an  offshoot  of  the'  do«  family.  See 
also  Cavi  Bears. 

BiblioKTSpfay.— Consult,  in  addition  to  gen- 
eral woriu  mentioned  nnder  Mammals  anothe 
writing  of  sportsmen-tnivelcrs,  Osgood.  'Nctfth 
American  Fauna'  (No.  24  (Aladca]  Wadnag- 
ton  1904);  Preble,  N.  A.,  'Fauna*  (No.  27 
[Athabaska,  Maclcentie  region]  WashinKlon 
ISOB);  Seton.  (Northcm  Uammals*  (New 
York  IKB)  ;  Wri^t,  «The  Grinly  Bear>  (New 
YoA  IflW);  Wrirfit.  'The  Black  Bear'  (New 
YoA  iWO). 

BEAS,  be'9s,  or  BIAS  (ibe  andent  Hyfha- 
sv),  one  of  the  five  great  rivers  of  the  Punjab, 
bavii^  its  rise  at  me  Ratanki  Pass,  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Santch  Mountains,  a  branch 
of  die  Himala^  system,  in  laL  32"  21'  N^  long. 
77"  22*  E.;  where  ihe  former  attain  an  elevation 
of  13,300  feet.  Its  entire  course  is  about  290 
miles.  The  Beas  has  been  considered  larger 
than  the  Snilej,  which  it  joins  35  miles  to  the 
southeast  of  Aniritsar,  but  it  is  greatly  inferior 
to  that  river  in  ibc  length  of  its  course;  ani^ 
tbon^  thcT  have  about  the  same  breadth,  the 
Sodej  has  die  greater  volume  of  water.  The 
united  stream,  below  the  point  of  jnnctioiii  is 
called  (he  Qiara  or  Gharra. 

BKA8T8  OP  PRKT.  is  not  a  sdentific 
iBMi,  bM,  as  m  the  case  of  the  phrase  'birds 
at  PRTp*  icpsesents  merely  the  idea  of  an  as* 
W  iliM  iki  of  such  ■trammaU  as  prey  upon  other 
oeattircs.  The  greatest  number  and  most 
pfOMuent  examples  belong  lo  the  order  Car- 
mirorm,  whose  members  subsist  mainly  npcoi 
flesh,  a>d  some  of  which,  as  the  cats,  bears  and 
woln^  are  the  most  powerful,  deadly  and 
dxn^efoas  animals  of  the  world.  These  hare 
acqnued  bodies  vrHh  great  5trei^c>h  and  codur- 
ance  in  chasmg  and  leaping,  seising  and  bold- 
iae;  teeth  adiqited  to  cutting  and  jaeiting; 
shaipk  muscular  daws,  and  a  hi^  degree  of 
intelligence  in  tfie  ii-Ues  of  huntiiig  and  of 
conraKc  and  pertinadty  in  attxkiitg  their  prey 
or  deieitAng  their  gains  a^nst  rivals.  iMir 
digestive  organs  are  simpb&ed  and  adapted  to 
the  assimilalioii  of  flesh,  of  which  a  less  quan- 
tity is  requited  than  in  the  case  of  an  antBu] 
sntMUSting  on  TCgetable  fare,  because  it  is  al- 
ready in  a 'concent  rated,  partly^  elaborated  form: 
but  as  the  obtaining  of  it  is  occasional  and 


often  intemipted  t^  long  intervals,  all  beasts 
of  prey  are  liltd>-  to  kill  and  eat  excessively 
when  i^kporttmity  offers,  in  instinctive  prepare 
tioB  for  a  possible  fast  To  provide  against 
the  loss  of  heat  during  the  periods  of  faming 
radier  than  as  a  provision  against  low  temper- 
atnrc^  most  beasts  of  prey  are  clothed  in  doise, 
hairy  coals  of  hair,  or  *fnr>  Not  all  the  beasts 
of  prey  belong  to  the  Cannvora,  for  animals 
with  similar  structures  and  adaptations  are  to 
be  found  in  other  orders  of  maimnal<i  whose 
basal  structure  is  very  different.  The  blood- 
sucking bats,  for  example,  ha\-e  teeth  roug^ily 
similar  (o  those  of  a  do^.  and  some  of  the 
apes  are  savage  and  powerful  and  have  car- 
nassial  teeth.  The  most  predsc  parallel,  how- 
ever, b  found  in  the  (wcdatory  marsupials  of 
Australia,  such  as  the  Zebra  wolf,  Tasi 


devil  and  several  others,  wUdi  have  the  tc^^A^ 
meat  and  habits  of  true  beasts  of  prey. 

BKAT,  in  music,  the  beating  or  pulsation 
resulting  from  the  joint  vibrations  of  two 
sounds  of  the  same  strength,  and  all  but  in 
amson.  Also  a  short  shake  or  transient  gnee- 
note  struck  immedntely  before  the  note  it  is 
intended  to  ornament.  The  Greda  empbtyed 
the  int  beat  (arsis)  to  denote  die  accented,  and 
the  down  beat  (ikesitf  to  ngiufy  tfie  unac- 
cented part  of  the  measure,  but  in  modem 
practice  the  down  beat  denotea  die  accented  and 
Ihe  up  beat  the  unaccented 

BKATIFIC  VISION,  the  immediate 
knowledge  of  God  enjoyed  by  the  angelic 
suirits  and  the  souls  of  those  who  have  attained 
heaven.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  temporal 
Imowlei^  of  God,  which  the  human  mind  may 
attain  on  earth,  in  that  it  implies  also  a  visual 
knowledge.  Since  such  direct  knowledge  con- 
stitutes perfect  bliss,  the  vision  is  termed 
■beatifid*  Consult  'Heaven*  in  'Catholic  En- 
cydopedia.* 

BKATTFICATION,  in  die  Roman  Cath- 
olic C^iurch,  an  act  t^  which  the  Pope  declares 
a  person  beatified,  or  blessed,  after  his  deatb. 
It  is  sometimes  the  first  step  to  canomzation, 
or  the  raising  of  one  to  the  honor  and  digni^ 
of  a  saint.  Beatification  is  said  V  ^i"^  I" 
have  had  its  origin  in  the  pagan  apouieosis,  but 
this  is  strongly  denied '  by  Roman  Catholic 
authorities,  who  Contend  that  it  has  its  origin 
in  the  (^tholic  doctrine  of  the  worship,  invo- 
cation and  intercession  of  the  saints,  in  the 
earlier  periods  of  the  history  of  the  Church 
the  worship  of  saints  was  local,  then  was  ^ssed 
from  one  church  to  another  by  autfaonty  of 
the  bishops.  Two  classes  of  persons  were  thiu 
honored:  martjTS  and  confessors.  The  first 
constituted  those  who  had  sacrificed  their  lives 
for  the  faith,  while  the  second  comprised 
those  who  had  lived  long  lives  of  sdf-denial 
and  Christian  virtue.  Toward  the  close  of  the 
lldi  century  the  Pope  found  it  necessar>'  to 
restrict  the  power  of  the  bishops  in  decrtting 
who  sbonld  be  hdd  up  for  pubhc  veneratioii 
and  worstup,  and  ordered  that  such  honors 
should  not  be  accorded  until  they  had  been  ap- 


VII  published  a  bull  which  reserved  to  die 
Holy  See  the  sole  right  of  beatificatkin.  Beati- 
fication differs  from  canoniiadon  in  ffiat  it 
constitutes  only  a  permission  to  venerate  a  cer- 
tain person,  widi  restrictions  to  certain  places 
and  to  certain  litui^al  exercises.  Outside  die 
boundaries  of  the  places  designated  it  is  un- 
bwfnl  to  pay  reverence  to  the  person  beatified, 
or  to  celebrate  nuss  with  prayers  i«f errinfc  to 
him  unless  special  indult  be  had.  CaDonication 
is  miversal  and  also  hnplies  a  prucoit  Tbe 
process  by  which  a  person  is  beatifieo  is  long, 
sofnetimcs  requiring  over  a  y«ar.  The  pOTto- 
lator-fenenl  chooses  a  vice-pmtulator,  wnoK 
inactioB  it  is  to  promote  iudictal  inqnirM 
outside  of  Rome.  Tlie  inquiries  are  institDKa 
under  the  supervisitm  of  tbe  local  episcnnl  an* 
thoritics.  Wbm  completed  the  results  of  these 
inquiries  are  sent  to  Ik  Omgregation  of  Rit^ 
in  Rome.  The  documents  are  dien  pnbfished 
after  which  an  advocate  and  a  procurator  of 
the  cause,  the  Utter  being  sonetimcs  knom 
h)-  Ihe  title  of  *devirs  adrocate,*  are  appamM 


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lizcdbyGooi^le 


BEATIHQ    THB    BOUHDS— BKATTIE 


to  prepare  briefs  for  either  side  of  the  use. 
Thus  the  case  puaes  through  many  stages  at- 
tended by  delioeralionG,  until  fiaally  the  Pope 
signs  the  degree  of  be&ti£catioii  and  the  cerfr- 
monies  are  performed  in  the  Vatican.  Consult 
Camillus  Bctcari's  'Beatification'  in  the  'Cath- 
olic Encyclopedia.'     See  Canonization. 

BEATING  THB  BOUNDS,  a  periodical 
survey  or  perambulatioo  by  whidi  the  bonud- 
aries  of  parishes  in  England  are  preserved.  It 
is  still  in  some  ^rts  the  custom  that  the  clergy- 
man of  the  parish,  with  the  paiodiial  officers 
and  the  bon  of  the  parish  sdiool,  should,  on 
Ascension  Day,  march  to  the  boundaries,  which 
the  boys  struck  with  willow  rods.  A  similar 
ceremony  in  Scotland  is  called  riding  the 
marches.  In  the  New  England  colonies  paral- 
lel duties  were  performed  b^  "perambulators^ 
and  in  Virginia  by  'processioners.*  The  cus- 
tom is  of  Teutonic  origin. 

BBATITUDE,  the  Christian  term  mean- 
ing the  highest  degree  of  baspincM  of  which 
our  nature  is  susceptible  ana  afiplied  particu- 
larly to  the  state  of  the  elect  in  heaven.  It 
was  a  favorite  topic  of  discussion  among  the 
scholastic  theologjans,  who  divided  it  into  sub- 
jective and  objective,  perfect  and  imperfect, 
and  made  our  eternal  happiness  consist  in  the 
vision  of  God  perfecling  the  intellect  and  will 
in  possessing  Supreme  Truth  and  God.  Recent 
theologians  have  generally  made  beatitude  con- 
sist in  honoring  God  and  sharing  bis  perfec- 
tions, a  sublime  though  indefinite  conception. 
Though  the  state  of  beatitude  be  incomprehen- 
sible to  us,  yet  the  belief  in  it  is  a  motive  in 
the  present  life  which  begets  heroism  in  the 
midst  of  misfortune,  and  an  adherence  to  virtue 
in  the  midst  of  evils.  The  Beatitudes  is  the 
name  given  particularly  to  the  nine  clauses  in 
Qirist's  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  each  beginning 
'Blessed  be" 

BEATON,  David,  Scottish  prelate  and 
cardinal:  b.  1494;  d.  Saint  Andrews,  29  May 
1546.  He  studied  at  Saint  Andrews  Glasgow, 
and  Paris,  was  given  the  abbacy  of  Arbroath  is 
1523  and  became  lord  privy  seal  in  1528;  was 
for  years  Scottish  resident  in  France,  and  in 
1337  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Mirepoix  in 
that  country.  Pope  Paul  III  raised  him  to  the 
cardinalate  in  153S,  and  next  year  be  became 
primate  of  Scotland.  He  bad  much  influence 
with  James  V,  both  of  whose  marriages  be  ne- 
gotiated, and  after  his  death  (1542)  produced 
an  alleged  will  nominating  himself  with  otben 
regents  of  the  kingdom,  but  it  was  set  aside 
and  Arran  appointed  regent;  he  then  set  him> 
self  to  oppose  the  English  par^,  to  which  the 
Reformers  belonged.  After  the  coronation  of 
the  infant  (1543)  Queen  Mary,  he  was  made 
chancellor  and  became  also  legate  a  latere  from 
Rome.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  repudia- 
tion of  the  treaty  of  marriage  between  Edward 
VI  of  England  and  the  young  Queen.  He  now 
began  to  renew  the  pcrsecntion  of  heretics 
(1546),  which  was  political  as  well  as  reli- 
gious, and  among  the  rest  the  famous  Protestant 
preacher  George  Wishart  suffered,  being 
stranded  and  burnt  at  the  stake  on  the  twofold 
charge  of  sedition  and  heresy.  But  a  conspir- 
acy bad  been  formed  against  him  and  he  was 
assassinated  at  his  own  castle  of  Saint  An- 
drews, the  main  instrument  in  the  deed  being 
John    Leslie,  brother  to  the  Earl  of   Rothes. 


He  wfts  a  man  of  grvat  abilitjr,  but  cruel  and  of 
immoral  life.  Recent  historical  research  has, 
however,  somewhat  modified  the  former  se- 
vere judgments  passed  on  his  character. 

BEATRICE,  a  witty,  lively  character  in 
Shakespeare's  'Much  Ado  About  Nothing,* 
who  marries  Benedick  by  the  contrivance  of 
the  friends  of  each. 

BEATRICE,  Neb.,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Ga^e  County,  picturesquely  located  in  a  fertile 
agricultural  district  in  the  valley  of  the  Big 
Blue  River  and  on  several  railroads,  40  miles 
south  of  Lincoln,  the  Slate  capital.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  State  Institution  for  Feeble-Minded 
Yonth;  and  has  a  handsome  coartfaouse, 
United  States  govertiment  building.  Holly  sys- 
tem of  waterworks,  electric  light  and  street 
railway  plants,  public  library,  three  national 
banks,  excellent  water  power,  flour  and  planing 
mills,  tile  and  barbed  wire  works,  creamery. 
Iron  foundry  and  manufactures  of  ^soUne  en- 
^nes,  wind  mills  and  farming  implements. 
Beatrice  was  founded  in  1857  when  it  became 
the  coun^  seat,  was  incorporated  as  a  town, 
1871,  as  a  city,  1873,  and  received  a  new  civic 
charter  in  1901.  The  city  is  administered  by 
the  commission  form  of  government.  Pop. 
9,356. 

BEATRICE  CBNCI,  bi-^-tre'chjl  chin'cbft 


the  subject  of  Shelley's  tragedy  "The  Cend,' 
BEATRICE    PORTINARI,    birv-tre'chi 

ff-t(-oa're,  the  Beatrice  of  rente's  poems: 
about  1266;  d.  1290.  She  was  the  daughter 
of  a  wealthy  citizen  of  Florence,  and  wife  of 
Simone  de  Bardi.  She  was  but  eight  years  of 
aae,  and  Dante  nine,  when  he  met  her  first  at 
the  house  ol  her  father.  He  saw  her  only 
once  or  twice  and  she  probably  knew  little  of 
him.  .  It  is  even  doubtful  whether  they  ever 
spoke  to  each  other.  '  The  story  of  his  love  is 
recounted  in  the  'Vita  Nuova,'  which  was 
mostly  written  after  her  death.  In  the  'Divina 
Commedia*  it  is  the  spirit  of  Beatrice  who  con- 
ducts him  through  Paradise. 

BEATRIX,  bf-g'trTks,  ANTELOPE,  an 
Ar^nan  oryx  (Oryx  beairix),  resembling  the 
beisa  but  without  black  markings  on  the 
haunches.    See  Oryx. 

BEATTIE,  bS't«,  James,  Scotch  poet:  b. 
Kincardineshire,  25  Oct.  1735 ;  d.  Aberdeen,  18 
Aug.  1803.  He  obtained  a  scholarship  at  Aber- 
deen and  subsequently  became  assistant  in  the 
Aberdeen  grammar  school,  and  married  the 
daughter  of  the  head  schoolmaster,  Mary  Dunn. 
After  this  event  he  began  to  be  distinguished 
as  a  writer,  and  in  1771  commenced  the  pub- 
lication of  his  work  called  the  'Minstrel.'  This 
obtained  for  him  the  patronage  of  Lord  Errol 
and  cau9ed  him  to  be  appointed  professor  of 
moral  philosophy  and  logic  in  Marischal  Col- 
lege. In  1765  he  published  a  poem,  the  'Judg- 
ment of  Paris,*  which  failed  of  any  celebrity. 
The  work  which  gained  him  the  greatest  fame 
was  an  'Essay  on  the  Nature  and  Immutability 
of  Truth,'  in  opposition  to  sophistry  and  skep- 
ticism. It  was  designed  as  a  reply  to  Hume, 
and  was  so  much  in  demand  that  in  four  years 
five  latge  editions  were  sold;  and  it  was  trans- 
lated into  several  languages.  He  was  urged 
by  the  archbishop  of  York  and  tlic  bishop  of 


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BEATT  Y  —  BE  AUCHAHP 


London  to  take  orders  in  the  Qiurch  of  Eng- 
land, a  proposal  which  he  declined.  While  in 
London  he  became  intimate  with  Dr.  Johnson, 
Dr.  Porteui,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  who  painted 
his  portrait,  and  other  disiinguiGhcd  characters. 
In  1783  he  published  'Dissertations,  Moral  and 
Critical,'  and  the  'Evidences  of  the  Christian 
Religion,'  written  at  the  request  of  the  bishop 
of  London.  In  1790  he  published  the  first 
volume,  and  in  1793  the  second,  of  his  'Ele- 
ments of  Moral  Science';  subtoined  to  the 
latter  was  a  dissertation  against  the  slave  trade. 
His  two  sons  predeceased  him  and  his  wife 
became  insane. 

BEATTY,  SiK  David.  K.C.B..  M.V.O., 
D.S.O.,  British  admiral:  b.  1871.  He  entered 
the  nay  in  1S84  and  first  saw  active  service  on 
the  Kile  as  a  lieutenant  under  Kitchener  in 
1S98,  when  he  distinguished  himself  as  second 
in  command  of  the  gunboat  flotilla  at  the  foro- 
iitg  of  the  dervishes'  batteries  at  Hafir  while 
exposed  to  heavy  (ire.  His  superior  officer  be- 
ing wounded,  Bcatty  took  command  and  bom- 
barded ihe  enemy  position  at  Dongola  and  dis- 
mounted their  guns.  He  n-as  mentioned  in 
despatches   and   received  the   D.S.O. ;   and  was 


^ain  under  fire  in  the  battles  of  Atbara  and 
Khartum.  He  was  made  commander  and 
decorated  byjhe  Khedive.  In  the  Boxer  re- 
bellion of  1900  he  showed  exceptional  tenaci^ 
in  endeavoring,  with  200  blue-jackets,  to  cap- 
ture two  Chinese  guns  that  were  causing  con- 
siderable trouble  to  the  forces  and  inhabitants 
at  Tientsin.  Thou^  twice  wounded,  he  re- 
peatedly led  his  men  close  up  to  the  guns.  He 
rose  to  captain  in  1900,  was  made  M.V.O.  in 
1905  and  rear-admiral  in  1910.  In  1912  and 
1913  he  was  naval  secretary  to  the  First  Lord 
of  the  Admiralty,  and  in  the  latter  year  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  First  Battle  Cruiser 
Squadron.  The  day  before  Great  Britain  de- 
clared war  on  Germany  he  was  promoted  acting 
vice-admiral.  Beatty's  first  action  against  the 
naw  created  by  "Von  Tirpitz  look  place  in  the 
Biglit  of  Heligoland  in  the  morning  of  28  Aug. 
1914.  Geraian  patrols  had  caused  considerable 
dam^e  Co  fishing  craft  in  the  North  Sea  and 
it  was  decided  to  undertake  an  oficosive  opera- 
tion with  a  view  to  check  the  Gennan  raiders. 
The  operation  consisted  of  a  scooping  move- 
ment, by  which  submarines  and  destroyers  en- 
tered the  Bight  and  attracted  the  enemy's  fire. 
The  German  light  cruisers  were  drawn  into  the 
action,  and  at  a  prearranged  period  Beatty  ap- 
peared on  the  scene  with  his  tattle  cruisers  and 
destroyed  as  many  ships  as  were  unable  to 
escape  under  the  land  fortifications.  Though 
about  60  British  craft  were  engaged,  only  four 
were  hit.  The  Germans  lost  three  cruisers  and 
two  destroyers,  while  other  vessels  were  dam- 
aged. The  British  casualties  were  32  killed  and 
52  wounded ;  about  700  of  the  German  crews 
perished  and  300  were  rescued  and  taken  pris- 
oners. On  24  Jan,  1915  Beat^  fought  an  ac- 
tion in  the  North  Sea  off  the  Dogger  Bank,  in 
which  the  Blacker  (Gennan  armored  cruiser) 
was  sunk  and  only  two  British  vessels  were 
hit.  In  the  battle  of  Jutland  Beatty  engapred 
the  German  high  sea  fleet  with  his  cruiser 
squadron  in  unequal  combat  in  a  desperate  ef- 
fort to  hold  up  the  enemy  tmtil  the  arrival  of 
Sir  John  Jellfcoe's  grand  fleet,  then  about  50 
miles  away  (31  May-1  June  1916).  Two  of 
Beatty's     battle     cruisers,     Indefatigable     and 


Queen  Mary,  were  sunk  and  he  foD^t  with 
e^t  capital  ships  against  at  least  19  of  the 
combined  fleets  of  von  Hipper  and  von  Scheer. 
On  29  Nov.  1917  Beatty  was  ai^nled  com- 
mander of  the  grand  fleet  in  succession  to  Ad- 
miral Jellicoe,  who  became  First  Sea  Lord.  Sec 
Jutland,  Battix  of. 

BEATTY,  John,  American  legislator:  b. 
Bucks  Cbunty,  Pa„  10  Uec  1749;  d.  Trenton. 
N.  J.,  30  May  1826.  He  was  educated  at 
Princeton  and  took  up  the  study  of  medicine 
with  Dr.  Rush  of  Philadelphia.  He  fought  witb 
distinction  through  the  Revolutionaty  War, 
reaching  the  rank  of  colonel;  was  delegate  to 
the  Continental  Congress  in  1783-85;  speaker 
of  the  House;  served  in  the  convention  whicb 
adopted  the  Federal  Constitution;  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Congress  in  1793-95 ;  and  secretary  of 
State  of  New  Jersey  in  1795-180S. 

BEAU  BRUMMEL.   See  Bruhmel,  GEnKx 

BEAUCAIRB,     bo'cSr'.     Hondenr,    tbc 

principal  figure  in  a  story  of  the  same  name  b>- 
Booth  Tarkington  (1900),  drMnatized  1901. 
Beaucaire  is  a  French  pnncc  living  incognito 
in  the  fashionable  society  of  Badi,  England 
near  the  end  of  the  18th  century. 

BEAUCAIRE,  France,  small,  well-built, 
commercial  city,  in  the  department  of  the  Card, 
on  the  Rhone  opposite  Tarascon.  with  which  it 
communicates  by  a  fine  suspension  bridge  at 
the  commencement  of  the  Beaucaire  and 
Algues-Mortes  Canal,  and  connected  with  sev- 
eral lines  of  railway.  It  has  a  commodious 
harbor  for  vessels  which  come  up  by  a  canal 
communicating  with  the  Mediterranean,  seven 
leagues  distant,  and  thus  avoid  the  sand  banlcs 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone;  considerable  com- 
merce and  some  mauufactures ;  but  is  chief!)' 
famous  for  its  great  fair  (founded  in  1217  by 
Raymond  11,  Count  of  Toulouse),  held  yearh- 
from  21  to  ^  July.  In  former  days,  when  ibis 
fair  was  free  from  duties,  it  was  attended  by 
merchants  from  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  even 
from  the  coast  of  Africa,  with  their  goods; 
and  almost  every  kind  of  article,  however  rate, 
was  to  be  nurcluised  here;  though  silks,  wool- 
ens, printed  cottons,  leather,  wool,  wine,  trandy, 
oBve-oil  and  fruits  were  and  are  the  diie'f  ob- 
jects of  sale.  The  numerous  imports  demanded 
since  1532,  foreign  wars  and  the  competition  of 
Marseilles,  Lyons  and  other  large  place*  have 
reduced  the  traffic  of  Beaucaire.  Pop.  abont 
9,000. 

BEAUCHAHP,  bd-shan,  Alphonse  de, 
French  historian  and  publicist :  b,  Monaco  1767; 
d.  Paris,  1  June  1832.  Under  the  EHrectorj' Ht 
had  the  surveillance  of  the  press,  a  position 
which  supplied  him  with  matenals  for  his  'His- 
toid de  La  Vend^  et  des  Chouans'  (1806). 
He  comribnted  to  the  Monitewr  and  the  Go- 
selte  de  France.  Among  his  chief  works  are  . 
the  'History  of  the  Conquest  of  Peru'  (IBOT); 
the  'History  of  BrariP  (1815);  and  the  'Life 
of  Louis  XVIIP  (1821);  'Life  of  Jtiliw 
Cse»flr>  (1821).  The  'Memoirs  of  Foncbe'  is 
also  with  reason  ascribed  to  him. 

BEAUCHAHP,  bich'Sm,  WUHam  Martin, 
American  clergyman  and  author :  b,  Coldcn- 
ham.  N.  Y^  K  Manrh  1830.  Ordained  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  ministty  in  1863,  he  filko 
rectorships  at  Northville,  N.  Y.,  1663-65  mi 
Baldwinsville,  N.  Y.,  186S-I?0a    Suce  1884  bt 


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BEAUCLSRK  — BXAUFOBT  SCALE 


has  been  cxamininf  chaplain  of  the  dioceie  of 
central  New  York.  He  is  archieologist  of  the 
New  Yoric  Slate  Museum  and  member  of  the 
American  Folk-Lore  Society,  president  Syra- 
cuse acricus,  1905-lt^  and  president  of  the 
Onondaga  Academy  of  Science,  1901-02.  He 
made  much  valuable  archKologtcat  research, 
particulariy  concerning  the  Iroquois  Indians. 
He  wns  detaikd  in  1889  by  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  EihnolofO'  to  stirvey  the  Iroqnois 
territory  in  New  York  and  Canada,  and  pre- 

ered  a  map  indicating  the  k>catioii  of  all  the 
own  Indian  sites  in  diat  region.  He  has  pub- 
lished 'The  Iroquois  Trail;  or  Foot-Prints  of 
the  Six  Nations>  (1892);  'Indian  Names  in 
New  York>  (1893) ;  and  a  valuable  series  of 
archxological  studies  published  as  bulletins  of 
the  New  York  State  Museum,  namely,  'Abo- 
riginal Chipped  Stone  Im^dements  of  New 
Yoric*  (1897) ;  'Polished  Stone  Articles  used 
1^  the  New  York  Aborigines  (1897);  'Earth- 
enware of  the  New  York  Aborigines  (1898); 
'Aboriginal  Occupation  of  New  York>  (1900)  ; 
'Horn  and  Bone  Implements  of  the  New  York 
Indians'  (1902);  'Metallic  Implements  of  the 
New  York  Indians'  (1902) ;  'Metallic  Orna- 
ments of  the  New  York  State  Indians'  (1903)  ; 
'History  of  the  New  York  Iroquois*  (1905); 
'Perch  Lake  Mounds'  (1905)  ;  'Aboriginal  Use 
of  Wood  in  New  Yoric'  (1905);  'Civil,  Re- 
ligious and  Mourning  Councils  and  Ceremonies 
of  Adoption'  (1907) ;  'Past  and  Present  Syra- 
cuse and  Onondaga  County'  (1906);  'Revo- 
lutionary Soldiers  of  Onondaga  County' 
(1912). 

BEAUCLRRK,  beldarit,  Topham,  one  of 
Dr.  Johnson's  favorite  friends:  b.  December 
1739;  d.  II  March  1780.  He  was  the  only  son 
of  Lord  Sidney  Beauderk,  third  son  of  the 
first  Duke  of  Saint  Albans,  and  iu  general 
appearance  much  resembled  his  Rrcat-grandr 
(alher,  Charles  II.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  and 
his  ccnversational  talents  so  much  charmed 
Johnson  that  when  "The  Club"  was  founded,  in 
1763,  he  was  one  of  the  nine  members  who 
originally  formed  it.  When  he  went  to  Italy, 
in  Ylfa,  Johnson  wrote  to  his  friend  Baretti, 
warmly  commending  Beauderic  to  his  kindness. 
In  1765  he  accompanied  Johnson  on  a  visit  to 
Cambridge.  A  short  time  before  his  death, 
Johnson  said  of  him :  °^He  is  always  ready  to 
talk,  and  is  never  exbatsted.*  Dunns  his  last 
illness,  Johnson  said  he  would  *walk  to  the 
extent  of  the  diameter  of  tlie  earth  to  save 
Beauderk* ;  and  when  communicating  his  death 
to  Boswdl,  he  said;  *His  wit  and  his  folly, 
his  acuteness  and  malidousDess,  his  merriment 
and  reasomng,  are  now  over.  Such  another 
will  not  often  be  found  among  mankind. "  Con- 
sult Hill,  'Dr.  Johnson:  His  Friends  and  His 
Critics'  (1878). 

^BKAUFORT,  to~f6r,  FndUoiB  de  Ven- 
dome.  Due  be,  French  naval  officer,  grandson 
of  Henry  IV:  b.  Paris,  January  1616;  d  15 
June  IWi.  He  is  peculiarly  known  by  the  con- 
spicuous part  he  took  in  the  civil  war  of  the 
Fronde.  On  the  accession  of  Louis  XIV,  the 
Queen-regent  treated  him  very  favorably,  but 
was  soon  dissatisAed  with  his  impertinent  man- 
ners. Her  displeasure  threw  him  on  the  side 
of  the  malcontents,  and  he  became  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Frondeurs.  He  was  extremely 
popular  with   the  Parisians  and  was   coaie- 


qnently  called  le  roi  dei  holies;  he  exercised 
a  powerful  influence  on  the  common  peoi^ 
against  Cardinal  Maiarin,  who  was  twice  driven 
out  of  France.  He  was  so  great  a  favorite  that 
the  public  subscribed  to  pay  his  debts.  In  1664 
and  1665  he  successfully  led  attacks  against 
the  corsairs  of  Africa;  in  1666  he  was  at  the 
head  of  the  fleet  which  was  to  join  the  Dutch 
to  make  war  against  England;  lastly,  in  1669 
he  went  to  the  assistance  of  the  Venetians, 
then  besieged  by  the  Turks  in  the  island  of 
C^dia,   fought  bravely  and  was  killed  in  a 

BEAUFORT,  bu'f^rt,  or  bo'fert,  Henry, 
English  Caxdinal,  natural  son  of  John  of  Gaunt 
and  half-brother  of  Henry  IV,  King  of  £ng' 
land:  b.  about  1377;  d.  Winchester,  11  April 
1447.  He  became  bishop  of  Lincoln  1398, 
whence  he  was  translated  to  Winchester,  and 
in  1403  was  made  'Chancellor.  In  1426  he  re- 
cdved  a  cardinal's  hat  and  was  appointed  legate 
in  Germany.  In  1431  he  crowned  Henry  VI 
in  Paris.  Shakespeare  depicts  htm  in  his 
'Henry  VI,'  but  it  is  questionable  whether  the 
likeness  Is  true  to  history.  Consult  Radford, 
L.  B.,  "Henry  Beaufort'  (London  1908). 

BEAUFORT,  Morgmret.  English  c 


VII,  King  of  England.     She  was  thi 

married,  namely,  to  Edward  Tudor,  Earl  of 
Richmond,  in  1455;  Henry  Stafford,  son  of  the 
Duke  of  Buckingham,  and  to  Lord  Stanley,  a 
minister  of  Edward  IV.  In  the  Wars  of  the 
Roses  she  and  her  son  Henry  became  more  or 
less  dangerous  to  the  Yorkists'and  were  for  a 
long  time  in  retirement  or  exile. 

BEAUFORT,  N.  C,  dty,  port  of  entry  and 
county-seat  of  Carteret  County,  at  the  mouth 
of  Newport  River,  167  miles  cast  of  Raleigh, 
on  the  Norfolk  Southern  Railroad.  The  har- 
bor here,  defended  by  Fort  Macon,  is  the  finest 
in  the  State.  Beaufort  is  a  summer  resort,  has 
a  munidpal  electric  lighting  plant,  fishing  in- 
dustries and  manufactures  oil.  At  Cape  Look- 
out, 11  miles  to  the  southeait,  is  a  lighthouse 
156  feet  high.     Pop.  2,483. 

BEAUFORT,  S.  C,  town  and  counhr-seat 
of  Beaufort  County;  on  the  Beaufort  River, 
which  connects  with  the  fine  harbor  of  Port 
Royal  Sound,  and  on  the  Charleston  &  W.  C. 
ftaiiroad;  15  miles  from  the  ocean  and  80  miles 
southwest  of  C^harleston.  It  is  midway  between 
Charleston  and  Savannah ;  has  an  excellent 
harbor  and  is  the  centre  of  the  phosphate  and 
tertiliier  trade  of  the  State.  It  was  founded 
in  1711,  and  for  matiy  years  prior  to  the  Civil 
War  was  a  noted  health  and  pleasure  resort, 
especially  for  the  cotton  planters  interested  in 
the  plantations  on  the  adjoining  Sea  Islands. 
It  is  still  a  popular  summer  and  winter  resort, 
principally  engaged  in  phosphate  mining,  and 
with  large  exports  of  cotton,  yellow  pine  and 
cypress  lumber,  rice  and  sweet  potatoes.  The 
national  cemetery  and  the  "Old  Fort'  ar<  the 
chief  objects  of  interest.  Beaufort  was  first 
incorporated  in  1803.  The  town  is  governed 
under  the  commission- manager  plan.  Pop.  2,486. 

BEAUFORT  SCALE,  an  instrument  for 
measuring  ihe  apparent  force  of  the  wind,  so 
called  from  Admiral  Beaufort  who  introduced 
it  into  the  Ei^Iish  navy  about  1805.    It  is  .qow 


Cioogle 


BEAUGBHCY  —  BEAUHARNAIS 


... I  use  afflonK  navigators.     Thirteen 

numbers  are  embracea  in  the  scale,  ratiginK 
from  0  to  12:  0=calmT  l-3  =  li^t  breeze; 
4-5  =  moderate  wind;  6-7^stronB  wind; 
8-9=:gale;  10-ll  =  storm;   12  =  hurncane. 

BBAUGENCY,  b5-zhdA-se,  France,  a  town 
in  the  department  of  Loiret,  16  miles  southwest 
of  Orleans,  on  a  hill  above  the  Loire,  here 
crossed  by  a  stone  bridgfe  of  26  arches.  The 
town  was  formerly  surrounded  by  a  wall 
flanked  by  towers  and  bastions,  parts  of  which 
still  remain.  The  square  donjon  tower  of  Beau- 
gency,  115  feet  high,  is  a  remarkable  structure 
of  hi^  antiquity,  probably  of  the  lOOi  or  11th 
century.  A  statue  of  Joan  of  Arc,  imveited 
in  1896,  commemorates  her  victory  over  the 
English  in  1429.  The  articles  manufactured 
here  are  principalljr  cloth  and  leather.  There 
are  also  some  distilleries  and  a  considerable 
trade  in  wine.  In  the  Franco-German  War 
General  Chaniy  was  defeated  here  by  the 
Grand-Duke  of  Mecklenburg  on  7  and  8  Dec. 
1870.    Pop.  3,500. 

BBAUHARHAIS,  bb-ii-nl,  Alexwdra, 
VicoMTE  Bt  French  soldier;  h.  Island  of 
Martinique  1760;  d  Paris,  23  July  1794.  He 
served  with  distinction  as  major  in  the  French 
forces  under  Rochambeau  which  aided  the 
United  States  in  their  Revolutionary  War,  and 
married  Josephine  Tascher  de  la  Pagerie,  after- 
ward'the  first  wife  of  Napoleon.  At  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  French  Revolution  he  was  chosen 
a  member  of  the  National  Assembly,  of  which 
he  was  for  some  time  president,  and  which  he 
opened,  after  the  King's  departure,  with  the 
following  words :  ^Mcsiieurs,  It  rot  est  parti 
cetle  nutt:  passom  i  I'ordrt  du  jour.*  In  1792 
he  was  general  of  the  array  of  the  Rhine,  but 
retired  m  1793  in  consequence  of  the  decree 
removing  men  of  noble  birth  from  the  army. 
He  was  falsely  accused  of  having  promoted 
the  surrender  of  Mainz,  was  sentenced  to  death 
and  guillotined.  His  children,  Eugene  and 
Hortense  (q.v.),  were  adopted  by  Napoleon  o'h 
the  letter's  marriage  to  Beauharnais'  widow. 


Feb.  1824.  He  was  the  son  of  Alexandre 
Beauharnais^  who  was  guillotined  in  1794,  and 
Josephine   Tascher    de   la   Pagerie,    afterward 


the  military  service,  and  after  his  father's. 
death  joined  Hoche  in  La  Vendee,  and  subse- 
quently studied  for  a  time  in  Paris.  In  1796 
his  mother  was  married  to  Napoleon  Bonaparte, 
then  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of  Italy, 
and  Eugene  accompanied  the  great  warrior  u) 
his  campaigns  in  Italy  and  Egypt  In  1805  he 
was  created  a  prince  of  France  and  viceroy  of 
Italy,  and  after  the  peace  of  13  Jan.  1806,  mar- 
ried the  Princess  Augusta  Amelia  of  Bavaria. 
In  1807  Napoleon  made  him  Prince  of  Venice 
and  declared  him  his  heir  to  the  kingdom  of 
Italy.  He  administered  the  government  of 
Italy  with  great  prudence  and  moderation  and 
was  much  beloved  by  his  subjects.  He  con- 
ducted himself  with  great  prudence  on  the  oc- 
casion of  the  divorce  of  Napoleon  from  his 
mother.  In  the  disastrous  retreat  from  Mos- 
cow he  did  not  desert  the  wrecks  of  his  di- 
vision for  a  moment,  but  shared  its  toils  and 
dangers    with    the    soldiers,    and    encouraged 


them  by  his  examine.  To  him  and  to  Ney 
France  was  indebted  for  the  pretervatian  of 
the  remaiits  of  her  army  during  that  fatal  re- 
treat On  the  departure  of  Napoleon  and 
Uunit  he  was  left  in  the  chief  command  and 
showed  great  talent  at  that  dangerous  con- 
juncture, and  at  the  battle  of  Lutien,  2  May 
1813,  by  surrounding  the  right  witig  of  tbe 
enemy,  he  decided  the  fate  of  the  day.  Napo- 
leon sent  him  from  Dresden  to  the  defense  of 
Italy,  and  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon  he  coo- 
cluded  an  atmistice  with  Count  BcUegarde,  l^ 
which  he  delivered  Lomban^  and  all  upper 
Italy  to  the  Austrians.  Eugene  then  went  im- 
mediatelv  to  Paris  and  thence  to  his  father-in- 
law  at  Munich.  He  was  at  the  COnffress  of 
Vienna.  On  the  return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba 
he  was  obliged  to  leave  Vienna  and  retire  to 
Baireuth.  By  an  ordinance  of  the  King  of 
Bavaria,  his  father-in-law,  he  was  created 
Duke  of  L«uchtenberg,  November  1817.  The 
Bavarian  principally  of  Eichst&dt  was  be> 
stowed  upon  him  and  his  posterity  declared 
capable  of  inheriting  in  case  of  the  failure  of 
the  Bavarian  line.  Prince  Eugfaie,  under  a 
simple  exterior,  concealed  a  noble  character 
and  great  talents.  Honor,  integrity,  humanity 
and  love  of  order  and  justice  were  the  prin- 
cipal traits  of  his  character.  Wise  in  the  coun- 
cil, undaunted  in  Ote  field  and  moderate  m  the 
exercise  of  power,  he  never  appeared  greater 
than  in  the  midst  of  reverses.  Consiut  An* 
briet,  'Vie  politique  et  militaire  d' Eugene 
Beauharnais,  vice-roi  d'ltalie,'  and  Masson,  F., 
'Napoleon  et  sa  famille'   (Paris  1900). 

BKAUHARNAIS,  Francois,  Uakquis  K, 
French  noUeman :  b.  La  Rochelle,  12  Aug.  1756; 
d.  Paris,  10  June  1819.  He  violently  opposed 
the  motion  of  his  yoimger  brother,  die  Viscount 
Alexandre,  to  take  from  the  King  the  chief 
command  of  the  army,  and  would  not  listen  to 
any  of  the  amendments  proposed,  saying,  */t 
n'y  a  point  d'amtudemtnt  avec  fkoimemr*  H« 
was  called  in  conseauence  of  diis,  Le  iial  Bta»- 
kamau  latu  amenJfmtnt.  In  1792  ne  fomied 
the  project  of  a  new  flight  of  the  royal  family; 
but  the  arrest  of  his  companion,  the  BaroD 
Chambon,  prevented  the  execution  of  the  plan. 
He  was  appointed  major-general  in  the  am^ 
of  the  Pnnce  of  Condi,  and  wrote,  in  1792, 
to  the  president  of  the  National  Assembly,  pro- 
testing against  their  oolawful  treatment  of  the 
King  ana  offering  to  appear  hinself  among  his 
defenders.  When  Bonaparte  became  First  Con- 
sul the  Manims  sent  him  a  letter,  in  which  be 
exhorted  him,  by  the  glory  which  he  would  gain 
by  such  a  course,  to  restore  the  sceptre  to  the 
bouse  of  Bourbon.  Having  at  last  rect^iied 
the  Emperor  he  was  sent  by  him  as  ambo^ador 
to  Florence  and  Madrid;  but  having  afterward 
fallen  into  disgrace  he  was  banished. 

BEAUHARNAIS,  Hortenae  Eugenie, 
wife  of  Louis  Bonaparte  and  Queen  of  Hot- 
land:  b.  Paris,  10  April  1783;  d.  Arenberg, 
Switzerland,  3  Oct.  1837.  She  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  Alexandre  Beauharnais  and  Jos^hinc, 
afterward  wife  of  Napoleon.  She  was  to  have 
married  Desaix;  but  on  7  Jan.  1802,  in  com- 
pliance with  the  wish  of  Napoleon,  became  the 
wife  of  his  younger  brother  Louis,  who  also 
gave  up  a  former  attachment  for  the  natnigt- 
The  union  was  not  happy  and  Hortense  r 
turned  to  Paris  and  liveif  a '   '^' 


Coo 


BBAULIKU  —  BBAUMABCHAIS 


801 


apart  from  her  tuisband,  wha  vainly  endeavontd 
to  procure  a  divorce.  Proniuent  amoi^;  her 
lovers  was  the  Comte  de  Fhkfaaut  tor  whom 
she  composed  her  popular  air,  'Pariant  pour 
ia  Syri€,'  as  he  was  leaving  Paris  for  Geitnany, 
and  Admiral  Veruel,  a  Dutdi  naval  officer.  The 
former  is  beUered  to  have  beoi  tke  fatfaer  of 


he  KTtatiy  aided  in  beconiner  emperor;  and  to 
the  latter  is  attributed  the  paternity  of  Napoleon 
III  himself.  It  is  known  that  Louis  Booapartc 
had  a  warm  dispute  with  his  brother,  the  Em- 
peror, touching  tnis  child,  which  he  averred  to 
be  none  of  his,  and  that  his  imwilljngness  to 
recognize  it  as  such  was  only  overcome  by  the 
most  decided  measures  on  the  part  of  Napoleon. 
The  first  child  of  Horlense,  Napoleon  Qiarles, 
^ed  in_1807  at  the  age  of  five.  After  the  sep- 
aration of  Napoleon  and  Josephine,  Hortense 
remained  on  intimate  terms  with  the  former. 
When  the  Bourbons  came  badt  in  1814  ^e 
atone  of  all  the  Bonaparte  family  remained  in 
Paris.  After  the  Hundred  Days  she  lived  in 
Augsburg,  in  Italy,  and  in  Switzerland,  de- 
voted to  her  sons  and  greatly'  beloved  by  the 
pec^]le  with  whom  she-came  in  contact,  who 
fouad  her  a  kind  and  gentle  benefactress. 
When  ber  sons  ^ad  to  flee,  after  participating 
in  an  unsuccessful  attempt  at  revolution  in 
Italy  in  1831,  she  went  for  a  time  to  Paris  and 
was  kindly  received  by  Louis  Pbiliiipe.  She 
possessed  much  Uterary  as  well  as  social  talent. 
BIIAULIEU,  bo-ty£,  Jean  Pierre,  Austrian 
military  officer:  b.  Namur,  26  Oct.  1725;  d. 
near  Lmz,  Austria,  22  Dec.  1819.  He  served  in 
the  Seven  Years'  War;  was  promoted  a  major- 

Sneral  for  his  successful  operations  aoainst 
e  Belgian  insurgents  in  1789;  commanded  at 
Jemappcs  in  1792;  was  defeated  by  Napoleon 
tn  179^  while  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces 
irv  Italy,  in  the  battles  of  Montenotte,'  MiU- 
esitno,  Montesano,  Mondovi  and  Lodi. 

BBAULIEU,  bull,  England,  village  in 
Hampshire,  Eosland,  six  miles  southwest  of 
Southampton.  It  contains  the  remains  of  an 
abbey  founded  by  King  John  and  much  visited 
by  students  of  medieval  architecture.  Within 
the  limitE  of  Beaulieu  Manor  exemption  from 
arrest    for  debt  was  enjoyed  till  very  recent 

BBAUHARCHAI$.     bd-mar-sha,     I>i«rTe 


maker  named  Caron  who  destined  him  for  his 
trade.  He  early  gave  striking  proofs  of  his 
mechanical  and  aba  of  his  musical  talents.-  He 
becanie  teacher  of  the  harp  to  the  daughters  of 
Louis  XV  and  was  admitted  to  their  society. 
A  faandsome  man  of  good  address,  he  was  very 
fortunate  in  his  love  affairs  and  married  two 
wealthy  widows  in  succession-  He  added  to 
his  wealth  by  successful  commercial  ventares. 
He  published  in  1767  ^Eugenie,*  and  in  1776, 
<Les  Deux  Amis' — two  dramas  of  tihe  sent)- 
mental  bonrgems  type,  the  former  of  whidi 
frtill  holds  a  place  on  the  stage.  But  all  his 
theatrical  pieces  were  merely  tiu  recreations  of 
a  man  of  affairs  bent  on  raaldng  his  fortune 
and  desirous  at  all  hazards  to  keep  himself  in 
front  of  the  public  His  rise  to  literary  fame 
was  sudden  «nd  resulted  from  his  appearance 


in  a  Suit  for  15,000  livres  which  he  claimed  as 
doe  to  him  as  surviving  partner  in  a  specula- 
tion. He  made  his  amiea.1  to  tlie  public  m  four 
'Uiraoires,'  in  whicn  humor,  serious  argu- 
ment, irony  and  eloquence  were  combined  vrith 
dramatic  talent,  which  added  much  to  the  ^ety 
of  France  and  are  said  to  have  occasioned 
pangs  of  jealous  envv  in  Vohaire.  *The  Bar- 
ber of  Seville,'  developed  from  a  comic  opera 
to  a  comedy  in  five  acts,  wat  given  after  long 
delays  in  1775,  and  its  abondant  gaiety,  pointed 
with  wit.  folly  established  its  author's  fame.  % 
the  purchase  of  official  posts  be  raised  himself 
to  tbe  ranks  of  the  notMiity.  'Nobody  can  deny 
my  title  to  noble  rank;*  said  he,  "because  I 
hold  a  receipt  for  it.*  During  the  American 
Revolutionary  War  he  acted  as  an  intermediary 
betweten  the  French  and  Spanish  governments 
and  the  American  insurgents  under  the  firm 
name  of  Rodrigue,  Hortafcz  and  Company.  He 
built  up  a  great  fleet  of  ships,  of  which  one 
vessel,  the  Fier  Rodrigue,  took  part  in  an  en- 
gagement But  this  enterprise  was  by  no  means 
profitable:  it  was  only  in  1895  that  his  family 
received  from  the  American  government  800,- 
000  franca  for  claims  which  in  1793  had 
been  admitted  at  3,000,000.  'The  Mar- 
riage of  Figaro,'  a  seauel.to  'The  Barber  of 
Seville,'  was  completed  in  1778,  but  owing  to 
royal  opposition  it  was  not  permitted  to  appear 
until  1/84.  Its  long  proscription  had  whetted 
the  public  appetite  to  see  it  performed,  and  so 

Seat  was  the  crowd  assembled  to  witness  its 
St  representation  that  three  persons  were 
crushed  to  death.  It  depicits  the  resourceful- 
ness with  which  a  daring  valet  disputes  the 
claim  of  a  libertine  lord  for  the  possession  of 
his  betrothed.  In  Figaro  the  author  drew  him- 
self. The  eatahUshed  order  is  ridiculed  in  a 
brilliant  cascade  of  wit;  the  mordant  attacks  on 
the  nobles  and  the  privileged  classes,  interpret- 
ing the  feelings  of  the  people,  excited  them  so 
much  that  Beaumarchaas,  with  Voltaire  and 
Rousseau,  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  ihe  au- 
thors of  the  Revolution.  Napoleon's  testimony 
i&  emphatic  on  that  point.  But  Bcaumarchais 
wrote  with  no  political  end  in  view.  In  1792 
he  wrote  'La  Mire  Coupabte,'  but  never  re- 
gained his  former  fame.  His  last  work  was 
'Mes  six  ^oques,'  in  which  he  relates  the 
dangers  to  which  he  was  exposed  in  a  revolu- 
tion in  which  a  celebrated  name,  talent  and 
riches  were  sufficient  causes  of  proscription. 
He  lost  about  1,000,000  livres  by  his  famous 
edition  of  the  works  of  Voltaire  (178S)  and 
still  more  at  the  end  of  1792  by  his  attempt 
to  provide  the  French  army  with  60,000  mus- 
kets. During  his  absence  his  property  was  con- 
fiscated, his  third  wife  imprisoned  and  he 
classed  among  the  ^igrfs.  In  1809  an  edition 
of  his  works  appear^  in  seven  volumes;  a 
later  edition  in  one  volume  came  out  in  1835. 
Beaomarchais  was  a  singular  instance  of  ver- 
satility of  talent,  being  at  once  an  artist,  poli- 
tician, projector,  merchant  and  dramatist.  See 
Marri/Ige  of  Pigabo,  The;  Barber  ov  Seville, 
The.  Consult  Lom^nie,  'Bcaumarchais  et  son 
temps'  (English  translation  1856);  'Beaumar- 
-*■— ~ '  (1887)  ;  'Histoire  de  Beau- 


marchais'  (1886)  ;  Lescure,  'Eloge  de  Bcau- 
marchais' (1887);  Bonnefou,  ?Etude  sur 
Beaomarchais'  (1887) ;  Haliays,  'Bcaumarchais' 
(1897). 

Mitizcri.v  Google 


BKAUUARIS  —  BEAUMONT 


BBAUHAKIS,  bd-mar'is,  north  Walea, 
seaport  town  Isle  of  Anglesey.  It  is  situated 
on  the  west  shore  of  the  Menai  Strait,  near  its 
junction  with  the  Irish  Sea,  where  it  expands 
into  a  good  roadstead  called  Beaumaris  Bay. 
It  consists  of  several  well-paved  streets;  houses 
in  general  good,  particularly  in  the  principal 
street,  terminated  by  the  ancient  castle  of  Beau- 
maris, erected  h^  Edward  I ;  while  many  mod- 
cm  dwellings  of  very  handsome  appearance 
have  lately  been  erected.  The  chief  public 
buildings,  exclusive  of  the  churches,  are  the 
town-hall,  a  commodious  and  handsome  edifice ; 
the  grammar-school,  police  ofBce  and  public 
librarv.  The  chief  place  of  worship  is  the 
church  of  Saint  Mary,  a  spacious  and  elegant 
structure  in  the  later  style  o£  English  archi- 
tecture, with  a  lofty,  square  embattled  tower; 
and  several  chapels.  The  harbor  is  safe  and 
commodious  and  ma^^  be  entered  at  any  state 
of  the  tide.  Beaumaris  is  now  a  favorite  water- 
ing place.  It  has  steamship  communication  with 
Liverpool.    Pop.  ^231. 

B1 

lisha;  ..  _ 

d.  7  Feb.  1827.  He  possessed  considerable  skill 
as  a  landscape  painter,  but  was  noted  more 
especially  as  a  munificent  patron  of  the  arts. 
The  establishment  of  the  National  Gallery  was 
mainly  owing  to  his  exertions,  and  16  of  its 
fine  paintings,  chiefly  landscapes,  including  one 
by  N.  Poussiti,  three  by  Claude  and  the  "Blind 
Fiddler"  of  Wilkie,  were  his  gifts.  Words- 
worth dedicated  to  him  his  'Elegiac  Musings* 
tl330). 

BEAUMONT,  bo-mon,  GusUve  Atwuste 
de  la  Bonni^re  de,  French  publicist  i  b,  16  Feb. 
1802;  d.  Tours,  6  Feb.  1866.  He  early  entered 
ui)on  the  legal  profession,  and,  in  1831,  was  sent 
with  De  Tocqueville  to  study  the  penitentiary 
system  of  the  United  States.  He  was  elected 
deputy  in  1839,  and,  in  1848,  vice-president  of 
the  Constituent  Assembly.  He  was  subsequently 
Ambassador  to  London  and  Vienna.  Beaumont 
first  became  known  as  a  writer  by  his  publish- 
ing, in  conjunction  with  M.  de  Tocqueville, 
'Traite  du  syst^me  p^nitentiaire  aux  Etats- 
Unis  et  de  son  application  a  la  France'  (1832). 
Among  his  other  works  may  be  named,  'Marie, 
ou  I'esclavage  aux  Eiats-Unis»  (1835)  —a 
work  somewhat  resembling  "Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin' ;  and  'L'Irlande  sociale,  politique,  et 
rcligicuse'  (1839).  __  

BEAUMONT,  Sir  John,  EngUsh  poet: 
elder  brother  of  Francis  Beaumont :  b.  Leices- 
tershire 1583;  d.   19  April  1627.     He  studied  at 


estates  on  Uie  death  of  hii  elder  brother.  He 
began  writing  poetry  at  a  comparatively  early 
age,  and  in  1602  published  anonymously  a  mock- 
heroic  piece  entitled  'The  Metamorphosis  of 
Tobacco.'  A  long  poem  entitled  'The  Crown 
of  Thorns'  was  lost  in  manuscript  form.  He 
was  created  a  baronet  in  1626,  died  the  follow- 
ing year  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
In  1629  his  son,  Sir  John,  published  a  collec- 
tion of  his  poems  under  the  title  'Bosworth 
Field,  with  a  Taste  of  the  Variety  of  other 
Poems  left  by  Sir  John  Beaumont,' 

BEAUMONT,   Joneph,    Engtith   poet:    b. 
Hadleigh,  Suffolk,  13  March  1616;  d.  23  Nov. 


16».  He  vras  educated  at  Peterhonsc  Coll^ 
Cambridge,  where  he  gained  great  distinction. 
Elected  a  fellow  in  1636^  he  was  ejected  with 
others  in  1644  owing  to  royalist  sympathies, 
and  while  living  in  retirement  wrote  'Psyche,' 


epic  poem  (1648).  On  the  restoration  of  lb 
monarchy  be  became  a  royal  chaplain,  and  after 
a  brief  term  as  master  of  Jesus  College  he  was 
appointed,  in  1663,  master  of  Peteiiiouse.  He 
received  the  Regius  professorship  of  divinity  at 
Cambridge  in  1674. 

BEAUMONT,  JoKph,  English  Wesleyar 
clergyman :  b.  Castle  Dowington,  19  Mareh 
1794;  d.  Hull,  21  Jan.  1855.  He  was  educaied 
in  the  Wesleyan  school  at  Kingswood,  was  con- 
verted there  and  spent  some  time  in  the  study 
of  medicine.  He  soon  entered  the  ministij 
and  in  1813  was  received  on  trial  by  the  con- 
ference. An  impediment  in  his  speech  greatly 
hindered  his  success,  but  by  severe  exercise  he 
overcame  it  and  became  an  effective  preacher. 
For  manj'  ('ears  he  was  one  of  the  most  popu- 
lar pulpit  and  platform  speakers  in  Great 
Britain. 

BEAUMONT,. WillUm,  American  sumoo: 
b.  Lebanon,  Conn,  1785;  d.  Saint  Louis,  25 
April  1853.  He  is  principally  noted  for  his  dis- 
coveries regarding  the  laws  of  digestion  and 
for  his  experiments  upon  the  body  of  Alexis 
Sl  Martin.  In  1822  Beaumont  was  stationed 
at  Uichillimackinac,  Mich.  C>n  6  June,  Sl 
Martin,  a  young  man  IS  years  of  age,  in  the 
service  of  the  American  Fur  Company,  was 
accidentally  shot,  receiving  the  whole  charge 
of  a  musket  in  fais  left  side,  from  a  distance 
of  about  one  yard,  carrying  with  it  portions  of 
his  clothing  and  fracturing  two  ribs,  lacerating 
the  lungs  and  entering  the  stomach.  Notmith- 
standing  the  severity  of  the  wound,  BeaumoDi 
undertook  his  cure,  and  by  careful  and  con- 
stant .  treatment  and  attention  the  following 
year  found  him  enjoying  good  health,  with  his 
former  strength  and  spirits.  In  1825  Beaumont 
began  a  series  of  experiments  upon  the  stomach 
of  St  Martin,  showing  its  operations,  secre- 
tions, the  action  of  the  gastric  juices,  etc;  these 
experiments  he  was  obliged  to  discontinue  after 
a  tew  months,  but  renewed  them  at  various  in- 
tervals until  his  death ;  his  patient  during  so 
many  years  presenting  tihe  remarkable  s^tacle 
of  a  man  enjoying  good  health,  appetite  and 
spirits,  with  an  aperture  opening  into  his  stom- 
ach two  and  a  half  inches  in  circumference, 
through  which  the  whole  action  of  the  stomach 
might  be  observed. 

BEAUMONT,  Texas,  city  and  oounty-seai 
of  Jefferson  County,  situated  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Neches  River,  on  the  Southern  PKifc, 
Sabine,  and  East  Texas,  Gulf.  Colorado  and 
Santa  Fi,  Gulf  and  Interstate,  Kansas  City 
Southern  and  Beaumont,  Sour  Lake  and  West- 
ern railroads,  80  miles  northeast  of  Houston 
and  22  miles  distant  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Beaumont  is  an  important  shipping  point,  is 
at  the  head  of  tidewater  navigation  and  has 
a  number  of  important  industries,  among  which 
are  oil  refineries,  rice  mills,  stove  and  iron 
works  and  lumber.  Oil  was  discovered  in  the 
Beaumont  fields  in  1901.  when  there  was  opened 
up  a  scries  of  gushers,  the  most  remaTkabk 
in  the  history  of  the  oil  induMiy.  Thai  oil 
was  there  bad  long  been  known  and  several 


Google 


BBAUMONT  AND  PLBTCHBR 


men  had  lost  fortnius  tiying  to  get  at  it,  but 
it  was  not  until  the  wellt  were  sank  on  Spindle 
Top    that    success    came.     Tbe    Btnicture    of 
Spindle  Top  appears  to  be  that  of  a  dome  with 
steep  sides  and  rather  flat  summit.    The  equip' 
ment  of  the  refineries,  the  pipe  lines  and  trans' 
poitation  and  stora^  facilities  for  this  industi; 
alone  represent  an  investment  of  over  $45,000,- 
00(X     Tbe  lumber  industry  has  assumed  great 
proportions,  the  city  being  the  natural  head- 
quarters for  this  business,  and  tbe  annual  out- 
put now  exceeds  360,000,000  feet  of  yellow  pine. 
The  cultivation  of  rice  was  begun  some  years 
ago;    the   belt   extending  along  the   coast   of 
Louisiana  and  Texas  produces  more  rice  than 
is  consumed  in  this  country,  and  the  largest  rice 
'  mill  in  Texas  is  located  at  Beaumont.    Among 
the  most  notable  public  buildings  are  the  new 
Federal   courthouse  and  post-office,  costing 
over  $200,000,  the  Jefierson  County  courthouse, 
city  hall,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building  and  the  Sisters' 
Hospital,       Religious     services     are     held    in 
churches  representing  nearly  al)  denominations. 
A  theatre  has  been  erected  at  a  cost  of  about 
$100,000.     There  are  four  banks,  with  a  com- 
bined capital  of  $600,000  and  doing-  an  annual 
business  of  $25,000,000.    For  the  public  educa-  ■ 
tion    there    are   a    fine   new   high   school   with 
manual  training  department  and  several  ward 
schools.     Bell  Austin  Institute  is  located  there. 
About  20  miles  of  street  arc  paved  with  brick 
and  shell ;  a  complete  sewerage  system  has  boen 
installed ;   a  new  waterworks   system  has  been 
completed  at  a  cost  of  over  $300,000;  and  there 
arc  well-appointed  fire  and  police  departments. 
Beaumont  was  first  settled  in  1836,  being  plot- 
ted  by    John    Grisby,   Joseph    Pulsifer,    Henry 
Millard  and  Thomas  B.  Huling.    It  was  incor- 
porated   under   the    general    law   in   1881    and 
granted  a  special  charter  in  1889,  the  alTairs 
of  the  community  now  being  administered  by  a 
mayor  and  council  of  six  members,  elected  bi- 
enriaHy.     About  80  per  cent  of  the  population 
are  white,  the  remainder  negroes.    Pop,  20,640. 
BKAUUONT  AND  FLETCHEK.    Beau- 
moot,  Francis,  b.  1584;  d.  1616;  Fletcher,  John, 
b.  1579;  d.  1^5:   EngCsh  poets  and  dramatists, 
well  known  for  their  work  in  collaboration. 

Francis  Beaumont,  third  son  of  Sir  Francis 
Beaumont  of  Grace  Dieu  in  Leicester,  one  of 
the  ju&tices  of  the  Common  Pleas,  was  admitted 
gentleman  commoner  at  Broadgates  Hall,  Ox- 
ford, in  1597,  and  was  entered  at  the  Inner 
Temple,  London,  3  Nov.  1600.  He  married  Ur- 
sula, dauehler  of  Henry  Isley  of  Sundridge, 
Kent,  probably  in  1613,  and  left  two  dau^ters, 
.one  a  posthumous  child.  He  was  buned  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

John  Fletcher,  son  of  Richard  Fletcher, 
bishop  of  London,  was  entered  as  a  pensioner 
at  Bene't  College,  Cambridge,  1591,  His  father, 
as  dean  of  Peterborough,  attended  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots  at  Fotheringay,  and  was  later  rapidly 
promoted  to  the  sees  of  Bristol,  Worcester  and 
London.  He  was  a  successful  courtier  and  a 
favorite  of  the  Queen,  though  he  suffered  a  loss 
of  favor  shortly  before  his  death  in  1596,  The 
dramatist  received  by  bequest  a  share  in  his 
father's  books,  but  apparently  little  other  prop- 
erty. He  was  buried  29  Aug.  1^5,  in  Saint 
Saviour's,   South wark. 

Although  the  biographical  details  of  the 
friendsbip  and  eollaboiation  of  the  two  dram- 


atists are  involved  in  uncertainty,  it  seems  prob- 
able that  Fletcher  began  writing  plays  for  the 
London  theatres  as  early  as  1604-OS,  and  that 
his  friendship  with  Beaumont  was  established 
by  1607,  when  both  prefixed  commendatory 
verses  to  Jonson's  'VolpoDe,>  and  *The  Woman 
Hater,'  probably  by  Beaumont  alone,  was  pub- 
lished In  1612,  in  the  address  to  the  reader 
preAxed  to  the  'White  Devil,'  Webster  praises 
'the  no  less  worthy  composures  of  the  both 
worthily  excellent  Master  Beaumont  and  Master 
Fletcher,*  ranking  them  on  equal  terms  with 
such  scholars  and  experienced  dramatists  as 
Chapman  and  Jonson,  and  apparently  above 
Shakespeare,  Dekker  and  Heywood  Before 
I&IZ  the  reputation  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher 
as  dramatists  must  have  been  well  established. 

By  1612,  indeed,  the  work  of  their  collabora- 
tion was  accomplished,  for  there  is  no  direct 
evidence  that  Beaumont  wrote  anything  for  the 
public  sta^e  after  that  date  The  most  famous 
collaboration  in  the  history  of  English  litera' 
ture,  therefore,  comprises  only  some  half  dozen 
years.  During  this  time  the  dramatists,  we 
are  told,  lived  as  brothers,  sharing  everything 
an;  and  so  intimate  was  tneir  associa- 
wnters  that  it  is  only  recently  that 
has  been  able  to  separate  their  shares 
in  the  authorship  of  the  plays  with  any  degree 
of  probability.  Fletcher's  energies  seem  to  have 
been  devoted  exclusively  to  the  theatre;  but 
Beaumont  wrote  verses  to  the  Countess  of  Rut- 
land, and  ei^es  on  the  Lady  Markham,  Lady 
Penelope  Clifton,  and  the  Countess  of  Rut- 
land ;  and  also  a  masque  for  tbe  Lady  Eliza- 
beth's marriage  in  1613,  performed  with  great 
splendor  b^  the  gentlemen  of  the  Inner  Temple 
and  Grays  Inn.  'Salmacis  and  Hermaphro- 
ditus,'  1602,  may  possibly  have  been  written 
by  him ;  it  is  so  assi(jned  in  the  entry  of  1639 
in  the  Stationer's  Register.  Eight  plays  may  be 
assigned  to  this  period  before  1612  with  consid- 
erable certainty,  each  being  the  result  of  collab- 
oration except  where  the  contrary  is  indicated ; 
'The  Woman  Hater'  (by  Beaumont  alone); 
'The  Knight  of  the  Burning  Pestle'  (Beau- 
mont) ;  the  'Faithful  Shepherdess'  (Fletcher)  ; 
'Philaster' ;  'The  Coxcomb' ;  'The  Maid's 
Tragedy':  'Cupid's  Revenge';  *A  King  and 
No  King,'  Eight  other  plays  may  be  assigned 
before  1612  with  more  or  less  probability:  'The 
Woman's  Prize'  (Fletcher)  ;  'Wit  at  Several 
Weapons'  (first  version);  'Love's  Cure'; 
'Thicrty  and  Theodorct' ;  'Monsieur  Thomas' ; 
'Four  Plays  in  One';  'The  Scornful  Lady'; 
'The  Captain.' 

The  brief  period  of  their  collaboration  came  ' 
at  the  climax  of  the  astonishingly  rapid  and 
varied  development  of  the  Elizabethan  drama. 
It  was  during  these  years  that  Jonson  and 
Shakespeare  were  at  their  greatest ;  but  a  grow- 
ing critical  consciousness  among  the  dramatists 
themselves  and  an  increasing  patronage  from 
the  court  seemed  to  promise  for  the  drama  a 
future  even  greater  in  achievement  than  its 
past.  Gentlemen  by  birth  and  breeding,  at- 
tached to  the  court  rather  than  the  people,  Beau- 
mont and  Fletcher  naturally  joined  with  Jon- 
son in  viewing  the  plays  of  their  predecessors 
with  critical,  thoui^  doubtless  appreciative 
minds,  and  in  seeking  for  a  more  cultivated 
audience  and  a  more  critical  art,  Thnr  atti- 
tude toward  the  preceding  drama  is  indicated 
by  ibeir  abandonment  of  several  species  long 


gle 


BXAUHOMT  AND  PLBTCHBR 


popular  but  by  this  tbne  fatliiw  under  Joomm's 
atucks.  Beaumont  and  Ftetc£er  in  thor  col- 
bboration  made  no  use  of  Che  historical  matter 
of  the  chronicles  or  of  the  methods  or  specta- 
cles of  the  chronicle  play;  nor  did  they  use  the 
Stoiy  of  blood  vengeance,  which  had  been  pop- 
danzed  by  Kyd  in  *The  Spanish  Tragedy,* 
transformed  by  Shakespeare  into  'Hamlet,' 
and  was  still  the  prevailing  type  of  trag«dy. 
Some  of  their  earlier  plays  were  experiments 
that  further  attest  their  reforming  attitude. 
Beaumont's  'Woman  Hater*  was  a  comedy  in 
Jonson's  manner;  and  his  'tCnight  of  the  Burn- 
ing Pestle,*  written  under  the  inspiration  of 
'Don  Quixote,*  was  a  burlesque  on  cootempo- 
rary  plays  of  adventure.  Fletcher's  'Faithful 
Shepherdess'  was  an  attempt  to  replace  the 
abortive  pastorals  of  earlier  playwrights  by  a 
genuine  and  elaborate  pastoral  tragi-comedy  on 
die  model  of  <I1  Pastor  Fido.'  These  ptaj[s 
won  the  praise  of  the  critical,  but  even  the  mani- 
fest genius  of  the  two  latter  was  impotent  to 
'  e  disapproval  of  a  public  unused  to  such 


Their  other  plays,  though  hardly  less  novd 
in  character,  ana  affording  full  opportunity  for 
the  authors  gifts  of  invention  and  language 
succeeded  in  captivating  the  public  These  suc- 
cesses, the  result  of  a  constant  attention  to 
theatnca)  cfFectiveness,  comprised  two  distinct 
classes  of  plays,  the  comedies  and  the  heroic 
romances,  bottt  immediatelv  popular  and  both 
of  large  influence  on  the  later  history  of  tbe 
drama. 

Their  comedy  has  its  resemblances  and  con- 
nections with  preceding  drama ;  but  it  is  a  dis- 
tinct departure  from  Jonson's  comedy  of  "hu- 
mours,* and  it  marks  out  a  line  of  development 
that  led  to  the  plays  of  the  Restoration.  A  lively 

Elot,  abounding  in  surprises,  combines  in  a 
ive  story  the  manners  of  the  day  and  the  ex- 
citements of  romance,  an  overflowing  wit  and 
no  moral*.  Its  full  development  belongs  to 
Fletcher's  later  years;  'The  Scornful  Lady' 
is  perhaps  the  best  representative  of  the  col- 
laboration. 

The  romances,  sometimes  tragic  and  some- 
times tragi-cotnic,  also  mark  important  innova- 
tions. The  period  immediately  preceding  them 
had  been  distinguished  by  Shakespeare's  trage- 
dies, the  prevalence  of  realistic  comedy  and 
the  absence  of  sentimental  or  romantic  comedy 
or  tragi-comedy.  The  return  to  romance  seems 
to  have  been  estabUshed  by  'Philaster,*  and 
resulted  in  six  plays  that  form  the  most  dis- 
tinctive product  of  the  collaboration. 

Other  plays  of  the  collaboration  and  many 


'Thierry  and  Theodoret,'  'Philas 
Maid's  Tragedy,'  'Cupid's  Revenge,'  'A  King 
and  No  King,'  serve  to  define  the  type,  and  re- 
semble one  another  so  closely  in  materia),  con- 
struction, characterization  and  style  that  a 
single  analysis  will  serve  for  all. 

Their  plots  are  usually  original,  and  are 
ingenious  complications  of  suspense  and  sur- 
pnse.  Like  most  preceding  tragedies,  they 
deal  with  royal  or  noble  persons,  foreign  local- 
ides,  and  the  plots  and  passions  that  convulse 
kingdoms;  but  there  are  no  battles  or  proces- 
Mons,  and  the  action  is  mainly  confined  to  the 
rooms  of  the  pdace  or  an  adjoituDg  forest.    A 


Seat  variety  of  incidents  are  designed  to  keep 
B  interest  at  fever  heat.  A  girl  disguised  as 
a  page  it  stabbed  by  the  uuui  wbom  she  loves; 
a  woman  accused  of  adultery  defies  her  ac- 
cuser* ;  the  hero  is  saved  from  the  Qri-ant  W  a 
tjinely  insurrection — audi  idyllic  or  melodra- 
matic material  as  this  is  skilfully  constructed 
into  a  nunUxr  of  telling  theatrical  situations, 
leadiuf  through  a  seriet  of  surprises  to  start- 
ling  cUmaxes  or  catastro^es.  In  the  ingenuity 
of  their  structure  even  more  than  in  the  choice 
of  their  material,  the  romances  marked  a  de- 
parture from  preceding  plays.  Their  dramatis 
IMrsons  beloiw  to  the  impossible  and  romaolic 
situations,  and  are  usually  of  certain  ^pe^— 
the  sentimental  or  violent  hero;  his  fatthhil 


she  may  save  the  hero;  the  evil  1/ 

makes  most  of  the  trouble;  and  the  poltroon, 
usuall)^  a  comic  personage.  With  the  addition 
of  a  king,  some  persons  of  the  court  and  some 
from  the  lower  ranks,  tte  cast  is  complete. 
Even  at  their  best  such  plays  afford  little  that 
is  valuable  iu  the  revelation  of  character  or  the 
criticism  of  life;  yet  the  tnasterpieces  of  the 
class,  'Philaster*  and  'The  Uaid's  Tragedy,' 
lake  almost  if  not  Quite  the  highest  rank  after 
Shakespeare,  because  of  the  sldll  of  didr 
invention  and  the  felicities  and  vigor  of  ibdr 
poetry. 

Both  romances  and  comedies  delisted  iheii 
own  age,  and  the  young  authors  were  quick!;' 
established  among  the  poets  of  hif^est  rank  in 
both  critical  and  popular  estimation.    There  is 


'Cymbeline.'     Certainly^  both  comedies  a 

mances  were  mucb  imitated  by  dramatists  of 
the  next  30  years.  Their  freetfatm  in  vcrsifica- 
tton,  their  emphasis  on  stage  situation  ralber 
than  interpretation  of  character,  their  heedless- 
ness of  morality,  and  their  fondness  for  the 
abnormal  and  sensational,  all  led  to  the  deca- 
dence of  the  drama ;  but  much  of  what  is  worthy 
as  well  as  what  is  nnworthy  in  the  drama  of 
the  17th  century  may  be  traced  back  to  their 
initiative.  They  were  ranked  above  Shakespeare 
and  Jonson  by  their  contemporaries,  and  their 
plays  remained  the  favorites  of  the  theatre  dur- 
ing the  Restoration,  By  the  be«nninf(  of  the 
18th  century,  pseudo-classidsm  t>roi«ht  them 
into  disrepute  with  critics,  and  a  chastened 
stage  condemned  their  immorality.  During  the 
two  centuries  since  they  have  never  recovered 
their  position  on  the  stage,  bnt  numerouj  edi- 
tions of  dieir  plays  testify  to  thdr  continued 
favor  with  the  readily  public. 

After  1612  Fletcher  continued  for  13  years 
to  write  plays  with  unabated  ener^,  diipla]r- 
ing  even  greater  versatility  of  invention  atio  wit 
than  when  writing  with  Beaumont,  but  becom- 
ing more  adcUctetl  to  his  mannerisms  and  more 
careless  of  moral  decency.  About  1613  he  seems 
to  have  collaborated  with  Shakespeare  on 
'Henry  VHP  and  'The  Two  Noble  Kinsmen,' 
and  the  association  with  the  great  master 
brou^t  forth  some  of  his  finest  passages.  He 
was,  indeed,  frequently  engaged  in  collaboraiing 
with  various  authors,  and  especially  with  Uai- 
singer.    'The  Queen  of  Corinth,'  'The  DmW 


'  BBAUHE  -^BBAaRXGASD 


UiTiiage,'  'The  Lawi  of  Cat)(^,>  'The  Little 
French  Lawyer,'  <Thc  False  One,>  *The 
ProphetCBS*  aod  *Tbe  Spinisb  Curate'  ue 
some  ot  the  I^ys  most  certuoly  to  be  ucribed 
to  ttus  tttrtnership,  and  most  typical  of  the  two 
authors.  Fletcher,  however,  did  not  require 
coUaboratitHi  for  stimulus.  In  'DMiduca' 
he  produced  one  of  the  most  vivid  of  our  his- 
toncal  tragedies;  and  in  a  series  of  romances 
and  comedies,  of  which  'The  Little  French 
Lawyer,)  'The  Chances,'  'The  Wild  Gooie 
Chase'  and  'The  Lo^al  Subject*  are  araot« 
the  best,  he  gave  continued  evidence  of  his  «»- 
traordinary  fertility  both  as  a  playwright  and 

Most  of  the  characteristics  of  these  later 
plays  may,  however,  be  traced  in  the  period  of 
Fletcher's  callaboratioD  with  Beatunont;  and, 
though  modem  criticisni  has  denied  to  the  latter 
a  share  in  the  majority  of  the  plays  long  pub- 
lished under  his  namCj  it  is  di(Hcu1t  to  separate 
the  sentiments  and  opinions  of  the  two  friends 
or  to  divide  their  contribution  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  drama. 

The  following  plays  were  printed  seMrately, 
many  of  [faem  several  times  before  1647,  when 
the  first  collected  edition  appeared.  The  dates 
are  for  the  first  editions.  'The  Woman  Haier,' 
1607;  'The  Faithful  Shepherdess'  1609;  (?); 
'The  Knight  of  the  Burning  Pestle,'  1613; 
'Cupid's  Revenge,'  161S;  'The  Scornful  Ijdy,' 
1616;  'The  Maid's  Tragedy,'  1619;  'A  King 
andNoIGnK.'  1619;  'Phiiaster,'  1620;  'Thierry 
and  Theodore!,'  1621;  'The  'Two  Noble  Kins- 
men,' I6M;  ''The  Elder  Brother,'  1637;  'Rollo, 
or  the  Bloody  Brother,'  1639:  'Monsieur 
Thomas,'    1639;   'Wit  Without  Money'   1639; 


In  1647  appeared  the  first  folio  entitled,  'Come- 
dies and  Tragedies  written  by  Francis  Beau- 
mont and  Jowj  Fletcher,'  and  containing  the 
following  plays  "never  before  printed':  'The 
Mad  Lover,'  'The  Spanish  Curate,'  'The  Lit- 
tle French  Lawyer,'  "The  Custom  ot  the  Coun- 
try,' 'The  Noble  Gentleman,'  'The  Captain,' 
'The  Beggar's  Bush,'  'The  Coxcomb,'  'The 
False  On^'  'The  Chances,'  'The  Loyal  Sub- 
ject,' 'The  Laws  of  Candy,'  'The  Lovers' 
Progress,'  'The  Island  Princess '  'The  Hu- 
morous Lieutenajit,'  'The  Nice  Valour,'  "The 
Maid  in  the  Mill,'  'The  Prophetess,'  'The 
Tragedy  of  Bonduca*  'The  Sea  Vorage,'  'The 
DoiAle  Maniage,'  'The  Pilgrim,'  'The  Knight 
of  Malta*  'The  Woman's  Prize,'  'Love's 
Cure,'  '"rhe  Honest  Man's  Fortune,'  'The 
Queen  of  Corinth,*  'Woman  Pleased,'  'A  Wife 
for  a  Month,'  'Wit  at  Several  Weapons  '  'The 
Tragedy  of  Valcntian,>  'The  Fair  Maid  of 
the  Inn,'  'Love's  Pilgrimage,'  'Four  Plays  in 
One,'  'The  Mask  of  the  Inner  Temple  and 
Gray's  Inn.*  In  1679  appeared  the  second 
folio,  containing  all  the  plays  of  the  1647  folio 
and  the  17  previously  published  and  also  'The 
Wild  Goose  Chase'  (4to  1652),  'The  Faith- 
ful Friends'  and  'Sir  John  Van  Olden  Bartia- 
velt'  remained  in  manuscript  and  were  not 
printed  until  the  19th  century.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  plays  already  noted  as  by 
Beaumont  alone,  Ptetcber  seems  to  have  had 
al  least  a  aiate  'm  all  of  these  plays  and  in 
'Henry  VIII.'  See  Drama  ;  Euzabcthan  Ljt- 
ERATusE  —  The  Drama;  Philasiex. 


,  ..:tdier    were    pnbliibrf   ia    17i^  ; 

1750,  edited  by  Theobald,  Se«ard  asd  Sim- 
son,  10  vols. ;  1778,  10  vols. ;  18R  ed.  Hemj- 
Weber,  14  vols. ;  1843-46,  ed.  Akzaader  Vyot. 
11  vols.;  and  there  have  been  various  nftmU 
of  these  editions.  Dyce's  edition  has  loot  i*- 
mained  the  standard^  and  it  has  lufdljr  been 
supplanted  by  the  elaborate  variorum  edilkMi 
under  the  editorship  of  A.  R.  Waller  {I90>-10f. 
The  most  iinportant  of  recent  cribcal  dv- 
cussions    are    'Francis    Beaumont,    a    Critical 


peare'  by  A.  H.  Thomdike  (1901);  'The 
Chronicle  of  the  English  Drama,'  by  F.  G. 
Fle^  (Vol.  I,  pp.  164^^);  and  article*  by 
Robert  B<nrie  in  Engliickt  Studien  (1881-«7>, 
asd  by  E.  F.  OUphant,  Engliscke  Studien  (1090- 
92).  Separate  plays  with  critical  introductioas 
and  notes  are  published  in  'Belles  Lettret 
Series'   (Boston). 

Ashley  H.  Tikwmdike, 
Proftisor  of  Enghsk,  Columbia  Utmiertity. 
BBAUNS,  bdn,  Florlmond  de,  Frendh 
mathematician:  b.  filois  1601;  d.  there  1652. 
He  materially  developed  his  friend  Descartes' 
method  in  geometry  and  was  the  first  to  treat 
systematically  the  question  of  superior  roots 
of  numerical  equations.  What  is  s^ed 
•Beaunc's  Problem,*  solved  only  by  Jean  Ber- 
nouilU,  depends  on  the  determination  of  a 
curved  line  from  the  property  of  its  tangent 
He  vras  the  first  to  treat  in  a  systematic  way 
superior  and  inferior  roots  of  numerical 
equations. 

BBAUNK,  France,  a  town  in  the  depart- 
ment C6te  d'Or,  23  miles  south- southwest  of 
Dijon.  As  early  as  the  7th  century  it  was  a 
fortress  under  the  name  of  Belna.     It  i' 


notable  church  of  Notre  Dame,  dating,  from 
the  12th  century,  and  a  large  hospital  founded 
in  1443  by  Nicholas  Rollin,  chancellor  of  Philip 
the  Good  Duke  of  Bur^ndy.  Beaune  has  also 
a  public  library  containing  over  50,000  volumes 
with  500  manuscripts,  a  very  &ne  public  garden, 
a  theatre,  etc.  The  trade  is  chieHy  in  Burgundy 
wines,  to  one  of  which  the  town  gives  its  name, 
and  in  agricultural  produce.  The  manufactures 
include  woolen  ilotn,  cutlery  and  leather.  There 
is  a  statue,  erected  in  1849,  to  the  celebrated 
mathematician  Monge,  who  was  bom  there. 
Pop.  (1911)  13,409. 


low  Quebec  city  and  connected  with  it  hy  the 
Quebec  Railway,  Light  and  Power  Company's 
line.  There  is  a  Roman  CathoUc  church,  col- 
lege and  convent.  Saw  and  gnst  nulls,  cement 
works,  manufacture  of  threshing  machines  and 
quarrying  are  the  chief  industries.  The  seign- 
iory of  Beauport,  granted  in  1634  to  Robert 
(^ttard,  was  the  first  to  be  established  in  New 
France.    Pop.  of  parish  about  5,000. 


b.  New  Orieans,  28  May  1818;  d  there,  20  Feb. 
1893.  After  studying  military  science  at  West 
Point  he  joined  the  artillery,  but  w&S  after- 
ward Inuuferred  to  the  engineers.    In  the  Hex- 


(Google 


see 


BBAUSEPAIRE^OHAM  —  BBAUX 


ican  War  of  1846-47  he  distinevidied  himself 
and  was  promoteij  major.  On  the  outbreak  of 
(he  Civil  War  he  Tcsigned  in  order  to  enter  the 
Confederate  army  ana  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  city  of  Charleston,  S.  C.  On  12  April 
1861  he  reduced  Fort  Sumter  and  later  in  the 
same  year  led  the  Confederates  to  victory  in 
the  battle  of  Bull  Run.  At  the  battle  of  Shik^ 
in  the  following  year  he  assumed  the  command 
on  die  death  of  Gen.  A.  S.  Johnston  but,  thou^ 
very  successful  on  the  iirst  day,  he  was  ulti- 
mately compelled  to  retreat  to  Corinth,  Miss., 
which  he  )ud  to  evaluate  shortly  afterward. 
From  Sratember  1862  till  April  1864  he  de- 
fended Charleston  against  the  siege  operations 
of  General  Gillmore  and  Admirals  Dupont  and 
Dahlgren.  October  1864  he  became  commander 
of  the  military  division  of  the  West,  in  whidi 
capacity  he  strove  without  success  to  resist 
Sherman's  victorious  advance,  and  in  April 
1865  he  and  J.  E.  Johnston  surrendered.  He 
was  afterward  a  railroad  director,  adjutaiit- 
general  of  Louisiana  and  manager  of  the  Lou- 
isiana State  lottery.  In  1866  the  chief  command 
of  the  Rumanian  army  was  tendered  him  and 
in  1869  that  of  the  army  of  the  Khedive  of 
Ecnpt,  both  of  which  he  declined.  He  published 
'Tne  Principles  aad  Maxims  of  the  Art  of 
War'  (1863)  ;  and  'Report  on  the  Defense  of 
Qiarleston*  (1864).  Consult  Roman,  'Mili- 
tary Operations  of  C^neral  Beaur^ard*  (New 
York  1883). 


results  of  his  tour  in  a  volume  called  'De- 
scripcao  de  uma  viasem  de  Cuyabd  ao  Rio  de 
Janeiro*  (1846).  The  Brazilian  government 
subsequently  employed  him  to  gather  statistics 
relating  to  the  interior  provinces,  and  he  was 
at  one  time  lieutenant-general  in  the  Brazilian 
army.  His  'Etudios  acerca  da  oigajiitacao  da 
carta  geographica  e  da  historia  irfiysica  e  polit- 
ic* do  Brazil*  (1877)  is  a  work  of  great  im- 
portance. 

BBAUSOBRZ,  b6-sdbr,  Isaac  de,  French 
Protestant  historian :  b.  Niort  in  France,  8 
March  16S9;  d.  Berlin,  5  June  1738.  He  was 
al  first  intended  for  the  law, .but  his  own  in- 
cUnations  were  decidedly  iii  favor  of  the 
Church,  and  in  1683  he  became  Protestant  min- 
ister of  CThatillon-sur-Indre.  In  the  persecut- 
ing spirit  of  the  time  the  church  had  been 
closed  by  fixing  the  roval  seal  upon  the  gate, 
fieauiobre  held  special  services  in  his  own 
house,  and  being  for  this  reason  obliged  to 
flee,  sought  an  asylum  at  Rotterdam.  Shortly 
after  he  became  chaplain  to  the  Princess  of 
Deasau  and  in  1694  was  appointed  minister 
to  French  Protestants  al  Berlin.  He  enjoyed 
much  ol  the  favor  both  of  Frederick  William  I 
and  of  the  Crown-Prince,  afterward  Frederick 
the  Great.  His  most  remarkable  work  is  the 
'Histoire  critique  de  Manich^e  et  du  Uani- 
chiisme'  (1734)  ;  and  he  also  wrote  'Histoire 
de  la  Reformation'    (1785-86). 

BEAUTY.    See  iEsmEirca;  An. 

BEAXJTY  AND  THE  BEAST,  an  ancient 
story  very  evidently  a  myth  of  the  Sun  and 
Ae  Dawn.    In  all  the  variants  the  hero  and  the 


heroine  cannot  behold  each  other  withont  mis- 
fortune. One  of  the  earliest  forms  of  the  story 
is  the  Vedic  myth  of  'Urvasi  and  Ptiriiravas.' 
Another  is  the  San^rit  Bheki,  who  marries  on 
condition  she  shall  never  see  water;  tbus  typi- 
fying the  dawn,  vanidiing  in  the  clouds  of  snn- 
set  In  Greek  myths  we  find  a  tcsonblance  in 
some  features  of  'Orpheus  and  Eurydice* ;  and 
the  name  of  Ori^eus  in  it*  Sandcrit  form  of 
Arbhn,  meaning  the  sun,  hints  quite  plainly  at 
a  solar  origin  of  this  cycle  of  tales.  A  more 
marked  likeness  exists  in  the  myth  of  Eros  and 
P«ycbe  by  Apuleius,  and  in  the  Scandinavian 
tale  of  the  *Land  East  of  the  Sun  and  West  of 
the  Moon,'  related  by  Morris  in  'The  Earthly 
Paradise.'  More  or  less  striking  parallels  are 
seen  in  the  Celtic  'Battle  of  the  Birds' ;  in  the 
'Soaring  Lark,'  t^  Grimm;  in  the  Kaffir  ^Story 
of  Five  Heads' ;  in  (laelic,  SidUan  and  Bengal 
folk-lore,  and  even  in  as  remote  a  quarter  as 
Chile.  The  tale  is  told  in  Straparola's  'Piace- 
voli  notti'  (1550);  in  Madame  Villeneuve's 
'Contes  Marines'  (1740),  and  is  the  basis  of 
Gretry's  opera,  'Z^ise  et  Aaor.' 

BBAUVAIS,  b6-v4  (ancient  Bbatuspam- 
TTUM,  BcLLOVACuu),  Frauc^  town,  capital  of 
the  department  of  Uise,  41  miles  north  of  Paris, 
in  the  old  province  of  tie  de  France.  It  stands 
in  a  rich  valley  enclosed  by  wooded  hills,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Avclon  with  the  Thfrain; 
and  thou^  poorly  built,  derives  great  interest 
from  its  antiquity.  It  existed  in  the  time  of 
the  Romans,  and  in  1472  resisted  an  army  of 
80.000  Biirgimdians  under  Charles  the  Bold. 
The  principal  edifice  is  the  unfinished  cathedral 
of  Saint  Pierre,  consisting  of  choir  and  tran- 
sept.    It  has   the   loftiest   stone  vault  in  the 


choir  was  built  in  1225-72,  The  town-house 
is  the  finest  modem  structure.  The  principal 
manufacturing  establishment  is  the  (jobelins 
branch  tapestry  and  carpet  manufactory,  famed 
tor  the  beauty  of  its  products  and  employing 
about  400  hands ;  and  there  are  also  manufac- 
tures of  woolsns,  buttons,  brushes,  gold  and 
silver  lace,  etc.  It  has  also  large  bleachfields, 
tanneries  and  dye-works.  Beauvais  is  the  seat 
of  a  bishop  and  contains  a  public  library  of  30,- 
000  volumes,  a  museum,  etc.  Pop.  19,841. 
BEAUVAIS    TAPESTRY.      See    Tapes- 

lUSS. 

BEAUVOIS,  ba-vwi,  AmbroM  Joaeph 
Pallsot  de,  French  naturalist:  b.  Arras  1752;  A 
1820.  He  visited  Africa,  the  West  Indies  and 
America  in  connection  with  his  favorite  pur- 
suits in  natural  history  and  was  rewarded  by 
the  discovery  of  the  jaws  and  molar  teeth  of 
the  great  mastodon,  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohia 
He  afterward  returned  lo  France  and  devoted 
the  remainder  of  his  life  to  the  arrangement 
and  publication  of  his  collections.  Compara- 
tively few  of  them  had  arrived  in  safety,  but 
"   jf  the  wreck  he  managed  to  procure  mate- 


named  after  htm  BeWisi 

BEAUX,  h6,  Cecilia.  American  artist:  b. 
Philadelphia  1863.  She  studied  under  William 
Sarlain  and  at  Paris.    She  four  times  gained 


Google 


GENERAL  P.  G.  T.  BEAUREGARD 


tizcdbyGoOl^Ie 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


BBAUX-AKT8  _  BE  AVBK 


the  Uary  Smtd)  priu  of  the  PennMlvania 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  and  was  awardcil  the 
lamE  academy's  ^nld  medal  and  Temple  gold 
medal.  She  received  similar  honors  from  the 
National  Academy  of  Design,  the  Philadelphia 
Art  Qub,  CamcKie  Institute  and  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1900;  the  Saltus  gold  tnedal, 
19U;  and  the  medal  of  honor,  Panama,  1915. 

BBAUX-ARTS,  bo-z^r,  Acadcmle  de*. 
See  Academy  of  Five  Arts,  The. 

BEAUX-ARTS  ARCHITECTS,  Society 
of,  an  association  organized  in  1902  by  the 
American  graduates  oi  the  Elcole  des  Beaux' 
Arts  in  Paris.  The  object  of  the  Society  is  to 
afford  instruction  in  architecture  in  the  United 
Slates  on  the  same  principles  as  in  the   Paris 


die  Amended  Ballot  Act  1878.  As  a  parlianien* 
tarian,  pure  and  simple,  he  was  very  able;  irtiile 
as  an  authority  on  procedure  be  may  be  re- 
gardeid  as  the  equal  of  any  man  in  Canada. 

BEAVEN,  Thomas,  American  Roman 
Catholic  prelate :  b.  Springfield,  Mass.,  1849.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Jesuit  colleges  of  Holy 
Cross,  Worcester,  Mass.,  and  Georgetown,  D,  C. 
After  holding  pastorales  at  Spencer  and  Holy- 
oke,  Mass.,  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  Spring- 
field in  1892  where  his  gifts  as  an  organizer 
and  the  application  of  sound  business  principles 
to  the  temporal  affairs  of  the  Church  have  pro- 
duced striking  results. 


In 


numbering  about  50,  local  groups  of  students 
are  organued  into  schools,  the  work  of  which 
is  sust^ed  by  contributions  from  the  students 
themselves.  The  services  of  the  bstructor  are 
generally  given  free.  The  work  of  all  the 
schools  IS  more  or  less  under  the  general  super- 
vision of  the  committee  on  education  of  the 
Society,  which  issues  schedules  guiding  the 
courses.  Included  are  various  problem!  which 
are-  worked  out  by  the  students  competitively, 
designated  under  two  divisions :  Class  A  ana 
Class  B.  Four  prizes  are  awarded:  the  War- 
ren prize,  for  the  best  plan  of  a  group  of  btiiM- 
ings;  the  Pupio  priz^  for  the  best  decoration 
of  scientific  appliances;  the  Goelet  prixe,  for  the 
best  plan  of  a  city  block,  and  the  Bacon  prize, 
for  me  best  work  done  under  Class  A.  Be* 
sides  the  latter  prize,  offered  by  Robert  Bacon, 
he  also  presents  a  yearly  Paris  scholarship, 
which  includes  $2,500  in  cash  to  enable  the  win- 
ner to  study  for  two  and  a  half  years  in  the 
Elcole  des  Beaux-Arts  in  Paris. 

BEAUX'  STRATAGEM,  a  well  known 
comedy  1^  the  English  dramatist,  George  Far- 
qutaar   <q.v.). 

BBAUXITB.  See  Bauxite. 
BEAVEN,  Robert,  Canadian  sutesman :  k 
Ldgh,  Staffordshire,  England,  28  Jan.  1836.  He 
was  educated  at  the  College  of  Up^r  Canada, 
went  to  California  by  way  oi  Panama  in  the 
early  days,  and  from  Cahfomia  went  to  British 
Columbia  and  was  successfully  engaged  in  gold 
mining  there  for  sonte  years.  He  relumed  to 
Toronto  and  again  visited  California  over  the 
Panama  route.  Later  he  removed  to  Victoria, 
B.  C.,  and  has  continued  there.  He  identtfietl 
himself  with  the  agitation  for  confederation 
with  the  Dominion,  took  an  active  part  in  the 
organisation  of  the  Confederate  League  and 
after  the  conuunmation  of  the  union  in  1871 
he  was.  elected  tnember  for  Victoria;  he  was 
re-elected  until  1894.  In  1892,  W3  and  1897 
be  was  mayor  of  Victoria.  In  1872  be  was 
chief  commissioner  of  lands  and  works  in  the 
De  Cosmos  cabinet  and  held  the  o£fice  for  sev- 
eral years.  In  1878  he  was  appointed  Minister 
of  Finance  and  Agriculture.  Later  he  became 
Premier  and  resigned  in  February  18S3  when 
his  government  was  defeated.  While  In  office 
be  had  largely  to  do  with  all  important  ques- 
tions of  that  day,  construction  of  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway,  the  building  of  the  Esquinialt 
Graving  Dock,  and  the  establishment  of  a  free 
non-sectarian  system  of  education,  the  Law 
Sump  Act,  the  Game  Protection  Acts  1878~80l 


1  and  towns  now      21  Oct  1837;  d.  31  Jan.  1914.     He  t 


i  grad- 
Pa.,  iu 

...  the  Federal  ahny.  '1861-64;  and  was  retired 
with  the  rank  of  brigaxUer- general  of  volun- 
teers (22  Dec  1864).  He  then  resumed  the 
practice  of  law;  became  major-^neral  of  the 
Pennsylvania  State  mihtia;  was  defeated  as 
Republican  candidate  for  governor  in  1882; 
elected  in  1887;  president  of  the  board  of  trus- 
tees of  the  Penn^lVania  State  College;  vice- 
moderator  of  the  Presbyterian  General  Assem- 
bly 1b  1888  and  1895,  and  member  of  the  Presi- 
dent's commission  on  investigation  of  the  War 
Department  in  1898- 

BBAVBR,  Philip,  EngHsh  naval  officer:  b. 
In  Lewknor,  Oxfordshire,  England,  28  Feb. 
1766;  d.  Table  Bay,  South  Africa,  S  April  1813. 
He  served  during  the  American  Revolutionary 
War  in  the  royal  navy.  After  the  war  he  un- 
dertook to  establish  an  agricultural  colony  on 
Bnlama  Island,  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa, 
and  in  April  1792  left  England  with  three  ships 


much  toward  civilizing  the  negroes.  The  en- 
terprise proved  a  failure  and  he  returned  to 
England  in  1794.  Subsequently  he  distinguished 
himself  in  the  naval  service. 

BEAVER,  Pa.,  borough  and  county-seat  of 
Beaver  County,  on  the  Ohio  River,  and  the 
Pennsylvania  and  the  Pittsburgh  and  Lake  Erie 
railroads,  28  miles  northwest  of  Pittsburgh. 
Jt  has  natural  gas,  abundant  water  power  and 
municipal  waterworks,  large  Coal  and  oil  ship- 
ping interests,  a  public  park,  national  bank 
and  daily  and  weeltly  newspapers  and  is  the  . 
seat  of  Beaver  College  (Methodist  Episcopal), 
founded  ISS3.  Beaver  dates  from  a  settlement 
oi  1790.  The  late  United  States  Senator  Mat- 
thew S,  Quay  resided  here.    Pop.  12,191. 

BEAVER,  a  lar^e  aquatic  rodent  animal 
of  the  northern  part  of  the  world  named  by 
Linnieits  Caitor  fiber,  and  representing  pie 
family  Castoridit.  Some  naturalists  mamtain 
that  tilt  American  beaver  is  specifically  differ- 
ent from  that  of  the  Old  World)  and  is  there- 
fore entitled  to  its  specific  name  of  Caslor  cana 
denaU.  All  varieties  agree  so  closely  that  there 
is  little  need  of  any  such  classifkatioD.  It  is 
distinguished  from  its  nearest  relatives,  the 
marmots,  not  only  by  adaptation  to  an  aquatic 
life,  and  the  possession  of  lai^,  fully  wetd)ed 
hind  feet,  which  form  tiie  principal  instrument 
for  swimming,  but  especiiJly  by  its  extraor- 
dinary (ail,  which  is  exceedingly  broad  and  cow 


,  Google 


ered  with  z  horny  integuinent  reMtnbluiK 
scales.  A  large  beaver  is  abaut  two  feet  in 
leDKth  from  the  root  of  the  tail  to  the  nose, 
and  the  tail  will  be  nearly  a  foot  long.  Such  a 
one  will  weight  about  35  pounds.  Its  flesh  is 
edible,  but  not  particularly  good  The  fur  is 
exceedingly  close  and  fine,  and  when  freed 
from  the  long  hairs  that  are  scattered  throuefa 
it  and  overlie  the  under  coat,  forms  one  of  the 
most  valuable  furs  of  commerce  and  one  which 
figured  largely  in  (he  early  History  of  North 
America.  It  is  owing,  indeed,, to  the  eagerness 
with  which  men  have  sought  for  this  valuable 
commodity,  going  farther  and  farther  into  the 
wilderness  in  search  of  the  animal,  that  the 
beaver  has  almost  disappeared  from  large  re- 
gians  where  it  was  once  numerous.  Originally 
it  was  widespread  tbroughont  Europe  and 
northern  Asia,  but  became  extinct  in  the  British 
Islands  in  the  12th  century,  and  it  remains  else- 
where in  Europe  only  in  a  few  of  the  wilder 
streams  of  Norway  and  some  of  the  tributariet 
of  the  Rhone  and  the  Danube,  where  it  is  under 
royal  protection.  In  some' cases  colonies  of  cap- 
tives  nave  re-established  themselves  in  parks, 
notably  that  of  Lord  Bute,  in  England.  It  still 
exists,  however,  in  eastern  Siberia,  whence  a 
large  number  of  its  skins  are  annually  sent  to 
marltet. 

When  America  was  first  entered  by  Euro- 
peans, the  beaver  was  found  inhabiting  almost 
all  of  the  woodland  streams  of  the  whole  north- 
ern continent,  from  the  Arctic  Grctc  dowD  to 
central  Mexico.  Its  temperament  and  manner 
of  life  made  it  an  easy  prey  and  prevented  it 
from  adapting  itself  to  changed  conditions  as 
did  its  neighbor,  the  muskrat  It  rapidly  dis- 
appeared, therefore,  wherever  civilization  pro- 
gressed or  trapping  was  systematically  carried 
on,  and  now  no  beavers  are  to  be  found  south 
of  the  rivers  that  flow  into  Hudson  Bay,  except 
in  the  northern  parts  of  the  Rocky  ^folIntaul5 
and  in  a  few  remote  and  scattered  places  like 
the  forests  of  Uaine  and  the  Lake  Superior 
region,  where  they  are  more  or  less  protected  by 
law.  A  few  survive,  nevertheless,  in  the  wild 
ranges  of  die  souihcm  Alleghenies  and  along 
the  borders  of  Mexico.  The  principal  use  to 
which  beaver  fur  was  put  was  tor  the  making 
of  hats;  and  it  is  probable  that  had  not  (he 
method  of  making  hat-coverings  from  silk  been 
discovered,  (he  animal  would  long  ago  have 
'    "       :   extinct;   and   also   its   South   American 


cicnl  depth  of  water,  and  so  maintains  : „ 

a  continuous  supply  of  food.  The  food  of  the 
beaver  consists  mainly  of  the  bark  of  hard- 
wood trees,  gath  as  the  maple,  linden,  birch, 
poplar  and  the  like.  It  never  eats  the  bark  of 
the  coniferous  trees,  and  beavers  are  not  found 
living  in  forests  composed  entirely  of  conifer- 
ous trees,  nor  are  beavers  able  to  live  in  a 
treeless  country.  Tbey  are  gregarious  and  dwell 
in  colonies,  which  in  favorable  circumstances 
may  pcTStst  for  centuries.  From  time  to  time 
a  pair  of  voung  beavers  will  wander  away  from 
ludi  a  colony  and  seek  a  new  place  in  which  to 
staTt  afresh.  They  will  choose  a  sluggish  stream 
in  the  woods,  preferably  where  the  ground  is 
low  and  level,  and  there  will  dig  for  themselves 
a  burrow  in  the  banl^  the  entrance  of  which  is 


below  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  tunnel 
win  lead  upward  into  the  earth  above  the  levd 
of  high  water,  and  there  be  enlarged  into  a 
chamber  in  which  will  be  placed  a  bedding  oi 

fnsfi,  etc.  They  are  likely  to  make  an  opening 
rom  this  chamber  into  toe  air,  and,  as  if  for 
defense  or  concealment,  will  pile  over  thb  open- 
ing a  little  heap  of  brush,  in  which  perhaps  may 
be  seen  the  ^tnn  of  the  arcUtectural  abilin 
which  (he  species  have  so  blghlv  developed  It 
is  necessary  to  their  scheme  of  life  that  the 
water  in  the  stream  should  never  fall  so  low  in 
summer  as  to  expose  the  entrance  of  the  bur- 
row; moreover,  It  Is  necessary  tiiat  this  water 
should  be  so  deep  that  in  winter  the  ice  will  not 
freeie  to  the  bottom,  but  that,  on  the  contrary, 
there  shall  remain  room  oiough  between  the 
ice  and  the  bed  of  the  creek  for  them  to  store 
there  a  snpply  of  winter  food.  In  order  to 
maintain  this  requisite  level  of  water  the  beav- 
ers diTow  a  dam  across  the  stream  below  their 
settlement,  holding  the  water  back  to  a  sufikienl 
bright  Por  this  purpose  they  choose  a  place 
where  the  water  Is  not  more  than  2^  feet  deep 
and  the  bottom  is  firn^  and  beginning  in  the 
centre  of  the  channel  they  place  there,  len^- 
wise  of  the  current,  a  mimber  of  long  stifles 
which  they  hold  down  by  piling  upon  ifaem  mud 
Rnd  stones,  moved  into  place  with  tiieir  dei- 
terons  fore  feet.  They  procure  these  poles  br 
cnttin^  off  small  trees  with  dieir  front  teedi. 
which  are  exceedingly  large  and  strong  and 
arc  iaccd  with  a  hard  yellow  enamel.  As  die 
back  put  of  the  tooth  consists  of  softer  ma- 
terial, it  wears  away  more  raptdl;^,  leaving  the 
front  with  a  chisel-like  ed^,  which  is  always 
shar^  Standing  on  their  hind  feet,  they  gnaw 
round  and  rannd  the  stem  of  a  tree  until  it 
falls;  and  are  able  to  cut  down  trees  18  inches 
in  diameter,  but  this  is  only  done  in  procurinfj 
tlicif  winter  supphet.  From  lt»  fixmdatioii  in 
the  centre  the  oam  is  qirricd  each  way  to  tbe 
shore.  As  the  beavers  increase  in  number  and 
the  young  ones  grow  up,  tlx^  settle  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood  until  after  a  few  years 
a  conslderaUe  colony  will  have  arisen.  During 
all  uis  time  worir  processes  upon  the  dsm. 
each  beaver  gathering  dnft-wood,  brandies  and 
logs  from  the  shor^  stoncE,  mud,  pieces  of  sod 
and  everything  available  for  the  purpose,  and 
working  it  into  the  structure  of  the  dam.  The 
work  is  carried  on  only  at  night  and  especially 
on  pleasant  moon%ht  nights,  when  tbey  seem 
to  be  extremely  busy  from  sunset  till  sunrise. 
There  is  no  su]Krilltehdence,  tut  each  one  pos- 
sessed with  an  instinct  for  industry  does  what- , 
erer  seems  to  it  best.  The  result  is  a  Tnert 
tangled  heap,  having  a  long  slope  and  com- 
paratively tight  surface  on  the  upper  side,  whicb 
sometimes  rn  a  low,  swampy  rbgion,  will  stretck 
for  several  hundred  feet  and  hold  back  a  large 
pond  or  morass,  largely  grown  up'to  grass,  bat 
having  many  diannels  running  through  it 
Meanwhile  eadi  family  of  beavers  has  erected 
for  itself  upon  the  bank  of  the  pond  or  upon 
some  islet  adjacent  to  one  of  the  channels,  a 
conical  house  or  lodge,  the  interior  of  whicD 
may  be'  a  niom  six  or  seven  feet  in  breadth, 
wbKh  has  no  opening  into  the  air.  but  is  entered 
from  beneath  tlie  water  by  two  channels,  one  al 
which  is  commonly  used,  while  the  odier  forms 
a  means  of  escape  in  case  of  mvasion  by  a 
mink  or  some  other  aquatic  enemy.  TImm 
houses  are  more  solidly  conttmcled  than  eves 


=y  Google 


BXATSR— ^UkVBR  FikLLS 


the  dam;  and  When  froien  ih  winter  are  so 
thick  and  strong  that  nothing  less  than  &  bear  is 
able  to  break  into  them.  These  houses  are 
largest  and  stroosest  in  the  cold  northern 
regions.  During  the  summer  beavers  ho  ashore 
and  obtain  from  time  to  time  such  bark  as  they 
want  for  food,  and  also  feed  largely  upon  the 
roots  and  stems  of  the  Sags,  lilies  and  other 
water  plants.  In  winter,  however,  when  the 
pond  b  covered  with  ice  and  the  banks  with 
snow,  the  beavers  would  be  unable  to  obtain 
such  food,  and  to  escape  starvation  are  obliged 
I  store  in  the  autumn  a  sufficient  supply  to 
■         They  dothis  b^ 


are  floated  away  and  sunk  at  the  doors  of  their 
houses,  where  they  are  weighted  or  stuck  into 
the  mud  to  prevent  their  floating  away,  until  a 
sufficient  jrile  has  been  procured.  Piece  by  piece 
this  store  is  taken  into  the  house  during  the 
winter,  and,  the  bark  having  been  eaten  off, 
the  sticks  are  thrown  out  to  be  used  in  the 
spring  as  material  for  repairing  and  extend- 
ing the  dam. 

It  wiU  be  apparent  diat  a  c^ony  of  beavers 


stream,  unless  they  had  some  means  of  r«ach- 
inK  new  and  more  distant  supplies.  In  truth, 
where  the  banks  are  steep,  thts  soot)  happens, 
and  the  beavers  must  then  seek  a  new  place. 
Where  the  forest  is  low  and  level,  however, 
they  will  excavate  canals  which  are  gradually 
extended  farther  and  farther  into  the  woods  on 
each  side  of  the  pond,  and  so  enable  themselves 
to  reach  more  and  more  fresh  trees.  In  some 
of  the  swampy^  forests  about  the  headwaters  of 
the  Mississippi,  which  was  perhaps  the  head- 
quarters of  beaver  life  in  this  country,  these 
canals  have  been  known  to  extend  several  hvm- 
dred  feet,  and  in  such  places  colonies  of  beavers 
have  maintained  an  existence  of  more  than  200 
years.  These  channels  are  kept  free  from  weeds 
and  of  a  proper  depth ;  and  the  most  unportaot 
service  which  the  dam  renders  is  to  raaiirtaln 
the  right  level  of  water  in  these  canals,  so 
that  they  may  always  be  used  at  the  avenues  ojf 
the  industrious  community. 

The  American  beaver  seems  to  have  carried 
its  architectural  work  to  a  hi^er  degree  of 
perfection  than  the  European  beaver  was  ever 
known  to  do,  although  in  Siberia,  where  simi- 
lar climatic  conditions  prevail  and  it  is  neces- 
sary for  them  to  erect  houses  impervious  to  the 
great  cold  and  to  the  attacks  of  marauding 
animals,  they  come  near  to  equalling  tbetr 
Ameticsn  cousins.  There  is  little  record  of  stKh 
structures  being  made  primitively  in  central 
Europe,  and  the  beavers  now  living  in  the 
streams  of  Getmany  and  Austria  make  few  at- 
tempts  at  either  dams  or  bouses  but  are  coo- 
tent  to  dwell  in  their  bank-burrows. 

The  beaver  thrives  in  confinemetn  and  there 
arc  colonies  in  the  zoological  gardens  of  the 
larger  cities.  In  1913  for  the  first  time  beavers 
bred  in  their  pond  in  the  New  York  Zoological 
Park, 

The  substance  called  castoreiiTit  is  obtuned 
(roro  two  glandular  pouches  in  the  beaver, 
dosdy  connected  with  the  organs  of  reproduc- 
tion, and  probably  of  service  in  attracting  the 
sexes  to  one  another  in  the  rutting  season.     It 


.  _  . .  1  having  a  powerful,  peculiar,  pim- 
gent  odor  and  was  formerly  in  demand  for 
medical  purposes.  At  present  its  only  use  b 
as  a  scent-bait  for  traps.  Fossil  remains  of 
beavers  have  been  found  as  far  back  as  the 
middle  of  the  Tertiary  period.  Fossils  of  small- 
siaed  species  with  some  distinctive  peculiarities 
occur  tn  the  Miocene  rocks  of  the  western 
United  States;  and  a  huge  beaver  {Trogon~ 
ihenuin)  eidsted  in  Europe  in  the  Pliocene  age. 
Consult    Harting,     "British    Animals     Extinct 


bOils,  E.  A.'  'In  Beaver  World>  (Boston  1913)  ; 
Uorgan,  'The  American  Beaver  and  his 
Works'  (Philadelphia  1868) ;  IngersoU,  'Life 
of  Mammals>  (New  York  1907);  Seton, 
'Northern  Uamma]s>   (New  York  1909). 

BBAVER  DAM,  Wis.,  city  of  Dodge 
County,  64  miles  northwest  of  Milwaukee  situ- 
ated on  Beaver  Dam  Creek,  at  the  outlet  of 
Beaver  Lakt  and  on  the  Chicago,  M.  &  St.  P. 
and  C,  N.  W,  railroads.  It  is  the  seat  of  Way- 
land  Academy,  Wagner  Musical  CoUeee  and 
also  a  business  college.  It  has  a  puDlic  li- 
brary, an  armory,  opera  house,  city  nail,  four 
ward  schools  and  one  high  school,  three  hanks 
and  taxable  property  to  uie  value  of  KSGe^S, 
and  several  paKs.  It  is  an  agricultural  district 
and  has  a  considerable  trade:  it  is  also  well  pro- 
vided with  water  power  and  has  numerous  man- 
ufacturing interestl.  mcluding  flour  and  woolen 
mills,  catming  factories  and  breweries,  and 
manufactures  of  malleable  iron  ranges,  seeding 
machines,  ttlo,  boxes,  shoes  and  machinery,  etc 
Beaver  Dam  was  settled  in  1841  and  incorpa- 
rated  in  185&  The  revised  charter  of  18S9  pro- 
vides far  a  mayor  and  a  city  council,  to  be 
elected  biennially.    Pop.  (1910)  6,758. 

BBAVBR  DAM8,  Battle  of,  in  the  War 
of  1812.  After  the  battle  of  Stony  Creek  (q.v.) 
the  American  army  remained  inactive  some 
time,  but  on  23  June  1813  Cien.  John  P.  Boyd 
(q.v,),  then  in  command  at  Niagara,  sent  Col. 
C.  G.  Boerstler  with  400  or  500  troops  and  two 
MiBs  to  dislodge  a  Btltitfa  force  at  Beaver 
Dams,  about  18  miles  from  Fort  George.  On 
24  June  Boerstler  began  the  mardi  but  when 
in  the  woods  found  nimself  surrouiided  by  a 
force  of  British  and  Indians,  numbering  only 
200,  according  to  British  authorities.  Boerst- 
ler attempted  to  retreat  but  found  escape  cut 
off  and  therefore  surrendered  his  entire  force. 
Practically  nothing  more  was  done  in  diis  vicin- 
ity for  many  weeks.  Consult  'American  State 
FWrs,  Military  Affairs>  (Vol.  I,  p.  44« ; 
Adams,  Henry  'The  United  States'  (V<jl.  VII. 
pp.  162-63)  ;  Armstrong,  John,  'Notices  of  the 
War  of  1812>  (Vol.  I,  p,  142) ;  Fay,  'Official 
Accounts'  (pp,  112-13);  Lossing.  'War  of 
1812'  (pp.  615-20)  ■  Wiley  and  Rines.  'The 
United  States'    (Vol,  V,  pp.  407-08). 

BEAVES  FALLS,  Pa.,  ntv  in  Beaver 
(bounty,  situated  on  tse  west  nank  of  the 
Beaver  Rjvcr,  about  five  miles  from  its  con- 
flueiKe  with  the  Ohio  River,  31  miles  by  rail 
northwest  of  Pittsburgh,  and  seven  miles  north 
of  Beaver,  the  county-siEat,  and  on  branches  of 
the  Pittsburf^  &  L.  E.  and  Pennsylvania  rail- 
roads. The  water  power  furnishes  excellent 
facilities  for  manufactories;  there  u  an  abun- 
dant supply  of  coal  and  natural  gas,  and  the 


v  Google 


^UkVBR   IBL&KDS  — BEBEL 


manufactures  cotiBist  of  iron  bridges,  axes, 
saws,  glassware,  gas  engines,  steel  products, 
pottery  and  automobile  accessaries.  The 
United  States  census  of  manufactures  for 
1914  recorded  59  industrial  establishments 
of  factory  grade,  employing  2,984  persons, 
of  whom  2,639  were  wage  earners,  receiv- 
ing annually  $1,616,000  in  wages.  The  ca^ 
ital  invested  aggregated  $9,481,000.  and  the 
value  of  the  year's  output  was  S7,%3,000:  of 
this  $3,741^100  was  the  value  adcjed  by  manu- 
faeture.  There  are  four  banks,  a  Carnegie 
library.  Providence  Hospital  and  a  commodious 
post-Mfice  building.  Beaver  Falls  is  also  the 
seat  of  Geneva  College  (Reformed  Presbyter- 
ian). Religious  services  are  held  in  17  church 
edifices.  Beaver  Falls  was  settled  about  1800 
by  a  few  families  of  pioneers,  and  was  called 
Brighton  until  1868,  when  it  was  iiicorporated 
as  a  borough.  In  1913  it  adopted  the  commis- 
sion form  of  government.  Until  1868  the  town 
was  only  a  small  village,  but  in  that  year  the 
Harmony  Society  bougnt  up  nearly  the  entire 
tract  of  land  and  laid  it  out  into  lots,  thus 
starting  the  growth  in  populatioii^  until  it  now 
is  the  largest  town  in  Beavej  County,  Pop. 
13,000. 

BBAVEB  ISLANDS,  a  grotip  of  islands 
situated  in  the  north  part  of  Lalcc  Michigan  in 
Charlevoix  County,  and  interesting  as  the  scene 
of  a  short-lived  Mormon  colony.  The  largest 
town.  Saint  James,  on  Big  Beaver  Island,  was 
settled  in  1847  by  James  J.  Strang,  a  Mormon 
elder,  driven  away  from  the  parent  Mormon 
communi^  because  his  claims  conflicted  with 
those  of  Brigham  Young.  In  the  little  colony 
which  he  called  Saint  James,  after  himself, 
Strang  exercised  the  authority  of  king  and  high 
priest  and  was  implicitly  obeyed.  In  1849  he 
introduced  polygamy,  which  did  not  spread 
rapidly  and  led  to  withdrawals  and  troubles 
with  the  "gentiles.*  Strang  was.  assassinated 
in  1856  and  the  colony  dispersed.  There  are 
several  lighthouses  on  the  island.  Pop,  of 
Saint  James  about  650;  of^Pcane  township,  375. 

BEAVER  STATE,  a  popular  designation 
of  Oregon. 

BEAVERBROOK.  Sir  William  HazweU 
Aitken,  1st  baron,  Canadian  financier:  b.  New- 
castliL  New  Brunswick,  25  May  1879,  He  is 
the  third  son  of  the  Rev.  William  Aitken,  a 
Presbyterian  minister.  He  received  his  educa- 
tion at  the  public  school  of  Newcastle,  and 
afterward  took  a  short  course  of  taw  at  Chat- 
ham; engaged  for  a  time  in  insurance  work, 
and  became  a  member  of  the  Montreal  Slock 
Exchange  in  1907.  He  has  been  an  active  force 
in  finaiice,  organized  a  number  of  business 
consolidations  and  established  a  .private  bank- 
ing business  in  19 U.  His  rise  has  been 
meteoric.  He  is  described  as  a  financial  genius, 
and  the  ablest  young  man  the  Canadian  finan- 
cial world  has  seen  in  many  years.  In  1910, 
after  his  departure  from  Canada,  he  was  elected 
Uitionist  member  for  Ashloivunder-Lyne,  in 
the  British  House  of  I^mmons,  which  constitu' 
ency  he  continued  to  represent  until  his  eleva- 
tion to  the  peerage  in  1917  m  Baron  Beaver- 
brook.  He  was  Sficial  "eye-witness"  with  the 
Canadian  Expeditionary  forces  during  the 
European  War,  and  is  author  of  'Canada  in 
Flanders'    (Vol.  I,  1915;  Vol.  II,  1917). 


BEAVERWOOD.    See  UACNtnoA. 
BBAZLBY,    Charles    Raymond^    EngUjh 

historian  and  gec^rapher:  b.  Blackhealb,  3 
Aprij  186&  Graduating  from  Oxford,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  history  al  the  Uni- 
versity of  Birmingham.  His  first  work  of  iri' 
portance  was  'The  Dawn  of  Modem  Geog- 
raphy' (1897-1906),  for  which  he  was  awarded 
the  Gill  Memorial  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Sodet_y  in  1907.  In  1908  he  lectured  at  several 
American  universities,  being  Lowell  lecturer  in 
Boston.  Aside  from  his  many  contributions  to 
leading  monthly  periodicals,  he  has  written 
'James  of  Aragon'  (1890)  ;  'Henry  the  Navi- 
gator' (1895)  ;  'John  and  Sebastian  Cabot' 
(1898)  :  'Voyages  of  Eliiabethan  Seamen' 
(1907);  'Introduction  to  Chronicle  of  Nov- 
gorod'   (1915). 

BBBBBRINE,  an  uncrystallizable  basic 
substance,  CiJiiiNO^  extracted  from  die  baric 
of  the  bcbeeru  or  greenhcart-tree  (fJectandro 
Toditti),  of  Guiana.  In  pharmacy,  the  sulphate 
of  bebeerine  is  a  vahiable  medicine,  being  used, 
like  quinine,  as  a  tonic  and  febrifuge.  Unfor- 
tunately, owing  to  the  supplies  of  the  bark  be- 
itig  uncertain,  the  dt^K  is  sometimes  scarce  and 
difficult  to  obtain.  Bebeerine  is  thou^t,  by 
some  chemists,  to  be  identical  with  boxme. 

BEBEK,  a  village  on  the  Bosporus,  five 
miles  north  of  Constantinople,  of  which  city  it 
Is  a  suburb.  It  stands  on  the  site  of  ancient 
Chela;  in  the  adjoinii^  bay  once  stood  a 
temple  to  Diana  Dic^nna.  The  picturesque 
situation  of  the  place  and  the -beauty  of  tbe 
surroundings  made  Bcbek  a  favorite  resort  o( 
various  sultans.  Selim  T  built  a  summer  paUce 
on  the  water-side,  known  to  Europeans  as  the 
Palace  of  Conferences,  where  ambassadors 
received  in  secret  audience.     On  the 


named  for  him  Robert  College   (q.v.). 


1840;  d.  Passum,  SwiUerland.  14  Aug.  1913. 
The  son  of  a  Prussian-Pole  who  was  a  non- 
commissioned officer  in  the  Prussian  infantry, 
Bebel  was  bom  in  military  barracks  and  ap- 
prenticed as  a  boy  to  a  wood-turner.  Like  roost 
German  woilunen  at  that  time,  he  traveled  ex- 
tensively in  search  of  work.  At  SaUbnrg; 
where  he  Kved  for  some  time,  he  joined  a 
Roman  Catholic  workmen's  cinb.  When  in 
Tyrol  in  18S9  he  volunteered  for  service  in  die 
war  against  Italy,  but  was  rejected;  and  in  hii 
own  country  he  was  rejected  likewise  ai 
physically  unfit  for  the  army.  In  1860  he 
settled  in  Leipxig  as  a  master  tumer,  making 
bom    buttons,    and    speedily    drifted    into   tbc 

Klitieal  movements  which  were  then  beginnins, 
t  as  a  radical,  not  a  socialist  He  fell  under 
the  influence  of  Wilhelm  Liebknecht  (d  1900), 
in  1864.  and  was  converted  to  the  doctrines  of 


helped  to  found  the  German  Social  Democratic 
party.  In  1870  he  spoke  in  Parliament  against 
the  continuance  of  the  war  with  France  and 
subseouently  denounced  the  annexation  o' 
Alsace  and  Lorraine,  He  was  arrested  (or  trieh 
treason,  but  acquitted;  in  1872,  however.  M 
was   again   prosecuted   and   sentenced  to  two 


Google 


BEBSL— BKCHE 


401 


years'  confinctncat  in  a  iottrtas,  and  Au  and 
other  terms  of  intprisoDinent  enabled  bim  to 
make  up  for  his  lack  of  elementary  education. 
He  remained  a  member  of  the  Reichstag 
from  1871  till  bis  death,  except  durins 
1881-83.  In  1874  he  took  a  partner  and  founded 
a  small  button  factory,  for  which  he  acted  as 
drumnjer,  but  in  1889  ne  gave  u^  his  business 
to  devote  himself  wholly  to  politics,  and  from 
the  death  of  Liebknecht  he  had  been  the 
head  of  the  party,  succeeding  him  also 
in  the  editorial  uiair  of  Vonuaerts,  the  often- 
suppressed  socialist  organ.  Bebd  was  not 
a  pure  pacifist;  he  admitted  that  military 
service  was  a  civtc  duty.  In  later  years 
his    socialism     became     more     modem.      " 


slif^t  and 

voice  and  was  an  exceptionally  logical  and  in- 
cisive orator.  Besides  his  autobiography  he 
wrote  <Our  Aims'  (1874);  'The  German 
Peasant  War'  (1876)  ;  'The  Life  and  Theories 
of  Charles  Fourier*  (1S88)  ;  'Women  and 
Socialism :  The  Christian  Ptunt  of  View  in  the 
Woman  Question'   (1893). 

BEBBL,  Heinrich,  German  faumanist:  b. 
1472;  d.  1518.  He  was  an  alumnus  of  Cracow 
and  Basel  imiversities,  and  from  1497  profes- 
sor of  poetry  and  rhetoric  at  Tiibingen.  His 
fame  rests  principally  on  his  'Facetix*  (1506), 
a  curious  collection  of  bits  of  homely  and  rather 
coarse-grained  humor  and  anecdote,  directed 
mainly  against  the  clergy;  and  on  his  'TriumtJi 
of  Venus,'  a  keen  satire  on  the  depravity  of  his 

BEG,  a  celebrated  abbey  of  France,  in 
Normandy,  near  Brionne,  now  represented  only 
by  some  ruins.  Lanfranc  and  Aaselm  were 
both  connected  with  this  abbey. 

BBCCAPICO,  bfk-a-fe'kS,  the  Italian 
name  of  the  small  olive-brown  garden- warbler 
iSylvia  hortensis),  called  in  England  •pctty- 
chapSj*  which  has  the  habit  of  pecldng  holes  in 
the  nnd  of  ripening  figs  and  other  fruits,  in 
search  of  small  insects.  The  damage  done  is 
very  slight  These  birds  were  eaten  with  much 
delight  by  the  ancient  Romans,  and  are  stilt  in 
hirfi  favor  on  Grecian,  French  and  Italian 
tables,  especiallv  in  Venice.  An  annual  feast 
made  on  beccancos  is  called  Beccaficala.  The 
term  is  also  applied  in  continental  Europe, 
rather  indiscriminately,  to  different  kinds  of 

SIvan  warblers  when  fat  and  in  condition  for 
e  table. 

BECCAFUHI,  Doraenico  di  Pace,  b«k- 
ka-foo'mS,  d&'mi-ne'kd,  sumamed  Mechexind, 
Italian  painter:  b.  near  Siena  1486;  d.  Siena 
1551.  As  a  shepherd  boy  amusing  himself  with 
drawing  figures  on  the  sand,  he  attracted  the 
attention  of  a  wealthy  man,  from  whom  he 
takes  the  name  of  Beccafumi,  who,  discerning 
his  genius,  sent  him  to  Siena  to  study  draw- 
ing. He  there  saw,  admired  and  tried  to  imi- 
tate the  paintings  of  Perugino,  but  having 
heard  much  of  Raphael  and  Michelangelo, 
obtained  means  from  his  patron  to  travel  to 
Rome.  After  much  study  of  the  masterpieces 
of  the  Vatican  he  returned  to  Siena  and  en- 
riched its  churches  and  its  city  with  many  noble 
frescoes  and  painted  an  altar-piece  in  the  mu- 
seum there;  He  drew  and  colored  well,  pos- 
sessed strong  inventive  powers,  was  thoroughly 


acquainted  with  perspective,  and  excelled  par- 
ticularly in  foreshortening,  but  he  was  not  free 
from  mannerism,  and  his  heads  are  In  general 
deficient  in  both  dippjiw  and  beauty.  He  was 
buried  with  pomp  in  Siena  Cathedral,  among 
some  of  the  finest  monuments  of  his  genius. 
His  paintings  include  'Saint  Catherine  receiv- 
ing_  the  Sti^finata '  (Siena) ,  ' Madonna  and 
Quid'  (Berlin),  'Marriage  of  St.  Clatherioe' 
(Rome),  etc.  He  also  gained  distinction  as  a 
sculptor  and  engraver. 

IBBCCARIA  Ceure  Bonesana-,  Mar- 
cbcH  di,  b£k-ka-re'9,  ch&'sa'ri  bd-nfi-sa'n9, 
mar-ka'si  di,  Italian  author:  b.  Milan  1735 
(or  1738) ;  d.  28  Nov.  1794.  He  was  early  ex- 
cited b^  Montesquieu's  'Persian  Letters,'  to 
the  cultivation  of  his  philosophical  talents,  and 
was  afterward  favorably  known  as  a  philosophi- 
cal writer  by  his  noble  i^Ianthropic  'Crimes 
and  Punishments'  (1764),  and  several  other 
worsts.  WiUi  the  eloquence  of  true  feeling  and 
a  lively  imagination  be  opposes  capital  punish- 
ments and  torture.  This  wodc  led  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  more  correct  principles  of  penal 
law,  and  contributed  to  excite  a  general  horror 
against  inhuman  punishments.  He  is  also 
known  in  Italy  as  the  author  of  a  philosophical 
grammar  and  theory  of  style,  'Riccrche  intomo 
alia  Natura  dello  Stilo'  (Milan  1770),  and  of 
several  good  treatises  on  style,  rhetoncal  orna- 
ment, etc.,  contained  in  the  journal  II  Cagf, 
edited  by  him  in  conjunction  with  his  friends, 
Visconti,  Verri  and  others.  In  1768  a  chair  of 
political   philosophy  was   created   for  him   at 

BBCCARIA,  Giovaotti  Battista,  j&'Va'ne 
bat-tes't«,  Italian  philosopher:  b.  Mondovi  1716; 
d.  27  April  1781.  He  went  to  Rome  in  1722,. 
where  he  studied,  and  afterward  taught  gram- 
mar and  rbetoric;  at  the  same  time  applying 
himself  with  success  to  mathematics.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  philosophy  at  Palermo, 
and  afterward  at  Rome.  Charles  Emmanuel, 
Kiiw  of  Sardinia,  invited  him  to  Turin  in  1748, 
to  nil  the  professorship  of  natural  philosophy 
at  the  university  there.  He  paid  much  attention 
to  the  subject  of  electricity,  and  published 
'Natural  and  Artificial  Electricity'  (Turin 
1735),  besides -many  other  valuable  works  on 
this  subject.  In  1759  the  King  employed  him 
to  measure  a  degree  of  the  meridian  m  Pied- 

BBCERRA,  GasMTO,  be-ther'r4,  gis-pa'rS, 
Spanish  artist:  b.  Baeza,  Andalusia,  1520;  d. 
Madrid  157a  He  studied  for  some  time  in 
Rome  under  Michelangelo  and  others,  and  on 
his  return  became  sculptor  and  painter  to  Philip 
II.  He  adorned  the  palace  of  Madrid  with  sev- 
eral frescoes,  and  also  executed  works  in  sculp- 
ture a   '       '  *■     ■ 


architecture. 


BBCHB,  bash.  Sis  Henry  de  la,  English 
geologist:  b,  1796;  d.  1855.  He  toundecf  the 
geological  survey  of  Great  Britain,  which  was 
soon  undertaken  by  the  government,  De  la 
Bech«  being  appointed  director-general.  He 
also  fotmded  the  Jermyn  Street  Museum  of 
Economic  or  Practical  Geology,  and  the  School 
of  Mines.  His  princi[ial  works  arc  'Geology 
of  Jamaica';  'Oassification  of  European 
Rocks';  'Geol<^cal  Manual';  'Researchei  In 
Theoretical  (jeology' ;  'Geology  of  Cornwall, 
OevoD,  and  West  Somerset;'  etc 


,  Google 


BBCHE.DE-MER  —BBCHU  AN  ALAND    PKOTBCTORATE 


BBCHE-DE-HBS.  bash-di-mar,  the 
French  name  for  the  dried  ilesh  of  holothurians. 
It  is  largely  cured  in  the  South  Sea  Islands. 


1682.  He  traveled  and  resided  in  various  parts 
of  Germany,  Holland,  Italj",  Sweden  and  Great 
Britain,  investigating  Cornish  and  Scotch  mines. 
He  wrote  a  number  of  works  on  chemistry,  the 
chief  of  which  is  entitled  'Physica  Subtcrranea.' 
In  it  he  expounds  his  views  on  the  composition 
of  inorganic  bodies,  the  constituents  of  which, 
according  to  him,  are  three  earthy  principles,  the 
vitrifiable,  the  combustible  and  the  mercurial. 
The  metals  consist  of  these  three  earths  in  dif- 
ferent proportions,  and  whenever  a  metal  is 
calcined  the  combustible  and  mercurial  earths 
are  expelled,  and  the  vitrifiable  earth  forma  the 
residual  £alx.  When  these  principles  are  com- 
bined with  water  different  salts  are  formed,  and 
a  fundamental  acid,  which  exists  in  alt  the 
others.  This  theory  was  subsequently  developed 
by  Stahl,  who,  by  means  of  the  principle  of 
phlogiston  (q.v.),  explained  not  only  the  calci- 
nation of  metals,  but  the  phenomena  of  com- 
bustion in  general. 

BECHBR,  Siegfried,  Bohemian  statisti- 
cian and  economist:  b.  Plan,  Bohemia,  28  Feb. 
1806;  d.  Vienna,  4  March  1873.  He  studied 
first  in  Prague,  then  in  Vienna,  then,  in  1831, 
entered  the  government  service,  but  four  years 
later  was  appointed  professor  at  the  Polytech- 
nic Institute  in  Vienna.  In  1848  he  became  at- 
tached to  the  Ministry  of  Commerce,  for 
which  he  made  a  trip  of  investigation  in  Ger- 
many and  Belgium  the  following  year.  Among 
his  important  works  are  'Das  osEerrcichische 
.  Miiniwesen  von  1524  bis  1838  in  historischer, 
statistischer  imd  legislativer  Hinsicht'  (2  vols., 
Vienna  1838);  *Statistische  Ubersicht  des  Han- 
dels  der  osterreichischen  Monarchic  mit  dera 
Auslande  wahrend  der  Jahre  1829-38>  (Stutt- 
gart 1841);  'Die  deutschen  Zoll-und  Handels- 
vcrhaltnisse  zur  Anbahnung  der  osterreichisch- 
deutschen  Zoll-und  Handelseiniguog'  (Leipzig 
1850);    <Dic  Volkswirtsehaft>    (Vienna  1853). 

BECHSTEIN,  Johann  Matthftus,  beH'stin, 
yoTian  ma-ia'oos,  German  naturalist :  b. 
Waltershauscn,  Gotha,  1757;  d.  1822.  He 
studied  theolo^  for  four  years  at  Jena,  but 
never  felt  in  his  element  unless  hunting  in  the 
fields  or  roaming  the  forest.  After  teaching 
for  some  time  he  resolved  to  devote  himself 
to  his  favorite  pursuits,  and  in  1800  the  Duke 
of  Saxe-Meiningen  made  him  director  of  the 
Forest  Academy  of  Dreissigacker,  in  the  vicinity 
of  his  capital.  This  academy,  under  Bechstein  s 
management,  became  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
establishments  of  the  kind  in  Germany.  His 
chief  work  is  his  'Natural  History  of  (^er- 
many,>  in  four  volumes.  In  Great  Britain  he  is 
best  known  by  a  treatise  on  singing- birds. 

BECHSTBIN,  Lodwig,  lood'viH,  German 
poet  and  novelist:  b.  1801;  d,  1860.  He  is 
chiefly  remembered  for  'The  Legend  Treasure 
and  the  Legendary  Cycles  of  Thuringia>  (1835- 
38);  "German  Fairy- Talc  Book'  (1845.  41st 
ed.,  1893)  ;  and  others.  Among  his  epical  poems 
are  'The  Children  of  Haymon*  (1830);  'The 
Dance  of  Death'  (1831);  'New  Natural  His- 
tory of  Pet  Birds'  (1846),  a  humorous  didactic 
poem;  and  'Thuringia'a  Royal  House'   (1865). 


Of  his  r 

best     known 
(1836-37). 

BBCHUAHALAND,  bit-choo-a'na-lind. 
south  Africa,  name  formerly  applied  to  the 
region  inhabited  by  the  Bechuanas.  It  included 
(I)  the  crown  colony  of  Bechuanaland,  with 
an  area  51,524  square  miles  and  a  population  of 
99,553,  annexed  to  the  Ca^  Colony  in  1895,  and 
since  1910  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  prownce 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  the  union  of 
South  Africa'  (2)  the  Bechuanaland  Pro- 
tectorate (q.v.J. 

BECHUANALAND  PROTECTORATE, 
South  Africa,  the  territory  lying  between  the 
Molopo  River  on  the  south  and  &e  Zambesi  on 
the  north,  and  extending  from  the  Transvaal 
province  and  Matabeleland  on  the  east  to  (Ger- 
man) southwest  Africa.  Its  area  is  about  275,- 
000  s(luare  miles.  The  country  forms  portion 
of  an  elevated  plateau  4,000  to  5.000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  and  thou^  so  near  the 
tropics,  is  very  healthful  for  Europeans.  In 
winter  there  are  sharp  frosts  and  some  years 
snow  falls.  The  rains  fall  in  summer,  and  then 
only  the  rivers  are  full.  Cattle  rearing  and 
agriculture  (production  of  maize  and  Kaffir 
com)  are  the  chief  industries.  Sheep  thrive  in 
some  parts,  but  it  is  not  a  wheat  country  on 
account  of.  the  summer  rains.  The  country 
takes  its  name  from  the  widely  spread  race  of 
people  called  Bechuanas,  who  belong  to  the 
great  KafKr  race,  and  are  divided  into  tribal 
sections,  each  of  which  has  a  chief.  The  most 
important  tribes  are  the  Bamangwato  (35,000), 
under  the  chief  Khama,  whose  capital  is  Serowe 
(pop.  17,000),  40  miles  west  of  the  railway  line 
at  Palapye  road;  the  Bakhatla  (11,000)  under 
Lenchwe;  theBakwena  (13,000)  under  Seckbele; 
the  Bangwaketse  (I8,000|  under  Gasdtsiwe; 
the  Batawana  under  Mathibi ;  and  the  Bamaliti 
(4,500)  under  Baitlotle,  who  b  acting  during 
the  minority  of  Seboko,  the  eldest  son  of  the 
late  chief  Mokgosi.  The  country  can  be 
reached  from  Cape  Town,  Port  Elizabeth.  Dur- 
ban, Delagoa  Bay  and  Beiia^  the  Rhodesia  Rail- 
way's section  of  the  "(iape-to-Cairo*  line 
traversing  the  countrv  and  passing  throueb 
Vr^bur^,  Mositlane.  MafekinK,  Pusani,  Kali- 
kani,  Linchwe.  Magalipsi,  Palachwe,  Tate  and 
Buluwayo.  There  are  extensive  forests  to  the 
irtheast,  and  to  the  west  lies  the  Kalahari 


inhabited  principally  by  Boers.  The  Bechuanas 
are  a  black  race  possessing  a  language  in  com- 
mon with  the  Bantu  races  of  south  Africa,  ex- 
tending as  far  north  as  the  equator.  Their  an- 
cestors are  said  to  have  come  from  the  north. 
and  progressing  southwest,  met  the  HottentoH 
from  the  (^pe  of  (lood  Hope  journeying  nor*. 
Since  1832  they  have  been  at  enmity  with  the 
Matabele,  and  in  later  years  the  Transvul 
Boers  on  one  pretext  or  another  endeavored 
to  occupy  their  country.  During  the  native  ris- 
ings in  1878  the  Bechuanas  invaded  GriquaUnd 
West,  and  were  in  turn  subdued  tw  Brilisl 
volunteers  as  far  as  the  Molopo.  When  the 
British  government  withdrew  from  Bechuani- 
land  in  1880,  the  natives,  being  helpless,  wtn 
left  to  the  mercy  of  the  Boers  of  the  Transvaal. 
whose  harsh  treatment  in  1882  and  1883  led  to 
the  Bechuanaland  expedition  in  1884.    At  w 


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BBCHUAHAS  —  BECK 


403 


beginning  of  the  19th  century  the  Bechuanas 
were  further  in  advance  in  civilization  than 
other  nations  of  south  Africa  and  thej;  are  still 
ahead  in  this  respect     In  1885,  the  territory  was 


South  Africa  Company,  but  was  never  admin- 
istered by  the  company;  in  1S91  a  resident  com' 
missioner  was  appointed,  and  in  1895,  on  the 
annexation  of  tne  crown  colony  of  British 
Bechuanaland  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  new 
arrangements  were  made  for  the  administration 
of  the  Protectorate,  and  special  aKrecments 
were  made  in  view  of  tbe  extension  ot  the  rail- 
way northward  from  Mafeldng,  Each  of  the 
chiefs  nilcs  his  own  people  as  formerly,  under 
the  protection  of  the  King,  who  is  represented 
by  a  resident  commissioner,  acting  under  the 
high  commissioner  for  South  Africa.  The 
headquarters  of  the  administration  are  in  Uafe- 
king,  in  the  Cape  province,  where  there  is  a 
reserve  for  imperial  purposes,  with  ample 
buildings.  There  are  assistant  commissioners 
at  Gaberones  in  the  southern,  and  Francistown 
in  the  nortbem,  portion  of  the  Protectorate. 
There  were  7  European  and  37  native  schools  in 
operation  with  government  assistance  in  1915. 
The  subsidized  schools  for  Europeans  are 
situated  at  Francistown.  Serowe,  Megalapwe, 
and  at  I^batsi,  Hildaraie  and  PitsanL  The 
telegraph  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to 
I^odesia  passes  through  the  Protectorate,  and 
is  owned  by  the  British  South  Africa  Company. 
Pop,  125,330,  of  whom  1,602  are  Europeans. 
Consult  'Annual  Report  on  the  Bechuanaland 
Protectorate'-  (London)  ;  MacNab,  F.,  'On 
Veldt  and  Farm'  {2d  ed.,  London  IMO) ;  Pas- 
sarge,  'Die  Kalahari'   (Berlin  1904). 

JoHK  B.  McDotrtmi. 
BBCHUANAS,  an  important  tribe  of 
south  African  negroes,  inhabiting  the  Trans- 
vaal. Next  to  the  Kaffirs  they  are  the  most 
significant  of  the  many  native  tribes,  politically 
considered.  Though  naturally  of  a  i>e3ceful 
disposition,  they  are  very  far  advanced  in  mili- 
tary and  civil  organization.  The  cultivation 
of  maize  or  com  and  the  herding  of  cattle  are 
their  main  occupations,  though  they  are  also 
noted  as  workers  in  leather  and  metals.  Their 
villages  are  far  more  advanced  stnicturally  than 
those  of  the  Zulus,  their  habitations  beine 
divided  into  various  rooms  and  constructed  witn 
theobject  of  allowing  circulation  of  air.  The 
various  communities,  each  imder  the  rule  of  a 
local  chief,  are  federated  into  powerful  king- 
doms, at  the  head  of  which  is  a  king,  or  supreme 
chief.  In  color  the  Bechuanas  are  about  the 
complexion  of  American  Indians  though  con- 
siderably smaller  in  stature.     Sec  Bkhuana- 


BECK.  Sis  Adam,  Canadian 
(of  German  extraction),  Baden,  Ontario,  20 
lone  1857.  He  was  educated  at  Gait  Grammar 
School ;  was  mayor  of  London,  Ontario,  1902- 
04;  and  has  been  a  member  ot  the  Provincial 
Parliament  since  1902,  occupying  a  place  in  the 
Whitney  cabinet  of  1905.  He  introduced  into 
tlie  legisbture  die  measure  for  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Hydro-Electric  Power  Commission 
of  Ontario,  of  which  he  has  been  chairnian 
since  its  inception.  He  is  a  noted  breeder  of 
Dorses.    He  was  knighted  in  1914. 


BECK,  Cbriatian  Daniel,  German  scholar 
and  writer:  b.  Leipiig,  22  Jan,  1757;  d.  13  Dec. 
1832.  Graduating  from  the  University  of  Leip- 
sig,  he  was  later  ap^inted  professor  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  classics  at  the  same  establish- 
ment, assuming  also  the  chair  of  histoiv  in 
1619.  In  that  year  he  also  became  editor  of  the 
Atlgemeinei  Rttortoriwin  der  neuetttn  w-  tind 
mulandischtn  Lilieratur,  a  position  he  main- 
tained until  his  death.  He  was  also  the  founder 
of  the  Philological  Society,  which  in  1809  be- 
came the  PhtloloKical  Seminary.  Among  his 
works  are  'Anleitung  lur  Kenntnis  der 
allgemeinen  Welt-  und  VSIkergeschichte'  (4 
vols.,  I787-1807J;  'Comment aril  Historic!  De- 
cretonim  Religion  is  Chrislianse  ct  Formute 
Lutherans'  (1801);  "Commentarii  Societatis 
Philologicse  Ltpsiensis*  (1801-04) ;  editions  of 
Euripides,  Pedo,  Plato,  Cicero,  etc. 

BECK,  Tohann  Tobias,  German  theoto- 
eian:  b,  Balmgen,  Wiirttemberg.  22  Feb.  1804; 

Tubingen,  28  Dec.  1878.    Graduating  frcMn 

.  .T„:....:7...   _.   -r..-....- t„   1825,  he  was 

accepted  an  ap- 

sor   of   theology   at   Basel. 

.  .   ._   Tubingen,  where  he  filled 

position.   He  was  one  of  the  Tiibingen 

faculty  wno  was  strongly  opposed  to  the  gen- 
eral radical  tendency  of  that  university,  under 
the  influence  of  F.  C.  Baur,  the  leader  of  the 
so-called  TtibinKen  school  Beck  was  and  re- 
mained absolutely  orthodox.  Among  his  works 
are  'Einleitung  m  das  System  der  chriatlichen 
Lehre'  (2d  ci,  Stuttgart  1870);  'Christliche 
Reden'  (1834-70)  ;  'Erklarung  der  zwei  Briefe 
Tauli  an  Tiraotheus*  (1879).  Consult  Adolf 
Schlatter's  _«J,  T.  Becka  theolcwische  Arbeit- 
theologie'  in  'Beitrige  znr  Fdraenmg  christ- 
■Ucher  Theologie'    (4  vols.,  1904), 

BECK,  Karl,  Austrian  poet:  h.  Baja,  Hun- 

Sry,  1  May  1817;  d.  Vienna,  10  April  1879. 
■  iwems  reflect  the  passionate  temperament 
of  his  Hungarian  countrymen  in  stmorous 
verses  of  consummate  finish.  Among  his  works 
are  'Nights'  (1838);  'The  Poet  Arrant' 
(1838);  'jank6>  (1842),  a  romance  in  verse; 
'Songs  of  the  Poor  Man'  (1847);  'Jadwiga' 
(1863),  a  talc  in  verse;  'Mater  Dolorosa' 
(1854),  a  novel. 

BECK,  Lewis  Caleb,  American  scientist: 
b.  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  4  Oct.  1798;  d.  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  20  April  1853.  A  man  of  remaikable 
and  wide  scientific  attainments  he  graduated 
at  Union  College  1817,  and  became  professor 
of  chemistry  and  natural  history  at  Rutgers 
College  183&J7  and  1838-53 ;  professor  of  chem- 


New  York  1835-41.  His  publications  include 
'Gazetteer  of  Illinois  and  Missouri'  (1823J ; 
'Salt  Springs  at  Salina'  (1826);  'Mineralmy 
of  New  Yont'  (IS42),  his  most  important  work; 
and  'Botany  of  the  United  States  North  of 
Virginia'  (1848).  Consult  Gross,  'American 
Memcat  Biography.' 

BECK,  Richard,  German  geologist :  b.  Aue, 
24  Nov.  1858.  After  finishing  tbe  regular 
courses  at  Leipzig  and  Freiburg,  be  spedalieed 
in  natural  science.  In  1883  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  geological  survey  of  Saxony.  In 
1895  he  resigned  this  position  to  become  pro- 
fessor of  geology  at  Oie  Mining  Acadetny  of 
Freiburg.    He    was    by    this    time    ' ' — 


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which  department  he  has  made  valuabl 
butions.  His  'Lehre  von  den  Erzlagerstatten* 
(1900)  is  a  standard  work  which  has  been 
translated  into  most  European  languages,  in- 
cluding an  AmerEcan  edition  in  English  (New 
York  1905).  It  treats  of  the  physical  features 
and  origin  of  the  metalliferous  deposits. 

BECKE,  Friedrich,  Austrian  mineralogist: 
b.  Prague,  31  Dec.  185S.  After  studying  at 
Vienna,  where  he  specialized  in  the  natural 
sciences,  he  became  there  a  lecturer  on  geology. 
In  1882  he  was  appointed  professor  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cicrrowiti.  Eight  years  later  he 
received  a  similar  appointment  at  Prague,  but 
soon  after  went  to  Vienna,  where  he  became 
professor  of  mineralogy,  succeeding  Tschcr- 
mak   as    such,   of   whose   periodical   Mineralo- 


on  the  science  of  geology  and  mineralogy,  but 
he  is  best  known  on  account  of  his  researches 
in  the  field  of  rock'forming  minerals  and  how 
they  may  be  determined  by  means  of  their  light- 
refractive  properties.  The  results  of  these 
studies  were  published  by  the  Vienna  Academy 
(1893). 

BECKE,  Oeorge  Lewia  (Louis  Bbcke), 
Australian  novelist ;  b.  Macquarie,  N.  S."  W., 
17  June  1857;  d.  Sydney,  1?  Feb.  1913.  He 
was  trader,  pilot,  labor  aeent,  recruiter  for  the 
Kanaka  Pacific  Islands  labor  trade,  and  con- 
tributor to  the  Australian,  English  and  Ameri- 
can press.  Among  his  numerous  worlra  are 
<By  Reef  and  Palm*  (1894);  'The  Ebbing  o'f 
the  Tide*  (1896);  'Rodman  the  Boat-steerer* ; 
'Edward  Barry';  'Tess,  the  Trader's  Wife'; 
'Ridan  the  Devil' :  'Breachley:  Black  Sheep' ; 
'Sketches  from  Normandy';  'Pacific  Tales' 
(1897);  'Helen  Adair> ;  'York  the  Adven- 
turer' (1901);  'Tom  Wallis'  (1900);  'Wild 
Life  in  Southern  Seas'  (1897)  ;  'Adventures  of 
James  Shervinton';  'The  Jalasco  Brig';  'By 
Rock  and  Pool';  'Clunkie's  Flat';  'His  Native 
Wife';  'Under  Tropic  Skies';  'The  Adven- 
tures of  a  Supercargo' ;  'The  Gerards' ; 
'Notes  from  My  South-Sea  Log' ;  'The  Tapir 
of  Banderah'  (1901).  He  also  wrote  in  col- 
laboration with  Walter  J.  JeSery,  'The 
Mutineer';  'A  First  Fleet  Family'  (1896); 
'Admiral  Philip'  (1899);  'The  Founder  of 
Australia' ;  ^Tne  Mystery  of  the  Laughlin 
Isles';  and  'The  Naval  Pioneers  of  Australia.' 

BBCKBNHAM,  England,  town  of  Kent, 
situated  southeast  of  London.  It  is  one  of  the 
English  municipalities  which  have  experimented 
in  'municipal  socialism,"  as  it  owns  its  electric 
lighting  plant  and  public  balhs,  and  has  charge 
o?  the  work  of  a  technical  institute.  It  is  a 
residential  suburb  of  London  and  its  most 
noteworthy  building  is  the  church  of  Saint 
Cieorge,  the  tower  of  which  was  completed  in 
1903,  and  contains  bells  in  memory  of  Cecil 
Rhodes.    Pop.  31,692. 

BECKER,  AnguBt,  German  poet  and 
novelist:  b.  1828;  d.  1891.  He  was  the  author 
of  'Young  Friedel,  the  Minstrel'  (1854),  a 
lyrical  epic;  and  of  the  novels  'The  Rabbi's 
Beqnest'  (1866);  'Proscribed'  (1868);  'The 
Carbuncle'  (1870);  'My  Sister'  (1876),  de- 
scriptive of  the  doings  of  Lola  Montez  and  the 


events  of  1848  in  Bavaria;  'Painter  Fatrbeard' 
(1878) ;  and  'The  Sexton  of  Horst'  (1889). 

BECKER,  (Seorge  Ferdinand,  Amerion 
geologist:  b.  New  Yotk,  5  Jan.  1847.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  University  in  1868;  wis 
instructor  of  mining  and  metallurgy  in  (he 
University  of  California  in  1875-79;  was  ai- 
tached  to  the  United  States  Geological  Survey 
in  1879,  and  was  special  agent  of  the  10th  cen- 

,  1879-83.    He  was  appointed  a  special  agoit 


)  the  r 


of  t' 


Philippine  Islands  in  1898l  His  publications 
include  'Geology  of  the  Comstock  Lode' ; 
'  Statistics  and  Technology  of  the  Precious 
Metals'  (with  S.  F.  Emmons) ;  'Geology  of 
the  Quicksilver  Deposits  of  the  Pacific  Slope'; 
'Age  of  the  Elarth,'  etc. 

BECKER,  Karl,  German  statistician:  b. 
Strohausen,  Oldenburg,  2  Oct.  1823;  A.  20 
June  1896.  In  1842  he  received  a  commission 
in  the  army,  and  as  such  was  also  instructor  in 
the  Oldenburg  Military  Academy.  In  1850  ht 
was  on  the  general  staff  during  the  campaign 
against  Denmark.  At  the  close  of  the  war  he 
entered  the  University  of  Berlin  where  he  be- 
came interested  in  statistics.  In  18S5  he  or- 
ganized the  statistical  bureau  of  Oldenburg,  at 
which  he  was  director  until  1872,  when  lit 
became  chief  statistician  of  the  German  gov- 
ernment. As  such  he  was  editor  of  the 
Monatihefle  sur  Statu  tik  des  deutschtn 
Reich  t  and  the  Statislischen  Jahrbucha. 
He  was  also  the  author  of  'Zur  Berechnung 
von  Sterbetafcln  an  die  BevolkerungslatistU: 
zu  slellende  Anforderungen'   (Berlin   1874). 

BECKER,  Karl  Ferdinuod,  German  pbi- 
lologist:  b.  Lieser,  14  April  177S;  d.  Oftenbadi. 
5  Sept.  1849.  He  first  studied  in  the  theological 
seminary  at  Hildesheim,  then  entered  and  w»* 
graduated  from  the  University  of  Gottingen. 
In  1815  he  began  practising  as  a  irfiysician  ai 
Offenbach,  at  the  same  time  establishing  a 
private  school.  It  was  as  instructor  in  bis 
own  school  that  he  first  became  interested  in 
philology,  into  which  subject  he  made  extensive 
researches  and  attempted  to  establish  the 
theory  that  speech  is  an  organism  subject  to 
the  same  critical  analysis  as  other  natural  or- 
ganisms, subject  also  to  the  same  laws  of 
development.  This  assumption  was  later  dis- 
credited by  Grimm  and  others,  who  showed 
conclusively  that  the  science  of  philology  must 
be  largely  based  on  ethnology  and  race  histoiy. 
The  works  of  Becker  include  'Die  dcutsche 
Wortbildung'  (Frankfort  1824);  'Orvamsmen 
der  Sprache'  (2d  ed.,  Prague  1841)  ;  'Der 
deutsche  SliP    (Prague  1848). 


1804;  d.  there,  26  Oct  1877.  He  was  a  studeni 
of  Friedrich  Schneider,  being  already  an  ac- 
complished musician  at  the  age  of  14.  At  the 
age  of  21  he  was  organist  in  Sainl  Peter's 
Church  in  his  native  city.  In  1843  he  wa-' 
ap(iointed  professor  of  organ  pla^Dg  at  ihr 
Leipzig  Conservatory,  which  position  he  belJ 
for  13  years.  It  is  not,  however,  so  much  or 
his  talents  as  a  musician  that  his  fame  r«lj 
as  on  his  works  chi  the  theory  of  music  Amonf 
his  important  works  are  'Systematisch-chrcr- 
ologische  Darstetlui^  der  ronsikalischen  L,itt«i- 
atur'     (Leipzig    1836);    'Die    Hansmusik    ' 


.Google 


collaborator    with 
'Neue  Zeitscbrift  fur  Musilc' 

BECKER,  Karl  Friedrich,  German  his- 
[orian:  b.  BerUn  1777;  d  there.  15  Marclr  1806. 
He  studied  philosophy  aod  lustoiy  at  Halle, 
then  was  for  some  time  a  teacher  at  Kottbus. 
On  account  of  continued  sickness  he  was  un- 
able for  loDg  to  follow  the  profession  of  teach- 
ing, so  he  gave  himself  tip  entirely  to  historical 
writing,  most  of  his  books  being  of  a  popular 
character.  Amane  bis  works  are  'Erzahlungen 
aus  der  Alter  Welt  fur  die  lugcnd'  (3  vols., 
Halle  1801-03);  <Weltgeschichte  fiir  Kinder 
und  Kinderlehrer>  <9  vols..  Halle  1801-05). 
This  latter  work  has  been  often  revised  since 
and  many  editions  have  been  published. 

BECKER,  Karl  Ludwig  Friedrich,  Ger- 
man painter:  b.  Berlin,  18  Dec.  1820;  d.  there, 
20  Dec.  1900.  His  early  training  was  gained  in 
Rome, .  Paris  and  Venice  where  he  slucUed 
under  such  masters  as  Von.  Klober  and  Hess. 
His  first  original  works  were  historical  and 
mythological,  though  in  his  later  paintings  it 
is  obvious  that  he  was  strongly  influenced  by 
the  Venetian  Reoaissance.  Among  his  notable 
works  are  'Belisarius  Begging'  (1850).  the 
frescoes  in  the  Berlin  Museum;  <Tne  Doge  in 
Council'  (1864);  'Charles  V  Visiting  Titian' 
(1873);  <In  the  Picture  Gallery'  (1874); 
'  Emperor  Maximilian  R«ceiving  a  Venetian 
Embassy'   (1877). 

BECKER,  NikoIaiM,  German  poet:  b. 
Bonn,  8  Oct.  1809;  d.  Hunshoveni  28  Ang. 
1845.  His  early  training  was  in  law,  and  for 
some  years  he  held  -a  position  in  a  court.  He  is 
principally  known  as  the  author  of  the  popular 
song  "Rheinliedes.''  The  song  begins  with 
the  words,  addressed  to  the  French:  "You 
should  not  have  it,  the  free,  German  Rhine.* 
So  widespread  did  this  refrain  become  that 
French  poets  replied.  Alfred  de  Musset  with 
■Nous  I'avons  eu,  votre  Rhin  allemand.*  For 
this  song  the  King  of  Prussia  awarded  the  poet 
a  prize  of  1,000  tbalers.  Becker's  other  poems 
were  published  as  a  collection  (Cologne  1841) 
but  none  of  them  attained  much  popularity  and 
they  have  not  generally  been  considered  of  a 
high  order. 

BECKER,  Oskar,  political  fanatic :  b. 
Odessa,  Russia,  1839;  d.  Alexandria,  Egypt, 
1868.  In  1861  he  attempted,  at  Baden-Baden, 
to  Idll  King  Wilhelm  I  of  Prussia,  by  shooting 
at  him  with  a  pistol  at  a  distance  of  but  three 
paces.  The  King^  fortunately  escaped  with  only 
a  slight  wound  in  the  neck.  Becker's  motive 
for  tne  act  was  his  belief  that  the  King  was 
unable  to  unite  Germany.  Though  sentenced 
to  20  years'  imprisonment  he  was  pardoned  by 
the  fCing  on  condition  of  living  out  of  Germany 
ever   after. 

BECKER,  Philip  Johann,  German  revolu- 
lionist:  b.  Frankcnthal  1809;  d.  1886.  Be- 
rinning  as  a  simple  worldngman,  he  soon 
>e<:a.rtie  involved  in  the  radical  labor  move- 
nents  of  his  time  and  for  his  participation  in  a 
evolt  in  1830  he  was  imprisoned.  He  then 
led  to_  Switzerland)  which  was  the  haven  of 
evolutionary  agitators  and  refugees.  He  was 
ery   prominent  in  the  revolutionary  ui^arals 


KBR  406 

that  threatened  ncar^  all  the  Europeati  coun- 
tries during  1848.  Becker  oi^nised,  during 
that  year,  a  body  of  fighting  men  widi  whi(£ 
to  support  Hecker,  who  was  attempting  to 
precipitate  a  revolution  in  Baden,  '^len  this 
failed,  Becker  led  his  forces  to  the  support  of 
the  revolutionists  in  Rome  and  Sicily.  This 
expedition  also  failed,  whereupon  he  marched 
into  the  Palatinate  and  Baden,  where  uprisings 
had  taken  place,  and  participated  in  the  thick 
of  the  fitting  in  which  be  showed  him- 
self possessed  of  not  a  little  military  skill. 
When  these  violent  disturbances  bad  subsided, 
Becker  became  attached  to  the  Socialist  Inter- 
national and. was  one  of  iCarl  Marx's  strongest 
adherents.  He  has  written  'Wie  und  WannP' 
(1869). 

BBCKER,  RodoU  Zmchmiima,  German 
author:  b.  Erfnrt,  9  April  1752;  d.  28  March 
1822.  He  first  became  known  1^  an  casay  on 
the  theme,  *Is  it  useful  to  deceive  the  people?* 
which  gained  a  prize  from  the  Berlin  Academy 
of  Sciences  in  1799.  His  theory  was  that  iap^- 
ness  depended  on  the  gratification  of  an  innate 
desire  for  improvement  In  1782  he  took  char^ 
of  a  school  at  Dessau  and  published  a  joun^ 
for  youth.  A  work  in  two  volumes,  entided  'A 
Uttle  Book  of  Needful  Help;  or,  Instructive 
Tales  of  Joy  and  Sorrow  in  the  Village  of 
Miidheim,'  became  such  a  favorite  with  the 
public  that  over  500,000  copies  were  soon  dis- 
posed of.  He  also  produced  other  works  and 
journals,  and  the  extensive  transactions  in  them 
led  him,  in  1797,  to  set  up  a  publishing  and 
booksclluig  establishment  at  Gotha,  which  is 
Still  continued  by  his  son.  On  30  Nov.  ISll  he 
was^  arrested  by  Davoust  on  suspicion  of  con- 
spiring against  Napoleon,  and  was  imprisoned 
at  Magdeburg  till  April  1813.  On  this  impris- 
onment he  wrote  a  book,  which  still  has  a 
historical   value. 

BBCKER,  Wilhelm  Adolf,  German 
archawlcwist :  b.  Dresden  1796;  d,  Meissen,  30 
Sept.  1846.  Hia  early  education  was  planned 
by  his  parents  with  the  object  of  fitting  nim  for 
a  commercial  career,  but  while  studying  at  the 
University  of  Leipzig  he  acquired  a  strong  taste 
for  a  life  of  study.  In  18^  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  archeology  at  the  University  of 
Meissen ;  in  1342  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair 
of  classical  archeology  at  Leipzig  University. 
In  his  first  two  books,  'Gallus  oder  romische 
Scenen  aus  der  Zeil  Augusts'  (Leipzig  1838) 
and  "Charicles  oder  Bilder  altgriechische 
Sitte'  (Leipzig  1840)  he  portrays  the  daily  life 
of  the  ancients  in  the  form  of  romances,  plenti- 
fully supplied  with  footnotes.  Both  works 
have  been  translated  into  English  by  Frederidc 
Metcalfe,  and  each  has  passed  through  numer- 
ous editions.  His  chief  work,  however,  is 
'Handbuch  der  romischen  Allerthiimer'  (Leip- 
zig 1843),  which  he  did  not  five  to  complete 
this  being  done  by  Marquardt. 

BECKER,  W^helm  Gottlieb,  German 
writer  on  art  antiquities :  b.  Obencallenberg, 
Sajtony,  4  Nov.  1753;  d.  Dresden,  3  June  1813. 
Graduating  from  the  University  of  iLcipzig,  he 
was  appointed  professor  at  the  Dresden  Ril- 
terakadefflie   in   1782.     In   1795   he  became   di- 


charge  of  the  famous  Green  Vault.    His  chief 
work  is    *Taschenbiich   zum  gesell^n  Verg- 

Google 


BBCKSRATH  —  BECKET 


'Augusteum>  (Dresden  1805-09). 

BECKERATH     Hennatm    von,    German 

statesman :  b.  Krefeld,  Prussia,  13  Dec.  1801 ; 
d.  there,  12  May  1870.  His  youth  was  spent 
in  learning  the  business  of  banting,  after  which 
he  became  the  head  of  a  banking  firm  which 
had  considerable  influence  in  German  financing, 
espcdally  in  the  Rhenish  provinces.  He  began 
bis  political  career  by  entering  the  Diet  of  his 
native  province.  In  1847  he  served  in  the 
Prussian  Diet,  and  the  following  year  went  as 
a  deputy  to  the  Frankfort  Parliament,  where  he 
became  one  of  the  firmest  advocates  of  the 
German  confederacy.  He  became  Minister  of 
Finance  in  the  German  cabinet  organized  by 
the  Parliament.  When  the  reactionary  Man- 
teuffel  Ministry  came  into  power,  he  continued 
as  a  member  of  the  Prussian  Second  Qiamber 
and  ranged  himself  steadfastly  with  the  opposi- 
tion. In  18S2  he  withdrew  from  politics,  but 
six  years  later  he  was  again  elected  to  the 
Second  Chamber,  His  iU-health,  however,  com- 
pelled him  to  decline  the  office.  Consult  Kop- 
stadt's  biography,  'Hermann  von  Beckerath* 
(Brunswick  1875). 

BECKERS,  Hnbert,  German  philosopher: 
b.  Munich,  4  Nov.  1806;  d.  11  March  1889. 
Graduating  from  the  University  of  Munich,  he 
was,  in  1832,  appointed  professor  of  philosophy 
at  the  LvcEum  at  Dillingen.  In  1847  he  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  oi  the  same  subject  at 
the  University  of  Munich.  Most  of  his  writings 
arc  devoted  to  expounding  the  theories  of 
Schelling.  These  include  'Denkrede  auf 
Schel!ing>  (Munich  I855J  :  <Uber  die  Bedeu- 
tung  der  Schcllingschen  Metaphysik'  (Munich 
1861);  'Cantica  Spiritnlia'  (Munich  1845-47); 
'Aphoristnen  uber  Tod  und  Unsterblichkeit* 
(Munich  1889). 

BECKET,  Thomas  i,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, the  Saxon  hero,  priest  and  martyr  of 
England  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II:  b.  London 
1119,  or,  according  to  some  writers,  21  Dec, 
1117;  d.  Canterbury,  29  Dec.  1170.  He  was  the 
son  of  Gilbert  Becket,  a  merchant  of  London. 
He  was  first  educated  by  the  canons  of  Mer- 
ton,  and  continued  his  studies  in  the  schools  of 
Oxford,  London  and  Paris.  On  the  death  of 
his  father  he  was  admitted  into  the  family  of 
Theobald,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and,  with 
his  permission,  went  to  the   Continent   for  the 

furpose  of  studying  the  civil  and  canon  taw. 
ie  attended  the  lectures  of  Gratian  at  Bologna, 
and  of  another  celebrated  professor  at  Auxerre. 
He  won  high  favor  with  the  King  through 
having  obtained  from  the  Pope,  while  acting 
as  agent  for  Theobald,  letters  prohibitory  oi 
the  crowning  of  Eustace,  the  son  of  Stephen, 
by  which  thai  design  was  defeated  (11S2). 
This  service  not  only  raised  Becket  m  the 
esteem  of  the  archbishop,  but  In  that  of  King 
Henry  II,  and  was  the  foundation  of  his  high 
fortune.  In  11S5  he  was  appointed  high- 
chancellor  and  preceptor  to  Prince  Henry,  and 
at  this  time  was  a  complete  courtier,  conform- 
ing in  every  respect  to  the  humor  of  the  King. 
He  was,  in  fact,  his  prime  companion,  had  the 
same  hours  of  eating  and  going  to  bed,  held 
splendid  levees,  and  courted  popular  applause. 
In  1159  be  made  a  campaign  with  the  King  in 
Toulouse,  having  in  his  own  pay  700  knigbts 


and  1,200  borsemen;  and  it  is  said  he  advised 
Henry  to  seize  the  person  of  Louis,  King  of 
France,  shut  up  in  Toulouse  without  an  army. 
This  counsel,  however,  so  indicative  of 
k  Becket's  energy,  being  too  bold  for  the  lay 
counsellors  of  one  of  the  boldest  monarchs  of 
the  age,  was  declined.  In  tbe  next  year  he  vis- 
ited Paris  to  treat  of  an  alliance  between  the 
eldest  daughter  of  the  King  of  France  and 
Prince  Henry,  and  returned  with  the  ^oung 
princess  to  England.  He  had  not  enjoyed 
the  chancellorship  more  than  four  years 
when  his  patron  Theobald  died,  and  iGng 
Henry  was  so  far  mistaken  as  to  raise 
his  favorite  to  the  primacy,  on  die  pre- 
sumption that  he  would  aid  bim  in  those 
political  views,  in  respect  to  Church  power, 
which  all  the  soverei^s  of  the  Norman 
line  embraced,  and  which,  in  fact,  caused  a 
continual  struggle  in  England  till  its  termina- 
tion by  Henry  VIII.  It  is  narrated  that  when 
Henry  announced  his  intention  of  having 
Becket  promoted  to  the  primacy  left  vacant  by 
the  death  of  Theobald,  Becket  propbeticaUy  re- 
marked: *1  am  certain  that  it,  by  God's  dis- 
posal, it  were  to  to  happen,  the  love  and  favor 
you  now  bear  towards  me,  would  speedily  tnni 
into  bitterest  hatred." 

Becket  was  consecrated  archbishop  in  1162, 
and  immediately  assumed  an  austerity  of  con- 
duct which  formed  a  very  natural  prelude  to 
the  course  which  he  was  to  follow.  Pope  Alex- 
ander III  held  a  general  council  at  Tours  in 
1163,  at  which  B^jcet  attended  and  made  a 
formal  complaint  of  the  infringements  by  the 
laity  on  the  rights  and  immunities  oi  tbe 
Church.  On  bis  return  to  England  he  bepn 
to  act  in  the  spirit  of  this  representation,  and  to 
prosecute  several  of  the  nobility  and  others 
holding  Church  possessions,  whom  be  also  pro- 
ceedeU  to  excommunicate.  At  a  council  at 
Woodstock  (1163)  be  successfully  opposed  the 
King  on  a  point  regarding  taxation  -—the  first 
case  of  this  kind  recorded  in  England-  Henry, 
an  able  and  politic  monarch,  was  anxious  lo 
recall  certain  privileges  of  the  clergy  which 
withdrew  tbem  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
civil  courts;  and  it  was  not  without  a  violent 
struggle,  and  in  the  interests  of  peace,  that 
Becket  finally  acquiesced.  The  King  soon  after 
summoned  a  convocation  or  parliament  at 
Clarendon  (1164),  lo  the  celebrated  «constitii- 
tions"  of  whidi,  although  the  archbishop  swore 
that  he  would  never  assent,  he  at  length  yielded, 
but  afterward  refused  to  aflix  his  signaturt^ 
and  b^  way  of  penance  suspended  oimself 
from  his  archiepiscopal  functions  till  the  Popt's 
absolution  could  arrive.  Finding  himself  the 
object  of  the  King's  displeasure,  he  soon  aft*t 
attempted  to  escape  to  France;  but  being  inter- 
cepted, Henry,  in  a  parliament  at  Northampton, 
charged  him  with  a  violation  of  his  alleFTiance, 
and  all  his  goods  were  confiscated.  A  suit  was 
also  commenced  against  him  for  money  lent 
bim  during  bis  chancel lorship^  and  for  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  benefices  which  be  had  nelo 
vacant  while  in  that  capacity.  In  this  desperate 
situation  he  with  great  difficulty  and  danjier 
made  his  escape  to  Flanders,  and,  proceeduig 
to  the  Pope  at  Sens,  humbly  resigned  his  arch- 
bishopric, which  was  however  restored.  He 
then  took  up  his  abode  at  the  abbey  of  Fon- 
tigny,  in  Normandy,  whence  be  issued  expMtu- 
latory  letters  to  die  King  and  bishops  of  Smb- 


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BECKBTT  —  BBCKFORD 


407 


Uod,  in  wluch  he  excommiuiicated  all  violatorB 
of  tbe  prerogativei  of  the  Gturch,  and  included 
in  the  censure  the  principal  officers  of  the 
Crown.  Henry  was  so  exasperated  that  he 
banished  all  his  relatioiis  and  obliged  the  Qs- 
tercians  to  send  him  away  from  0>e  abb^  of 
PoDtigny;  from  which  he  removed,  on  the 
reconuncndation  of  the  King  of  France,  to  the 
abbey  of  Columbe,  and  spent  four  years  there 
in  exile. 

After  much  negotiation  a  sort  of  reconcilia- 
tion was  patdied  up  in  1170,  which  on  the  whole 
was  to  the  advantage  of  Becket,  who,  bdnK 
now  restored  to  his  see  with  all  its  former 
privilege^,  forthwith  prepared  to  return.  Af- 
ter a  triumphant  entry  into  Canterbury  the 
young  Prince  Henry,  crowned  during  the  life- 
time of  his  father,  transmitted  him  an  order  to 
restore  the  suspended  and  excommunicated 
prelates,  which  he  refused  to  do,  for  the  reason 
that  the  Pope  alone  could  grant  the  reiiuesi, 
though  the  latter  had  authorized  him  to  inflict 
the  censure  on  them.  The  prelates  immediately 
appealed  to  Henry  in  Normandy,  who  in  a  state 
of  extreme  exasperation  exclaimed,  'What  an 
unhappy  prince  am  I,  who  have  not  about  me 
1  of  spirit  enough  to  rid  me  of  a  single 


induced  four  of  the  attendant  Irarons,  Reginald 
Fiti-Urse,  William  de  Tracy,  Hugh  de  Mor- 
ville  and  Richard  Breto,  to  resolve  to  wipe  out 
the  King's  reproach.  Having  laid  their  plans, 
they  forthwiui  proceeded  to  Canterbury,  and 
having  formally  reouired  the  archbishop  to  re- 
store the  suspended  prelates,  they  returned  in 
the  evening  of  the  same  day  (29  Dec.  1170) 
'  and,  placing  soldiers  in  the  courtyard,  rushed 
with  their  swords  drawn  into  the  cathedral, 
where  the  archbishop  was  at  vespers,  and,  ad- 
vancing toward  him,  threatened  him  with  death 
if  he  still  disobeyed  the  orders  of  Henry. 
Becket,  without  the  least  token  of  fear,  replied 
that  he  was  ready  to  die  for  the  righis  of  the 
Church ;  and  magnanimously  added,  "1  charge 
you  in  the  name  of  the  Almighty  not  to  hurt 
any  other  person  here,  for  none  of  them  have 
been  concerned  in  the  late  transactions.'  The 
confederates  then  strove  to  drag  him  out  of  the 
church,  but  not  being  able  to  do  so  on  account 
of  his  resolute  deportment,  they  killed  him  on 
the  siwt  with  repeated  wounds,  alt  which  he 
endured  without  a  groa 


did  penance  at  the  saint's  tomb. 

Thus  perished  Thomas  i  Becket  in  his  52d 
year,  a  martyr  to  the  cause  which  he  espoused, 
and  a  tnan  of  unquestionable  vigor  of  intellect. 
He  was  canonized  two  years  after  his  death, 
and  miracles  abounded  at  his  lomb.  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  III  his  body  was  taken  up  and 

E laced  in  a  magnificent  shrine  erected  by  Arch- 
idiop  Stephen  Langton ;  and  of  the  popularity 
of  the  pilgrimages  to  his  tomb  the  '(^nterbury 
Tales*  of  Chaucer  will  prove  an  enduring  testi- 
mony. In  September  1538,  Henry  VIII,  who 
held  the  veneration  with  which  &  Becket 
was  ref^rded  in  especial  detestation,  destroyed 
the  shnnc  and,  on  what  appears  to  be  good  evi- 
dence, had  the  martyr's  hones  burned.  The 
names  of  many  churches  and  hospitals,  in  order 
to  conform  to  the  royal  commands,  were  changed 
from  Saint  Thomas  the  Martyr  to  Saint  Thomas 


the  Apostle  Consult  for  the  sources  of  tbe  1if« 
'Materiak  for  the  History  of  Archbishop 
Becket,>  edited  for  tbe  Rolls  Scries  by  Robert- 
son and  Sheppard  (London  1875-S5) ;  also 
<LiTe»>  by  A.  E  Abbott  (London  1898),  W.  H. 
Hutton  (ib.  1889),  John  Morris  (2d  ed.,  ib. 
1885)  and  R.  A.  Thompson  (ib.  1889).  Ten- 
nyson's drama  of  'Becket*  has  the  martyr  for 
its  hero;  Ward,  'Canterbury  Pilgrimages' 
(London  19CW). 

BECKETT,  Arthur  William,  i,  English 
journalist  and  novelist:  b.  Fulham,  25  Oct 
1844;  d.  London,  14  Jan.  1909.  Besides  ful- 
filliiw  other  jonrnalistic  engagements  he  wai 
on  the  staf[  of  Pu«eh  1874-1902,  edited  the 
Sunday  Times  1891-95,  and  the  Naoal  and  MM- 
lary  Magaiine  1S96.  In  addition  to  several 
comedies  he  published  'Comic  Guide  to  the 
Royal  Academy,'  with  his  brother  Gilbert 
(1863-64);  'Fallen  Amongst  "Hiieves'  (1869); 
'Our  Holiday  in  the  Highlands'  (1874)  ;  <Tbe 
Shadow  Witness'  and  'The  Doom  of  Saint 
Quirec'  with  Bumand  (1875-76);  'The  Ghost 
of  Grimstone  Grange'  (1877);  'The  Mystery 
of  Mostyn  Manor'  (1878);  'Traded  Out'; 
■Hard  Luck';  'Stone  Broke';  'Papers  from 
Pump  Handle  Court,  by  a  Briefless  Barrister* 
(1884);  ^Modern  Arabian  Nights'  (188S); 
'The  Member  for  Wrottenborough>  (1895); 
'Greenroom  Recollections'  (1896);  'The  Mod- 
em Adam'  (1899)  ;  'London  at  the  End  of  die 
Century'   (1900). 

BECKFORD.  William,  EngUsh  writer. 
famous  in  his  time  for  his  immense  wealth, 
eccentricities  and  literary  talents ;  b.  Fonthill, 
29  Sept.  1759;  d.  Bath,  2  May  1844.  When  only 
10  years  old  he  was  in  receipt  of  an  income, 
through  the  death  of  his  father,  of  more  than 
$500,000  a  year.  Under  the  direction  of  Lord 
C!hatham  he  received  a  careful  education  at  the 
hands  of  tutors,  and  at  an  early  a^e  gave  evi- 
dence of  unusual  abilities.  His  first  work,  a 
satirical  essay  entitled  'Biographical  Memoirs 
of  Extraordinary  Painters,'  in  which  he  ridi- 
culed the  English  artists  of  his  time,  was  pub- 
hshed  before  he  was  21  years  of  age.  In  1783 
he  married  Lady  Margaret  Gordon,  daughter  of 
the  4th  Earl  of  Aboyne,  who  died  in  1786.    One 


(2  vols.,  London  1834).  He  sat  in  the  House  of 
Commons  from  1784-94,  and  from  I806-2O,  but 
took  no  interest  in  political  affairs.  He  went 
to  Portugal  in  1794,  where  he  bought  an  estate 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Cintra,  and  lived  in 
familiar  intercourse  with  the  royal  family  of 
Portugal.  After  the  lapse  of  some  years  he 
appeared  again  in  England,  and  began  in  1796 
to  erect  a  splendid  edifice  upon  his  estate  of 
Fonthill,  which  he  furnished  with  more  than 
royal  luxury,  and  continually  enlarged  with  new 
buildings.  Here  he  resided  till  1822,  when, 
owing  to  the  loss  of  two  large  estates,  which 
had  been  successfully  clatmea  in  chancery  by 
other  owners,  he  was  obliged  to  sell  Fonthill 
for  f330.000.  He  then  settled  at  Bath,  where 
he  began  to  occupy  himself  anew  with  building 
and  collecting  works  of  art.  His  literary  fame 
rests  upon  his  Eastern  tale,  'Vathek,'  which 
he  wrote  in  French,  composing  it  in  tbnt  days 


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BECKHAU  —  BBCKX 


and  two  ni^ts,  darine;  w4iich  he  did  not  take 
off  his  clothes.  It  was  published  at  Lausanne  in 
1787,  and  made  a  remarkable  impression  upon 
Byron.    See  Vathek. 


Aug.  1869.  He  attended  school  at  Roseland 
Academy,  Bardstown,  and  Central  University, 
Richmond,  Ky.,  receiving  degree  of  LL.D,  from 
the  university  in  1902;  served  as  page  in  the 
Kentucky  house  of  representatives  in  the  ses- 
sion of  1881-82;  in  1888  became  principal  of 
the  Bardstown  public  school  and  taught  three 
years;  studied  law  and  began  practice  in  1893; 
same  year  was  elected  as  representative  of  Nel- 
son County  to  the  general  assembly ;  served  as 
such  in  Ihe  sessions  of  1894,  IS96,  1897,  1898  and 
in  the  latter  session  was  sp^ker  of  the  house ; 
in  1899  was  Democratic  nominee  for  lieutenant- 
governor  on  the  ticket  with  William  Goebel, 
candidate  for  governor,  and  in  the  contest  be- 
fore the  general  assembly  of  1900  was  declared 
elected  lieutenant-governor  at  the  same  time 
that  Goebel  was  declared  elected  governor. 
Upon  the  death  of  Governor  Goebel,  3  Feb. 
1900,  he  became  governor,  and  at  the  special 
election  on  6  Nov.  1900,  was  elected  as  the 
Democratic  nominee  to  fill  out  the  unexpired 
term  of  Governor  Goebel,  ending  8  Dec.  1903; 
in  the  State  primary  of  1903  was  renominated 
and  in  the  general  election  of  November  1903 
was  re-elected  for  a  full  term,  ending  10  Dec 
1907;  in  the  State  primary  of  November  1906 
was  nominated  as  the  Democratic  candidate  for 
the  United  States  Senate,  to  succeed  J.  B.  Mc- 
Creary,  but  in  the  general  assembly  of  1908 
was  defeated  by  W.  C.  Bradley,  the  Republican 
nominee;  resumed,  in  1908,  the  practice  of  law 
in  Frankfort,  Ky. ;  in  the  State  primary  of  1 
Aug.  1914  was  nominated  by  the  Democratic 
party  for  the  United  States  Senate,  and  in  the 
general  election  of  3  Nov.  1914  was  elected  for 
the  term  beginning  4  March  1915,  At  the  Demo- 
cratic national  conventions  at  Saint  Louis,  1904, 
Denver,  1908,  Baltimore,  1912,  he  was  a  delegate 
from  the  State  at  large,  and  member  of  the 
committee  on  resolutions.  His  term  of  service 
will  expire  3  March  1921. 

BECKMANN,  Johann,  German  writer  on 
agriculture  and  natural  history;  b.  Hoya,  Han- 
over, 4  June  1739;  d.  Gotlingen.  3  Feb.  1811. 
He  studied  theology  at  Gotlingen,  but  soon  ap- 
plied himself  to  natural  philosophy  and  chemis- 
try. For  a  short  time  he  was  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  and  history  at  a  gymnasium 
in  Saint  Petersburg.  He  resigned  this,  and 
coming  back  through  Sweden,  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Linnaeus  and  was  allowed  to  see 
how  the  Swedish  mines  were  worked.  Having 
returned  to  Gotlingen,  he  was  made  professor 
of  philosophy  there  in  1766,  and  in  1770  ordi- 
nary professor  of  economy,  which  office  he  held 
for  4o  years.  He  published  several  scientific 
works,  which  once  were  popular,  but  the  best 
known,  of  his  productions  is  called  'Contribu- 
tions to  the  History  of  Discovery  and  Inven- 
tions,' of  wliich  several  translations  have  been 
published  in  England,  where  (with  corrections 
and  additions  extending  it  to  the  present  time) 
it  continues  to  be  a  favorite  work. 

BBCKWITH,  Sis  George,  English  military 
officer:  li.  1753;  d.  London,  20  March  1823. 
His  scene  of  action  was  largely  in  America  —  in 


the  United  Sutes  and  the  West  Indies.  He 
fought  with  the  &jglish  in  the  American  Revo- 
lution in  1776-82,  and  was  entrusted  with  im- 
portant diplomatic  commissions  in  1782-91,  as 
there  was  then  no  British  Minister  in  the  United 
States.  In  1804  he  was  made  governor  of  Saint 
Vincent,  and  four  years  later  governor  of  Bar- 
bados. As  England  was  then  at  war  with 
France  he  oi^nized  an  expedition  and  con- 
quered Martinique,  for  which  he  obtained  the 
thanks  of  the  House  of  Commons.  Later  <  1810) 
he  conquered  Guadeloupe,  the  last  possession 
of  the  French  in  that  part  of  the  world.  When 
he  returned  to  England,  after  nine  years'  serv- 
ice in  the  West  Indies,  a  set  of  silver  plate 
was  given  to  him  1^  the  legislature  of  Bar- 
bados, and  the  King  conferred  upon  him 
armorial  distinction. 

BECKWITH,  laawB  Carroll,  American 
portrait  painter :  b.  Hannibal,  Mo.,  23  Sept.  1852; 
d.  24  Oct.  1917.  He  studied  painting  in  Chicago, 
where  his  father  was  a  merchant.  In  the  late 
autumn  of  1871  he  became  a  student  at  the 
Academy  of  Design  in  New  York,  where  he 
remained,  under  the  direction  of  Professor 
Wilmarth,  until  1873,  when  he  sailed  for  Europe 
and  became  a  pupil  of  Carolus-Duran,  and  also 
at  the  ficole  des  Beaux  Arts,  under  Yvon.  In 
1878  he  returned  to  New  York,  and  with  Wil- 
liam M.  Chase  opened  the  new  departments  of 
painting  and  drawing  at  the  recently  estabUsbed 
Art  Students'  League,  where^  for  18  years,  he 
continued  his  work  as  instructor.  In  1894  he 
was  elected  to  the  National  Academy  of  De- 
sign, and  is  a  member  of  the  National  Institute 
of  Art  and  Letters.  Portrait  and  genre  paint- 
ing gradually  absorbed  his  time  and  attention.  . 
the  result  of  which  was  that  he  finally  aban- 
doned teaching.  He  decorated  one  of  the 
domes  of  the  Manufactures  Building  at  the 
Columbian  Exposition  of  1693.  Among  his 
best-known  portraits  are  those  of  General 
Scho field.  Judge  Palmer,  Colonel  Appleton, 
Mark  Twain,  and  the  Ogden  and  Parish  fam- 
ilies. At  the  Saint  Louis  Exposition  (1904) 
he  exhibited  'The  Nautilus'  and  portraits  of 
Mrs.  Beckwith  and  F.  H.  Hitch.  His  portraits 
hang  in  many  private  homes  as  well  as  in  ^- 
leries  and  institutions  throughout  the  United 
States;  among  others,  Yale  University,  Johns 
Hopkins,  West  Point  Militarv  Academy,  the 
Historical  Societies  of  Massachusetts  and  New 
York,  the  Bar  Association  of  New  Yorlt  Ihe 
Union,  Union  League,  City,  Racquet  and  Calu- 
met Clubs  of  New  York  The  New  York 
Public  Library  has  a  fine  collection  of  his 
crayon  and  pencil  drawings, 

BECKWITH,  John  Watnis,  American 
Episcopal  bishop :  b.  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  9  Feb. 
1831 :  d.  24  Nov.  1890.  He  was  graduated  at 
Trinitjr  College,  Hartford,  in  1852;  ordained 
priest  in  1855 ;  labored  in  Mississippi  and  Ala- 
bama till  after  the  close  of  the  Civil  War;  was 
then  called  to  the  rectorship  of  Trinity  Church, 
New  Orleans ;  and  while  there  was  elected 
bishop  of  Georgia,  being  consecrated  in  Savan- 
nah, 2  April  1868l  He  was  an  eloquent  preacher, 
and   published   several   sermons  and   addresses. 

BBCKX,  Pster  Johann,  22d  getieral  of  the 
Jesuits :  b.  Sichem,  near  Lou  vain,  in  the 
Flemish  province  of  Brabant,  Belgium,  8  Feb. 
1795 :  d.  Rome,  4  March  1887.  At  the  mc  of 
24  he  entered  the  order  of  the  Society  of  Jesos. 


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t^,  fV 


BBCKY   SHARP— BEC8KERBK 


Upoa  the  Duke  Ferdinand  of  Anbalt-Kothen 
becoming  a  convert  to  Catholicism,  he  was 
appointed  confessor  at  the  ducal  court,  where 
he  continued  after  the  Duke's  dcadt  with  the 
Duchess  |utia.  On  her  removal  to  Vienna  he 
accompanied  her.  In  1847  he  became  prosecutor 
for  the  Society  in  Austria.  The  following  year 
the  Jesuits  were  expelled  from  Austria  and 
Beckx  returned  to'  Belsitun,  where  be  became 
rector  of  the  Jesuit  College  at  Louvatn.  Upon 
the  return  of  the  Jesuits  to  Austria,  Father 
Beckx  was  made  superior  of  Hungary.  On  2 
July  1653  he  became  general  of  the  Order,  be- 
ing the  successor  of  Father  Roothan.  The  mar- 
velous success  with  which  the  Jesuits  estab- 
lished themselves  in  Austria  and  even  in  non- 
Catholic  countries  after  the  middle  of  the 
century  was  largely  due  to  the  abilities  of 
Father  Beckx  as  a  diplomat.  In  18S4.  when 
almost  90  years  of  age,  he  resipied  his  office. 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  Cwit^  callolica  in 
Rome,  the  chief  organ  of  the  Order.  He  was 
also  the  author  of  the  'Month  of  Mary,'  which 
was  widely  translated. 

BECKY  SHARP,  the  heroine  in  Thack- 
eray's 'Vanity  Fair.'  She  has  been  accepted  as 
the  type  of  the  shrewd,  conscienceless  adven- 
turess whose  sole  purpose  is  to  rise  in  the 
world  and  who  allows  nothing  to  interfere 
with  it 

BBCQUB,  Heari  Pransois,  hik,  on-re 
fraii-swa,  French  dramatist:  b.  Paris,  9  April 
1837  i  d.  1699.  He  was  the  pioneer  of  realism 
on  the  Parisian  stage  producmg  'The  Prodigal 
Son'  0868);  'The  Abduclion»  (1871);  'The 
4*-ft»¥«B»>  (18K);  'The  Parisian'  (1835),  etc. 
BBCQUER,'GtutaTo  Adolf o  Domincoez, 
Spanish  poet:  b.  Seville,  17  Feb.  1836;  d. 
Madrid,  22  Dec.  1870.  When  he  was  10  years 
of  age  bis  father,  a  well-known  painter,  Jos£ 
Domtnguez  Becquer,  died,  leaving  the  orphan 
son  to  the  care  of  a  godmother.  He  was  aban- 
doned by  his  protectress,  however,  on  account 
of  his  disinclination  to  fit  himself  for  any  pro- 
fession. At  the  age  of  18  he  came  to  the 
Spanish  capital,  where  he  earned  a  precarious 
living  for  15  years  as  a  free  lance  journalist 
and  translator  of  foreign  books.  During  this 
period  he  produced  some  tales  and  a  number 
of    poems   which   stand   out   sharply   from   his 


Madrid  ( 1885)  with  a  biographical  introduction 
by  Correa.  His  prose  tales  and  legends  were 
published  under  the  general  title  'Leyendas 
espaiiolas^*  and  are  included  in  the  fifth,  en- 
larged edition  of  his  works  (3  vols.,  Madrid 
1904).  An  English  translation  of  the  prose 
stories  tvas  made  by  Cornelia  Frances  Bates 
(New  Yoric  1909).  Consult  Mrs.  Humphry 
Ward's  article  on  Becquer  in  Macmillan's  Mag- 
azine (1883)  and  Olmsted's  introduction  to  his 
edition  of  Becquer's  'Legends,  Tales  and 
Poems'    il9Q7i. 

BBCQUERBL,  Alexandra  Edmond,  bGk- 
rel,  a-lex-aiidr  ad-mAA,  French  physicist:  b. 
Paris  (son  of  Antoine  Cisar  Beequerel.  q.v.), 
24  March  1820;  d  Paris,  13  May  1891.  He  was 
decorated  with  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
in  1851,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  physics 
in  tbe  Conservatoire  des  Arts  et  Metiers  in 
1853.    Besides  bis  conjoint  labors  with  his  father 


he  made  important  researches  on  the  nature  of 
light  and  its  chemical  e&ects^  on  phosphores- 
cence, and  on  the  conductivity  and  magnetic 
properties  of  many  substances.  He  wrote 
'Light,  Its  Causes  and  £fiects>  (1868). 

BECQUBREL,  Aotoin«  Cisar,  French 
physicist:  b.  Chatillon-sur-Loing,  8  March 
1788;  d.  Paris,  18  Jan.  1878.  He  studied  in  the 
Ecole  Polytechnique,  then,  in  1808,  entered  the 
en^eer  corps  of  the  army,  with  which  he  saw 
active  service  in  Spain,  under  Marshal  Suchet 
In  1812  he  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  received 
the  appointment  of  inspector  of  the  Ecole  Poly- 
technioue,  which  position  he  held  until  1815, 
when  he  devoted  himself  to  private  study.  In 
1837  he  became  professor  of  physics  at  the 
Music  d'histoire  naturelle.  Meanwhile  he  was 
actively  engaged  in  research  work,  especially  in 
the  field  of  electricity  and  magnetism.  He  in- 
vestigated and  experimented  in  the  laws  ji^v- 
erning  the  production  of  electricity  by  chemical 
action,  the  result  of  which  was  the  shattering 
of  Volta's  theory  of  contact  His  many  dis- 
coveries in  this  department  of  science  entitle 
him  to  be  called  one  of  the  creators  of  electro- 
chemistry. He  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Paris  Academy  of  Sciences  and  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  London.  Among  his  chief  works 
are  'Traite  de  I'flectricite  et  du  magnftisme' 
(1855);  <El&nent  d'electrochimie'  (1843); 
'Elfanenta  de  physique  terreslre  et  de  mftfor- 
olo^e>  (1847)  ;  'Risumi  de  I'histoire  de  I'elec- 
tricit£  et  du  magnftisme'  (1858).  Some  of 
these  later  works  were  written  in  collat>oration 
with  his  son  Alexandre  Edmond  Beequerel 
(q.v.). 

BSCQUBRBL,  Antoine  Henil,  French 
physicist:  b.  Paris,  IS  Deo.  1852;  d.  there, 
25  Aug.  1908  (son  of  Alexandre  Edmond, 
and  grandson  of  Antoine  Cesar  Beraiuerel, 
qq.T.).  Like  his  distinguished  grandfather,  he 
studied  at  the  Ecole  Polytechnique,  then  became 

Srofessor  of  physics  at  the  Museum  of  Natural 
[istory  in  1878.  In  1895  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  the  same  subject  at  the  Ecole  Poly- 
technique. In  1889  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Institute.  After  him  have  been  named  the 
rays  radiating  from  uranium,  for  the  discovery 
of  which  he  was  awarded  the  Rumford  medal 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  London.  In  1903  he 
shared  the  Nobel  prize  for  physics  with  M.  and 
Mme.  Curie,  awarded  them  because  of  their 
researches  in  radio-activity.  His  investigations 
dealt  chiefly  with  such  subjects  as  the  magnetic 
rotation  of  polarized  light,  phosphorescence,  the 
ultra-red  rays,  light  absorption,  etc 

BECSE,  bfeh'e,  Hungary  the  name  of  two 
towns  situated  on  the  river  Theiss.  Old  Becse 
i^  on  the  right  bank,  48  miles  south  of  Szegedin. 
Pop.  about  18,870.  It  has  fisheries  and  flour 
mills,  and  carries  on  an  extensive  trade  in  grain. 
New  Becse  is  on  the  left  bank,  five  miles  east 
of  Old  Becse.  Pop.  about  7,750.  It  carries  on  a 
trade  in  fruit  and  an  extensive  trade  in  grain. 
BECSKBREK,  Great  and  Little,  a  city 
and  a  town  in  Hungry,  The  former  is  in  the 
administrative  dislnct  of  Torontal,  of  which  it 
is  the  administrative  centre.  It  is  situated  on 
the  Bega,  45  miles  southwest  of  Temesvir,  the 
two  places  being  connected  by  canal.  It  is  the 
centre  of  an  important  grain  and  cattle  re^on 
..-J  ..  ,jii. industry.    An  old  castle  is  an 


and  a  silk  v 


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410  BB 

object  of  some  interest.  Pop.  (190O)  26,407, 
about  equally  divided  between  Germanj,  Serbs 
and  Magyars.  Little  Becskerek.  nine  tnilea 
northwest  of  Temesvar,  is  in  the  administrative 
district  of  Temes.    Pop.   (1900)  3,738. 

BED,  in  modern  domestic  use,  a  framework 
(bedstead)  supporting  a  mattress  or  cushion, 
with  coverings,  on  wbich  to  take  repose  or  to 
sleep.  Originally  a  bed  consisted  merely  of  a 
hotlowed-out  place  in  the  earth.  Then,  in  the 
colder  climates,  the  skins  of  animals  were  em- 
ployed, not  only  to  render  the  spot  more  com- 
fortable, but  as  covering  for  the  sake  of 
warmth.  In  the  warmer  climates  dried  leaves 
or  rushes  or  grass  was  employed  for  the  same 
purpose,  and  at  the  present  day  there  are  tribes 
of  savages  whose  t>eds  still  consist  of  such 
primitive  arrangements. 

Amon^  the  AticientB, —  With  the  develop- 
ment of  civilization  among-  the  ancient  peoples 
came  the  desire  for  greater  physical  comfort, 
and  the  bed  was  naturally  one  of  the  first 
articles  of  household  furniture  to  be  improved 
upon.  The  Egyptians  were  probably  the  first 
to  discover  that  greater  comfort  could  be  ob- 
tained in  a  warm  climate  by  a  free  circulation 
of  the  air  under  the  bed  The  paintings  and 
inscriptions    on    the    monuments    indicate    that 


steads,  resting  on  ornamental  legs,  which  were 
reached  by  short  steps,  the  mattress,  consisting 
of  dried  rushes  sewn  into  cloth  coverings,  rest- 
ing on  an  elastic  and  open  wickerwork  of  palm 
fibres.  And  as  among  peoples  in  warm  climates 
to-day,  the  pillow  was  not  soft,  but  hard,  of 
wood  The  prevalence  of  insects  and  snakes 
probably  was  another  reason  for  the  elevation 
of  the  bed  from  the  ground 

Later,  among  the  Babylonians  and  the  As- 
syrians, there  was  a  further  development  of  the 
bed,  corresponding  to  the  increase  of  luxurv 
among  the  nobility,  for  the  common  people  still 
continued  to  sleep  on  bundles  of  rushes  or 
grass,  as  they  have  done  through  all  the  ages. 
Here  the  framework  was  made  of  gold  and 
ivory  and  fine  woods  and  was  richly  carved 
and  ornamented  Gradually  it  became  a  habit 
to  recline  on  the  bed  for  rest  during  the  day, 
so  that  it  developed  into  the  divan,  where  the 
monarch  or  noble  would  sit  when  listening  to 
matters  of  state.  To  this  day  the  throne  room 
of  the  Turkish  Sultan  is  also  known  as  the 
Divan.  Such  references  to  the  bed  as  may  be 
found  in  the  Bible  indicate  the  importance  of 
the  bed  in  those  days,  ss  *I  have  decked  my 
bed  with  coverings  of  tapestry,  with  carved 
works,  with  fine  work  of  Egypt"  (Prov.  vii,  16). 

Among  the  Greek*  and  RoinanB. —  The 
ancient  Greeks  had  an  elegant  kind  of  beds  in 
the  form  of  open  couches,  the  mattresses  being 
stuffed  with  feathers  or  wool.  These  they  used 
during  the  day  too,  much  as  chairs  are  used  at 
the  present  time,  and  even  reclined  on  them 
while  eating.  The  luxury  of  the  Orient  did  not 
develop  in  Greece  to  the  same  extent,  for  the 
Asiatics  commonly  said  of  the  Greeks  that  they 
did  not  know  how  to  sleep  comfortably.  When 
the  Persian  King,  Artaxerxcs,  presented  one 
of  his  magnificent  beds  to  the  Athenian  envoy, 
Timogoras,  he  sent  also  an  attendant  skilled  in 
preparing  it. 

The  Romans  copied  their  beds  largely  after 


the  Grcdts,  though  tfaey  added  to  their  cooi- 
fort  by  the  invention  of  air  cushions.  After 
the  downfall  of   the  republic  they  began  add- 


beds:  the  •Icctus  tricliniaris,'  or  couch  for  re- 
clining on  at  meals ;  and  the  *lectus  cubicularis,' 
which  was  for  sleeping  on  at  ni^L  It  is  also 
said  that  it  was  the  fiunans  \4ho  introduced  the 
first  beds  into  England  'or  when  they  invaded 
that  country  they  taught  the  barbarian  natives 
how  to  make  straw  or  rush  mattresses. 

In  the  Middle  AgM.— In  the  colder  ci- 
mate  of  northern  Europe  the  development  oi 
the  bed  adapted  itself  also  to  the  question  of 
warmth  as  well  as  to  comfort  Soft  featbct 
pillows  came  into  use  and  the  skins  of  ani- 
mals gave  place  to  heavy  textile  materials  of 
.wool,  though  to  this  day  it  is  not  uncommon  to 
find  the  wealthier  classes  of  northern  Rus^ 
covering  themselves  with  wolf  and  bear  tkiiis. 
In  Germany  large,  broad  pillows  were  also  used 
for  covering,  and  are  so  used  to  this  day.  But 
as  modern  hygiene  has  demonstrated  that 
feathers  are  baa  condlfctorg  of  caloric  and  do 
not  permit  the  free  radiation  of  beat  from  the 
body,  which  is  essential  to  health  and  comfort, 
feather  beds  are  gradually  giving  way  to  iDod- 
em  hair  mattresses. 

Modem  Beds. —  Modem  mattresses  are 
sometimes  made  of  felt,  of  pure  hair,  or  of 
alternate  layers  of  hair  and  cotton,  stuffed  more 
or  less  tightly  into  a  casing  of  strongly  woven 
material,  called  ticking.  Pillows  are  made  of 
materials  similar  to  those  of  the  mattresses,  and 
the  bed  coverings  of  almost  any  fabric  suited 
to  the  taste  and  purse  of  the  owner,  from  coarse 
cotton  sheets  or  blankets  to  the  finest  wool  or 
silk.  The  heavy  canopies  of  the  Middle  A^ti, 
probably  an  evolution  of  the  mosquito-nelting 
of  the  Orient,  have  also  been  abolished  for 
hygienic  reasons. 

The  folding  bed  is  a  recent  development 
largely  peculiar  to  America,  where  dty  apart- 
ments have  made  space  a  question  of  special 
consideration.  They  are  so  arranged  that  the 
bottom  of  the  bedstead  can  be  swung  upward 
against  the  tall  headrest  and  tbe  bed  becomes 
either  a  dressing  table  or  a  bookcase.  Tnickl^ 
or  trundle,  beds  were  formerly  used  for  similar 
economic  reasons  and  consisted  of  a  low  plat- 
form on  wheels  to  admit  of  its  being  run  under 
the  larger  bed  by  day  and  was  occupied  al 
night  t^  children  or  servants.  _  Cots  are  also 
widely  used  for  the  sake  of  saving  space;  Ihw 
are  generally  very  narrow,  have  very  low  head- 
and  foot-rests  and  during  the  day  may  be  cov- 
ered over  and  used  for  sitting  in  the  place  of 
chairs.  There  are  also  folding  cots  and  lounges, 
constructed  over  a  box  body,  wherein  the  bed- 
ding may  be  concealed  during  the  day,  some- 
times in  a  drawer. 

Special  beds  have  also  been  contrived  for 
the  use  of  sick  or  wounded  persons,  notably 
mattresses  of  material  impervious  to  air  or 
water  and  filled  with  either  the  one  or  the  other. 

In  French  History  (see  Bed  of  Justice). 
the  bed  of  justice  was  the  throne  on  which, 
before  the  Revolution  of  1789,  the  kji^  used 
to  sit  when  he  went  to  Parliament  to  look 
after  the  affairs  of  state,  the  officers  of  Parlia- 
ment attending  him  in  scarlet  robes.  As  this 
interference  of  the  king  with  Parliament  was 
not  compatible  with  free  government,  *'' 


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BED  AND  BBODIHQ  PUkNE  —  BEDBUG 


411 


on  the  bed  of  justice*  came  to  sEsolfy  0^  ex- 
ertion of  arbitrary  power. 

In  Law,  a  divorce  from  bed  and  board  is 
the  divorce  of  husband  and  wife  to  the  extent 
of  separating  them  for  a  time,  the  wife  receiv- 
ing support,  under  the  name  of  alimony,  during 
the  severance, 

In  Mechanics,  a  bed  is  the  foundation  piece 
of  a  portion  of  anything  on  which  the  body  of 
it  rests,  as  the  bed-piece  of  a  steam  engine  i 
the  lower  stone  of  a  grindinK-mill ;  or  the  box, 
body  or  receptacle  of  a  vehicle, 

BED  AND  BEDDING  PLANE.  A  bed- 
ding plane  is  a  plane  of  parting  in  a  sedimen- 
tary rock,  parallel  to  the  stratification,  and 
along  which  the  rock  tends  to  part  more  readily 
tlian  in  any  other  direction.  A  bed  is  a  unit 
lyin^  between  two  successive  bedding  planes. 
Lamins  are  very  thin  beds.  A  stratum  (q.v.) 
may  cODsbt  of  one  or  more  beds,  but  must  be 
of  the  same  kind  of  rock  throughout  Beds  of 
strata  may  pinch  or  thin  out  and  disappear  in 
all  directions.  They  are  then  called  lenses  or 
lentils,  or  are  said  to  be  lenticular. 

BED  CHAMBER,  Lords  of  the,  12  officers 
in  the  household  of  the  British  sovereign,  who 
act  as  his  personal  attendants.  When  the  sov- 
ereign is  a  Queen,  these  oiBcers  are  the  "ladies 
of  me  bed  chamber."  It  is  considered  a  high 
honor  amon^  the  English  nobility  to  be  ap- 
pointed to  this  office.  The  salary  paid  to  each 
of  these  officials  is  il,000  a  year.  All  are  under 
the  command  of  the  groom  of  the  stole,  who 
attends   on  the   royal  personage  only  on   state 


BED  OF  JUSTICE  (Fr.  lit  it  justice), 
formerly  a  solemn  ceremony  in  France,  in 
which  the  king  with  the  princes  of  the  blood 
royal,  the  peers,  and  the  of&ccrs  of  the  Crown, 
state  and  court  proceeded  to  the  Parliament,  and 
there,  sitting  upon  the  throne  (which  in  the  old 
French  language  was  called  Ut,  because  it  con- 
sisted of  an  under  cushion,  a  cushion  for  the 
lack  and  two  under  the  elbows) ,  caused  those 
commands  and  orders  which  the  Parliament  did 
not  approve  to  be  registered  in  his  presence. 
llie  Parliament  had  the  right  of  remonstrating 
in  behalf  of  the  nation  against  the  royal  com' 
mands  and  edicts.  If  the  king,  however,  did 
not  choose  to  recede  from  his  measures,  he  first 
issued  a  written  command  (Uttres  de  jusiioti) 
to  the  Parliament,  and  if  this  was  not  obeyed 
he  held  the  iil  de  justice.  The  Parliament  was 
then,  indeed,  obliged  to  submit,  but  it  after- 
ward commonly  made  a  protest  against  the  pro- 
ceeding. Louis  XV  held  such  a  lit  de  justice 
in  1763.  in  order  to  introduce  certain  imposts, 
but  on  account  of  the  firm  resistance  of  the 

Erliamcnts  was  finally  obliged  to  yield.     The 
it  lits  de  justice  were  held  by  Louis  XVI  at 
Versailles,  6  Aug.  1787. 

BED-SORE,  an  ulcer  due  to  long-continued 

bod^,  due  to  protracted  maintenance  of  die  re- 
clining position.  The  buttocks,  shoulder-blades 
and  heels  are  the  most  frequently  affected  sites. 
In  certain  diseases,  notably  in  myelitis,  or  in- 
flammation of  the  spinal  cord,  bed-sores  may 
develop  very  rapidly,  within  10  days  to  two 
weeks.  Here  the  nerve-fibres  governing  the 
tone  of  the  sldn  are  affected.  In  long-continued 
^seases,    however,  necessitating  the   reclining 


posture,  bed-sores  devel<^  largely  from  lack  of 
careful  nursing.  A  due  amount  of  attention 
paid  to  absolute  cleanliness,  care  for  the  skin, 
careful  turning,  and  use  of  air-cushions  of  the 
water-bed,  are  often  effective  in  preventing 
them.  Alcohol  and  water,  equal  parts,  is  one  ot 
the  best  washes.  If  ulcers  develop  in  spite  of 
all  precautions,  they  should  be  surgically 
treated.  Oxide  of  zinc  ointment,  balsam  of 
Peru,  aristol  powder,  or  bismuth  powder,  may 
all  be  used,  alone  or  in  combination. 

BEDAHAR,  hi-dt-mar',  a  character  (a 
Spaniard  of  noble  birth)  in  SaintReil's  'Coii- 

BEDARD,  Pierre  Stenitlu,  French- 
Canadian  publicist:  b.  at  Charlesbourg,  near 
auebec.  1/63;  d.  1829.  He  was  educated  at 
e  Seminary  of  Quebec,  returned  in  1792  to 
the  first  legislature  of  lower  Canada,  became 
leader  of  me  opposition,  and  was  the  first  to 
demand  responsible  government.  One  of  the 
founders  of  Le  Canadien^  established  in  1806 
as  the  organ  of  French-Canadian  nationalism, 
he  was,  on  the  seizure  of  that  paper,  in  1810, 
imprisoned  and  refused  a  trial.  Subsequently 
be  became  a  judge. 

BBDARIEUX,  U-da-rS-u,  France,  town 
in  the  department  of  Herault  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Orb,  18  miles  north  from  Beziers.  It  is 
well  built  and  has  manufactures  of  fine  and 
common  cloth,  woolen  stuSs,  floss  silk,  worsted 
and  cotton  stockings,  bats,  soap,  olive-oil ; 
tanneries,  dye  works,  paper  and  glass  works 
and  a  brass  foundry.  It  has  also  a  trade  in 
wine  and  brandy.     Pop.  6,186. 

BEDBUG,  a  hemipterous  insect  {Cimex  or 
Aeimthias  lectiiiaHus) .  The  body  is  broad,  two 
and  a  half  lines  in  length,  flat  and  wingless; 
it  is  a  rust  red  color  with  mie  brown  hairs.  By 
its  shape  it  is  adapted  for  living  in  cracks  be- 
tween boards  in  furniture,  etc,  and  b^  its  long, 
slender  beak  it  sucks  the  blood  of  its  victim. 
This  insect  lays  eggs  throughout  the  vrarmer 
montha  of  the  year,  the  generations  succeeding 
eadi  other  as  long  as  the  temperature  is  high 
enough.  The  eg^s  are  oval,  white  and  Ae 
young  bugs  hatch  in  about  eight  days,  escaping 
by  pushing  off  a  lid  at  one  end  of  the  shell. 
Tliey  arc  white,  transparent,  differing  from  the 

Krfect  insect  in  having  a  broad,  triangular 
ad,  and  short  and  thidc  antennae.  A  species 
closely  related  to  the  bedbug  lives  as  a  parasite 
on  domestic  birds,  such  as  the  dove.  A  nest 
of  swallows  swarming  with  alleged  bedbugs 
was  once  found  on  a  courthouse  in  Iowa. 
Trestwood  states  that  the  bedbug  is  11  weeks 
in  attaining  its  full  size;  it  molts  about  five 
times.  De  Geer  has  k^t  full-siied  individuals 
in  a  sealed  bottle  for  more  than  a  year  without 
food.  The  cockroach  is  the  natural  enemy  of 
the  bedbug  and  destroys  large  numbers,  as 
does  also -the  Reduvius  and  certain  kinds  of 
ants.  In  Europe  a  small  black  ant,  Monomor- 
lum,  is  said  to  clear  a  house  of  them  in  a  few 
da^s.  Houses  have  been  cleaned  of  them  after 
being  thoroughly  fumigated  with  brimstone,  or 
by  the  use  of  insect  powder  blown  into  the 
cracks  and  crevices  where  they  live.  They  are 
also  easily  destroyed  by  painting  the  cracks 
with  corrosive  sublimate  (UssolvM  in  alcohol. 


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BEDDARD  — BBDB 


Temporary  relief  may  be  had  by  sprinklins  in- 
sect powder  over  the  sheets  of  the  bed  one  is  to 
occupy.  As  the  bedbug  was  known  to  Aristotle, 
who  "supposed  it  arose  spontaneously  from 
sweat,  it  is  probable  that  it  originated  about  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  for  it  was  not  known  to 
have  occurred  in  England  before  the  17th  cen- 
tury. Consult  Osbom,  <Insects  Affecting  Do- 
mestic Animals'  (Department  of  Agriculture 
Bulletin)  ;  Sutherland,  H.,  'The  Book  of 
Bugs.' 

BEDDARD,  Prank  BverB,  English  zoolo- 

S*st:  b.  Dudley,  19  June  1858.  He  graduated 
ora  New  College,  Oxford.  In  1882  he  joined 
the  Challenger  Expedition  Commission  on  its 
two-j^ar  cruise  as  naturalist  and  was  assistant 
editor  in  the  preparation  of  the  reports.  He 
next  became  examiner  in  zoology  and  compara- 
tive anatomy  at  the  University  of  London  and 
lectured  on  biologv  at  Guy's  Hospital.  In  1884 
he  was  appointea  prosecutor  of  the  London 
Zoological  Society.  He  is  the  author  of  'Ani- 
mal Coloration'  (1892) ;  'Monograph  on  the 
Oligochata'  (1895);  <A  Textbook  of  Zooge- 
ography' (1895) ;  'Structure  and  Gassifica- 
tion  of  Birds'  (1898);  'Book  of  Whales' 
(.1900);  'Mammalia'  (1902);  'Earthworms 
and  Their  Allies'    (1912). 

BEDDED  VEIN.    See  Blanket  Vein. 

BEDDOES,  bfd-oz  Thomu  English  phy- 
»cian  and  author :  b.  Shiffnal,  Shropshire,  13 
April  1760;  d.  24  Dec  1808,  He  distinguished 
himself  both  at  school  and  at  Oxford  by  his 
knowledge  of  ancient  and  modem  lan^ages 
and    literature.      The    great     dir '~ 


success  in  London  and  Edinbui^h.  In  his  26th 
year  he  took  his  doctor's  degre^  afterward 
visited  Paris,  and  formed  an  acquaintance  with 
Lavoisier.  On  his  return  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  at  Oxford  'TherB  he 
published  some  excellent  chemical  treatises  and 
observations  on  the  calculus,  scurvy,  consump- 
tion, catarrh  and  fever,  Daizled  by  the  splen- 
did promises  of  the  French  Revolution,  he 
offended  some  of  his  former  admirers,  and 
excited  such  a  clamor  against  him  by  the  pub- 
lication of  his  political  opinions  that  he  re- 
sided his  professorship.  He  then  composed 
his  'Observations  on  the  Nature  of  Demon- 
strative Evidence,'  in  which  he  endeavored  to 
prove  that  mathematical  reasoning  proceeds  on 
the  evidence  of  the  senses,  and  Uiat  geometry 
is  founded  on  experiment.  He  also  published 
the  'History  of  Isaac  Jenldns,'  which  was  in- 
tended to  impress  useful  moral  lessons  on  the 
laboring  classes  in  an  attractive  manner.  Af- 
ter his  marriage  in  1794  he  farmed  the  plan  of 
a  pneumatic  institution  for  curing  diseases,  par- 
ticularly consumption,  by  means  of  factitious 
airs  or  gases.  With  the  assistance  of  the 
celebrated  Josiah  Wedgewood,  he  succeeded 
in  opening  this  institution  in  1798.  As  super- 
intendent of  the  whole,  he  engaged  young 
Humphry  Davy,  the  foundation  of  whose 
future  fame  was  laid  here.  The  chief  purpose 
of  the  institution,  however,  was  never  realized, 
and  Beddoes'  zeal  gradually  relaxed,  so  that  he 
relinquished  it  a  year  before  his  death.  In  the 
last  years  of  his  life  he  acquired  considerable 
reputation  by  his  'Hygcia,'  in  three  volumes. 


BEDDOES,  Thonuu  Lorell,  Ei^ish 
dramatist  and  physiologist:  b.  Clifton.  20  July 
1803;  d.  Basel,  26  Jan.  1849.  He  published  'The 
Bride's  Tragedy'  while  an  undergraduate  at 
Oxford,  and  led  an  eccentric  life,  ultimately 
committing  suicide.  His  work  was  largely , 
fragmentary,  but  his  posthumous  'Death's 
Jest-Book;  or,  the  Fool's  Tragedy'  (1850) 
received  the  nigh  praise  of  such  judges  as 
Landor  and  Browning.  It  was  begun  in  1825, 
and  occupied  him  till  his  death,  being  mostly 
written  while  he  was  studying  medicine  in 
(jermany.  In  1890  Mr.  Gosse  edited  an  edition 
of  his  poetical  works  in  two  volumes,  with  a 
memoir.     See  Death's  Jest-Book. 

BBDE,  BBDA,  or  BADA,  known  as 
■The  Venerable  Bede,*  English  historian  and 
scholar,  was  bom  in  673  in  the  territory  of  Ae 
double  monastery  of  Wearmoulhand  Jarrow,in 
the  county  of  Durham,  and  died  in  the  monas- 
tery at  Jarrow  in  735.  At  the  age  of  seven  he 
was  entrusted  to  Benedict  Biscop,  abbot  of 
Wearmouth  and  one  of  the  best  eifuipped  schol- 
ars of  the  age,  vbo,  together  with  Ceolfrith, 
abbot  of  Jarrow,  directed  his  education.  AH 
the  rest  of  Bedcs  life  was  spent  in  the  mon- 
astery of  Wearmouth  and  Jarrow,  which  was 
administered  as  one  foundation  thou^  the 
buildings  were  some  miles  apart.  In  his  19th 
year  he  was  made  deacon,  and  in  bis  30th 
year,  priest  He  never  held  positions  of  higher 
dignity,  refusing  the  office  of  abbot  because  its 
duties  would  have  interfered  with  his  chosen 
work  of  'learning,  teaching  and  writing.* 
Under  Bede,  Northumbria  became  one  of  the 
great  centres  of  learning  in  Europe.  He  him- 
self gave  instruction  in  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
astronomy,  mathematics,  grammar,  rhetoric 
and  music;  in  short,  jn  all  the  subjects  which 
constituted  the  learning  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
His  knowledge  was  encyclopedic  in  character, 
and  all,  directed  toward  the  service  of  the 
Giurch,  is  recorded  as  having  been  imparted 
with  a  vivacity  and  charm  that  endeared  him 
greatly  to  his  pupils.  Besides  attending  to  his 
monastic  duties  and  his  work  as  teacher,  Bede 
wrote  voluminously.  In  a  brief  summary  of  the 
main  events  of  his  lite  at  the  conclusion  of  his 
'Hisloria  Ecclcsiastica,'  finished  in  731,  he 
gives  a  Ust  of  his  works  amounting  to  nearly 
40  titles.  His  activities  did  not  cease,  however, 
with  the  completion  of  his  great  history,  and  at 
the  very  hour  of  his  death,  as  is  narrated  by  his 
pupil.  Saint  Cuthbert,  he  was  enga^d  in  dictating 
a  translation  of  the  Gospel  of  Saint  John,  now 
unfortunately  tost.  Cuthbert  states  that  Bede 
was  a  lover  of  Anglo-Saxon  poetry,  but  the 
only  extant  writings  in  the  vernacular  which 
can  be  connected  with  his  name  are  two  lines 
of  a  poem  known  as  Bede's  'Death  Song,' 
quoted  by  Cuthbert.  The  body  of  his  writings 
consists  of  exegetical  treatises  on  the  books  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  of  treatises 
on  scientific,  rhetorical  and  historical  subjects, 
all  written  in  Latin.  His  reputation  as  a  mathe- 
matician was  very  great,  and  for  five  centuries 
following  his  death  his  works  were  standard 
throughout  Europe.  For  modem  readers,  how- 
ever, Bede's  most  interesting  and  important 
achievements  lie  in  the  field  of  history.  His 
greatest  wotk  is  his  'Ecclesiastical  History' 
(Hutoria  Eccleiiaslica  Gettlis  Aiij/loruBi),  a 
history  of  England  from  the  earliest  Rnnan 


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BBDB  — BBDBN 


41S 


occupations  to  the  year  731.  It  is  written  in  a 
channine)y  simple  and  pure  style,  and  is  re- 
markable (or  a  degree  of  critical  judgment  such 
as  one  would  not  expect  in  a  monk  oi  the  8tb 
century  who  had  never  lived  outside  his  monas- 
tery. It  was  translated  into  West  Saxoo  by  or 
under  the  direction  of  Alfred  the  Great,  and  it 
was  lareely  used  for  the  earlier  entries  of  the 
'Anglo-Saxon  Qironicle.'  It  is  still  the  main 
source  of  our  information  concerning  England 
for  the  period  which  it  covers. 

Bibliojrnipby. —  For  Bede's  works,  consult 
Migne,  'Patrologise  Cursus  Completus'  (Vol. 
90);  Giles.  'Opera  Omnia'  (London  1843). 
The  separate  edition  of  tlie  'Historical 
Wort^'  by  Plummer  (Oxford  I8S6),  contains 
much  valuable  material,  among  other  things  tl^e 
letter  of  Cuthbert  narrating  Bede's  death.  The 
West  Saxon  translation  of  the  'Historia'  is 
printed  in  Wulkcr,  'Bibliothek  dcr  Angel- 
sachsischen  Prosa>   (Vol.  IV,  1899).     For  esti- 

'  s  of  the  character  and  work  of  Bede, 


he  is  editor  of  The  Physical  Revitw.  He  has 
established  a  hi^  reputation  for  his  investiga- 
tions in  altematmp  currents  of  electricity.  Pub- 
lications :  'Printaples  of  the  Transformer' 
(1896)  ;  with  A.  C.  CrehofC,  'Alternating  Cur- 
rents' (4th  ed.,  1901);  'Direct  and  Alternating 
Current  Manual*  (1909) ;  and  numerous  special 
articles  on  physics  and  electricity.  He  con- 
tributed the  electrical  definitions  in  'Webster's 
Dictionary'  and  the  definitions  of  electrical 
units  in  the  'Standard  Dictionary.' 

BEDBLL,  Gregory  Thnrston,  American 
elerjpTnan:  b.  Hudson,  N.  Y.,  27  Aug.  1817;  d. 
II  lurch  1892.  In  early  life  he  was  rector  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  the  Ascen- 
sion, New  York.  In  18S9  he  was  consecrated 
assistant  bishop  of  Ohio,  and  in  1873  bishop  of 
that  State.  He  wrote  'The  Divinity  of  Chnst» ; 
'The  Profit  of  (Godliness' ;  'The  Age  of  Indif- 


J   Conquest'    (1899);    the    Introduction  to 

Plummer's  edition  of  his    'Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory,' 

Gecsige  p.  K«app, 
Professor  of  English,  Columbia  University. 

BEDS,  Adam.    See  Asak  Bede. 

BEDEAU,  bJE-ddi  Hmrle  Alphonae,  French 
general:  b.  Vertou,  near  Nantes,  1804;  d.  Nan- 
tes 1863.  He  won  his  military  fame  in  Algeria, 
where  he  was  active  in  the  operations  a^nst 
the  Algerians  and  became  general  of  bngade. 
In  184/  he  was  for  a.  short  time  govcnior  of 
Algeria.  He  was  in  Paris  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  revolution  of  1848,  and  was  subsequently 
vice-president  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  and 
was  made  vice-president  of  it,  always  voting 
with  the  Retublican  part^.  As  he  opposed 
Louis  Napoleon,  be  went  into  exile  after  the 
coup  tfilat  of  December  1851. 

BEDEGUAR,  bfd'?-gar,  or  SWEE'T- 
BRIAR  SPONGE,  a  mossy  roundish  ^11 
somewhat  resembling  a  chestnut  burr  in  size 
and  form,  but  jcenerally  more  or  less  reddish 
or  purplish.  It  is  caused  by  a  poisonous  fluid 
injected  into  the  plant  by  a  gall-fly   (Rhodites 


iregctable  substances,  it  was  believed  to  be  .._. 
fulin  medicine  in  cases  of  sleeplessness,  diar- 
rhoea, scurvy,  stone,  worms,  etc. 

BEDEL,  b6-d(l',  Timothy,  American  army 
irfficer;  b.  Salem,  N.  H.,  about  1740;  d.  1787. 
In  the  Revolutionary  War  he  was  in  command 
of  the  American  force  near  Montreal,  which 
surrendered  without  resistance  when  attacked 
by  Brant's  Indians.  He  was  sick  at  the  time, 
and  the  surrender  was  made  by  the  officer  sec- 
ond in  command,  yet  Arnold  placed  the  blame 
on  Bedel. 

BEDELL,    b«-d61',    Frederick,    American 

fhysicist;  b.  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  12  April  1868. 
le  was  graduated  at  Yale  in  1890,  and  at  Cor- 
nell (Ph.D.)  in  1892,  was  assistant  professor 
of  pliy»cs  at  the  last  named,  1892-1904,  and 
prolessor  of  applied  electricity  since  that  time ; 


BEDELL,  William,  English  clergyman:  b. 
Black  Notley,  Essex,  1570;  d  1642.  He  studied 
at  Cambrid^,  became  minister  of  Saint  £d- 
mundsbury  in  Suffolk,  and  in  1604  went  to 
Venice  as  chaplain  to  the  Ambassador,  Sir 
Henry  Wotton.  Here  he  remained  for  ei^t 
years  and  became  intimately  acquainted  with 
the  celebrated  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi,  who  taught  him 
Italian  and  was  tauglit  theology  in  return. 
While  here  Bedell  translated  the  English 
prayer-book  into  Italian.  On  his  return  to 
England  he  resumed  the  duties  of  his  curacy, 
but  left  it  in  1615  for  the  living  of  Horing- 
sheath.  Here  he  remained  for  12  years,  and 
quitted  it  to  become  provost  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin.  He  imdertook  several  important  re- 
forms, and  successfully  accomplished  them 
through  the  admirable  manner  in  which  he 
tempered  firmness  with  prudence.  In  1629  he 
was  appointed  to  the  united  sees  of  Kilmore 
and  Ardagh,  but  thinking  the  duties  of  one 
sufficient,  he  retained  only  Kilmore  and  insisted 
on  resigning  Ardagh.  He  next  turned  his  at- 
tention to  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  labored 
assiduously  to  convert  them  to  Protestantism. 
He  caused  the  prayer-book  to  be  translated  into 
Irish  and  reaa  regularly  every  Sunday  in  the 
cathedral.  The  New  Testament  had  already 
been  translated,  but  Bedell  had  the  honor  of  per- 
fecting the  boon  by  procuring  the  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament  In  1641,  on  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  rebellion,  his  house  was  for  some 
time  the  only  English  one  in  the  county  of 
Cavan  which  remained  uninjured;  but  at  last 
he  was  so  far  involved  in  the  common  fate 
that  he  was  carried  off  to  the  castle  of  Clough- 
boughter,  where  he  was  imprisoned  with  many 
others,  the  only  exception  in  his  favor  being 
that  he  was  not  put  in  irons.  His  works  are 
few  and  of  comparatively  little  importance. 
His  biography  was  written  by  Bishbp  Burnet. 

BEDEN,  the  AraWc  name,  in  Palestine,  of 
the  local  species  of  ibex  {Capra  sinaitica), 
which  ranges  throu^out  Palestine  and  along 
both  shores  of  the  Red  Sea,  It  varies  little 
from  other  ibexes  except  in  having  the  great 
horns  of  the  bucks  more  compressed,  and  the 
knobs  on  their  front  at  less  regular  intervds. 
The  general  color  is  yellowish,  with  con^cu- 

h  ,11-  .1   Ciooglc 


BBDBSMAN  —  BEDPORD 


BEDESMAN  (Saxon,  head,  a  prayer), 
was  a  commoD  suffix  to  the  signature  at  the  end 
of  English  letters  in  the  15th  and  16th  cen- 
turies, and  equivalent  to  petitioner.  The  Pas- 
ten  letters,  146IJ-80,  furnished  many  examples. 
Sir  Thomas  More,  writing  to  Cardinal  Wolsey, 
styles  himself  'Your  humble  orator  and  most 
bounden  bedesman.*  Margaret  Bryan,  the  gov- 
emess  of  Princess  Elizabeth,  signs  herself,  in 
writing    to    a    superior,    "Your    dayly    bede- 

BBDPORD,  Gtitming,  American  patriot: 
b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  about  1730;  d.  September 
1797.  He  was  a  lieutenant  in  the  French  war; 
entered  the  Revolutionary  army  with  the  rank 
of  major;  was  wounded  at  White  Plains;  be- 
came muster-master-general  in  1776;  was  a  dele- 
gate to  the  Continental  Coneress;  and  was 
elected  governor  of  Delaware  m  1796. 

BEDFORD,  Gimiiing,  American  lawyer: 
b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1747;  d.  30  March  1812. 
He  was  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1771 ;  became 
a  lawyer;  acted  for  a  time  as  aide-de-camp  to 
General  Washington;  represented  Delaware  in 
the  Conrinental  Congress  in  1783-86,  and  be- 
came attorney-general  of  the  State  and  United 
States  judge  for  the  district  of  Delaware. 

BEDFORD,  Gimning  S.,  American  physi- 
cian: b.  Baltimore  1806;  d.  New  York,  S  Sept. 
1870.  His  uncle,  Gunning  Bedford,  was  one  of 
the  framers  of  the  Constifution,  first  attorney- 
general  of  Delaware,  aide-de-camp  to  Washing- 
ton, and  United  States  judge  for  the  district 
of  Delaware.  The  nephew  was  graduated  in 
1825  at  Mount  Saint  Mary's  College,  Emmets- 
burg,  Md.  He  took  his  degree  in  me<hcine  at 
Rutgers  in  1829.  The  next  three  years  were 
devoted  to  study  abroad.  In  1833  he  became 
professor  of  obstetrics  in  Charleston  Medical 
College.  He  went  from  there  to  Albany,  N.  Y., 
at  the  New  College  foundation.  In  1836  he 
went  lo  New  York,  and  in  1840  founded  the 
University  Medical  College.  In  connection  with 
this  institution  he  founded  the  first  free  ob- 
stetrical clinic  in  America.  His  "Clinical  Lec- 
tures on  the  Diseases  of  Women  and  Children' 
(1855),  and  "Principles" and  Practice  of  Obstet- 
rics' (4th  ed.,  1868)  were  much  used  as 
textbooks. 

BEDFORD,  John  PlanUgenet  (Duke  of), 
regent  of  France,  third  son  of  Henry  IV  of 
England:  b.  20  June  1389;  d.  1435,  Shakes- 
peare, who  calls  him  Prince  John  of  Lancaster, 
mtroduces  him  in  his  plays  of  Henry  IV  as 
distinguishing  himself  by  his  youthful  courage 
in  the  bailie  of  Shrewsbury  in  1403,  and  form- 
ing a  kind  of  moral  contrast  to  his  more  dissi- 
pated brother,  the  Prince  of  Wales.  During  the 
reign  of  Henry  V  he  participated  in  the  tame 
acquired  by  the  contjuest  of  France ;  but  his 
talents  were  fully  displayed  when,  after  the 
death  of  thai  King,  he  became  regent  of  France, 
having  been  appomted  to  this  post  by  Henry  in 
his  wiil.  At  Vemeuil,  in  1424,  he  displayed  his 
military  talents;  and  the  difficulties  which  he 
experienced  in  endeavoring  to  maintain  posseS' 
sion  of  the  conquered  provinces  in  France 
afforded  frequent  occasion  for  the  manifesta- 
tion of  his  ability.  The  greatest  blemish  in  Us 
character  is  bis  cruel  execution  of  the  Maid  of 


Orleans  in  1431.  He  survived  this  event  about 
four  years,  and  dying  at  Rouen,  was  buried  in 
the  cathedral  of  uiat  city, 

BEDFORD,  John  RobbcII  (Duke  w), 
English  nobleman:  b.  1766;  d.  1839.  He  was 
versed  in  literature,  fond  of  science,  and  a  pas- 
sionate lover  of  agriculture,  to  the  improvetnent 
of  which  he  devoted  years  of  his  life  and  the 
expenditure  of  vast  sums  of  money.  He  was 
the  father  of  the  celebrated  statesman.  Lord 
John  Russell   (q.v.) 

BEDFORD,  Randolph,  Australian  author 
and  journalist :  b.  Sydney  ^  July  186a  He  led 
a  wandering  life,  which  included  working  as  a 
supercargo  on  a  river  steamer,  prospector,  re- 
porter, journalistic  free  lance  and  mimng  en- 
gineer. In  the  latter  capacity  he  wandered 
over  most  of  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  (1901-05).  He  is  a  con- 
stant contributor  to  magarines,  reviews  and 
newspapers  on  a  wide  variety  of  subjects. 
Among  his  published  worics  are  'True  Eyes* ; 
'The  Whirlwind*  (1903);  'Snare  of  Strength> 
(1905). 

BEDFORD,  England,  a  parliamentary  and 
miuiicipal  borough,  situated  on  the  Ouse,  county 
town  of  Bedfordshire,  50  miles  northwest  of 
London.  The  chief  buildings  are  the  law 
courts,  a  range  of  public  schools,  a  large  in- 
firmary, county  jail,  etc..  and  several  churches. 
The  town  is  ridi  in  charities  and  educational 
institutions.  The  most  prominent  of  these 
is  the  Bedford  Charity,  embracing  grammar 
and  other  schools,  and  richly  endowed  by  Sir 
William  Harpur,  a  native  of  the  borough,  who 
was  lord  mayor  of  London  in  IS61,  and  left  to 
the  institution  lands,  now  of  great  value,  in  the 
heart  of  London.  There  is  an  extensive  man- 
ufactory of  agricultural  implements,  engineer- 
ing works  and  breweries.  It  was  one  of  die 
earliest  centres  of  the  lace  trade,  originally 
introduced  by  Huguenot  refugees.  The  first 
mention  of  Bedford  in  history  is  in  the  'Anglo- 
Saxon  Chronicle,'  in  which,  as  Bedican-fonha, 
it  was  the  scene  of  a  battle  oetween  British  and 
Saxons  in  571.  It  was  burnt  by  the  Danes  in 
IDIO.  John  Bunyan  was  bom  at  Elstow,  a 
nearby  village,  and  it  was  at  Bedford  tl^t  he 
lived  and  preached,  the  'Pilgrim's  Progress* 
being  wrillen  during  his  long  incarceration  in 
Bedford  jail.  John  Howard,  the  philanthropist, 
founded  the  Congregational  Church  which 
bears  bis  name,  and  resided  in  the  vicinity. 
Pop.  (1911)  39,183. 


dianapolis  on  the  Baltimore  &  0.  S.  W.,  the 
Chicago,  Ind.  &  L.,  the  Bedford  &  W.,  the 
Monon.,  and  the  Terre  Haute  &  S.  E.  railroads. 
It  has  21  large  quarries  of  building- stone,  the 
woridqg  of  which  is  the  chief  industry,  hut 
there  are  also  railroad  shops  and  roun^ouses, 
saw-mills  and  a  foundry  and  machine  shop. 
There  are  three  banks  and  one  trust  company, 
with  resources  amounting  to  $350,000;  four 
schools  and  six  churches.  The  post-crfSce,  pub- 
lic library.  Elites'  home,  city  hall  and  court- 
house are  fine  stone  edifices.  Taxable  prop- 
erty is  valued  at  $5,000,000.  Pop.  (1910)  ^716; 
(1916)  12,000. 

'  BEDFORD,  Nova  Scotia,  a  vill^e  of  Hali- 
fax County,  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sack- 


BEDFORD  —  BEDFORDSHIRE 


ville  River,  on  the  Intercolonial  RAilroad,  north 
of  and  dose  by  the  dty  of  Halifax.  Its  site  is 
very  picturcsQue,  and  it  is  a  favorite  summer 

BEDFORD,  Pa,,  borough  and  county-seat 
of  Bedford  County,  situated  on  a  branch  of  the 

Siniata  River,  and  on  the  Pennsylvania  and  the 
untington  &  B.  T.  M.  railroads,  94  miles  south- 
west of  Hanisburg.  It  is  a  place  of  consider- 
able historic  interest,  as  it  was  for  some  time 
an  important  military  post,  was  once  Washing- 
ton's headquarters,  and  in  1794  the  headquar- 
ters of  the  troops  sent  to  suppress  the  Whisl^ 
Rebellion.  Of  interest  also  are  the  old  court- 
house and  soldiers'  monument  Bedford 
Springs,  B  favorite  summer  resort,  is  located 
about  a  mile  from  Bedford.  The  chief  indtistry 
b  the  mining  and  manufacture  of  iron.  There 
are  also  flour  mills,  planing  mills  and  a  large 
peanut  factory.  Bedford's  &rst  charter,  granted 
in  1>^5,  is  still  in  operation,  and  provides  for 
a  mayor,  elected  every  four  years,  and  a 
borou^  council.  The  municipality  owns  and 
operates  the  waterworks.  Pop.  (1910)  2235: 
(1914)  est  2,S0a  Consult  "History  of  Bedford 
and  Somerset  Counties'    (New  York  1906). 

BEDFORD.  Quebec,  capital  of  Missisquoi 
County,  situated  near  the  northern  end  of  Lake 
Champlain,  60  miles  from  Montreal,  on  the 
Canaoian  P.  Railroad.  Its  chief  manufactures 
are  knitting'needles,  staves  and  farming  imple- 
ments.    Pop.  1,432. 

BEDFORD  CITY,  Va,  town  and  county- 
seat  of  Bedford  County,  10  miles  from  Peaks 
of  Otter,  on  the  Norfolk  &  W.  Railroad,  mid- 
wajr  between  L^chburg  and  Roanoke.  It  has 
a  picturesque  situation  at  the  base  of  the  Blue 
Ridge  Mountains,  with  an  elevation  of  .  over 
1,000  feet.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Randolfii 
Macon  Academy  for  Boys  (Methodist  Episco- 
pal), of  the  Beunont  Seminary  (Presbyterian), 
of  the  Saint  John's  Institute  for  Girls  (Epis- 
copal) and  of  the  Jeter  Female  Institute 
(Baptist),  and  has  a  hi^  school  and  pub- 
lic schools.  Among  the  public  buildings  are 
the  courthouse,  new  post-ofhce  and  sew  Na- 
tional £lks  Home.  There  are  three  banks.  It 
is  in  a  tobacco-growing  region,  is  the  centre  of 
the  trade  for  its  district  and  has  tobacco  and 
cigar  factories  and  warehouses,  as  well  as  sev- 
eral other  industries,  including  a  woolen-mill, 
flouring- mi  lis,  planing-mill.  tin  can  factory  and 
asbestos  plant  The  value  of  taxable  property 
is  $1,423,120.  The  govemmeni  is  by  common 
council.  Receipts  for  1915  were  $55,187;  dis- 
bursements, $55,337.  The  waterworks  and 
fiydro-electric  power  and  light  plant  are  owned 
by  the  munidpality.    Pop.  2,508. 

BEDFORD  LEVEL,  England,  a  tract  of 
land,  comprising  about  400,000  acres  in  Cam- 
bridge, Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Huntingdon,  North- 
ampton and  Lincoln  counties,  formerly  full  of 
fens  and  marshes  and  in  rainy  seasons  for  the 
most  part  under  water.  It  derives  its  name 
from  Francis,  Earl  of  Bedford,  who  in  the  17th 
century  expended  large  sums  of  money  in  at- 
tctnptinK  to  drain  the  district.  Numerous  cuts 
have  been  made,  intersecting  every  part,  some 
so  lars^  and  deep  as  to  serve  as  navigable 
canals.  In  the  Isle  of  Ely  two  of  these  cuts, 
the  Old  and  New  Bedford  rivers,  running  nearly 
parallel    to  each  other,  are  navigable  for  over 


20  miles.  A  great  pan  of  the  level  is  under 
cultivation,  and  produces  grain  and  some  other 
crops  in  considerable  quantities;  but  there  is 
Still  enough  fen  to  form  shelter  for  vast  num- 
bers of  wild  fowl. 

BEDFORD   HISSAL,  a  book  made   for 

John  Plantagenet,  Duke  of  Bedford  (qv.)  and 
is  duchess.  This  rich  volume  is  11  inches  long, 
7yi  broad  and  2^  thick,  bound  in  crimson 
velvet,  with  gold  clasps,  on  which  are  engraved 
the  arms  of  Harley,  Cavendish  and  Hollis, 
quarterly.  It  is  embellished  with  59  targe 
miniature  paintings,  with  over  1,000  of  a  small 
size;  and  among  them  are  to  be  seen  several 
portmits  of  persons  of  eminence.  It  was  pur- 
chased by  Edward  Harley,  Earl  of  Oxford, 
from  Lady  Worsley,  great-granddaughter  to 
W.  Seymour,  2d  Duke  of  Somerset,  who  fig- 
ured in  the  reign  of  Charles  I;  and  descended 
from  Lord  Oxford  to  his  daughter,  the  Duchess 
of  Portland.  In  the  year  178^  when  the  collec- 
tion of  the  Duchess  was  brought  to  sale,  it  was 
purchased  by  Mr,  Edwards  for  $1,100,  and  was 
sold  again  at  the  sale  of  the  collection  of  that 
gentleman,  in  the  year  1815,  when  it  brought 
$3,350,  and  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough.  On  coming  to  the  ham- 
mer once  more  it  strongly  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  book-collectors  and  antiquaries,  and 
realized  the  unprecedented  sum  of  $5J50,  being 
sold  at  that  price  (June  1833)  to  Sir  John  Tobin 
of  Liverpool.  It  is  now  lodged  in  the  collec- 
tion of  the  British  Museum.  In  a  historical 
point  of  view  it  is  interesting  on  account  of  its 

e'ctoriat  embellishments,  some  of  which  have 
«n  engraved  by  Virtue  for  his  portraits  to 
illustrate  the  'History  of  England.*  For  the 
antiquarian  and  the  student  of  the  fine  arts  it  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  monuments  of  that 
age.  The  antiquarian  Gbugh  published  a  work 
describing  the  Bedford  Missal.  Dibdin,  in  his 
'Bibliomania,'  gives  an  accoimt  of  it 

BEDFORDSHIRE,  England,  a  south-mid- 
land county,  surrounded  by  Huntingdon,  Cam- 
bridgeshire, Herts,  Buckinghamshire  and  Not- 
tinghamshire. It  is  the  fourth  smallest  English 
county,  with  an  area  of  466  square  miles.  It 
lies  principally  in  the  basin  of  tiie  river  Ouse, 
whidi  flows  through  the  famous  Vale  of  Bed- 
ford, rich  in  comiands.  It  is  mainly  flat,  varied 
by  a  spur  of  the  Chiltems  in  the  south,  and 
m  a  range  of  chalk  in  die  northwest.  It  is 
the  most  distinctively  agricultural  county  in 
England,  over  88  per  cent  of  the  area  being 
given  over  to  this  indust^.  The  lace  indnstiy 
goes  back  to  the  time  of  Catherine  of  Arragon, 
and  it  received  marlced  stimulus  from  immigra- 
tions of  Flemings  in  the  16th  century  following 
the  persecutions  of  the  Duke  of  Alva  in  the 
Low  Countries,  and  from  Huguenots  who  fled 
from  France  on  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes.  Other  industries  are  the  making  of 
straw  plait  for  hats,  sedge-mat  making  and 
the  manufacture  of  agricultural  implements. 
The  county  also  produces  phosphate  of  lime, 
fuller's  earth,  stone  and  silver  sand.  The  prin- 
cipal proprietor  is  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  whose 
seat,  Wobum  Abbey,  dates  from  the  beginning 
of  the  18th  century.  The  county  is  rich  in 
antiquities,  which  include  the  Augustinian  prioiy 
at  Dunstable,  the  church  of  Elstow  near  Bed- 
ford and  the  pre-Norman  churches  of  Clapham 
and  Levington.    The  county  returns  two  n 


Google 


416 


BEDI VSRE — BBD8TRAW 


bers  to  Parliament,  tor  the  BigglESwade  and 
Luton  divisions  respectively.  Pop.  (1911) 
144,588. 

BBDIVERB,  bed1-v<£r,  Sm,  in  Arthurian 
legrend,  one  of  King  Arthur's  most  trusted 
knights.  It  was  Sir  Bedivere  who  [Last  the 
sword  Excalibur  into  the  lake  and  carried  the 
dying  Arthur  to  the  vessel  in  which  he  was 
borne  away  to  Avalon. 

BBDLAH^  a  corruption  of  BeAIeheni)  the 
name  of  a  religious  foundation  granted  in  1547 
by  Henry  VIII  to  the  corporation  of  London, 
and  hy  them  applied  to  the  purpose  of  a  hos- 
pital for  the  insane.  The  place  was  originally 
within  the  city  boundaries,  but  in  1814  a  new 
building  was  erected  in  Saint  George's  fields, 
on  the  south  side  of  the  Thames,  which  was 
called  New  Bethlehem,  or  vulgiarly,  Bedlam. 
The  patients,  who  had  been  discharged  partially 
cured,  and  went  about  begging,  were  called  Bed- 
lam beggars,  or  Tom-o'-Bedlams.  'What  a 
Bedlam*  has  become  a  colloquialism  to  de- 
scribe any  noisy  meeting. 

BBDLINGTON,  England,  an  urban  <Us- 
trict  of  Northumberland,  on  the  river  Blytb, 
five  miles  southeast  of  Morpeth.  It  is  an  im- 
portant coal-mining  centre,  and  has  iron  works 
and  chain  and  nail-making.  It  has  an  important 
ecclesiastical  building  in  the  church  of  Saint 
Cuthbert,  of  Norman  architecture,  which  was 
one  of  the  traditional  resting-places  of  the 
body  of  the  saint  in  its  miraculous  pilgrimage 
from  Durham  to  Lindisfame.  Pop.  (1911) 
25,440. 

BEDLINOTDH  TERRIERS.     See  Teb- 

XIEBS. 

BBDLOE'S,  or  LIBERTY,  ISLAND,  an 

island  in  New  York  harbor;  ceded  to  the  United 
States  government  in  1800;  the  site  of  Fort 
Wood,  erected  in  1841  and  mounted  with  77 
guns.  It  is  now  the  location  of  Bartholdi's 
colossal  statue  of  'liberty  Enlightening  the 
World,'  presented  by  France  to  the  United 
States.    See  Lib^ty,  Statue  or. 

BEDMAR,  Alfonso  de  U  Cuen  (Mak- 
Quis  de),  Spanish  politician  and  cardinal:  b. 
1572;  d.  Oviedo  1655.  He  was  sent  in  1607  by 
Philip  III  as  Ambassador  to  Venice,  and  ren- 
dered himself  famous  by  the  conspiracv  against 
Venice  which  St.  Real  has  so  well  described. 
Notwithstanding  the  circumstantiality  with 
whkh  the  details  are  given  by  St.  Real,  the 
very  existence  of  the  conspiracy  is  still  con- 
sidered by  many  a  very  diflicuit  historical  prob- 
lem. The  probability  is  that  the  conspiracy  was 
real,  but  that  the  Senate,  satisfied  with  Imving 
discovered  it,  and  not  willing  to  break  altogether 
with  Spain,  did  not  think  it  advisable  to  give  it 
much  publicity.  It  forms  the  subject  of  Otway's 
tra^dy,  'Venice  Preserved.'  Bedmar  was 
obliged  to  save  himself  by  flight  to  avoid  the 
fury  of  the  populace,  but  he  did  not  lose  the 
favor  either  of  his  own  sovereign  or  of  the 
Pope.  By  the  former  he  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  the  Low  Countries,  where  his  severity 
and  rigor  made  him  universally  detested;  and 
from  the  latter  he  received  a  cardinal's  hat. 

BEDNUR,  b£d-noor',  or  BEDNORE,  In- 
dia, decayed  city,  now  a  village,  of  Mysore,  in 
the  midst  of  a  basin  in  a  rugged  tableland  of 
the  western  Ghats,  at  an  elevation  of  more  than 
4,000  feet  above  the  sea,  150  miles  northwest  of 


Scringapatam.  It  wu  at  one  time  the  seat  oi 
government  of  a  rajah,  and  its  population  a- 
ceeded  100^.  In  1763  it  was  taken  by  Hyder 
All,  who  pillaged  it  of  property  to  the  estimated 
value  of  $60,000,000,  and  subsetjuently  estab- 
lished an  arsenal  here,  calling  it  Hydemaitet 
(Hyder's  town).  It  was  taken  by  the  Briliih 
under  General  Uatthews  in  1783,  but  soon  re- 
taken by  Tippoo,  at  the  head  of  a  superior 
force,  when  General  Matthews  and  all  the  ^ia- 
ci^  British  officers  were  put  to  death.    Fop, 

BEDOTT,  Widow,  the  literary  name  of 
Mrs.  Francis  Miriam  Whitcher,  auUior  of  the 
once  famous  'Widow  Bedott  Papers.' 

BEDOUIN,  bM'oo-En  or  bid'oo-In  (Arab, 
btd&tm) ,  the  name  given  to  the  nomadic  Arabs, 
as  distingui^ed  from  those  settled  in  towns 
and  villages  and  engaged  in  agriculture  and 
manufactures.  The  Bedouin  inhabit  the  deserts 
of  Arabia  and  northern  Africa,  and  are  lean 
and  short,  but  very  active  and  capable  of  en- 
during great  fatigue.  They  live  mamly  l^  hunt- 
ing and  pastoral  occupations,  and  very  little 
agriculture  is  carried  on.  Their  food  consisU 
mostly  of  the  produce  of  their  herds,  and  the)' 
enjoy  excellent  health.  Their  temperament  is 
cheerful,  and  they  are  honorable  in  their  deal- 
ings with  one  another  or  with  guests.  Many 
of  thera,  however,  partly  support  themselves  Iq- 
robbery,  but  the  statements  regarding  iheir 
marauding  propensities  seem  to  have  been  ex- 
aggerated. They  live  in  tents,  but  frequently 
when  traveling  they  sleep  in  the  open  air.  Thdr 
religion  is  professedly  Mohammedan,  but  is  of 
a  very  simple  chat^cter.  The  women  grind 
com  and  weave  coarse  cloths,  and  many  of  the 
tribes  barter  horses,  camels,  cattle,  etc.,  for 
various  necessaries  such  as  arms  and  cloth. 
Some  tribes  gain  part  of  their  subsistence  by 
escorting  travelers,  pilgrims,  etc.,  across  tla 
deserts.  They  are  monogamou^  but  divorce  is 
easily  obtained  and  frequent.  Though  Kenerallv 
very  ignorant,  they  are  by  no  means  unintelli- 
gent; and  they  possess  the  lively  fancy  of  roost 
Eastern  nations.  The  head  of  a  tnbe  is  the 
sheik,  and  they  have  also  judges  known  as  codts. 
See  Burckhardt,  'Notes  on  Bedouins  and  Waha- 
bys*  (1830);  Blunt,  'Bedouin  Tribes  of  the 
Euphrates'   (1879). 

BEDRBDDIN  HASSAN^  bfd-riEd-niea' 
has-san,  the  hero  of  the  amusing  cream  tart 
story  in  the  'Arabian  Nights  Entertainments.' 
BEDSTRAW,  GaUum,  a  ^enus  of  about 
200  annual  or  perennial  herbs  with  four-angled 
stems,  natives  mostly  of  the  colder  climate?- 
whether  of  latitude  or  altitude,  in  the  northern 
hemisphere.  The  species,  which  are  mosUv 
harsh-feeling  weeds,  are  often  attractive  for 
Iheir  regular  whorls  of  leaves  and  their  pani- 
cles of  profuse  minute,  white,  yellow,  green  OT 
Eurple  blossoms,  which  in  some  ^(cctes  are  used 
y  florists  to  add  "misty  delicacy  and  airy 
grace*  to  bouquets,  especially  of  sweet  i>cas,  and 
to  cover  rock-work  in  and  out-of-doors.  The 
two  species  most  cult iva led  for  this  purpose 
G.   mollugo    (European)    sometimes    called 


(C  verfHtm),  a  spedes  with  yellow  flowers, 
is  tised  for  curdling  milk.  Its  flower  sprays 
yield  a  yellow  dye  when  boiled  in  alum  solu- 
tions and  its  roots  a  red  o««,  said  to  rival  raad- 


.Ciooglc 


417 


der  as  -i  wool  dye.  For  this  use  attempti  U 
cnltivation  have  beoi  made  in  EJiglacd.  This 
species,  together  with  G.  trifidum  and  G.  boreale, 
redden  the  bones  and  milk  of  animals  that  eat 
ihem  in  quantity.  Goose  grass  or  cleavers  iG. 
Aparine) ,  a  troublesome  weed  commoa  to 
Europe,  Asia  and  America,  yields  a  seed  some- 
times used  as  a  substitute  for  coffee.  It  is 
noted  for  the  hooked  prickles  of  its  stems, 
fruits  and  leaves.  In  China  B.  tuberosum  is 
cultivated  for  its  farinaceous  tubers.  Some 
Species,  for  instance,  G.  moUugo  and  G.  rigidvm, 
have  been  tried  in  cases  of  epilepsy  and  others 
in  cutaneous  disorders. 

BRS,  BemMrd  E.,  American  Confederate 
general:  b.  South  Carolina  1824;  tL  21  July 
1861.  Graduating  from  West  Point  in  184^  he 
served  in  the  Mexican  War,  after  which  he 
was  assigned  to  frontier  du^  in  Minnesota  and 
Dakota.  On  the  outbreak  o£  the  Gvil  War  he 
joined  the  Confederacy  and  was  kilted  while 
leading  his  brigade  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run. 

BBB,  Hamilton  PriolMn,  American  Con- 
federate general:  b.  Charleston,  S.  C,  \822; 
d.  1897.  In  1839  he  acted  as  representative  of 
Texss  on  the  commission  which  defined  the 
boundary  line  between  Texas  and  the  United 
States,  from  the  Red  fiiver  to  the  mouth  of 
the  Sabine.  In  March  1843  he  was  sent  bf 
President  Houston  of  Texas  to  negotiate  with 
the  Comanche  Indians,  wliich  was  finally  suc~ 
cessful.  Later  he  became  secretary  of  the  Sen- 
ate of  Texas,  but  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Mexi- 
can War  be  joined  General  McCuUoch's  com- 
mand. On  the  rupture  of  hostilities  between  die 
Confederate  States  and  the  United  States,  he 
was  made  a  brigadier-ceneral  of  the  provisional 
army  of  Texas,  joining  the  Confederate  army 
the  year  following. 

BEB,  any  hymenopterous  insect  belonging 
to  the  Apoidea  group,  the  *genns  A^iis*  of  Lin- 
naus.  It  was  formerly,  until  quite  recently, 
regarded  as  the  single  family  of  Apidx,  or  by 
some  oaturaUsts  as  two  famiUes,  the  Apidie 
and  the  Andrenids.  The  name  now  is  applied 
to  all  those  Hymenoptera  whose  tongues  are 
capable  of  sipping  the  nectar  from  flowers, 
whose  head  and  thorax  are  covered  with  a 
fea.thery  hair  and  whose  hind  legs  or  feet  are 
dilated.  They  again  are  subdivided  into  some 
1,500  variations,  ranging  from  Ihe  honey  bee  of 
highly  developed  intelligence  to  the  lesser  para- 
sitic bee.  In  the  complexit<r  of  their  social  life 
and  the  subdivision  of  their  community  func- 
tions the  honey  bees  show  even  a  higher  order 
of  intelligence  than  the  ants,  standmg  at  the 
bead  of  the  whole  insect  world  in  this  regard. 
Their  habitat  comprises  the  whole  world, 
though  they  are  most  numerous  in  the  warm 
and  temperate  climates. 

VarietieB^-According  to  the  researches  of 
a  ^oup  of  modem  naturalists,  at  the  head  of 
which  was  W.  H.  Ashmead  of  the  United  States 
National  Museum,  bees  are  now  classified  as 
a  superfamily  of  Apoidi,  of  Ihe  heterophagous 
Hymenoptera,  and  are  divided  into  14  sub- 
divisions, ranking  as  families.  Of  these  the 
chief  are  the  true  bees  (Apida)  and  the  bum- 
blebees (Bombida)  which  alone  live  in  highly 
organized  communities.  The  rest  are  of  non- 
social  habits,  each  one  nesting  V  itself.  These 
{amiiies  ^i*  ^^  hairy  digger  bees;  the  cuckoo 


bees,  which  invade  the  hives  of  the  social  bees; 
the  small  and  the  large  carpenter  bees;  the 
mason  bees;  the  leaf  cutter  bees;  the  potter 
bees;  the  ^raiitic  bees;  the  burrowing  bees 
and  others,  including  the  Prosopida,  the  sim- 
plest and  the  lowest  variety,  considered  the 
primitive  type  from  which  all  the  other  va- 
rieties have  evolved.  Of  the  solitary  varieties 
the  Anikopkoridtt,  or  hairy  digger  bees,  are 
the  highest  forms.  They  build  their  nests  in 
the  grounds,  at  the  bottom  of  horizontal  bur- 
rows with  lateral  chambers.  In  all  these  forms 
the  individuab  are  divided  sharply  into  the  two 
sexes,  male  and  female,  in  which  they  differ 
markedly  from  the  social  bees. 

The  Social  Beea^The  honeybees  and  the 
bumblebees,  constituting  the  varieties  which 
have  developed  a  highly  complex  communal 
Ufe,  are  described  by  L,  O.  Howard  in  the  fol- 
lowing words :  'Each  species  is  composed  of 
three  classes  of  individuals  ^  males,  females 
and  neuters.  They  have  the  power  of  secreting 
wax,  from  which  their  cells  are  made  and  the 
larvae  are  fed  from  time  to  time  by  the  work- 
ers. The  outer  side  of  the  dilated  tibis  is 
smooth  and  in  the  workers  is  hollowed  into 
a  shining  plate  for  carrying  pollen,  which  is 
collected  by  means  of  the  pollen  brushes  on  the 
basal  joint  of  the  hind  tarsi.  As  a  general 
thing  the  body  is  covered  with  hair.*  Of  the 
two  families  constituting  the  social  bees  the 
bumblebees  are  the  lower,  who  build  their  hives 
underground.  Unlike  the  bumblebees,  the 
honeybees  form  permanent  colonies,  storing 
food  for  consumption  during  the  winter.  The 
population  of  one  community  may  sometimes 
number  many  thousands.  In  a  wild  state  they 
usually  build  their  hives  in  hollow  trees  or  even 
in  open  view  among  the  branches.  When  their 
propensity  to  store  food,  in  the  form  of  honey, 
was  first  taken  advantage  of  by  man  is  not 
known,  for  there  are  records  of  bee-keeping 
among  the  early  Egyptians  and  certainly  it  was 
an  active  industry  among  the  Greeks. 

The  Keating  of  Beea.— During  the  long 
period  in  which  the  honeybees  have  been  semi- 
domesticated,  or  adapted  to  the  needs  of  men, 
several  varieties  of  them  have  been  developed. 
It  is  not  uncommon  for  an  artificial  hive  to 
hold  a  bee  population  of  50,000  individuals. 
These  communities  are  divided  into  three 
classes :  the  drones,  or  male  beeS,  compara- 
tively few  in  number;  a  single  individual,  a 
fully  developed  female,  who  performs  the  func- 
tions of  a  communal  mother,  laying  an  unlim- 
ited number  of  eggs  after  only  one  act  of  fer- 
tilization, commonly  called  the  'queen* ;  and 
third,  forming  the  great  bulk  of  the  hive's  pop- 
ulation, the  worker^  who  perform  all  Ihe  labors 
necessary  to  the  maintenance  of  Ihe  community.  - 
Though  also  known  as  'neuters,*  ihey  are  in 
fact  females  whose  generative  organs  are 
atrophied,  though  occasionally  some  of  them 
will  lay  eggs. 

The  Qtieen  Bee. — A  few  days  after  she 
has  emerged  from  her  cell,  and  if  the  weather 
is  fine,  the  queen  bee  makes  her  first  and  only 
exit  from  flie  hive,  except  when  the  period 
of  swarming  arrives.  She  stands  for  a  few 
moments  at  the  entrance  of  the  hive,  then,  with 
a  huz2,  flies  rapidly  upward,  followed  t^  the 
drones,  or  males.  High  up  in  the  air  the  sexual 
union  between  the  queen  and  the  swiftest  and 
strongest  of  die  male  bees  takes  place.  li^dly 


Google 


BBB-BIRDS  —  BEE-KEEPING 


has  the  act  been  consunun&ted  when  the  father 
of  the  coming  generation  falls  back  dead  :' 
mid-air  and  drops  to  the  earth,  his  — ■— = —  '•■ 


Blied.     Having  been  fertilized,  the  qu 
turns  to  the  hive  and  shortly  begins  the  layii 
of  her  eggs,  sometimes  as  many  as  3,000 


laying 


...A  ^000  a  day.  Meanwhile,  the  other  males 
are  quickly  killed  off  by  the  workers.  On  her 
return  to  the  hive  the  queen  is  immediately 
surrounded  bv  from  12  to  15  of  the  workers 
who  act  as  her  personal  attendants,  feeding, 
cleaning  and  otherwise  attending  to  all  her 
wants,  that  she  maj;  devote  all  her  energies  to 
the  important  functions  of  motherhood. 

The  EgSB.—  The  queen  now  begins  depoi- 
ilinK  her  eggs  in  the  waxen  walled  cells  of  the 
ComD,  of  abluish  color  and  about  one-twelfth 
of  an  inch  in  lengUi.  Some  authorities  contend 
that  she  can,  at  will,  lay  egss  which  will  hatch 
out  workers  or  drones,  while  others  are  of  the 
opinion  that  this  depends  on  the  kind  of  food 
fed  by  the  workers.  At  any  rate,  the  cells  for 
the  eggs  of  queen  bees,  workers  and  drones 
differ,  but  never  does  the  mother  bee  make  a 
mistake  in  the  kind  of  egs  that  each  cell  de- 
mands. In  about  three  days  the  eggs  hatch 
out  and  the  worm-like  larvx  appear.  For  five 
days  they  are  carefully  fed  by  the  attending 
workers.  At  the  end  of  that  period  they  have 
grown  so  large  as  to  completely  fill  their  cells, 
whereupon  they  refuse  further  nourishment 
and  the  workers  immediately  seal  them  up  in 
tiheir  cells.  The  litlle  larva  then  spins  itself 
into  a  silken  covering  or  cocoon  and  trans- 
forms itself  into  a  pupa.  Thirteen  days  later 
the  pupa  breaks  forth  from  its  cell  and  emerges 
a  perfect  bee.  Immediately  it  is  waited  upon 
by  the  attending!  workers  and  for  several  da^s, 
until  it  makes  its  first  flight,  it  is  fed  by  its 
nurses.  Meanwhile  its  cell  is  thoroughly 
cleaned  out  and  the  queen,  making  her  rounds, 
deposits  another  e^g  in  it.  The  cell  in  which 
the  coming  queen  is  developing  is  larger  than 
the  others  and  oval  in  shape.  On  nearing  ma- 
turitv  the  mother  makes  repeated  attempts  to 
break  it  open,  ■to  destroy  her  coming  rival,  but 
the  attending  workers  of  her  retinue  crowd 
around  her  and  thus  protect  the  royal  infant 

Swarming.— As  the  population  of  the  hive 
increases  the  queen  bee  becomes  restless,  and 
this  growing  agitation  extends  itself  to  the 
workers  throughout  the  hive.  Then,  one  fine 
day,  the  queen  rushes  forth,  as  she  has  done 
only  once  before,  the  centre  of  the  swarming 
buzzing  colony,  which  throngs  out  after  her. 
Not  far  off,  on  some  hanging  bough  of  a  tree, 
she  settles  and  all  the  swarm  settle  on  her  or 
on  each  other,  hanging  in  a  long,  thick  bunch. 
It  is  then  that  the  experienced  apiarist  intro- 
duces the  swarming  bees  into  their  new  hive, 
'  where  they  establisn  themselves  anew.  Mean- 
while the  youne  left  in  the  old  hive  continue 
the  routine  of  the  communal  life  in  their  turn. 
Before  many  weeks  there  is  a  swarming  from 
the  newer  generation  \_  often  there  may  be 
three  or  four  swarms  m  one  season  from  the 
one  hive. 

Wintering.— When  cold  weather  begins, 
the  life  of  ^e  bee  community  begins  to  sub- 
side, the  steady  hum  which  can  be  heard 
throughout  the  summer  from  within  dies  down 
and  the  individuals  become  sluggish  and  dulL 
When  the  first  frosts  come  they  find  the  bees 
in  a  state   of   semi-hibernation,  though  not  so 


and  a  tbennometer  placed  at  the  entrance 
would  indicate  a  steady  rise  in  tempeT«tu^^ 
During  these  winter  months  the  Ufe  of  tbc 
hive  is  in  a  state  of  suspension,  thoiy^  occa- 
sionally the  Queen  has  been  known  to  lay  eggj 
in  this  period.  For  other  varieties  of  bees  see 
Bee-Ke£ping;  Bumblebee;  Cabpenteb  Bee; 
Honeybees;  Leaf-cutting  Bee;  Mason  Bee; 
Stikcless  Bee;  also  In: 


Entomological      Society,*      Philadelphia 

1899)  ;  Cresson,  'Synopsis  of  Families  and 
Genera  of  the  Hymenoptcra  North  of  Mcrico' 
(in  the  "Transactions  of  the  American  En- 
tomological Society,*  Philadelphia  1887) ; 
Frankhn,  H.  J.,  <The  Bombida  of  the  Ntw 
World'  (in  the  ■Transactions  of  the  American 
Entomological  Society,*  I  and  11,  1912  and 
1913);  Maeterlinck,  Maurice  <The  Life  of  (h* 
Bee'  (English  translation,  New  Yoik  1901); 
Snodgrass.  'The  Anatomy  of  the  Honey  Bee' 
(United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Bureau  of  Entomology,  Bulletin  18). 

BEE-BIRDS,  birds  that  devour  bees,  espe- 
cially the  honeybee.  Not  many  birds  have  Inis 
habit,  the  bees  being  protected  against  moM 
birds  by  their  stings.  A  few  fly-catching  birds, 
however,  have  learned  how  to  avoid  being 
stung,  and  catch  not  only  bees  but  wasps,  taJie 
them  to  a  perch  and  beat  them,  so  as  to  Idll 
them,  and  probably  get  Hd  of  the  sting  before 
swallowing  them.  Notable  among  diese  are  the 
European  and  African  bee-eaters  (q.v.).  The 
American  kingbirds  {q.v.)  also  catch  bees,  but 
not  as  frequently  as  is  popularly  supposed,  ar-' 

an>    Imnwn    in    thr    ^rnithrm    Staten    at    ^he 


are  known  in  the  Southern  States'  as  'bee- 
martins.* 

BEB-EATBR,  a  small,  richly  plumagtd 
and  graceful  bird  of  southern  Europe  and 
northern  Africa,  whose  food  consists  almost 
wholly  of  bees  and  wasi)s,  and  which  haunt; 
the  neighborhood  of  the  hives  of  honeybees  and 
devours  these  useful  insects  in  great  numbers. 
The  bee-eaters  are  related  to  the  kingfishers, 
and  like  them  dig  deep  nesting-holes  in  earthen 
banks,  and  lay  pure  white  eggs. 

BEE-KEEPING.- Few    persons  who  see 

the  little  boxes  of  honey  in  toe  market  realize 

^^    the    importance    and   extent  of 

^flH    the     bee-keeping     industry    of 

j^^^    this  country.  Careful  esttmates. 

^^^^L     based  on  United  States  sUds- 

'iJl^^^^H^   tics,   and  the    output  of  Urge 

BHI^^lk     factories    for    the   manufacture 

""^'^    ^^   of    bee-hives   and   honey-boxes, 

B«<m  the  wing,    show   that   at    least   125,000.000 

pounds    of    honey    is    annuall)" 

firoduced,  making  an  aggregate  of  S/MO  car- 
oads,  or  a  train  35  miles  long.  The  aggregate 
value  of  this,  at  a  conservative  figure,  is  $1^- 
000,000,  When  it  is  remembered  that  Califor- 
nia alone,  in  a  good  year,  can  produce  500 
carloads  of  honey,  and  that  a  good  many  of  tl>' 
other  States  produce  from  50  to  100  carloadi 
one  can  form  some  idea  of  the  coaunercial 
possibilities  wrapped  up  in  so  small  an  ins'^' 
as  the  bee. 

The  honey  resources  of  the  great  Weit  «} 
very  largely  dependent  on  alfalfa  and  mounlMn 


.Google 


BKB-KEBPIHG 


410 


sage.    In  the  Nordi-CentTal  and  Eastern  Statet, 

clover    and    basswood,    in    the    South-Central, 

tupelo,    palmetto,     cat- 

\  d*w^      mesqiute       and 

guajilla. 

There  are  several 
races  of  bees — Afis 
dorsata,  or  the  giant 
bee  of  India  and  the 
Philippines;  A.  Indica, 
of  In<£a :  A.  fforea.  and 
A.  mellifica.  From  a 
commercial  standpoint, 
the  last  mentioned  is  by 
all  odds  the  most  im- 
portant. It  comprises 
the    black    or    German 


southern  part  of  Italy;  the  Syrians,  of  Pales- 
line;  the  Cyprians,  from  the  island  of  Cyprus; 
the  Camiolans,  from  Austria,  and  the  Tuni- 
sians, from  north  Africa.  But  the  most  import- 
ant of  all  these  varieties  is  the  Italian.  They 
are  the  most  industrious  and  the  gentlest.  They, 
together  with  the  black  or  German  bees  ana 
their  crosses,  incorrectly  termed  "hybrids,*  arc 
used  most  extensively  in  the  United  States  — 
in    fact,    throughout    almost    all    the    civiliied 

Three   Kinds  of  Hive  Bees.— There  are 
three  kinds  of  bees  in  the  bive;  namely,  the 
workers,   or   undeveloped    fe- 
males ;   the  queen,  a  fully  de- 
veloped     female;      and      the 
drone,  or  the  male  bee.     The  , 
queen  lays  all  the  eggs  of  the 
hive,  and  may  lay  as  many  as 
3X100  a  day.     Notwithstanding 
there   may  be  from  10,000  to 
100,000  bees  in  a  single  colony, 
the  queen  will  be  the  mother 
of    the    whole    colony.      The 
drones  arc  incapable  of  gath-         OucoiBa. 
enng  honey,  and  serve  only  one  purpose  —  that 
of  fertiliiirtg  or  fecundating  the  young  queens, 
which  act  taJces  place  in  the  air.    The  workers 
gather  all   the   honey  and  pollen,  fill  alt   the 
combs  and  rear  the  young  or  baby  bees.    As 
soon  as  the  mating  season  is  over,  the  drones 


How  to  Handle  Beet,— There  is  a  general 
impression  to  the  effect  that  the  ordinary 
honeybees  are  vicious,  even  in  a  towering  rage, 
ready  to  attack  any  one  who  comes  near  their 
hives.  This  is  a  great  mistake.  Under  certain 
conations,  when  their  habits  are  known,  the^ 
can  be  handled  almost  like  kittens ;  will  permit 
one  to  tear  their  hives  apart,  rob  them  of  their 
months  and  months  of  hard  earnings —  the 
honey  and  the  wax  —  without  even  offering  to 
sting.  But  an  inexperienced  or  awkward  per- 
son may  infuriate  them  to  fearful  vengeance. 
To  bring  them  into  a  state  of  subjection  it  is 
only  necessary  to  blow  smoke  into  the  entrance 
and  over  the  combs,  when,  if  the  motions  about 
the  hive  are  careful  and  deliberate,  they  will 
offer  no  attack.  Smoke,  when  intelligently  used, 
disarms  opposition,  puts  the  bees  in  a  quiet 
state  and  enables  their  owner  to  do  with 
them,  within  reasonable  limits,  whatsoever  he 
will. 


from  which 
the  smoke  is 
blown  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  bel- 
lows, forcing  air 
through  the  cup 
in  which  there  is 
a  slow -burning 
fuel.  Besides  the 
bee-smoker,  the 
bee-keeper  gener- 
ally uses  a  bee- 
veil  made  of  mos- 
quito netting, 
Brussels    net    or 

any  suitable  mate-  - --  ^^^-^ 

nal,  the  same  fas- 
tened to  the  rim  of  the  hat  and  tucked  inside 
of  the  coat-collar  or  under  the  suspenders. 
Gloves  are  sometimes  used  by  very  timid  per- 
sons or  beginners,  but  as  a  general  thing  all 
work  with  the  bees  is  performed  with  the  Tiare 
hand.  Stings  are,  of  course,  occasionally  re- 
ceived, but  beyond  a  sharp,  momentary  pain  no 
permanent  effect  will  be  felt  after  the  first  sea- 
son, for  the  system  of  the  bee-keeper  very  soon 
becomes  inoculated  so  that  no  swelling  takes 
place.  There  are  many  who  receive  from  10 
to  20  slings  a  day  without  any  ill  effects;  but 
if  one  will  work  carefully  he  will  receive  almost 
no  stings. 

Marketable  Prodacta  of  the  Hive.— These 
are  beeswax,  comb  and  extracted  honey,  propo- 
lis or  bee-glue  (sometimes  used  for  making 
shoe  polishes)  and  'apis  mellifica,'  a  homeo- 
pathic preparation  taken  from  the  poison  sacs 
at  the  root  of  die  stings  of  bees. 

Productioii  of  Wax.— Beeswax,  which  is 
secreted  by  the  bees  and  used  by  them  for 
building  their  combs,  is  an  important  commer- 
cial product  and  commands  a  good  price  in 
Ae  United  States.  There  are  frequently  combs 
to  be  melted  up,  and  it  pays  to  take  care  of 
even  scraps  of  comb  and  the  cappings  taken 
ofi  in  extracting.  A  common  method  of  tak- 
ing out  the  wax  is  to  melt  the  combs  in  a 
solar  wax-extractor.  Various  wax-presses  are 
on  the  market,  but  If  much  wax  is  produced, 
it  is  advisable  that  the  bee-keeper  make  a  care- 
ful  study  of  the  methods  of  .      -■  - 


raction,         , 

Lioogle 


BEB.KBBPING 

X  wasted  even  after  supers  require  to  be  specially  constructed  and 
so  arranged  that  the  little  boxes  containing 
strips  of  comb  foundation  shall  be  accessible  lo 
the  bees  where  thw  can  construct  the  founda- 
tion into  comb,  fill  the  cells  with  honey  and 
seal  them  over.  When  their  owner  finds  that 
'         his  little  servants  are  busily  at  work  in  the 


Comb  Honey  Production,—  Comb  honey  is 
usually  pul  up  in  little  square  or  oblong 
boxes,  of  which  something  like  50,000.000  are 
made  and  used  in  the  Umted  States  annually. 
The  honey  in  these  boxes  retails  all  the  way 
from  12  to  20  cents.  Extracted  honey  is  in 
the  liquid  fonn,  thrown  from  the  combs  by 
means  of  centrifugal  force  in  a  honey- extractor, 
hence  the  name.  There  are  bee-keepers  who 
make  a  specialty  of  producing  honey  in  the 
comb  and  others  the  same  product  free  from 
the  comb.  The  first  mentioned  cannot  be 
adulterated  or  manufactured,  newspaper  re- 
ports to  the  contrary.  One  bee-keeper  of  con- 
siderable standing  and  prominence  has  had  a 
standing  offer  of  $1,000  for  a  single  sample  of 
artificial  comb  honey  so  perfect  as  to  deceive 
the  ordinary  consumer.  Notwithstanding  that 
this  offer  has  been  broadly  published  over  the 
United  States  for  over  20  years,  no  one  has 
ever  claimed  it. 

It  may  be  well  to  explain  that  a  partial  basis 
for  these  canards  lies  in  the  tact  that  bee- 
keepers use  a  commercial  product  known  as 
'comb  foundation,"  which  is  nothing  more  or 
less  than  sheeted  wax,  about  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  thick,  embossed  on  both  sides  with  in- 
dentations having  the  exact  shape  and  form  of 
the  bottom  of  the  cells  of  honey-comb  —  hence 
put  into   thc_hive,  whe: 


bees  draw  it  out  mto  comb.  This  __  _._ 
the  skill  of  man  can  go ;  hence  there 
such  thing  as  artificial  comb,  much  less 
ficial  comb  honey. 


far  a 


fields;  that  the  combs  are  beginning  to  wfailer 

and  to  be  bulged  with  honey  in  what  is  called 
the  brood-nest,  he  puts  on  his  honey-boxes  in 
the  part  of  the  hive  he  calls  the  'super.'  These 
are  allowed  to  remain  on  during  the  hei^l  of 
the  honey-flow  until  they  are  filled  and  capped 
over,  when  they  are  removed  and  others  put  in 
their  place. 

The  business  of  producing  extracted  (or 
liquid)  honey  requires  the  same  intelligent  cart 
and  attention.  Instead  of  section -boxes,  how- 
ever, an  extra  set  of  combs,  or  "brood- frames,' 
as  they  are  called,  is  put  in  the  upper  story, 
the  same  being  placed  above  the  lower  or  brood 

Eart  of  the  hive.  When  these  are  filled  with 
oney  and  capped  over,  they  are  removed  from 
the  hive  by  first  shaking  the  bees  off,  taken  to 
the  extrac ting-house  and  extracted.  The  thin 
film  of  wax  covering^  the  comb  is  shaved  off 
with  a  thin-bladed  knife  specially  designed  for 
the  purpose.  After  the  combs  are  uncapped, 
they  are  put  in  the  honey-extractor  ana  re- 


Bee  Hiv«  for  Comb  Honey. 

The  business  of  producing  comb  honey  re- 
quires some  knowledge  of  the  trade.    Hives  and 


volved  at  a  high  rate  of  speed.  The  honey  flies 
out  of  the  romb  by  centrifugal  force  against 
the  sides  of  the  extractor,  when  the  combs  are 
reversed,  exposing  the  other  surfaces,  whidi 
are  emptied  m  a  like  manner.  They  are  next 
returned  to  the  hive  to  be  filled  by  ibe  bees, 


gle 


BBE-KEBPIHC 


4S1 


when  die  process  may  be  repeated  as  lodg  a 


Qncsppmg  Can. 


Swanninc.-- At  the  beKinninK  oC  or  during 
what  is  called  the  honey-iiow,  when  the  colony 
has  reached  a  high  state  of  prosperity  and  the 
combs  are  being  filled  with  honey,  a  swarm  is 
liable  to  come  forth  between  the  hours  of  9 
and  3  o'clock.  Three- fourths  of  the  bees,  in- 
cluding the  queen,  are  pretty  snre  to  come  out 
with  a  rush,  filling  the  air  with  thousands  and 
thousands  of  them.  The  bees  hover  about  in 
the  air  for  IJ  or  20  minutes,  when  they  will 
in  all  probability  cluster  on  some  bush  or  tree. 
They  will  wail  here  for  two  or  three  hours, 
or  perhaps  as  many  days,  at  the  end  of  wh^h 
lime  they  will  take  wing  again  and  go  direct 
into  some  hollow  tree  or  cave  where  they  will 
take  up  new  quarters  and  start  housekeeping 
anew.  The  young  bees,  with  one  or  more  )roung 
queens,  arc  left  to  take  care  of  the  old  hive. 

In  ordinary  practice  it  is  a  custom  for  the 
bee-keeper  to  rehive  the  swarm  by  taking  the 
bunch  of  bees,  3s  soon  as  it  clusters,  and  putting 
it  into  another  hive.  Or  he  can,  if  he  chooses, 
clip  the  old  queen's  wines,  preventing  her  fli^bt 
with  the  swarm ;  and  when  the  bees  come  forth 
she  will  crawl  out  of  the  entrance  to  be  cap- 
tured by  her  owner,  and  as  soon  as  her  subjects 
return,  which  they  will  do  to  find  their  royal 
mother,  they  are  allowed  to  go  into  a  new  hive 
on  the  old  stand,  while  the  old  hive  is  carried 
to  another  location  in  the  bee-yard. 

Preventioa  of  Swarming. —  Since  crowded 
and  overheated  hives  are  particularly  conducive 
to  swarming,  this  tendency  is  largely  overcome 
by  giving  plenty  of  ventilation  and  additional 
room  in  the  hive.  Shade  is  also  a  good  pre- 
ventive. Frequent  examinations  of  the  hive 
during  the  awaraiing  season  for  the  purpose 
of  cutting  out  queen  cells  is  a  help,  and  re- 


queening  with  yoiuig  queens  early  in  the  sea- 
son generally  prevents  swarming.  A  better 
method,  according  to  some,  is  to  remove  brood 
about  swarming  time  and  thus  reduce  the 
amount  of  bees  in  the  hive.  There  are  gener- 
ally colonies  in  the  apiary  to  which  frames  of 
brood  can  be  ^ven  to  advantage.  Various  non- 
swarming  devices  have  been  invented,  including 
a  non-swarming  hive  so  constructed  that  there 
is  no  opportunity  for  the  bees  to  form  a  dense 

Robbing;.— There  arc  certain  times  during 
the  season  when  no  nectar  is  secreted  by  the 

flowers.  It  is  during  such  i>eriods  as  this  that 
the  bees  will  rob  eaui  other  i£  they  can  or  help 
themselves  at  candy-stands  or  to  the  house- 
wife's fruit-preserves  during  the  canning  sea- 
son. When  sweets  can  be  obtained  in  consider- 
able quantity,  either  from  a  weak  colony  unable 
to  defend  itself  or  from  man,  the  bees  are  apt 
to  become  furious  and  their  craze  is  not  unlike 
that  of  gold-hunters  when  gold  is  discovered  in 
large  quantities.  There  is  a  rush;  and  when 
the  sweets  are  suddenly  cut  off,  the  bees  are  in- 
clined to  be  cross  and  to  sting.  The  wise  and 
careful  bee-keeper  will  see  to  it  that  the  en- 
trances of  his  weak  colonies  are  properly  con- 
tracted so  that  the  sentinels  or  Ruar<k  can 
Kotect  themselves  from  intrusion  iroro  other 
es. 

Feeding,— The  bee-keeper  may,  perhaps, 
take  all  the  honey  away  from  his  bees,  or  nearly 
so,  as  his  honey  will  bring  two  or  three  times 
as  much  as  any  cheap  syrup  costs  him.  Some- 
times he  finds  it  profitable  to  take  the  honey  all 
away  and  give  them  syrup  made  of  granulated 
sugar.  The  purpose  of  this,  of  course,  is  to 
keep  them  from  starving  during  the  time  no 
honey  is  coming  in  from  natural  sources  or 
during  the  winter. 

Tnuisf erring,— In  increasing  the  apiaiy  it 
is  sometimes  best  to  buy  colonies  in  box  hives 
on  account  of  their  smaller  cost,  and  to  trans- 
fer them  to  hives  with  movable  frames.  This 
should  be  done  as  soon  as  possible,  for  box- 
hive  colonies  are  of  small  value  as  producers. 
The  best  tinie  to  transfer  is  in  the  spring,  when 
the  amount  of  honey  and  the  population  of  the 
colony  are  at  a  minimum,  "rransfcrring  need 
not  be  delayed  until  spring  merely  because  that 
season  is  best  for  the  work.  It  may  be  done 
at  any  time  during^  the  active  season,  but,  when- 
ever possible,  dunng  a  honey-flow,  to  prevent 
robbing. 

Uniting.— After  the  honey-flow,  and  just 
before  winter  comes  on,  there  are  liable  to  be 
many  weak  colonies.  It  is  a  common  practice 
to  put  two  or  more  of  these  together  so  as  to 
make  one  strong  stock.  The  combs  from  two 
or  three  different  hives  are  put  into  one  hive 
and  the  bees  are  confined  for  several  days  with 
wire  cloth  over  the  entrance,  when  they  are 
allowed  to  fly.  Some  of  them  will  return  to 
their  old  stands  but  the  majority  of  them  will 

Wintering.— Two  methods  are  in  vogue  in 
the  colder  portions  of  the  United  Stales.  One 
is  to  put  uie  colonies  in  double-walled  hives, 
packed  under  chaff  cushions,  and  contracting 
the  entrances  down  to  shut  out  as  much  cold  as 
possible.  The  other  is  to  put  the  summer  hives 
mto  a  dry,  dark  cellar  as  soon  as  cold  weather 
comes  on,  leaving  them  there  till  spring. 


.1  .Google 


BEB.KILLSR— BBSBB 


Diseases  of  Bees —  Bees  a.n  lubject  to  dis- 
eases, like  all  domestic  animals,  such  as  dysen- 
tery, paralysis  and  foul  and  black  brood.  Dys- 
entery, as  its  name  signifies,  is  a  sort  of  bowet 
trouble  due  to  the  retention  of  the  feces  for  an 
extended  time  during  winter.  If  the  bees  are 
shut  up  without  a  cuance  for  flight  (for  they 
never  void  their  feces  inside  of  the  hive  except 
when  confined),  their  intestines  become  dis- 
tended and  this  finally  results  in  pursing.  The 
only  remedy  is  warm  weather  ana  a  flisht. 
Paralysis  is  a  form  of  palsy  that  seems  to  affect 
the  adult  bees.  Their  bodies  become  swollen 
and  shiny,  the  affected  individuals  crawling  out 
of  the  entrance  and  running  into  the  grass  to 
die.  The  remedy  is  to  sprinkle  powdered  sul- 
phur over  the  combs.  Foul  brood  and  blade 
brood  are  germ-diseases  that  affect  bees  in  the 
larval  or  imago  state.  The  little  maggots  be- 
come brown  or  black  and  die,  the  dead  matter 
finally  assuming  a  sodden,  gelatinous  or  ropy 
condition.  When  it  attacks  a  colony,  shake  the 
bees  into  a  clean  hive  and  put  them  on  frames 
of  foundation.  For  three  or  four  days  feed 
them  sugar  syrup.  The  old  combs,  including 
the  frames,  must  be  burned.  If  the  hive  has 
been  soiled  by  the  tainted  honery  or  dead  matter, 
it  must  be  scalded  out  or  held  over  flames  for 
a  few  seconds.  Any  honey  taken  from  the  hive 
may  be  rendered  safe  to  give  to  the  bees  by 
boiling  it  for  two  hours. 

A  number  of  insects,  birds  and  mammals 
must  be  classed  as  enemies  of  bees,  but  of  these 
the  larger  wax  moth,  the  lesser  wax  moth  and 
ants  are  the  only  ones  of  importance.  Moth 
larvas  often  destroy  combs.  To  prevent  this 
the  combs  are  fumigated  with  sulphur  fumes 
or  bisulphide  of  carbon  in  tiers  of  hives  or  iri 


n  Clin 


ous  pest.  The  usual  method  ot  keeping  them 
out  is  to  put  the  hive  on  a  stand,  the  legs  of 
which  rest  in  vessels  containing  water  or  creo- 
sote. Another  method  is  to  wrap  a  tape  soaked 
in  corrosive  sublimate  around  the  bottom  board. 
Bibliography.—  Root,  'A  B  C  of  Bee  Cul- 
ture' (1903) ;  Miller,  <Forty  Years  Among  the 
Bees';  Lai^troth,  'The  HonCT-Bee,'  revised 
edition  (1889)  ;  Hutchinson,  "Advanced  Bee 
Culture'  (1902)  ;  Cook,  'Manual  of  the  Apiary' 
(1902) ;  Root,  'Quinby,  New  Bee-keeping' ; 
and  the   following  periodicals:.  i4ri 


... ^ufturc,    Medina,    Ohio;    Bee-keefer^ 

Review,  Flint,  Mich,;  American  Bee-keeper, 
Fort  Pierce,  Fla. ;  Progressive  Bee-keeper, 
Higginsville,  Mo. 

E.  R.  Boot, 
Author  of  ^A  B  C  of  Bee  Culture^  and  Editor 
of  'Gleanings  itt  Bee  Culture.' 
BEE-KILLER,    one    of    the    robber-fllei 


lancet-shaped  beak  bumblebees  and  honeybees 
and  suck  their  blood.  This  species  Trupanea 
apivora,  the  bee-killer,  captures  the  honeybee 
while  on  the  wing,  and  one  such  fly  has  been 
known  to  kill  141  bees  in  a  single  day.  These 
flies  are  stout-bodied,  hairy  or  bristly,  with  a 
long  abdomen ;  the  mouth-parts  are  much  de- 
veloped and  adapted  for  piercing.  The  mag- 
gots live  in  the  soil,  preying  on  the  grt^s  of 
beetles,  or  on  the  roots  of  plants. 


BBE.LASK8PUR.  A  well-known  flow- 
ering plant.  Delphinium  grandiflorum, 

BEE-LINE.  The  shortest  route  to  any 
place,  that  which  a  bee  is  assumed  to  take; 
though,  in  fact,  it  often  does  differently  in  its 
flight  Uiroi^h  the  air. 

BEE-LOUSE  (Braula  coeca),  is  a  parasite 
on  the  honeybee,  occurring  on  the  thorax  es- 
pecially of  the  queen  bee  —  rarely  on  the 
drones.  Benton  states  thai  he  has  at  one  time 
removed  as  many  as  75  from  a  queen,  though 
the  numbers  do  not  generally  exceed  a  doien. 
It  is  the  sole  member  of  a  family  (Brauliia) 
of  flies  closely  allied  to  the  horse  flies  [Hippo- 
hoscida)  and  the  bat-ticks  (q,v.).  The  b«- 
louse  is  about  one-twentieth  of  an  inch  in 
length,  entirely  without  wings,  and  somewhat 
spider-like  in  appearance.  On  the  day  the  mag- 
got or  larva  hatches  from  the  egg  it  sheds  its 
slda  and  turns  to  an  oval  puparium  of  a  dark- 
brown  color.    It  has  frequently  been  imported 


BEE  HOTH,  or  WAX  HOTH,  a  moth 
belonging  to  the  family  Gallerida;  specifically, 
Galleria  meltonella.  the  larva  of  which  feeds  on 
wax  in  hives.  The  worm  is  yellowish- white 
with  brownish  dots.  It  constructs  silken  gal- 
leries running  through  the  comb  of  the  bee- 
hive on  which  it  feeds.  When  about  to  trans- 
form it  spins  a  thick  white  cocoon.  Two 
broods  of  the  moth  appear,  one  in  the  spring, 
the  other  in  August,  and  the  caterpillars  mature 
in  about  three  weeks.  It  may  become  a  mosl 
troublesome  pest  in  the  apiary. 

-ORCHIS,  the  name  of  a  species  of 


is  large,  with  the  sepals  purplish  or  greenish- 
white,  and  the  lip  brown  variegated  witn  yellow, 

BEE-TREE,  a  forest  tree  inhaluted  by 
honey-making  bees,  which  have  taken  posses- 
sion of  some  natural  hollow  and  filled  il  with 
combs.  Such  a  tree  ma^  be  found  b^  accident, 
or  by  deliberate  hunting.  Those  in  search 
take  to  the  et^e  of  the  woods  a  box  of  diluted 
honey,  and  when  they  see  bees  near  them,  open 
the  trait  to  which  one  by  one  the  bees  will  be  at- 
tracted. The  direction  of  their  fli^t  is  then 
carefully  observed;  the  bait  is  moved  to  an- 
other point,  and  new  observations  taken,  and 
the  converging  lines  followed  until  they  mter- 
sect  at  the  tree.  As  most  of  these  bee-trte 
colonies  are  escaped  swarms  the  capture  of  the 
bees  themselves  is  more  important  than  merely 
to  get  such  honey  as  mav  be  there.  The  best 
plan  is  therefore  to  climb  to  the  nest,  if  pot- 
sible,  and  ^ther  the  combs  and  c  '  '  '  *" 
let  down  in  a  pail  or  basket,  or 
the  whole  section  of  the  tree  i 
nest  and  lower  it  to  the  ground.  Full  direc- 
tions for  this  complicated  proceeding  are  given 
by  Root,  'A  B  C  of  Bee  Culture'   (1903). 

BEEBE,  Charles  William,  American  orni- 
thologist: b.  Brooklyn,  N.  y„  29  July  IB77, 
Graduating  from  Columbia  University,  he  was, 
in  1899,  appointed  ornithological  curator  for 
the  New  York  Zoological  Society.  As  such  he 
founded  the  collection  of  living  birds  at  the 
New  York  Zoological  Gardens,  making  it  one 
of  the  best  in  the  world.  Later  he  was  at  dK 
head  of  various  scientific  expeditioni  to  Nova 


(Google 


BEECH  —  BEEC  HER 


4S3 


ScotJa.  Florida,  Mexico,  South  America,  India 
and  China.    In  his  search  for  data  for  a  mono- 

Kpb  of  pheasants  he  made  a  trip  costinf;  the 
ilogical  Society  over  $100,000.  He  is  the 
author  of  'Notes  on  the  Psychology  of  Birds' 
(1903):  'Two  Bird  Lovers  in  Mejoco'  {190S); 
'The  Bird'  (1906);  'The  Log  of  the  Sun' 
(1906)  ;  'Geographic  Variations  in  Birds  with 
Reference  to  Humidity'  (1907);  'Ecology  of 
the  Adult  Hoatzia'  (1909)  ;  'An  Ornithological 
Reconnaissance  of  Northeastern  Venezuela' 
(1909)  ;  'Our  Search  for  a  Wilderness'  (1910)  ; 
'Racket  Formation  in  the  Tail  Feathers  of  the 
Motmot'  (1910)  ;  "Monograph  of  the  Pheas- 
ants'   (1916). 

BEECH,  a  small  eenus  (Fagtts)  of  hand- 
some forest  trees  of  the  family  Fapacttx.  The 
American  beech  (Fagus  grandifoha),  and  the 
European  or  common  beech  (F,  sylvatica),  are 
closely  similar.  They  often  attain  heists  ex- 
ceeding 80  feet,  ana  diameters  greater  than 
three  and  one- half  feet.  The  former  has 
smooth,  light-^ray  bark,  a  broad  round  head, 
and  leaves  which  turn  yellow  before  they  fall 
in  the  autumn;  the  tatter  has  dark-gray  baric, 
and  has  shini:^  leaves  which  persist  during 
most  of  the  winter.  The  tree  scarcely  bears 
fruit  before  the  50th  year  of  its  age,  and  then 
not  every  year.  After  the  140th  year,  the  wood- 
rings  become  thinner.  The  tree  lives  for  about 
250  years.  Some  stems  are  fluted,  some  even 
twisted.  The  roots  stretch  far  away,  near  to 
the  surface  of  the  soil,  partly  above  iL  Young 
beeches  are  useful  for  Uve  hedges,  as  they  bear 
Itruning,  and  as  their  branches  coalesce  by  being 
tied  together,  or  by  rubbing  each  other.  Ampu- 
tations of  limbs,  and  deep  incisions  in  the  tree, 
soon  become  obliterated  by  the  bark.  The 
dead  leaves  are  often  used  by  the  poor  of 
Europe  for  stuffing  beds  and  pillows.  Both 
species  yield  pleasant,  edible,  three-angled  nuts, 
usually  in  pairs  in  ^ricklv  involucres.  These 
nuts  are  eaten  by  swine.  Jeer  and  poultry,  and 
in  France,  and  to  some  extent  elsewhere,  are 
pressed  to  extract  a  mild  culinary  long-keeping 
oil.  Both  species  thrive  in  tifiht,  limy  loams, 
upon  which  formations  they  often  become  ihe 
leading  species  of  tree,  covering  large  tracts. 
They  do  not  grow  in  damp  situations.  Their 
reddish- brown,  solid,  hard  but  brittle  wood 
makes  excellent  fuel,  and  is  largely  used  for 
making  tool  handles  where  bending  and  twist- 
ing are  not  expected.  The  wood  is  not  dur- 
able in  contact  with  soil,  but  since  it  is  remark- 
ably lasting  when  immersed  in  water,  it  is 
largely  used  in  dams,  water-mills,  sluices,  etc. 
The  wood  of  the  Europran  species  is  preferred 
to  that  of  all  other  species,  except  walnut,  for 
making  shoes  (sabots),  in  France,  since  it  i; 
remarkably  resistant  to  the  entrance  of  water. 
The  bark  is  sometimes  used  in  tanning.  Both 
■pecies  are  used  in  ornamental  planting  on  ac- 
count of  their  symmetrical  forms,  the  colors  of 
their  hark  and  foliage,  which  latter  is  remark- 
ably free  from  the  attacks  of  disease  and  insects. 
The  European  species  has  produced  a  lai^ 
number  of  varieties,  of  which  the  copper  or 
purple  beech  is  probably  the  best  known  in 
America.  F.  sieboldii,  a  native  of  eastern  Asia, 
is  sometimes  planted  for  ornament.  F.  betulai- 
dei,  a  Terra  del  Fuegian  species,  is  a  striking 
feature  of  the  winter  landscape  on  account  of 
its   evergreen   foliage.     Its  wood  is  used  for 


flooring  vessels,  and  is  exported  to  the  Falkland 
Islands  and  elsewhere  for  roofing.  Blu^  or 
water  beech,  better  known  as  American  liom- 
beam  (Carpinus  americana),  is  a  common  tree 
in  damp  woods  and  along  streams.  It  is  not 
a  member  of  this  genus.     See  Horkbeau. 

From  the  wood  of  the  beech  an  especially 
pure  form  of  creosote  is  obtained  that  is'Iargely 
employed  in  the  treatment  of  chronic  lung  dis- 
orders.   See  Creosote. 

BBBCHBR,  Catherine  Esther,  American 


6  Sept.  1800;  d.  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  12  May  1878. 
Her  faith  and  life  were  nearly  wrecked  at  22 
by  the  loss  of  her  betrothed.  Prof.  A.  M,  Fishei- 
of  Yale,  in  a  shipwreck,  and  she  lived  unmarried, 
plunging  into  work  as  a  relief;  but  she  had  the 
Beecner  energy  which  could  hardly  have  re- 
mained quiet  in  any  case.  From  1822  to  1832 
she  managed  a  girls'  school  in  Hartford,  Conn., 
with  remarkaUe  success  and  repute;  she  wrote 
some  of  her  own  classbooks,  one  on  mental  and 
moral  philosophy  being  afterward  used  in  col- 
leges. From  1832  to  1834  she  kept  a  similar 
school  in  Gncinnati.  in  order  to  be  with  her 
father,  who  was  at  tne  head  of  Lane  Seminary; 
but  her  health  compelled  her  to  abandon  it  For 
the  rest  of  her  life  she  worked  with  heart  and 
soul  to  advance  the  education  of  women  and 
girls,  physical  and  social,  as  well  as  intellectual 
and  moral,  for  she  believed  in  the  full  harmony 
of  all  inborn  human  qualities.  She  orgauitcd 
a  'National  Board  of  Popular  Education,"  to 
train  women  teachers,  especially  for  the  South 
and  West,  and  traveled  and  wrote  extensively 
in  this  behalf.  As  with  most  persons  of  much 
force,  she  had  many  "fads*  and  eccentricities: 
but  she  was  a  high-minded,  accomplished  and 
charming  woman,  of  great  wit  and  executive 
capacity.  Her  flrst  work  was  on  the  'Difliculties 
of  Rehgion'  (1836)  ;  among  others  were  'True 
Remedy  for  the  Wrongs  of  Women'  (1851); 
'Physiology  and(^listhenics'  (1856) ;  'Common 
Sense  Applied  to  Religion'  (1857)  ;  'Woman's 
Profession  as  Mother  and  Educator,  with  Views 
in  Opposition  to  Woman  Suffrage'  (1871). 

BEECHER,  Charles,  American  clergymaii, 
son  of  Lyman  Beecher:  b.  Litchfield,  Conn.,  7 
Oct.  1815 ;  d.  Haverhill,  Mass.,  21  April  190O.  He 
was  educated  successively  at  the  Boston  Latin 
School,  the  Lawrence  Academy  at  Groton,  Mass., 
and  at  Bowdoin  College,  graduating  1G34,  He 
then  studied  theology  under  his  father  at  Lane 
Seminary,  Ohio,  and  in  1844  was  ordained 
pastor  of  a  Congregational  church  at  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind  Leaving  there  in  1851,  he  was  pas- 
tor m  Jjewark,  N.  J.,  till  1854,  and  in  I8S7  took 
charge  of  a  church  m  Georgetown,  Mass.  He 
livedin  Florida^  1870-77,  and  was  State  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction  there  for  two  years 
and  was  staled  supply  at  Wysox,  Pa.,  in  1885. 
His  best  work  was  in  selection  of  the  music 
for  the  famous  'Plymouth  Collection'  of  hymns, 
he  having  fine  musical  taste.  He  wrote  'The  In- 
carnation' (1849);  'David  and  His  Throne' 
(1855);  'Pen  Pictures  of  the  Bible'  (1855); 
'Redeemer  and  Redemied'  (1864)  ;  'Spiritual 
Manifestations'  (1879);  and  'Eden  Tableau* 
(1880).  He  also  edited  his  father's  autobiogra- 
phy and  correspondence  (1863). 

BEECHER,  Charles  Emeraen,  American 
palseontologist:  b.  Dunkirk,  N.  V.,  9  Oct.  i: 


Google 


d  New  Haven,  Conn.,  14  Feb.  1904.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Michigan  1878, 
studied  under  Prof.  James  Hall  at  Albany,  N. 
Y. ;  in  1888  was  given  a  position  in  this  depart- 
ment at  Yale ;  in  1892  was  made  professor  of 
historical  geology;  and  in  1892  succeeded  Prof. 
O.  C.  Marsh  as  professor  of  palpontology  and 
curator^  of  the  geological  collections.  He  was 
author  of  over  50  papers  in  scientific- periodicals, 
and  the  proceedings  of  scientific  societies,  chief- 
ly on  evolution,  especially  as  illustrated  by  the 
growth  and  structure  of  trilobites,  and  on  the 
classi6cation  of  trilobites  and  brachiopods;  a 
number  of  these  and  similar  studies  on  other 
organisms  were  collected  as  'Studies  in  Evolu- 
tion' (1901),  one  of  Ihe  Yale  bicentennial  pub- 
lications. He  also  published  a  memoir  on  the 
Brachiospongidie  in  the  Yale  Peabody  Museum 
Memoirs   (llffl). 

BSECHER,  Edward,  American  clergyman, 
son  of  Lyman  Beecher:  b.  East  Hampton,  L.  I., 
27  Aug.  1803 ;  d.  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  28  July  1895. 
Graduating  at  Yale  1822,  he  studied  theology  at 
Andover  and  New  Haven,  and  in  1826  was  or- 
dained over  Park  Street  Church  in  Boston ; 
which  he  left  in  1830  to  take  the  presidency  of 
Illinois  College,  Jacksonville,  111.,  a  theological 
school,  whence  many  of  Dr.  Beecher's  pupils 
went  to  be  pastors  and  teachers  in  the  new 
West.  He  returned  to  Boston  in  1844  as  pastor 
of  the  Salem  Street  Oiurch;  in  1856  went  to 
the  Congregatioiial  church  at  Galesburg,  lU., 
remaining  till  1872,  also  holding  for  some  years 
a  professorship  of  exegesis  at  Chicago  Theo- 
it^cal  Seminary.  He  had  been  a  regular  writer 
for  the  Christian  Union  since  1870,  and  in  1872 
retired  from  the  ministry,  removed  to  Brooklyn 
and  devoted  himself  entirely  to  writing  and 
missionary  work,  contributing  to  the  Christian 
Union,  and  editing  the  Congregationalist  for  six 
years.  Of  his  books,  the  two  most  discussed 
were  <The  Conflict  of  Ages'  (1853),  and  'The 
Concord  of  Ages'  (1860),  a  transference  into 
terms  of  Christian  theology  of  the  doctrines  of 
pre-existent  and  continuously  existent  souls  and 
the  dualism  of  good  and  evil,  the  struggle  of 
the  two  being  prolonged  into  a  future  lite  and 
good  finally  triumphant.  Besides  sermons,  etc, 
he  also  published  a  'History  of  the  Alton  Riots' 
(Cincinnati  1837);  'Baptism'  (1850);  'Papal 
Conspiracy  Exposed'  (1855)  ;  'History  of  Opin- 
ions on  the  Scriptural  Doctrine  of  Future  Retri- 
bution'  (1878). 

BEBCHBR,  Henry  Ward,  American  cler- 
gyman, son  of  Lyman  Beecher:  b.  Litchfield, 
Conn.,  24  June  1813;  d.  Brooklj-n,  N.  Y.,  8 
March  1887.  He  was  the  of^snring  of  a  union 
which  has  produced  some  of  the  world's  great- 
est influences,  and  in  theory  ought  always  to 
produce    them  —  of    a    stern,    energetic,    nigh- 

Erindpled  father,  with  a  sweet  and  beauty- 
jving  mother,  giving  power  and  continuity  to 
sensibility  and  sympathetic  emotion.  Macalllay 
and  Victor  Hugo  are  notable  instances  in  this 
respect.  Beecher  had  a  rather  bare,  hard 
childhood,  under  a  father  and  stepmother  who 
both  considered  duty  and  enjoyment  hardly 
compatible.  The  great  genial  orator  who 
shouted  down  and  won  over  hostile  mobs  was 
a  shy  and  sensitive  boy;  the  editor,  author  and 
booklover  had  a  wretched  memory,  disliked 
study  and  wanted  to  go  to  sea.  But  the  reli- 
gious atmosphere  was  around  him ;  "converted* 


in  a  revival,  be  decided  to  train  for  the  min- 
istry, entered  the  Boston  Latin  School  in  1S26, 
then  the  Mount  Pleasant  School  at  Amherst, 
graduated  from  Amherst  College  in  1834,  and 
began  a  theological  course  under  his  father  at 
Lane  Seminary.  He  revolted  at  his  father's 
sulphurous  theology,  however,  and  for  a  short 
time  in  1837  was  editor  of  an  anti-slavery 
paper  in  Cincinnati,  fervid  love  for  humanity 
holding  first  place  with  him  then  as  always. 
Later  in  the  year  he  took  charge  of  a  country 
church  at  Lawrenceburg,  Ind.,  and  martiea 
Eunice  White  Bullard  of  West  Sutton,  Mass., 
to  whom  he  had  been  seven  years  engaged.  Id 
1839  he  was  called  to  a  church  in  Indianapolis, 
then  a  town  of  4,000  people,  remaining  there 
eight  years  and  becommg  widely  known  both 
as  a  revivalist  of  great  power  and  as  a  preacher 
of  delightful  humor  and  originality.  In  1847 
he  was  called  to  Brooklyn  to  take  charge  of  a 
new  church  of  nine  members,  called  Plymouth 
Church.  He  held  this  pastorate  for  40  years, 
lacking  a  few  months;  and  for  the  most  of  iht 
time  Uic  church  was  not  only  a  Mecca  to  the 
vast  class  seeking  to  retain  Christianity  whik 
forced  to  discard  very  much  in  the  way  of 
theology',  but  the  fountain  of  a  stream  of  in- 
fluence acting  powerfully  on  the  moral  and 
social,  and  sometimes  the  political,  tendencies 
of  the  age.  He  preached  on  whatever  related 
to  the  public  welfare,  probed  every  evil  and 
championed  every  reform,  especially  of  intem- 
perance and  slavery.  His  outspoken  courage, 
strength  of  thouglit  and  felicity  of  expression, 
his  exhaustive  wealth  of  eloquent  rhetoric, 
humor  and  pathos,  dramatic  force  and  apt 
analogy  and  illustration,  not  only  drew  to  hear 
him  one  of  the  largest  permanent  congrcf^tioDS 
in  the  United  States  —  his  immense  church 
with  its  seating  capacity  of  nearly  3,000  beiic 
constantly  crowdecl  —  but  made  his  pulpit  one 
of  the  most  famed  and  influential  of  the  Eng- 
lish-speaking world ;  his  utterances  forming  a 
basis  of  action  for  many.  He  was  not  a  the- 
ologian in  any  sens^  and  his  influence  rested 
on  his  abstinence  from  credal  logic;  he  was 
the  spokesman  of  those  who  fear  that  if  the? 
compute  their  doctrinal  latitude  they  may  dis- 
cover much  more  than  they  wish  to  know,  and 
prefer  to  keep  the  fruits  of  faith  tv  evadii^ 
exact  definition  rather  than  lose  tbem  by  a 
rigid  self -inquiry.  To  the  orthodox  of  his  day 
he  seemed  an  underminer;  though  to  many  at 
the  present  he  seems  conservative  enou^  He 
believed  in  the  divinity  of  Christ,  in  immortal- 
ity, in  special  providences  and  miracles,  in  the 
Bible  as  a  divme  revelation  by  fallible  human 
instruments;  he  did  not  believe  in  eternal  pun- 
ishment (which  he  publicly  denied  in  IvS), 
flection  and  reprobation,  the  fall  of  Adam,  the 
vicarious  atonement,  or  imputed  sin  and  right- 
eousness; and  he  declared  the  orthodox  Deity 
■barbaric,  heinous,  hideous.*  He  gave  his 
whole  soul  to  the  work  of  preaching  often  de- 
livering several  discourses  m  a  sin^e  day;  bilt 
such  was  his  physical  and  mental  vigor  that  he 
accomplished  work  in  several  other  directions 
sufficient  in  each  case  for  an  able  and  lusty  man- 
He  was  one  of  the  giants  in  oratoiy  of  the 
anti-slavery  time;  and  none  of  the  cfiampiom 
of  the  cause  was  more  hated  and  reviled  than 
•the  abolitionist  Beecher,*  whose  work  was  ex- 
celled only  by  that  of  his  great  sister.  He 
left  lus  puljHt  in  the  Frimont  campaign  to  de- 


.Google 


HEintT  WARD  BEECHER 


tizcdbyGooi^Ie 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


«»B 


Domice  the  Kansas  crime,  joiaiog  the  Repub> 
tican  party  on  its  ioceptioa  and  traveling  great 
distances  to  speak  at  its  meetings.  Yet  he  was 
not  an  abolitionist  like  Phillips  and  Garrison; 
and  like  Lincohi  and  the  mass  of  the  Repuh- 
licans,  held  that  Congress  could  not  interfere 
with  slavery  in  the  South,  but  only  prevent  its 
extension,  The  Pro-Slavery  patty  drew  no  fine 
distinctions,  however,  and  the  Northern  Demo- 
cratic papers  all  through  this  period  are  filled 
with  denunciation  and  caricature  of  him.  His 
series  of  speeches  in  England  in  the  fall  of 
1863  helped  to  turn  the  tide  of  English  opinion 
in  favor  of  the  North.  The  prime  element  of 
his  success  was  his  enormous  physical  vitality: 
he  tired  out  the  mobs  which  attempted  to  howl 
him  down,  by  actual  bodily  endurance  and 
power  of  lungs,  before  he  began  the  splendid 
addresses  which  made  ihem  at  least  enthusiastic 
admirers  of  himself,  if  not  perhaps  converted 
believers  in  the  cause  he  represented.  He  had 
the  'rapture  of  the  strife'  which  Attila  knew: 
he  loved  to  be  the  target  of  a  ring  of  opponents 
as  well  as  John  Quincy  Adams,  though  with- 
out Us  bitterness,  and  was  as  instant  and  un- 
failioB  in  retort;  a  dozen  taunts  hurled  at  bim 
in  a  lireath  met  a  dozen  crushing  but  never 
malicious  answers.  He  was  for  many  years 
one  of  the  most  popular  lecturers  and  after- 
dinner  speakers  in  America.  Of  his  set  ora- 
tions, those  at  the  Burns  centennial  of  18S9, 
and  by  government  request  at  Fort  Sumter, 
in  April  1865,  on  the  anniversary  of  its  capture 
by  the  Confederates,  are  most  famous.  He 
occupied  several  editorial  positions:  editing  the 
Independent  1861-63;  founding  the  Chnttian 
Union,  editing  it  1870-81 ;  was  a  fertile  sketch 
writer,  and  wrote  a  novel  and  a  'Life  of  Christ* 
Besides  this,  he  was  an  enthusiastic  amateur 
farmer  and  loved  outdoor  nature  passionately, 
as  well  as  art  and  the  drama.  His  open,  im- 
pressible, sensitive  nature  responded  readily  to 
all  things  that  stimulate  the  intellect,  the  heart 
or  the  soul.  He  was  essentially  a  man  of  im- 
pulses and  inspirations,  trusting  to  the  spon- 
taneous suggestion  of  the  moment,  often  not 
even  making  notes  for  a  sermon,  but  like  all 
men  who  make  any  impress  on  the  world,  kept 


lamentea  that  it  had  not  been  permitted  him  _. 
lead  a  life  of  scholarship;  but  in  fact  he  did 
not  lead  it  because  he  was  not  willing  to  pay 
the  price  for  it,  of  abstinence  from  leader^p 
in  the  political  and  social  life  of  the  time.  He 
never  lacked  courage  to  take  a  side,  right  or 
wrong,  and  often  grieved  and  alienated  large 
bodies  of  his  friends  by  doing  so  when  passions 
were  hot.  He  was  a  firm  adherent  of  the 
Seward-Johnson  policy  of  reconstruction  in 
1866,  despite  the  terrible  results  to  which  its 
prematurity  led;  sympathized  with  the  Greeley 
movement   in   1872;   and   braved   a   threatened 


1  and  advocated  free  trade  and  woman  suff- 
rage. So  brave  and  impulsive  a  nature  was 
always  shocking  the  conventions  of  his  order. 
Naturally,  be  was  forever  perpetrating;  indiscre- 
tions in  s}>eech,  to  the  deKght  of  his  enemies 
and  the  discomfiture  of  his  friends.  Tact  was 
nnfortimatelv  not  a  lar^e  inheritance  of  most 
of  Iwman  Beecher's  children,  and  the  paucity 
of  Henry  Ward's  share  was  the  cause  of  many 


an  inept  and  lufortnnate  public  utterance: 
while  his  fertility  of  comparisons  and  analtwes 
often  led  him  into  pithy  exaggerations  and  a 
humorous  extravagance  of  language  which  his 
opponents  could  easily  disprove  in  the  letter. 

In  1874  Mr,  Beecher's  former  associate  and 
later  successor  in  the  editorship  of  the  lnde~ 
pendent,  Theodore  Tilton,  charged  him  with 
criminal  intercourse  with  Mrs.  Tihon.  A  com- 
mittee of  Plymooth  Church  examined  the  case 
and  exonerated  Mr.  Beecher;  but  Tilton  had 
broi^ht  suit  for  $100,000  against  him,  and  after 
a  six  months'  trial  the  jury  disagreed,  a  week's 
confinement  and  12  ballots  showing  three  for  the 
plaintiff  and  nine  for  the  defendant.    The  long 

Sublic  scandal  seriously  affected  Beecher's  in- 
uencc  with  the  outside  public,  but  his  own  con- 
gregation stood  loyal  to  him ;  and  while  his 
'Life  of  Christ'  was  unsalable,  and  the  last 
two  volumes  not  published  till  long  after  his 
death,  his  sermons  and  some  of  his  essays  re- 
main popular. 

Mr.  Beecher's  first  literary  work  was  done 
in  hii  Indianajpolis  pastorate,  where  he  edited 
an  agricultural  paper,  and  wrote  for  it  articles 
afterward  republished  as  'Fruits,  Flowers,  and 
Farming';  and  published  his  first  book,  'Lec- 
tures to  Young  Men>  (1844).  For  20  years 
after  coming  to  Brooklyn  he  contributed  regu- 
larly to  the  Independent,  signing  with  a  (*), 
whence  the  two-volume  collections  of  1855  and 
1858  were  termed  'Star  Papers.'  He  was  also 
for  some  time  a  regular  contributor  to  the 
New  York  Ledger  of  ■Tho«Bhts  as  Thty  Oc- 
cur,* collected  in  1864  as  "Eyes  and  Ears';  and 
wrote  serially  for  it  his  one  novel,  'Norwood' 
(1867).  His  sermons  were  reported  in  full 
after  1859,  and  the  collected  volumes  are  termed 
'Plymouth  Pulpit.'  A  two-vojiune  selection 
revised  by  the  author  was  issued  by  Lyman  Ab- 
bott in  1868;  other  compilations  from  them  are 
'Life  Thoughts'  and  'Notes  from  Plymouth 
Pulpit'  (1859) ;  'Pulpit  Pungencies'  and 
•Royal  Truths'  (1866);  'Morning  and  Even- 
ing Devotional  Exercises'  (1870);  and  'Com- 
forting Truths'  (1884).  For  some  years,  also, 
his  prayers,  of  great  charm  and  high  qualitv  as 
compositions,  were  taken  down  by  stenographers 
and  a  collected  volume  issued  in  1867.  Other 
of  his  worts  are:  'Freedom  and  War'  (1863)  ; 
'Aids  to  Prayer'  (1864) ;  'Lecture-Room 
Talks'  (1870);  'Yale  Lectures  on  Preaching' 
(3  vols.,  1872-74) ;  'Evolution  and  Religion* 
(1885).  Individual  sermons  and  addresses 
were  published  also,  sach  as  'The  Strike  and  Its 
Lessons'  (1878)  ;  'Doctrinal  Beliefs  and  Un- 
beliefs' (1882);  'Wendell  Phillips'  (1884);  <A 
Qrcuit  of  the  Continent'  (1684).  He  also 
edited  the  famous  'Plymouth  Collection'  of 
hymns  (1855);  and  ^Revival  Hymns*  (1858). 
His  life  was  written  before  his  death  by  Lyman 
Abbott  (1883),  and  Samuel  Scoville  (1888)  ; 
see  also  'Autobiographical  Reminiscences  of 
Henry  Ward  Beecher,'  by  T.  J.  Ellinwood,  who 
was  his  private  stenographer  for  30  years. 

Mr.  Beecher's  wife,  Eunice  Whitc  Bui.- 
LABD,  was  bom  in  West  Sutton,  Mass.,  26  Ai%. 
1812;  d.  Stamford,  Conn.,  8  Mardi  1897.  She 
wrote  articles  for  periodicals,  some  of  them 
afterward  collected;  also  'From  Dawn  to  Day- 
light' (1859h  a  story  of  her  early  married  life; 
'Motherly  "Talks  with  Young  Housekeepers' 
(1875);  'Letters  from  Florid'  (1878);  'All 
Around    the    House'     (1878);    and    'Honie> 


.Google 


(I883).  Comult  CuTticr,  A.  H.,  <Niae  Great 
Preachers'  {Boston  and  New  York  1912); 
Hitlis,  N.  D..  'Lectures  and  Oradons  by  H. 
W.  Beecher>  (New  York  1913)  and  'What  the 
Republic  Owes  to  Henry  Ward  Be«chCT> 
{Homiletie  Rev.,  Vol.  65,  pp.  437-43,  New 
York  1913). 

George  Ebwin  Rines. 
BEECHER,  Jamo  CfaapUn,  American 
clergyman,  son  of  Lytnan  Beecher :  b.  Boston, 
Mass.,  8  Jan.  1828 ;  d.  Elmira,  N,  Y.,  2S  Aug. 
1886.  He  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth  1848, 
studied  theology  at  Andover  and  in  1856  wa*  or- 
dained a  Congre^tional  clergyman;  theiKe  till 
1861  was  chaplam  of  the  Seamen's  Bethel  in 
Canton  and  Hongkong,  China.  Entering  the 
Civil  War  as  chaplain,  he  rose  to  the  nnk  of 
brevet  brigadier-general  and  subseQuenily  held 

Eistorates  in  Owego,  N.  Y.,  1867-70,  Pough- 
eepsie  1871-73  and  Brooklyn  1881-82.  After 
1884,  a  sufferer  from  menial  troubles,  his  last 
thfM  years  were  passed  in  mtidi  distress  and 
he  finally  committed  suicide. 

BEECHER,  Ljmum,  American  theolt^cian : 
b.  New  Haven,  Conn.,  12  Oct  177S ;  d.  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.,  10  Jan.  1863.  He  was  a  blacksmith's 
son  and  himself  a  blacksmith's  helper  and 
farmer's  lad  in  boyhood.  Entering  Yale  .Col- 
lege at  18,  he  graduated  in  1797,  studying  also 
theolop'  under  President  Dwight  till  1798; 
when  ne  became  supply  at  East  Hampton,  L.  I.. 
and  was  ordained  there  1799,  remaining  till 
1810.  His  remarkable  pulpit  oratory  gained 
national  repute  from  a  sermon  in  1804  on  Alex- 
ander Hamilton's  death  at  Burr's  hands  —  an 
occasion  which  made  more  than  one  reputation, 
all  utterances  being  eagerly  scanned  from  the 
excitement  and  party  feeling.  In  1810  he  was 
called  to  Litchfield,  Conn.,  the  seat  of  a  cele- 
brated law  school  and  other  educational  insti- 
tutions, at  a  time  when  New  England  was  the 
intellectual  autocrat  of  the  country  and  towns 
were  few  and  small ;  and  soon  became  recog- 
nised not  only  as  the  foremost  man  in  the 
Consregational  body,  but  one  of  the  greatest 
of  American  preachers.  About  1814  a  half- 
doien  sermons  of  his  against  intemperance, 
then  a  common  vice  among  even  the  clergy, 
were  not  only  widely  read  in  America  and  Eng- 
land, but  were  translated  into  several  foreign 
languages.  He  also  took  a  foremost  part  in 
OTOuiiaag  Bible  and  missionary  societies,  etc. ; 
atia  his  courage,  power  and  energy  made  many 
look  to  him  for  guidance  and  succor  in  trouble. 
This  came  in  a  flood  during  the  next  decade, 
when  the  Unitarian  movement,  under  Channing 
and  its  other  ^reat  early  leaders,  was  sweeping 
the  Congregational  churches  around  Boston  oi! 
their  feet,  and  Mr.  Beecher,  in  1826,  at  the 
urgency  of  influential  clergymen,  accepted  a 
call  to  the  Hanover  Street  Church  in  Boston 
to  stem  the  tide,  which  his  polemic  ardor  per- 
haps aided  in  doing.  In  1832  he  accepted  the 
presidenc];  of  Lane  (Theological)  Seminary 
near  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  which  had  been  endowed 
on  the  express  condition  of  his  taking  charge 
of  it,  to  strengthen  Calvinism  in  the  rapidly- 
growing  West;  he  remained  there  till  1852, 
holding  also  the  chair  of  sacred  theoIoKy,  and 
was  its  titular  president  till  death.  He  was 
also  pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church 
in  Qncionati  1832-42.    In  1833  the  famoM  phi- 


lantfafopist,  Arthur  Tappsn,  the  chief  foimder 
of  Lane,  sent  the  students  a  report  of  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Philadelphia  aboliticHi  conven- 
tion of  that  year;  the  students,  partly  South- 
ern, at  once  fell  into  disputes  on  the  subject  of 
slavery.  The  trustees  vainly  tried  to  check  the 
meetings  and  discussions ;  Kentucky  slavehold- 
ers came  over  and  urged  violent  suppression  of 
these  meetings  and  threatened  the  destruction 
of  the  seminary.  The  trustees  in  terror  for- 
bade  all  furdier  discussion  of  slavery  and 
therefore  all  the  students  deserted  in  a  body. 
The  most  of  the  anti-slavery  viag  refused  to 
return,  and  dieir  supporters  founded  Qberlin 
Collie ;  a  few  came  back,  and  Mr.  Beecher  and 
his  son-in-law,  Calvin  E.  Stowe,  tried  for  many 
years  to'  build  up  the  seminary  again  but  in 
vain.  Shortly  after  this,  in  1835,  he  was  tried 
as  a  heretic  and  hypocrite,  first  before  his  own 
church  and  then  before  the  Presbyterian  synod, 
for  his  "moderale  Calvinism*;  he  was  acquit- 
ted, but  the  Old  School  -and  New  School  con- 
troversy finally  split  the  church  in  1836,  Mr. 
Beedier  adhenne  to  the  New  School  party.  Id 
1852  he  resigned  the  presidency  of  Lane  and 
returned  to  Boston  to  prepare  his  works  for 
publlcatioii,  but  was  stridcen  with  a  slow  paraly- 
sis of  the  brain,  which  enfeebled  his  mind  ior 
many  years  before  his  death.  Despite  the  im- 
pressions of  the  extreme  orthodox  par^,  he 
was  of  the  firmest  doctrinal  faith,  thoi^^  his 
theology  was  of  his  own  make,  and  his  humor- 
ous audacities  of  speech  often  shocked  digni- 
fied propriety.  His  boundless  energy,  boldness, 
imcMiquerable  will  and  personal  magnetism 
were  those  of  a  natural  leader  of  men;  while 
his  unsurpassed  logical  power,  his  intense  and 
compact  expression  and,  above  all,  his  entire 
sincerity  and  spirituality  of  purpose,  winged 
with  his  racy  and  picturesqtie  wit,  set  htm  above 
every  other  American  clergyman  of  his  time 
liar  influence.     Consult  his   "AutoWog- 


Works'  (3  vols,,  Boston  1852) ;  Hayward,  E. 
F.,  'Lyman  Beecher'  (Boston  I9(M)  ;  White. 
J.  C,  *  Personal  Reminiscences  of  Lymaji 
Beecher'    (New  Voric  1882). 

George  Edwin  Rines. 
BKBCHBR,  Tfaomu  Kinnicatt,  American 
clergyman,  son  of  Lyman  Beecher :  b.  Litcb- 
fieldTConn.,  10  Feb.  1824;  d.  Elmir^  N.  Y.,  14 
March  1900.  He  studied  at  Illinois  College,  of 
which  his  brother  Edward  was  president,  grad- 
uating in  1843.  He  was  principal  of  a  Phila- 
delphia grammar-school  1846-48,  of  the  Hart- 
ford (Conn.)  high  school  till  1852.  He  then 
removed  to  Willwmsburg  (Brooklyn),  N.  Y, 
and  founded  a  Congregational  churdi,  which 
he  left  two  years  later  for  the  pastorale  of  a 
church  in  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  where  he  spent  tfae 
rest  of  his  hfe,  well  known  as  an  imsectarian 

Shilanthropist  and  moral  teacher,  writer  and 
wturer,  editing  for  many  years  a  weekly  de- 
partment in  Elmira  newspapers  to  discuss  cur- 
rent questions,  often  with  rasping  origiiutlity 
and  always  with  independence.  He  was  notn- 
inated  for  a  variety  of  offices  by  nearly  every 
known  political  party  but  never  elected.  He 
was  a  chaplain  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac 
four  months  in  1863.  In  1870  he  ^bKsii«d  a 
series  of  lectures  as  a  book,  entitled  'Oar 
Seven  Churches'  (of  Ehaira) :  and  in  1901  » 


.Google 


BBBCHBK  >-BSBCHBT 


48T 


BEECHER,  Willis  Judsoa,  American 
clergyman  and  author :  b.  Hampden,  Ohio,  29 
Apnl  J838;  d.  8  May  1912.  He  was  gradualed 
from  Hamilton  College  in  1858  and  from  Au- 
burn Theological  Seminary  in  1864,  and  filled 
several  Presbyterian  pastorates.  From  1865-69 
he  was  professor  of  moral  sciences  and  belleS' 
Ultres  in  Knox  Collie.  111.;  from  1871-1908 
became  professor  of  the  Hebrew  language  and 
literature  in  Auburn  Seminary;  in  19(E  was 
Stone  lecturer  at  the  Oiarleston  Theological 
Seminary ;  and  in  1904  was  president  of  the 
Society  of  Biblical  Literature  and  Exegesis. 
He  published  'Parmer  Tompkins  and  His 
Biblei  (1874);  'Drill  Lessons  in  Hebrew' 
(1883) ;  'Index  of  Presbyterian  Ministers  in 
the  United  States  1706-1881>  (1883)  ;  'Old  Tes- 
tament Notes'  (1897);  'Prophets  and  the 
Promise*  (1905);  'The  Dated  Events  of  the 
Old  Testament'  (1907);  'The  Teaching  of 
Jesus  concerning  the  Future  Life'  (1908) : 
'Reasonable  Biblical  Criticism'  (1911);  and 
hundreds  of  articles  in  newspapers,  periodicals, 
cyclopaedias  and  reference  books. 

BEECHER  FAMILY,  The,  an  extraordi- 
nary American  family  of  religious  and  humani- 
tarian   leaders,    mostly^    of    such    salient    and 
frequently  eccentric  originality,  combined  with 
immense  energy  and  independence  of   thought, 
that  the  human  race  was  oace  said  to  consist 
of   'men,   women   and  Beechers."     They  were 
all    descendants    of    Lyman    Beech er    of    New 
Haven,  Conn.,  himself  one  of  the  most  notable 
of  them ;  a  famous  clergyman,  orator  and  con- 
troversalist,  who  had  13  children,   so  man^  of 
whom    rose   to   national   or   even  international 
distinction  that  he  was  said  to  be  'the  father  of 
more  brains  than  any  other  man  in  America.* 
Ei^t  of  them  were  boys,  seven  living  to  ma- 
tunty   and  nearly  all  of  them   to   extreme  old 
age,    all    becoming    Congregational    ministers ; 
and   the  greatest,  Henry  Ward,  said  of  them 
that  *onty  one  tried  to  escape  the  ministry  and 
he    did    not   succeed."      But   so   great   was   the 
intrinsic  force  of  the  blood  that  the  daughters 
were  no  whit  inferior  in  persistence  of  ener^ 
and  originality  of  ideas  ;^  that  marriage  did  not 
in   the  least  quench  their  outside  work  and  in- 
fluence,  and  that  one  of  them  has  shown  the 
highest    creative  genius  and  left  the  most  en- 
during   memorials   of   the   entire   family.     The 
difference  in  work  and  sympathies  of  father  and 
children   resulted  frpm  difference  of  generation 
rather   than  of  spirit.     Lyman  Boecher's  prob- 
lems  -were  mainly  religious.     He  lived  at  the 
threshold    of    the    new    matefial    development 
of    the    country,   when   it   seemed  that  the  en- 
grossing  task  was   to   prevent  its   relapsing  to 
heathenism ;  at  the  beginning  of  the  great  lib- 
era I  izins    flood    of    new    saeotific    knowled^, 
when  tnere  seemed  a  danger  of  all  (^ristiamty 
being   swept  away  with  tlie  cosmology  it  rested 
on :    and  before  the  humanitarian  questions  in 
this   prosperous  country  had  come  to  the  fore. 
He    was    nearly  60  when   the   slavery   problem 
6rst  sho'wed  signs  of  becoming  acute ;  more  than 
60    ivhen    Father  Mathew  established  his  first 
temperance  sociely  across  the  water;  and  at 
no   period  would  ne  ever  have  favored  woman 
suffrage,  which  even  one  of  his  notable  daugh- 


ters wrDte  against.  But  bis  influoice  was  in- 
tensely strong  in  creating  the  lofty  spirit  that 
fed  humanitarianism.  It  is  an  encouragement 
to  large  families,  as  so  often  in  history,  that  the 
greatest  of  his  children  were  among  the  younger 
ones :  Mrs.  Stowe  was  the  sixth  and  Henry 
Ward  Beecher  seventh,  while  the  most  forcefid 
of  the  others,  Isabella  (Mrs.  Hooker),  was  the 
eleventh.  In  their  order,  the  ones  who  grew  up 
were  Catherine,  William  Henry,  Edward,  Mary, 
George,  Harriet,  Henry  Ward,  Charles,  Isa- 
bella, Thomas  and  James.  Catherine,  robbed 
of  the  betrothed  of  her  youth,  gave  herself  to 
work  for  her  sex,  though  not  with  quite  -the 
aspirations  of  most  recent  women  of  her  type, 
and  perhaps  did  as  much  good  in  training  cufti- 
vatea  wives  and  mothers  as  if  they  I^d  re- 
mained unmarried  teachers.  William  Henry 
was  a  home  missionary  and  der^man  in  Ohio 
and  a  clergyman  in  the  East.  Edward  was  a 
clergyman,  editor  and 'theological  writer,  who 
tried  to  pour  antique  Zoroastrianism  into  mod- 
em molds.  Mary  married  in  Hartford,  Conn., 
and  became  the  mother  of  Frederick  Beecher 
Perkins  and  grandmother  of  Charlotte  Perkins 
Stetson.  George  died  by  accident  at  34,  while 
filling  a  Western  pastorate.  Harriet,  author  of 
'Uncle  Tom's  Cabin'  and  of  a  mass  of  other 
works  which  would  give  any  other  audior  one 
of  the  foremost  places  in  American  letters,  has 
a  secure  immortality  from  her  masterpiece. 
Heniy  Ward,  creator  of  the  greatness  of^Ply- 
mouth  Church,  a  Moses  of  liberal  Cbngreca- 
tionalism,  anti- slavery  and  temperance  leader, 
ardent  in  all  woHr  for  humanity  and  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  mass,  need  not  be  further  charac- 
terized. Charles,  clergyman  and.  admirable 
musician,  is  gratefully  remembered  for  his  work 
in  compiling  the  'Plymouth  Collection'  of 
hymn-tunes.  Isabella  married  John  Hooker,  a 
Hartford  lawyer  fully  in  sympathy  with  her, 
and  for  many  years  one  of  the  stanches!  cham- 
pions of  woman's  rights  and  upholder  of  all 
good  causes.  Thomas,  for  some  40  years  lo- 
cated in  Elmira,  N.  ¥.,  was  noted  as  an  able 
and  independent  thinker  on  all  public  ques- 
tions, which  he  discussed  with  ability  and  high- 
mindedness.  James  C.  was  clergyman,  soldier 
and  cleriO'man  again,  till  shadows  overclouded 
his  mind  and  brought  on  a  tragic  death.  Al- 
together, the  family  is  one  of  the  most  useful 
as  well  as  distinguished  of  the  American  in- 
tellectual aristocracy. 

BBECHEY,  Frederick  William,  English 
admiral,  the  son  of  Sir  William  Beechey,  the 
painter;  b.  London  1796;  d.  29  Nov.  1856.  He 
entered  the  navy  at  the  age  of  10,  and  in  I8ll 
was  present  in  an  engagement  off  Madagascar, 
in  which  three  French  fri^tes  were  captured. 
In  1818  he  accompanied  Lieutenant  (afterward 
Sir  John)  Franklin  in  an  expedition  to  dis- 
cover the  northwest  ^ssage,  and  the  following 
year  ttxA  part  in  a  similar  enterprise  with  Cap- 
tain Parry.  In  1821  he  was  commissioned, 
with  his  brother,  H.  W.  Beechey,  to  examine  by 
land  the  coasts  of  north  Africa.  During  the 
years  from  ]825  to  1828  he  was  engaged  as 
commander  of  the  Bloitom  in  another  Arctic 
expedition,  by  way  of  the  Pacific  and  Bering 
Strait.  Of  this  he  published  an  account.  'Nar- 
rative of  a  Voyage  to  the  Pacific  and  Bering 
Strait'  (1831),  and  subsequently  a  description 
of  the  botany  and  zoology  of  the  rej^ons  vis- 


Google 


BEECHBT  —  BBBLZBBUB 


ited  In  1854  he  waa  raised  to  the  rank  of 
rear-admiral. 

BBECHEY,  Sn  WilUam,  En^sh  por- 
trait painter ;  b.  Borford,  Oxfordshire,  12  Dec. 
I7S3;  d.  Hempstead,  28  Jan.  1839.  He  entered 
a  conveyancer's  office,  but  soon  abandoned  it 
and  determined  to  make  painting  his  profes- 
sion. In  1772  he  became  a  student  at  the 
Royal  Academy.  A  large  equestrian  picture  of 
George  III  secured  his  election  as  a  Royal 
Academician  and  obtained  for  him  the  honor 
of  knighthood  in  1798.  He  was  afterward  con- 
stantly and  lucratively  employed.  He  died  in 
1839  at  the  advanced  age  of  86.  His  portraits 
'have  maintained  a  respectable  second  rank' ; 
his  attitudes  and  expression  arc  generally  good, 
but  marks  of  carelessness  are  apparent  in  some 
of  his  latest  pictures.  Two  portraits  by  him 
are  contained  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art  in  New  York. 

BBBCHING,  Henry  cWlea,  English  cler- 
gyman and  author:  b.  15  May  I8S9.  He  was 
educated  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford;  was  rector 


1900-03;  canon  of  Westminster  1902-11;  _.._ 
was  appointed  dean  of  Durham  in  1911.  He 
has  published  editions  of  Milton,  Vaughan, 
Daniel,  Dragon  and  several  anthologies  of 
verse,  and  is  author  of  'Seven  Sermons  to 
Schoolboys'  (1894);  'In  a  Garden  and  Other 
Poems'  (1895)  ;  <P^es  from  a  Private  Diary* 
(1898)  ;  'Conferences  on  Books  and  Men' 
(1900);  'Inns  of  Court  Sermons'  (1901); 
Rehgio  Laid'  (1902);  'Jane  Austen'  (1903); 
"Two  Lectures  on  Poetry' ;  'The  Grace  of 
Episcopacy"*  (1906);  'Lectures  on  the  Atone- 
ment' (1907);  'Lectures  on  the  Doctrine  of 
Sacraments'  (1908);  'Revision  of  the  Prayer 
Book'  (1910);  'Inspiration'  (1914);  <ThQ  Li- 
brary of  the  Cathedral  Church  o£  Norwich' 
(1915). 

BEEF.  See  Meat  Packing;  Meats  amu 
Meat  Production. 

BEEP  CATTLE.  See  Cattle. 

BEEP-EATER.     See  Buffalo-bibd. 

BEEF-EATERS,  a  popular  name  for  the 
yeomen  of  the  guard  of  the  sovereign  of  Great 
Britain,  a  body  instituted  at  the  coronation  of 
Henry  VIII  in  I4S5.  There  are  now  100  in 
service,  and  70  supernumeraries.  They  are 
dressed  after  the  fashion  of  the  time  of  Henry 
VII.  The  warders  of  the  Tower  of  London, 
who  wear  a  similar  uniform,  are  also  so  called. 
See  Yeomen  of  the  Guard. 

BEEF-TEA,  a  preparation  made  from  raw 
beef  and  often  employed  in  nursing.  It  is  serv- 
iceable for  stimulation  or  for  nourishment 
largely  according  to  the  method  of  its  prepara- 
tion. As  usually  made,  or  as  prepared  from 
rea<fy-made  beef  extracts,  it  has  very  little  food 
value,  but  is  a  strong  heart  stimulant.  When 
fresh  beef  is  finely  chopped  and  its  juice 
squeezed  from  it  and  flavored,  to  take  away  the 
raw  taste,  the  extract  obtained  is  rich  in  the 
muscle  juices  and  is  highly  nutritious.  It 
is  often  thus  prepared  for  infants  and  invalids. 
If,  however,  the  iuice  thus  obtained  is  mixed 
with  water  and  the  compound  is  boiled,  as  is 
the  usual  manner,  all  of  the  muscle  proteids 
are  coagulated,  as  a  scum,  and  the  muscle  salts. 


or  extractiTes,  remain  in  solntion.  IIk  imiri- 
tious  portions,  the  scum,  are  thrown  away  and 
the  extractives  retained  in  the  tea.  In  this  fom 
the  nutritive  value  is  slight,  unless  the  coagula- 
ted protdd  is  retained  Ordinary  meat  extracts 
are  mixtures  of  the  meat  extractives,  xanthln, 
hypoxanthin,  creatiu,  creatinin,  etc.  These  art 
heart  tonics  but  not  nourishing.  Their  use  is 
contraindicated  in  irritable  hearts,  in  gout, 
and  in  any  condition  in  which  it  is  thoi^t  that 
the  patient  is  not  breaking  down  the  normal 
amount  of  proteid  matter.  Broths  are  made 
of  other  meats. 

BEEP-WOOD,  a  popular  name  for  the 
wood  of  several  Australian  trees  of  the  geniu 
Casuarina  (q.v.),  which  forms  the  type  of  a 
family  Casuarinacea.  The  trees  have  been  com- 
pared to  gigantic  horse-tails.  They  have  pend- 
ant leafless  branches,  and  apetalous  monoecious 
flowers,  the  male  ones  being  in  spikes,  and  the 
female  in  heads.  The  wood  is  of  a  reddish 
color  (whence  the  name),  hard,  and  close- 
grained,  and  used  chiefly  tor  fine  ornamental 


feature  of  London  life  during  the  18th  c 
lury.  They  derived  their  names  from  the  fact 
that  refreshments  were  limited  to  beefsteak 
and_  liquors.  One  of  the  most  famous  of  these 
institutions  was  the  *Sublime  Society  of 
Steaks,*  founded  by  John  lUch  in  1735,  mana- 
ger of  Co  vent  C^rden  Theatrt  Hearth, 
Wilkes,  Garrick,  Dodington  and  other  men 
more  or  less  famous  were  members  of  this 
cliib.  It  was  even  joined  at  a  later  period  ty 
the  Prince  of  Wales.  It  remained  in  existence 
until  1867.  There  is  at  the  present  time  a 
Beefsteak  Club  in  London,  which  was  founded 
in  1876.  The  nearest  approach  to  a  similar 
institution  in  the  United  States  is  the  Gridiron 
Club  of  Washington  D.  C  Consult  Arnold's 
'Life  and  Death  of  die  Sublime  Society  of 
Steaks'  (1871). 

BEEHIVE  HOUSES,  the  archjeolo^ 
designation  given  to  ancient  dwellings  of  small 
size  and  somewhat  conical  shape,  found  in  Ire- 
land and  Scotland.  They  are  formed  of  long 
stones  without  cement,  each  course  overlappitig 
that  on  which  it  rests:    Sometimes  they  occur 


ingly,  at  other  times  in  dusters,  and  occasion- 
lly  have  more  than  one  apartini 
found  near  ancient  c 


ally 


G  than  one  apartment    Some  ol 


th;  .     .      . 

were  therefore  probably  priests'  dwellings,  and 
certain  groups  are  encircled  by  a  stone  wall  for 
defense.  Txiey  are  assigned  to  various  dale! 
between  the  7th  and  the  12th  century. 

BEEKMANTOWN.    See  CAtcirEMUS. 

BEELZEBUB,  be-»'ze-biib  (Hebrew,  'ibe 
god  of  flies"),  a  deity  of  the  Moabites  or 
Syrians.  This  term  is  applied  in  the  Scripturts 
to  the  chief  of  the  evil  spirits  (Matt,  xii,  24; 
Mark  iii.  22.  etc.).  The  correct  form  is  prob- 
ably Beelzebul,  but  in  the  Syriac  and  Vulgatt 
the  final  letter  is  b.  The  alteration  in  that 
letter  from  h  to  (  may  have  been  due  to  euphoiK 
reasons,  or,  as  has  also  been  maintained.  :'^ 
may  have  signified  ■dwelling'  or  'dung.'  w 
order  to  conceive  how  this  name  came  to  K 
given  to  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  imapnaty 
spirits  of  evil  it  must  be  remembered  wlut  a 
terrible  torment  insecu  often  are  in  the  Eait 


digitized  byGoOgle 


We  find  that  almost  all  nations  who  believe  In 
evil  spirits  represent  them  as  the  rulers  of  dia- 
Kusiing,  tormenting  or  poisonous  animals  — 
flies,  rats,  mice,  reptiles,  etc.  The  Greeks  wor- 
shipped feverai  of  their  chief  deities  wndcr  the 
character  of  protectors  a^nst  these  animals; 
for  instance,  Apollo  Sinunthens,  the  destrojfcr 
of  rats.  Christ  was  chai^d  by  the  Jews  wiUi 
driving-  out  demons  by  the  power  of  Beelitbub 
(Uatt.  xii,  24).    Compare  2  Kings  i,  2. 

BEER,  bSr,  Adolf,  Austrian  historian  and 
educational  reformer:  b.  Prossnitz,  Moravia, 
27  Feb.  1831 ;  d.  1902.  His  publications  include 
•History  of  International  Commerce'  (I860- 
64)  ;  'HoUahd  and  the  Austrian  War  of  Succes- 
sion' (1871);  <The  First  Partition  of  Poland* 
(1873-74);  'The  Austrian  Commercial  Policy 
in  the  Nineteenth  Century'   (1891). 

BBER,  George  Loaia,  American  historical 
writer:  b,  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,  26  Jujy 
1872.  Graduating  from  Columbia  University  in 
1892,  he  eng^ed  in  the  tobacco  business,  also 
delivering  regular  lectures  during  this  period 
on  European  history  at  Columbia,  as  well  as 
writing  on  similar  subjects.  He  has  written 
'Commercial  Polity  of  England  Toward  the 
American  Colonies'  (1893)  ;  'British  Colonial 
Policy.  1754-65'  (1907)  ;  'Origins  of  the  British 
Colonial  System,  1S78-I660'  (1908)  ;  'Old  Colo- 
nial System,  16MH754'   (1913). 

BEES,  Michael,  German  dramatist,  brother 
of  the  composer  Meyerbeer:  b.  Berlin  1800; 
d.  Munich,  22  March  1833.  He  became 
known  by  five  tragedies,  of  which  his  'Stmen- 
see,"  with  overture  and  incidental  music  by 
Meyerbeer,  is  the  best.  *The  Pariah'  (1823), 
a  one-act  tragedy  praised  by  Goethe,  depicts 
the  status  of  tne  Jew  in  modern  Germany.  His 
complete  works  were  published  at  Leipzig  in 
1835,  and  his  'Correspondence'  in  1837. 

BEER,  Wilhelm,  (jcrman  astronomer: 
brother  of  the  preceding;  b.  4  Feb.  1797;  d. 
27  March  1850.  He  was  a  Berlin  banker  and  in 
1849  became  a  member  of  the  Prussian  Diet. 
His  astronomical  labors  were  associated  with 
those  of  his  friend,  the  astrpnomer,  Midler. 
He  built  an  observatory,  chiefly  devoted  to  the 
observation  of  the  planet  Mars  and  the  moon. 
The  crowning  labor  of  the  two  astronomers 
was  a  map'of  the  moon,  published  in  1836,  upon 
which  the  French  Academy  bestowed  the  La- 
landc  priie.  His  writings  include  'Der  Mond 
nach  seinen  komischen  und  individuellen  Ver- 
haltnisscn'  (2  vols.,  1837);  and  'Die  Drei- 
koniesverfassung  in  ihrer  Gefahr  fiir  Preusten* 
(1849). 

BEER.  See  Ale  and  Bee>  ;  Bkewiitg  and 
Malting. 


(q.v.)  :  b.  24  Aug.  1872.  Graduating  from  Met- 
ton  College,  Oxford,  he  at  once  embarked  on  a 
literary  career.  '  His  talents  soon  found  him 
employment  on  the  Harmsworth  papers,  though 
he  also  contributed  freely  to  other  British  pub- 
lications. His  cartoofis  became  very  popular; 
there  have  been  five  exhibitions  of  them  since 
1901.  In  1895  he  paid  a  visit  of  some  months' 
duration  to  the  United  States  with  Beerbohm 
Tree,  his  half-brother,  the  actor.  In  1910  he 
married  an  American  sirl,  Florence  Khan,  of 
Memphis,  Tenn.     He  has  written  one  novel. 


'Zuleika  Dobson,'  a  burlesque  of  student  life 
at  Oxford  His  other  works  between  book 
covers  arc  made  up  of  random  contributions  to 
magazines  and  newspapers,  essays,  satires,  etc. 
They  include  'More';  'Yet  Again';  'The 
Happy  Hypocrite'  (1900) ;  'The  Second  Child- 
hood of  John  Bull' ;  'A  Book  of  Caricatures' ; 
'A  Christmas  Garland.' 

BEERNASRT,  bir'nart,  Angiute  Harie 
Pransois,  Belgian  statesman :  b.  Ostend,  26 
July  1829;  d.  1912.  He  began  his  political  ca- 
reer by  being  elected  a  member  of  the  Nation- 
al Chamber  of  Deputies  1874.  Ten  years  later 
he  became  a  member  of  the  cabinet  as  Minister 
of  Agriculture.  Industry  and  Art.  Not  long 
afterward  he  became  president  of  the  coun- 
cil and  Minister  of  Finance.  In  1895  he  was 
elected  president  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
He  was  on  two  occasions  a  prominent  member 
of  the  International  Peace  Cfonference;  in  1899 
and  in  1907.  In  1909  he  was  awarded  half  of 
the  Nobel  prize  of  that  year. 

BEERS,  Clifford  Whittinghun,  American 
writer  on  mental  diseases ;  b.  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  .»  March  1876.  Graduating  from  the 
Shefiield  Scientific  School  in  1897,  he  suddenly 
lost  his  reason  from  over-study  and  was  for 
some  years  an  inmate  of  various  insane 
asyltims.  He  was  discharged  some  years  later 
as  cured.  In  1908  he  published  a  book  which 
attracted  country- wide  attention,  entitled  'A 
Mind  that  Found  Itself  (2d  ed.,  19121,  a  study 
of  his  own  mind  and  experiences  auring  his 
period  of  insanity.  In  1909  he  assisted  in  the 
organiaation  of  the  National  Commission  for 
Mental  Hygiene,  whose  purpose  is  the  study  of 
mental  disorders  and  meir  treatment.  Later 
he  helped  found  the  Connecticut  Society  for 
Mental  Hygiene,  of  which  he  was  executive 
secretary.  He  is  also  the  author  of  'The  Value 
of  Social  Service  as  an  Agency  in  the  Preven- 
tion of  Nervous  and  Mental  Disorders'  and  'A 
Society  for  Mental  Hygiene  as  an  Agency  for 
Social  Service  and  Education.' 

BEERS,  Ethel  Lynn,  American  poet:  b. 
Goshen,  N,  Y.,  13  Jan.  1827;  d.  Orange,  N.  J, 
10  Oct.  1879.  Her  maiden  name  was  Ethelinda 
Eliot  and  she  was  a  direct  descendant  of  John 
Eliot,  the  apostle  to  the  Indians.  Her  earlier 
writings  were  signed  'Ethel  Lynn,'  but  after 
her  marriage  to  William  H.  Beers  she  wrote 
under  the  name  by  which  she  is  now  known. 
She  is  chiefly  remembered  as  the  author  of  the 
war  lyric  *AI1  Quiet  Along  the  Potomac.'  sug- 
gested to  her  by  the  dispatch  from  the  front 
so  frequently  printed  in  the  papers  during  the 
early  period  of  the  Civil  War.  It  appeared 
originally  in  Harper's  Wtekly  for  30  Nov.  1861, 
under  the  caption  'The  Picket  Guard."  Among 
her  other  poems  are  'Weighing  the  Baby" ; 
•Baby  Looking  Out  for  Me»;  «Which  Shall  it 
Be^?  Her  collected  works,  under  the  title  'All 
Quiet  Along  the  Potomac  and  Other  Poems' 
was  published  on  the  day  of  her  death. 

BEERS.  Henry  Angnatin,  American  author 
and  educator:  b.  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  2  July  1847. 
He  graduated  from  Yale  in  18^;  was  admitted 
to  the  New  York  bar,  1870;  became  tutor  at 
Yale,  1871-74,  assistant  professor,  1874-80,  and 

{rofessor  of  English  literature  in  1880.  He 
as  published,  among  other  works :  *A  Century 
of  American  Literature*    (1878);    'Odds^and 


Google 


BBBB6  — BBCT 


£ailL>  verse  (1878)  ;  'Nathuiiel  Pa^er  WiUis> 
(18S5);  'Prose  Writings  of  N.  P.  Willis' 
(186S);  'The  Thankless  Muse,'  verse  (1885>; 
<From  Chaucer  to  Tennyson'  (1890);  <Initi^ 
Studies  in  American  Letters'  (1891);  'Selec- 
tions from  the  Prose  WritinKS  of  Samuel 
Taylor  Coleridge'  (1893);  <A  Suburban  Pas- 
toral and  Other  Tales'  (1894)  ;  'The  Ways  of 
Yale'  (1895);  <A  History  of  English  Roman- 
ticism  ui  the  Eighteenth  Century'  (1899)  ;  VA 
History  ot  English  Romanticism  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century'  (1901) ;  'Points  at  Issue' 
(1904);  'Milton's  Tercentenary'  (1910);  'The 
Ways  o£  Yale,'  enlarged  edition  (1910),  and 
many  uncollected  contributions  in  prose  and 
verse  to  leading  reviews  and  magazines. 

BBERS,  be'erz,  Hathati,  American  soldiea*: 
b.  Stratford,  Conn.,  1753;  d.  New  Haven,  10 
Feb.  1849.  While  still  quite  young  he  went  with 
his  fadier  to  New  Haven  and  was  a  member  of 
a  military  companv  formed  there  in  1774,  which 
was  commanded  t>y  Benedict  Arnold.  Imme- 
diately on  the  receipt  of  the  news  a!  the  battle 
of  Lexington  the  company  was  called  together 
by  their  captain,  and  Beers  with  39  others  vol- 
unteered to  accompany  him  to  the  seat  of  war. 
They  immediately  set  out,  and,  as  they  passed 
ihrotigh  Pomfret,  were  joined  by  General  Put- 
nam. Beers  received  a  lieutenant's  commission 
in  the  army  in  1777,  and  served  until  1783.  He 
afterward  engaged  in  mercantile  affairs,  and  in 
1798  was  chosen  steward  of  Yale  College,  a 
position  which  he  resigned  in  1819. 

BEERSHEBA,  b£-er-she'b«  (now  Bn-BS- 
Seba,  "the  well  of  the  oath"),  the  place  where 
AbraJiam  made  a  covenant  with  Abimelech, 
King  of  the  Philistines,  and  planted  a  tamarisk 
by  tne  well  that  he  du^.  The  alliance  was  re- 
newed by  Isaac,  who,  tt  would  appear,  dug  a 
second  well  ((Jen.  xxvi,  23,  28,  32.  33).  Bcer- 
sheba  is  often  mentioned  as  the  southern 
boundary  of  Palestine,  or  the  land  of  Israel 
(Judges  XV,  1,  etc),  and  was  given  to  Judah 
(Jos.  XV,  28)  and  later  to  Simeon  (Jos.  xix, 
2).  Here  Samuel's  sons  were  judges  (I  Sam. 
in    the    negebh,    or    'dry' 

'     ■'     '-en 

Jrobably  an  idolatrous  centre  in  tlie  time  of 
osiah  (II  Kings  xxiii^  8),  and  condemned 
as  such  (Amos  v,  S;  yiii,  14).  It  was  reoc- 
cupied  by  descendants  of  Judah  after  the  cap- 
tivity (Neh.  xi,  27,  30).  The  site,  now  called 
Bir  es  Sebi,  is  at  the  foot  of  the  Hebron  hills, 
SO  miles  southwest  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  open 
pastoral  plateau,  which  is  covered  with  grass 
m  spring,  and  supports  flocks  of  goats  and 
cattle.  There  are  two  wells,  with  a  constant 
supply  of  good  water  even  in  autumn,  cut  in 
rock  m  the  bed  of  the  boundary  valley  which 
runs  west  to  Gerar.  There  is  also  a  third  well, 
now  dry.  The  lar^st  well  is  over  12  feet  in 
diameter,  is  lined  with  masonry  to  a  depth  ot  28 
feet,  and  has  water  at  37  feet.  The  masonry 
in  the  15th  course  bears  an  Arabic  labkt  with 
a  date  (SOS  A,H.)  answering  to  the  year  1112 
of  our  era. '  The  second  well  is  five  feel  in  di- 
ameter and  40  feet  to  the  water;  the  stones  are 
cut  to  the  arc  of  the  circle.  Rums  of  a  Byzan- 
tine town,  or  village,  including  the  foundations 
of  a  church,  exist  north  of  the  wells.  In 
Roman  days  a  garrison  was  stationed  here  and 
Beer^eba  was   the   seat  of   a   bishopric.     The 


|dacc  gradually  declined  uid  was  totally  de- 
serted toward  the  end  of  the  13th  century.  In 
modern  times  a  new  town  has  sprung  up  to  the 
southwest  of  the  ruins  of  the  old.  Under  Ot- 
toman rule  it  was  the  seat  of  a  koimakam.  It 
has  a  mosque,  a  telegrapti  station  and  several 
shops.  The  population  is  about  1,600.  The 
town  was  taken  from  the  Turks  by  the  British 
on  1  Nov.  1917.  (See  Wai,  Eimopean  —  Tubk- 
ISH  Campaign).  Consult  Baedeker,  K, 
'Palestine  and  Syria'  (Leipzig  1912). 

BBBSLY,  Bdinrd  Spencer,  English  his- 
torical writer:  b.  1831.  He  was  graduated  from 
Wadham  College,  Oxford,  and  was  later  ap- 
pointed professor  of  Latin  at  Bedford  CoElegt, 
London.  From  1860  to  1893  he  was  professor 
of  history  at  Universih'  College,  London.  He 
was  also  editor  of  the  •Positivist  Review,' 
In  his  fir^t  wodc,  'Cataline^  Qodius  and  Ti- 
berius' (1878)  he  makes  an  effort  to  rehabilitate 
the  three  men  whose  names  form  the  title  of 
the  book.  He  was  also  the  author  of  'Queen 
Elizabeth'  (1892) ;  'A  Strong  Second  Chamber' 
(1907). 

BEESWAX,  a  solid  fatty  substance  secreted 
by  bees,  and  containing  in  its  purified  state  three 
chemical  principles  —  mvricin,  cerin  and  cero- 
lein.  It  is  not  collected  from  plants,  but  elab- 
orated from  saccliaiine  food  in  the  body  of  the 
bee.  It  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  candles 
for  modeling,  and  in  many  minor  processes, 

BEET,  JoMph  Agai,  English  theologian 
and  author:  b.  Sheffield,  27  Sept,  1840.  Gradu- 
ating from  Wesleyan  College,  Richmond,  he 
engaged  in  pastoral  work,  in  which  he  continued 
for  over  20  years.  In  1^  he  was  appoinied 
theological  tutor  at  Wesleyan  (Allege,  where  he 
remained  until  1905.  He  was  also  on  Ebe 
faculty  of  the  Universi^  of  London,  of  which 
he  was  one  of  the  oldest  members.  In  1896  he 
came  to  the  United  States  and  delivered  a 
series  of  lectures  at  the  University  of  Chicago, 
at  the  summer  schools  of  Chautauqua  and  at 
Ocean  Grove.  In  his  theological  works,  two 
of  which  have  been  translated  into  Japanese 
and  have  been  used  as  textbooks  in  Japan,  he 
attempts  to  use  the  methods  of  scieiKe  in  the 
discussion  of  his  subjects.    His  works  ii 


Christ'  (1895)  ;  'The  Last  Things 
1913);  'A  Manual  of  Theology'  (1906); 
•Church,  Churches  and  Sacraments'  (1907); 
'The  New  Testament:  Its  Authorship,  DaK 
and  Worth'  (1909)  :  'The  Old  Testament:  Its 
Contents,  Truth  and  Worth'  (1912):  'A  Key 
to  Unlock  the  Kble'  (reissue,  1913);  'A 
Theologian's  Workshop,  Tools  and  Method' 
(1914). 

BEET,  WOliun  Ernest,  English  Methodist 
divine :  b.  Winchcombc,  Gloucestershire,  25  An*. 
1869.  He  was  gi^uated  at  London  University 
in  1893,  having  entered  the  ministry  the  previoiB 
year.  He  has  been  a  member  of  the  Cmt 
nexional  Board  of  Examiners  since  1899  and 
was  examiner  in  classics  at  Didsbuo'  College 
in  1909,  His  publications  inchide  'The  Trans- 
figuration ot  Jesus';  'The  Roman  See  in  tbf 
First  Centuries' ;  The  Rise  of  the  Papwy- 
He  is  a  frequent  contributor  to  periodic* 
hterature,  including  the  London  Quarlerh  *™ 
.the  HomiUtie  Revievf. 


iizodsi  Google 


BEET  — BSBT  SUGAR 


«»1 


■i  plant  of  the  family  Chenopodiaceir.  There 
are  several  forms  of  the  species,  mostly  bien- 
nials, with  stalked,  smooth,  ovate  leaves,  with 
flowers  borne  on  tall  leafy  stems.  The  original 
form,  or  sea-beet,  is  found  growiof;  wUd  in 
sandy  soil,  near  the  sea,  in  Europe  and  western 
Asia.  It  has  been  in  cultivation  since  200-30D 
ac,  and  to-day  the  numerous  varieties  may  be 
classified  under  one  of  five  gectionx,  although 
the  divisions  are  arbitrary  and  of  no  great 
importance. 

Garden  Beets. —  These  usualljr  have  unall 
tops,  with  turnip-shaped  to  tapering  roots  of 
medium  sice,  fine-grained,  smooth,  regular,  f[en~ 
erally  red  but  sometimes  yellowish  or  whitish 
in  color.  Among  popular  varieties  are  Early 
Blood,  Eclipse,  Bassano  and  Egyptian  turnip. 
The  soil  best  suited  is  a  loose,  ri^,  deep,  clean, 
well-tilled  loam.  Well-rotted  barnyard  manure 
with  some  potaisic  fertilizer  is  often  applied. 
Seed  is  sown  as  soon  as  possible  in  the  spring, 
for  the  early  crop,  with  other  sowings  tmtil 
June  to  ensure  a  succession ;  in  rows,  varying 
from  one  foot  apart,  where  intensive  gardening 
is  practised,  to  tnree  feet  where  horse  labor  is 
used.  The  plants  ate  thinned  from  four  to  six 
inches  asunoer  in  the  rows,  care  being  taken  to 
leave  only  one  plant  in  a  place.  Thinning  is 
often  done  when  the  young  J^nts  are  htr^ 
enough  to  seU  as  "greens."  The  late  croi^  if 
required  for  winter  use,  must  be  stored  before 
frost.     Beets  are  sometimes  forced  under  glass. 


coarse  form  raised  for  cattle-Teeding.  Stand- 
ard varieties  include  Mammoth  long  red. 
Golden  tankard  and  Globe.  Seed  is  sown  as 
early  as  possible  in  the  spring,  in  rows  two  to 
three  feet  apart,  and  the  plants  allowed  to  stand 
12  to  16  inches  asunder  m  the  row.  To  ensure 
a  good  crop  the  land  must  be  in  a  high  state  of 
cultivation  and  well  supplied  with  plant-food. 
Th«  may  be  grown  on  alkali  soils. 

Sng&T-Beets.— '  The     varieties     are     rather 


age  of  sui;ar,  which  has  been  increased  by 
selection  and  cultivation.  They  are  extensively 
grown  in  Europe  and  in  the  Northern  and  West- 
em  States.    See  Beet  Sugar. 

Chard  or  Swiss  Beets  have  comparatively 
large  leaves  with  succulent  leaf- stalks,  which 
are  cooked  and  eaten  like  asparagus.  See 
Chakd. 

Foliage  Beets  arc  grown  for  ornamental 
purposes.  The  luxuriant  foliage  is  of  many 
colors  and  varied  in  markings.  Brazilian, 
Chilean,  Victoria  and  Dracxna- leaved  are  well- 
known  varieties.  They  may  be  raised  from 
seed,  like  other  beets,  and  Uie  roots  lifted  in 
fall  and  kept  over  winter. 

Uses  and  Feeding  Value.—  As  a  vegetable 
the  root  of  the  garden  beet  is  boiled,  pickled 
and  used  as  a  ^tad;  and  the  tops  are  boiled 
as  'greens.*  They  contain  on  an  average  S8.S 
per  cent  water;  l.S  per  cent  protein;  8  per  cent 
nitrogen-free  extract;  1  per  cent  ash;  0.1  per 
cent  ether  extract,  and  0.9  per  cent  crude  fibre. 
Mangels  are  fed  to  cattle;  ihey  contain  from  7 
per  cent  to  IS  per  cent  dry  matter,  of  which 
about  88  per  cent  is  digestible;  an  average  per- 
centage composition  may  be  taken  as;  water, 
90.9;   protein,    1,4;   nitrogen-free  extract,   S.S; 


ether  extract,  0.2;  ash,  1.1;  crude  fibre,  0.9. 
About  77  per  cent  of  the  protein  or  96  per  cent 
of  die  nitrogen-free  extract  is  digestible.  The 
dry  matter  of  mangels  and  com  silage  are  of 
about  equal  value  for  feeding,  but  as  the  cost 
of  production  in  mangels  is  double  that  in  cor|i, 
stockmen  in  the  Umted  States  have  not  paid 
much  attention  to  them. 

Enemies. —  Beets  arc  sometimes  injured  by 
the  beet-fly,  otherwise  they  have  few  insect  ene- 
mies. They  are  sometimes  attacked  bv  rust, 
rot,  leaf-spot  and  scab.  Spraying  with  Bor- 
deaux mixture  will  prevent  the  leaf  diseases. 
Scab  attacks  the  root,  and  as  it  also  attadcs  the 
potato   these  crops    should  not  be   grown  in 


Beet  Pnlp  is  a  by>product  of  sugar-beet 
factories,  consisting  of  sliced  sugar-beets  after 
the  sugar  is  removed.  It  contains  about  10  per 
cent  orv  matter,  the  remainder  being  water, 
and  in  the  wet  condition  must  be  fed  at  once  or 
held  in  sikis.  It  may  be  fed  to  milch  cows, 
fattening  steers  and  Hieep,  and  ranges  in  value 
from  half  to  two-thirds  the  value  of  com  silage. 
Some  of  the  factories  have  erected  sheds  and 
feed  large  qnantiries  of  it  to  stock  with  the 
addition  of  hay  and  grain. 

BEET  SUGAR,  the  sugar  obtained  from 
the  beet,  similar  to  cane  sugar.  The  discovery 
of  sugar  in  the  beet  was  made  by  a  German 
diemist,  Marggraf,  as  early  as  1747.  No  prac- 
tical results  followed  his  discovery,  however,  as 
the  cost  of  obtaining  sugar  from  the  beet  by 
laboratory  methods  was  too  high  as  compared 
with  that  of  cane  sugar.  Little  progress  was  ac- 
complished until  about  50  years  later,  when  an- 
other German  chemist,  Achard,  succeeded  in 
extracting  sugar  from  the  beet  root  on  a  com- 
paratively large  scale.  In  1802  a  manufactory 
was  in  operation  in  Silesia,  in  which,  under 
Achard's  direction,   about  20  quintals  of   beets 


price  of  sugar  prevailing  at  that  time  all  o... 
the  European  continent  by  reason  of  the  block- 
ade, and  the  great  interest  and  favorable  atti- 
tude taken  by  the  different  continental  govern- 
ments toward  the  new  experiment,  caused  it 
to  be  a  success  for  a  short  time.  Napoleon  is- 
sued an  imperial  decree  in  the  early  part  of  his 
rdgn,  establishing  this  industry  in  France,  and 
in  1812  he  ordered  the  building  of  four  factories 
and  placed  Chaptal  in  charge.  In  1830  attempts 
were  made  in  the  United  States  to  introduce 
the  cultivation  of  the  sugar-beet.  It  was  not, 
however,  till  1870  that  the  iirst  successful  beet- 
sugar  factory  was  built,  at  Alvarado,  Cal, 

The  Industry  la  the  United  States.— The 
production  of  sugar-beets  and  of  beet  sugar  in 
the  United  States  is  now  assuming  such  pro- 
portions that,  with  the  increase  of  factories  and 
the  marked  popular  interest,  it  has  become  one 
of  the  leadmg  subjects  demanding  considera- 
tion from  agriculturists.  There  is  probably  no 
other  industry  in  this  country  that  has  developed 
so  rapidly  and  now  absorbs  so  large  a  share  of 
public  attention  as  that  of  beet  sugar. 

Attempts  were  made  to  establish  the  indus- 
tty  in  Massachusetts  in  1838.  There  were  also 
efforts  in  this  direction  in  Illinois,  Wisconsin 
and  California  between  1863  and  1876,  and 
much  was  claimed  for  the  industry  at  this  time 
hy  newspaper  writers,  capltalbts  and  leading 


.Google 


BRBT  SUGAR 


farmers.  In  California,  after  a  long  period  of 
unprofitable  production,  it  achieved  its  first 
success  in  18?9.  The  failure  of  these  early 
attempts  seetns  now  very  natural  as  we  look 
back  over  the  history  of  agricultural  progress 
in  the  United  States.  The  beet-sugar  industry 
belongs  to  the  domain  of  agriculture,  and  the 
problems  it  presents  are  agricultural.  These 
early  efforts  were  simply  ahead  of  their  time  in 
the  course  of  agricultural  development,  and 
they  failed  in  the  establishment  of  the  beet- 
sugar  industry  for  want  of  the  proper  methods 
of  tanning  and  the  proper  conditions  underly- 
ing the  farming  industry. 

At  the  time  of  the  first  attempts  at  sufi^r- 
beet  production,  agriculture  comprehended  sim- 
ply the  primary  features.  Its  products  were 
confined  mainly  to  cereals,  forage  crops  and 
live  stock,  and  the  production  and  marketing 
of  raw  materials  was  its  main  object.  The 
farmer  in  those  early  days  did  not  concern 
himself  with  enterprises  dependent  on  the  con- 
centration of  eSorts  in  the  production  of  .fin- 
ished products.  Land  could  be  purchased  for 
a  few  dollars  per  acre.  If  the  prospective 
farmer  did  not  have  the  money  to  buy  the  land 
he  could  enter  a  claim  on  government  land. 
His  whole  ambition  was  to  produce  something 
quickly  and  pay  for  the  lands  and  primary  im- 
provements. This  was  accomplished  by  raising 
conij  wheat,  oats,  cattle  and  hogs.  The  open 
pubhc  domain  offered  a  free  pasture.  Gradu- 
ally the  Eastern  sections  became  more  densely 
settled,  and  farm  lands  became  more  expensive. 
Crude  production  was  accomplish  ea  more 
cheaply  ty  the  Western  farrner.  Later,  owing 
to  development  of  transportation  facilities,  the 
agriculture  of  this  country  had  to  compete 
with  the  cheap  labor  of  Europe.  The  colonial 
extension  of  European  countries  brought  areas 
into  competition  with  American  farms  in  turn- 
ing out  crude  products,  and  with  labor  much 
cheaper  even  than  that  of  Europe.  The 
problem  became,  how  to  turn  crude  material 
into  something  that  would  represent  not  merely 
the  labor  but  the  skill  and  in^nuity  of  the 
American  people,  thus  supplying  our  own 
markets  and  those  of  the  world  with  finished 
products.  The  American  farmers  found,  as 
the  manufacturers  had  found  before  them,  that 
their  success  depended  upon  the  superior  skill 
and  artisan  ability  of  Americans  as  compared 
with  Europeans  and  their  colonists.  'Neces- 
sity is  the  mother  of  invention,*  and  demand 
and  necessity  united  in  the  evolution  of  a  new 
system,  TTus  began  in  the  East,  working  west- 
ward, in  the  production  of  butler,  cheese,  pre- 
pared meats,  flour,  eggs,  poultry,  etc.  Later 
came  the  establishment  of  other  industries, 
working  up  crude  products  of  the  farm  into  fin- 
ished articles.  We  became  producers  of  syrups, 
canned  ve^tables,  canned  fruits,  etc.,  until 
manufactunng  re-inforc«d  farming  from  ocean 
to  ocean.  When  all  this  was  accomplished,  the 
time  was  ripe  tor  the  success  of  the  beet- sugar 
industry. 

Industrial  Feahires.— It  is  one  of  the 
marked  features  of  American  industrial  life 
that  die  people  as  a  mass  have  always  shown  a 
readiness  to  forcKO  immediate  benefits,  and, 
even  at  considerable  expense  to  themselves,  to 
encourage  industrial  development.  As  a  result 
this  country  has  made  a  record  among  the 
nations  of  the  earth  unparalleled  in  rapid  de- 


vdoptnent,  accumulation  of  wealth  and  hold  on 
the  trade  of  the  world. 

One  of  the  chief  items  of  coat  in  the  pro- 
duction of  anything  is  labor.  In  this  country 
it  is  contended  that  the  laborer  is  not  only  en- 
titled to  earn  a  living,  but  to  live  comfoitablr, 
to  be  able  to  educate  his  family  and  to  aiagtnrc 
a  comforlahle  home.  There  is  no  position  in 
life,  social,  financial  or  ^litical,  to  which  the 
laboring  man  may  not  aspire.  White  this  meant 
much  for  the  dtiien,  it  adds  materially  to  the 
cost  of  production.  This  country  to-day  is  the 
concern  of  the  nations  of  the  earth  in  being 
able  to  maintain  a  balance  of  trade  in  its  favor 
through  its  agricultural  and  industrial  produc- 
tions, and  this,  balance  is  constantly  increasing. 
The  sugar  industry  is  supported  by  American 
enterprise  and  spirit,  and  under  this  American 
policj'  it  is  rapidly  assuming  a  prominent  pMi- 
tion  m  the  long  list  of  successful  industries. 

There  are  two  sides  to  the  proposition  of 
establishing  a  su^r  factory  in  any  particulir 
community:  (1)  That  of  rtie  farmer,  involring 
agricultural  conditions;  and  <2)  diat  of  tbr 
manufacturer  or  those  financially  interested  in 
the  enterprise. 

Problems  for  the  FBrmer.—  The  leading 
difficulties  of  the  farmer  may  first  be  noticed 
To  b^in  with,  he  is  unacquainted  with  the 
methods  of  cultivating  the  sugar-beet  plant,  and 
his  first  experience  usually  proves  unsatisfac- 
tory. He  is  accustomed  to  certain  methods  in 
farming.  As  a  rule  he  is  conservative,  and 
thinks,  from  his  long  experience  in  fanning, 
that  he  knows  how  to  farm.  He  undertake! 
to  apply  methods  successful  in  the  cullivatiaa 
and  production  of  other  crops.  He  is  not  in- 
clined to  listen  to  those  who  are  informed  in 
methods  applicable  to  the  new  crop,  Evrata- 
ally  he  finds  out  his  mistake.  He  finds  that  in 
growing  sugar-beets  he  must  apply  principles, 
m  many  cases,  the  reverse  of  those  necessary 
to  other  crops.  For  instance,  he  has  been  ac- 
customed to  growing  large  ears  of  com,  large 
hogs  and  large  steers ;  but  in  the  case  of  sogar^ 
beets  he  finds  that  the  first  question  is  not  one 
of  size,  but  of  quality.  He  must  grow  beets 
of  a  certain  size,  purity_  and  sugar  content.  In 
order  to  accomplish  this  he  must  give  careful 
attention  to  the  work  of  preparing  the  land, 
planting  the  seed,  bunching,,  thinning  and  culti- 
vating. He  finds  that  attention  to  details  counts 
in  results  at  the  harvest  in  the  profits  on  the 
crop.  He  learns  that  the  whole  process  is  a  very 
laborious  and  expensive  one.  entirely  unlikt 
anything  he  has  attempted  before.  To  be  suc- 
cessful be  must  apply  the  methods  of  'he 
gardener  to  a  field  crop.  He  must  have  a  nch 
soil,  and  the  proper  rain  conditions  at  the 
proper  time.  These  facts  can  only  be  learned 
through  experience. 

The  Quefltiot)  of  Labor.— The  labor  prob- 
lem is  important  in  the  cultivation  of  st^r- 
beets.  At  certain  stages  of  their  growth  weT 
require  a  considerable  amouifl  of  labor.  This 
labor  is  very  tiresome.  As  a  rule,  the  fanner, 
if  he  grows  beets  to  any  extent,  does  not  haw 
on  his  farm  sufficient  labor  to  do  the  work  ot 
thinning  and  bunching,  hoeing  and  harvesUng 
the  sugar-beets ;  nor  does  any  farming  'com- 
munity posses^  to  any  considerable  extent  tM 
labor  necessary  to  grow  the  beets  that  a  f*'^'"'' 
will  require  in  a  campaign.  It  will  cost  about 
$30  an  acre  in  sections  where  sugar-beels  «« 


Google 


BBET  SUGAR 


«S8 


grown  under  rainy  conditions,  and  about  $40 
to  $45  an  acre  in  sections  where  beets  are  grown 
by  iriigation,  to  cover  the  cost  o£  seed,  prep- 
aration of  secd'bed,  bunching  and  thinning, 
hoeing,  cultivating,  harvesting  and  delivering  to 


farming  communities  of  foreign  countries,  ax 
3  rule,  a  large  amount  of  tuitaole  labor  can  be 
secured  in  the  nd^borhood,  because  these 
ncigbbo^boods  arc  more  thickly  settled ;  the 
whole  population  is  wilting  to  do  the  laborious, 
tedious  work  required,  and  whole  families  work 
at  it.  including  the  father,  mother  and  children.' 
In  tiiis  country,  as  a  rule,  the  farmer,  his  older 
sons  and  hired  hands  must  attend  to  the  out- 
door work  It  has  been  found  necessary  for 
sugar-beet  growers  to  resort  to  the  cities  and 
towns  for  extra  labor  required.  In  the  cities 
live  many  foreigners  from  Holland,  Russia, 
Sweden  and  other  places,  who  are  thorou^ly 
familiar  with  this  kind  of  work.  These  people 
are  willing  to  move  out  into  the  fields  and  live 
in  tents ;  they  make  contracts  at  so  much  per 
acre  for  bunching  and  thinning^  hoeing,  weeding 
and  harvesting.  Since  the  agitation  and  start~ 
ing  of  the  beet-su^r  industry  in  this  country, 
foreigners  are  coming  with  a  view  to  securing 
employment  of  this  kind.  While  the  labor 
question  is  a  serious  one,  it  is  one  cabbie  of 
solution  by  careful  and  detailed  attention. 

Problems  for  the  Uanufactorer. —  The 
manufacturer  or  the  capitalist  who  builds  a 
factory  finds  that  he  has  even  more  problems 
to  work  out  than  the  farmer,  and,  like  the 
fanner,  he  usually  discovers  that  he  is  entering 
a  field  that  is  entirely  new  to  him.  Before 
establishing  his  plant  the  prospective  manu- 
facturer must  investigate  certain  conditions ;  (i) 
The  water  supply,  for  he  must  have  an  abun- 
dant suppty  of  pore  water  for  the  use  of  the 
factory.  (2)  The  fuel  supply,  as  the  factory 
must  be  located  in  a  section  where  cheap  fuel 
can  be  secured  (the  fuel  usually  used  is  coal, 
but  on  the  Pacific  coast  petroleum  is  used  to  a 
lar^  extent).  (31  A  market  for  the  product 
(this  factor  should  be  thoroughly  canvassed 
and  settled  prior  to  establishing  a  factory). 
(4)  The  supply  of  lime  (the  local  quarries  of 
lime  rock  must  be  investigated  to  see  if  the 
quality  is  suitable  and  the  suppiv  sufficient,  as 
a  large  amount  will  be  required). 

The  general  conditions  having  been  found 
satisfactory,  and  the  factory  being  built,  other 
problems  arise.  In  the  beginning  only  a  limited 
amount  of  skilled  labor  is  employed.  Eventually 
every  employee  of  the  factory  will  become 
skilled  in  his  particular  part.  After  two.  or 
three  campaigns  have  passed  the  factory  will 
have  worked  out  the  details  of  producing  the 
best  product  at  the  least  cost  with  the  machinery 
>vhicn  it  has.  When  this  point  shall  have  been 
reached  those  interested  will  be  prepared  to 
estimate  the  cost  of  production  of  beet  sugar. 
The  difference  in  cost  of  production  at  a  new 
factory  and  at  one  operated  for  a  considerable 
time  is  much  greater  than  one  acquainted  with 
the   subject  would  suppose. 

Stabstics  of  the  Indtutrr.— The  first  estab- 
lished successful  American  beet-sugar  factory 
is  located  at  Alvarado,  Cal.  It  was  erected 
in  1870,  but  success  was  not  attained 
until  1S79.  In  1896  in  the  United  States  there 
Tvere    seven    factories,  which  produced  42,(XX) 

VOL  i  — IB 


tons  of  sugar.  Since  1896  the  expansion  has 
been  rapid  and  there  now  (1917)  are  99  factor- 
ies, which  in  1915  produced  874,220tonsof  white 
Eulated  sugar,  valued  at  approximately 
00,000.  Since  1889,  the  total  output 
UROunted  to  7,613,000  tons,  of  an  estimated 
value  of  $760,000,(X)0.  From  1889  to  1915 
$300,000,000  has  been  paid  to  farmers  for  beets 
and  considerably  more  than  that  amount  for 
other  supplies,  labor,  etc  The  industry  now 
employs  between  30000  and  40,000  men  and 
annually  disburses  $75,000,000,  nearly  one^ialf 
of  whidi  is  paid  to  farmers  for  beets. 

_  The  factories  as  at  present  located,  together 
with  their  daily  beet-slicing  capacity,  are  as 
follows :  California:  Alvarado,  800  tons;  Chino, 
1,1(KI  tons;  Los  Alamitos,  S(K)  tons;  Betteravia, 
1,000  tons;  Oxnard,  3,000  tons;  Spreckels,  4,500 
tons;  Hamilton  Cjty,  7(X)  tons;  Uantcca,  1,200 
tons;  Visalia,  400  tons;  Corcoran,  600  tons; 
Santa  Anna,  600  tons ;  Huntington  Beach,  1,200 
tons;  Anaheim,  1,200  tons;  Dyer,  1.200  tons; 
Tracy,  600  tons;  Colorado:  Brighton,  1,000 
tons;  Grand  Junction,  700  tons;  Rocl^  Ford, 
1,800  tons;  Sugar  Gty,  600  tons;  Loveland, 
1,920  tons;  Greeley,  1,000  tons;  Eaton,  1,200 
tons;  Fort  Collins,  2,1S0  tons:  Longmont,  2,350 
tons;  Windsor,  1,150  tons;  Lamar,  500  tons; 
Sterling,  1,000  tons;  Brush,  1,100  tons;  Fort 
Morgan,  1,200  tons;  Swiok,  liOO  tons;  Las 
Animas,  1,000  tons;  Idaho:  lAaha  Falls,  900 
tons;  Shelley,  750  tons;  Blackfoot,  800  tons; 
Sugar  City,  900  tons;  Burley,  600  tons;  Twin 
Falls,  600  tons;  Illinois:  Ibverdale,  500  Ions; 
Indiana:  Decatur,  800  tons;  Iowa:  Mason  City, 
1,200  tons;  Waverly,  500  tons;  Kansas:  Garden 
City,  1,000  tons;  Michigan:  Bay  City,  1.500 
tons;  West  Bay  City,  900  tons;  Holland,  500 
tons;  Caro,  l,2(So  tons:  Alma,  1,400  tons;  Ma- 
rine City,  600  tons;  Lansing,  600  tons;  Bay 
City  (Salzburg)  1,4(X)  tons;  Saginaw  (Carroll- 
ton),  900  tons;  Mount  Clemens,  600  tons;  Cros- 
well,  750  tons;  Saint  Louis,  600  tons;  Owosso, 
1,200  tons;  Menominee,  1.200  tons;  Blissfield, 
868  tons;  Sebewaing,  85  tons;  Minnesota: 
Chaska,  800  tons ;  Montana:  Billings,  2,000  tons ; 


2,000  tons;  Missoula,  1,000  tons;  Nevada:  Fal- 
lon, 500  tons;  Ohio:  Fremont,  500  tons; 
Paulding,  900  tons;  Findlay,  871  tons;  Ottawa, 
'""  ■  Toledo,  l,100_tons;  Oregon:  Grant's 


■,  500  t 


406 


i ;  Ogden,  1,000  tons ;  Logan,  600  tons ;  Gar- 
land, 900  tons ;  Lewiston,  800  tons ;  Elsinore, 
750  tons-  Payson,  700  tons;  Layton,  700  tons; 
Spanish  Fork,  1000  tons;  Smithfield,  500  tons; 
West  Jordan,  750  tons:  Cornish,  600  tons; 
IVashiiMlon:  North  Yakima,  750  tons;  Wa- 
verly, 500  tons;  Wisconsin:  Menominee  Falls, 
600  tons;  Janesville,  700  tons;  Chippewa  Falls, 
600  tons ;  Madison,  600  tons ;  Wyomtng;  Lovell, 
600  tons;  Sheridan,  900  tons;  Worland,  600 
tons. 

At  many  other  places  t>reliminary  organiza; 
tions  have  been  formed  which  are  only  awaiting 
developments  assuring  more  settled  conditions 
affecting  the  sugar  industry. 

The  relative  importance  of  the  beet-sugar 
industry;  can  best  be  gathered  from  the  follow- 
ing statistics  of  the  sugar  production  and  con- 
sumption of  the  world.  The  United  States  is 
the   world's   greatest   i 


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484 


BSBTSUGAS 


ccmpilaiion  by  The  National  City  Bank  of  New 
York  shows  that  the  consumption  of  sugar 
in  the  United  States  for  the  fiscal  year  1917 
was  but  82  pounds  per  capita  against  89  pounds 
in  1914  (the  year  preceding  the  war).  The 
total  quantity  consumed  in  1917  was,  however, 
8^500,000,000  pounds  and  we  also  exported 
1,250,000,000  pounds,  or  25  times  as  much  as 
in  the  year  before  the  war. 

The  bank's  compilation  shows  that  the 
world's  sugar  production  is  now  about  12  per 
cent  below  that  of  the  year  preccdii^  the  war. 
Beet-sugar  production  in  Europe  has  fallen  43 
per  cent  but  cane  production  in  the  tropics  has 
increased  about  2b  per  cent.  The  beet-sugar 
of  Europe,  which  was  18,500,000,000  pounds  in 
the  sugar  year  1912-13,  was  but  10,500,000,000 
pounds  in  1916-17,  and  the  world  cane  produc- 
tioa  which  was  a  little  more  than  20.000,000,000 
pounds  in  1912-13  was  over  25,000.000,000  pounds 
in  1916-17;  world  production  of  cane  and  beet 
sugar  in  1913-14  was  42.000,000,000  pounds;  in 
1916-17,  37,000,000.000  pounds.  Beels  produced 
one^half  of  the  world's  sugar  prior  to  the  war, 
but  in  1916-17  supplied  only  one-third  of  the 
world's  total.  In  the  United  States  and  its 
island  possessions  there  has  been  a  rapid  in- 
crease in  production..  In  every  one  of  the 
sugar  areas  under  the  American  flag  — Porto 
Rico,  Hawaii,  the  Philippines,  and  the  cane  and 
beet  fields  of  continental  United  States  —  there 
has  been  a  marked  incr^se,  the  aggregate  prod~ 
uct  of  these  areas  having  grown  from  about 
4,000,000,000  pounds  in  1912^13  to  practically 
5.000.000,000  pounds  in  1916-17.    -The  share  of 


ago)  to  48  per  cent  in  1917.  In  consumption  of 
sugar  the  United  States  stands  at  the  head  of 
the  list  of  the  world  countries,  our  total  con- 
sumption  being  8,500,000,000  pounds  in  the  fiscal 
year  1917  against  approximately  5.000,000,000  in 
Germany,  5,000.000.000  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  2,O(X),O0O,O00  in  France,  the  figures  for  the 
European  countries  being  those  for  normal 
years.  Our  per  capita  consumption,  however, 
IS  less  than  that  of  certain  other  countries, 
Denmark's  consumption  being  93  pounds  per 
capita,  England  90,  United  States  ffi,  Germany 
75,  Norway  and  Sweden  60,  Netherlands  73. 
France  40,  Russia  30,  Spain  15  and  Italy  10. 
About  25  per  cent  of  our  consumption  is  drawn 
from  our  own  fields,  27  per  cent  from  our 
islands  and  48  per  cent  from  foreign  countries, 
diiefly  Cuba.  The  value  of  the  si^r  entering 
continental  United  States  was,  in  the  fiscal 
year  1914,  $155,000,000  and  in  1917  $348,00a000. 
the  average  import  price  per  pound  (including 
that  from  the  islands)  having  been,  in  1914, 
2.3  cents,  and,  in  1917,  4.6  cents.  Our  exports 
of  sugar  have  grown  very  rapidly  during  the 
war,  having  been,  in  1914,  50,000,000  pounds, 
in  1915  550,000,000,  and  in  1917  1,250,000,000 
pounds,  the  value  of  the  exports  increasing  from 
less  than  $2,000,000  in  1914  to  over  $77,000,000 
in  1917.  Of  the  1.250,000,000  pounds  eicported 
in  1917,  450,000.000  went  to  France,  about  150.- 
000,000  to  Great  Britain,  50,000,000  to  Italy, 
25a000,000  to  neutral  Europe  and  about  150,- 
000,000  pounds  to  South  America.  The  world's 
chief  producers  of  cane  sugar  are  Cuba,  India^ 
Java,  the  Hawaiian  and  Philippine  Islands,  ana 
Porto   Rico;   and   the  chief   producers   of   beet 


sugar  are  Germany,  Russia,  Austria-Hungary, 
France  and  the  United  States.  Cuba,  from 
which  we  draw  our  chief  imports,  is  now  tbc 
world's  largest  producer,  her  crop  in  the  sugar 
year  1916-17  having  been  6,730,000.000  pounds; 
India  5,882,000.000;  Java  3,575.000,000;  Hawaii 
1.288,000,000  and  Porto  Rico  1,006,000,000  pounds, 
while  Germany's  beet-sugar  production  in  1913- 
14  (the  latest  peace  year)  was  6.093,000,000, 
Russia  3.898,000,000,  Austria- Hungary.  3,774,009- 
000,  France  1,749.000,000,  the  United  States  in 
1916-17  1,646,000,000  pounds  o£  beet  sugar  and 
613,000,000  pounds  of  cane.  The  world's  supr 
production,  as  far  as  can  be  statistically  slated 
was  in  1870  5,000,000,000  pounds,  in  1880  7,m.- 
000,000,  in  1390  13,000,000,000,  in  1900  20,000,- 
000,000.  in  1910  33,000,000,000,  in  1914  42,00(1. 
000,000,  and  in  1917  37,000,000,000  pounds,  tWs 
fall  off  in  1917  being  due  to  a  reduction  of 
product  in  the  beet  fields  of  the  European 
countries  at  war.  Our  own  consumption  has 
about  kept  pace  with  this  rapid  growth  in 
world  production,  since  we  consumed  in  1870 
23  per  cent  of  the  world's  output  and  in  191/ 
21  per  cent  of  the  world  total. 

Methods  of  Qrowin^  Sagar-Becta.— Ii 
would  be  quite  difficult  to  give  general  directions 
and  rules  for  growing  sugar-beets  applicible 
to  all  localities  and  conditions.  Often  expert 
sugar-beet  growers,  at  public  meetings  and  in 
the  agricultural  press,  give  minute  direciions 
covering  all  the  details  ol  this  intricate  pioccss. 
Others,  each  well  versed  in  the  process  of 
growing  sugar-beets,  get  into  ailments  and 
disputes  as  to  the  right  method.  In  such  cases 
each  may  be  correct  in  a  measure.  The  oc- 
casion for  such  disagreements  lies  in  the  fact' 
that  each  person  has  in  mind  the  right  method 
for  a  particular  locality  or  set  of  conditions. 
A  careful  study  of  the  different  sections  of  tht 
United  States  where  sugar-beets  are  grown 
will  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  there  is  no 
single  road  to  success  in  growing  sugar-beets. 
Every  locality  has  settled  conditions  which  v-ill 
materially  modify  any  set  of  methods  that 
might  apply  to  some  other  one.  There  are 
some  settled  rules,  of  course,  but  it  is  a  fact 
that  the  various  agricultural  districts  of  this 
country  will  have  to  work  out  each  for  itself 
the  right  method.  The  person  who  argues  thai 
the  ground  must  be  plowed  in  the  fall  in  order 
to  receive  the  benefit  of  winter  frosts  is  not 
offering  any  argument  to  the  Pacific  coast,  foi 
instance,  where  many  beets  are  grown,  and  be 
who  insists  that  the  ground  should  be  rolled  in 
all  instances  after  planting  will  hazard  the  crop 
if  his  directions  arc  followed  in  many  pari' 
of  Nebraska  and  other  sections  where  the  soil 
is  sandy  and  there  are  strong  winds.  In  sucb 
cases  a  smooth  surface  offers  an  excellent  op- 
portunity for  the  wind  to  carry  along  the  sharp 
grains  of  sand,  cutting  off  the  plants  and  de- 
stroying the  crop. 

There  can  be  no  general  fixed  rules  applying 
to  the  kinds  and  application  of  fertiliiers.  Gen- 
eral principles  are  all  ri^t  when  aecompaniw 
with  the  underlying  reasons,  but  they  mus' 
always  be  modified  to  meet  local  conditions. 

With  the  development  of  the  industry  in  *" 
the  sections  which  iiave  the  nece55ai7  ^°'*' 
ditions,    and    the    acquirement    of    ample   «- 


of  beets  and  {qr  manufacturers 


le  proo 
t  the  n 


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Ea»T  SUGAR 


486: 


of  sttgar,  there  will  come  many  unpTOvements, 
and  eventnally  a  cheapening  of  production,  a 
mult  of  great  importance  to  all  concenicd  in 
the  success  of  the  industry,  ba^ause  eventually 
the  beet-sugar  industry  in  the  United  States 
will  ha.ve  to  meet  a  shacper  competition  with 
foreign  sugar  producers. 

There  are  some  things  settled,  however, 
about  growing  sugar-beets.  It  will  generally  be 
conceikd  that  the  ground  should  be  plowed 
deep  and  manured.  Before  the  seed  is  planted, 
the  ground  must  be  thoroughly  pulverized  by 
harrowing  and  by  rolling,  even  it  the  surface 
has  to  be  afterward  roughened.  Advantage 
must  be  taken  of  the  general  and  prevalent  ram 
conditions.  The  ground  must  be  moist  enough 
to  germinate  the  seed,  either  by  rainfall  or 
irrigation.  Rainfall  is  best  when  it  can  be 
obtained.  In  some  localities  either  is  used,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances.  Seeds  are  planted  at 
depths  of  from  half  an  inch  to  two  inches, 
according  to  the  prevailing  conditions  in  the 
particular  locality.  The  beets  must  be  planted 
near  enough  together  to  produce  a  beet  of  a 
certain  size.  This  spacing  depends,  again,  upon 
the  locality  and  the  nature  and  fertility  of  the 
soil.  The  size  and  quahty  of  (he  beet  depend 
materially  on  the  right  kind  of  spacing.  The 
beets  must  be  thoroughly  cultivated,  hoed  and 
hand-weeded,  because  cultivation  tends  to  con- 
serve the  moisture  of  the  soil,  and  clean  fields 
permit  favorable  action  of  sun  and  air.  This 
close  cultivation  should  be  kept  up  until  the 
beet  tops  thoroughly  shade  the  ground  and  reach 
a  size  when  it  would  be  injurious  to  operate 
among  them  further  with  a  plow  and  hoe.  The 
beets  should  be  harvested  as  soon  as  possible 
after  they  are  ripe,  because  then  they  contain 
the  most  sugar  and  the  highest  purity.  It  is 
evident  that  the  entire  crop  of  beets  in  the 
neighborhood  of  a  factory  cannot  be  harvested 
at  once.  In  many  localities  some  will  have  to 
be  siloed  temporarily  in  pits  in  the  fields.  Har- 
vesting-time will  depend  a  great  deal  upon  cir- 
cumstances connected  with  the  operation  of  the 
factory.  The  sooner  the  beet  is  harvested 
after  it  is  ripe  the  better,  because  further  rain- 
fall may  start  a  new  growth,  producing  new 
lateral  roots  and  new  leaves,  thus  greatly 
reducing  the  sugar  content  and  purity  of  the 
beets. 

Benefits  to  the  Farmer.—-  No  statement  of 
facts  with  reference  to  any  new  crop  would  be 
complete  orwould  indicate  the  advisability  of 
its  introduction  unless  it  showed  the  benefits  to 
be  derived.  Of  course,  profit  and  loss  in  any 
enterprise  is  the  first  consideration. 

It  has  already  been  staled  that  it  costs  about 
$30  per  acre  to  produce  sugar-beets  and  to 
market  the  crop  where  rain  conditions  prevail. 
This  is  without  taking  into  consideration  the 
rent  of  the  land,  but  it  incfudcs  the  farmer's 
time  and  everything  else  that  enters  into  the 
cost  of  production.  The  average  United  States 
yield  during  the  five-year  period  1911-15  was 
10.17  tons  per  acre  and  the  price  paid  farmers 
per  ton  in  1915  was  $5.67,  thus  giving  a  gross 
average  cash  return  of  $57,66  per  acre.  To  this 
amount  should  be  added  the  feeding  value  of 
the  leaves  and  tops,  usually  estimated  at  $3 
per  acre,  also  the  value  of  the  increased  yield 
of  other  crops  for  three  to  five  years  after  feJ- 


est  of  all  inoentives  to  atimiilate  beet  cul- 
ture. It  mtBt  be  kept  in  mind  that  these 
are  averages  of  gTt>ss  and  net  proceeds. 
It  is  never  very  onconragiDg  to  consult  the 
average  of  agricultural  crop  statistics;  indeed, 
it  is  often  said  that  *the  average  crop  does  not 
pay."  If  one  should  take  the  figures  of  the 
average  crop  of  corn  in  Iowa,  for  instance,  or 
the  average  crop  of  wheat  in  Minnesota  or 
Kansas,  and  compute  the  proceeds  at  the 
average  market  price,  and  deduct  therefrom  the 
cost  of  productioii,  the  results  would  show  a 
very  smjl  remuneration  or  an  actual  loss,  quite 
discourajling  to  one  who  has  not  investigated 
this  subject 

Many  growers  formerly  received  as  high  as 
$75  and  some  $100  per  acre  for  their  Beets, 
these  high  results  depending  upon  the  superior 
quality  of  the  land  and  the  superior  slull  of 
the  one  producing  the  beets.  If  a  farmer  has 
poor  land  or  is  an  unthrifty  farmer,  he  is  not  in 
a  position  to  expect  much  in  plantitig  any  kind 
of  crop.  These  statements  are  sufBcient  to  ^ve 
a  farmer  who  is  experienced  in  all  other  lands 
of  crops  a  fair  insist  into  the  situation. 

Conditions  in  the  sugar  marts  of  the  world 
resulting  from  the  World  War  have  natuially 
caused  a  general  dislocation  in  the  beet-sugar 
field  also,  where  unusually  high  prices  obtain, 
and  under  present  conditions  the  future  can- 
not be  forecast  with  any  degree  of  accuracy, 
but  the  outlook  for  the  producer  is  assuring. 

There  are  indirect  benefits  in  sugar-beet 
growing  that  the  farmer  must  take  into  consid' 
eration,  along  with  the  direct,  as  follows:  He 
learns  that  sugar-beets  are  a  very  valuable  crop 
to  grow  for  his  stock.  It  is  estimated  that 
they  are  worth  two-thirds  as  much  for  feeding 
as  for  production  of  sugar.  They  may  enter 
into  a  food  ration  for  any  kind  of  stock.  A 
normal  acre  of  sugar-beets  furnishes  about 
2,000  pounds  of  digestible  matter  in  form  of  the 
tops  and  leaves  removed  before  beets  are  de- 
livered at  the  factory.  An  average  acre  of  corn 
ensilage  contains  about  3,600  pounds  of  di- 
gestible matter.  Therefore,  besides  getting'  a 
Kod  cash  return  for  his  beets  the  farmer  gets 
>m  each  acre  of  beets  the  equivalent  of  one- 
half  an  acre  of  ensilage. 

The  hi^  cultivation  that  must  be  given  to 
the  land  through  deep  plowing,  thorou^  har- 
rowing and  constant  weeding  and  cultivating 
finally  makes  the  land  of  superior  quality  for 
any  purpose.  It  will  grow  much  more  and  bet- 
ter com  or  wheat,  and  at  a  less  expense,  oil 
account  of  the  absence  of  weeds  and  grass. 
Finally,  through  rotation,  other  fields  are 
brou^t  under  this  high  state  of  cultivation, 
until  the  whole  farm  is  at  its  best  condition  of 
soil  fertility  and  productiveness. 

The  method  that  has  brought  this  about 
serves  as  an  object-lesson  to  the  farmer  and 
the  farming  neighborhood.  A  better  cultiva- 
tion will  prevail,  and  the  science  of  farming  will 
become  several  degrees  higher  on  account  of. 
experience  in  sugar-beet  cultivation. 

After  the  beets  are  delivered  to  the  fac- 
tory, and  the  sugar  has  been  extracted,  it  is 
found  that  the  pulp  (which  will  amount  to  50 
per  cent  in  weight  of  the  beets  worked)  is 
almost  as  valuable  for  feedmg  purpoMs  as  the 
original  beets  themselves.  It  is  a  very  dieui 
feed  and  sells  for  50  to  75  cents  per  ton.  It 
enters  natttrally  and  profitably  into  the  iood 


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BEBTHOVBN 


rations  of  all  kinds  of  stock  It  is  especially 
valuable  for  steers  a.ad  lambs,  but  reaches  its 
hi^est  use  as  animal  food  when  fed  to  the 
dairy  cow.  The  fanners  in  the  neighborhood 
of  a  beet-sugar  factory  feed  large  quantities  of 
it.  They  appreciate  its  nutritive  and  sanitary 
value.  Pulp  feeding  gives  an  impetus  to  animal 
industry  of  all  kinds.  It  offers  a  stimulus  to 
the  establishment  of  butter  and  cheese  fac- 
tories, to  the  erection  of  feeding-pens  and  to 
the  whole  stock-feeding  industiy.  Its  use  is  a 
strong  reason  for  establishing  the  industry. 

The  beet-sugar  industry  opens  up  at  once  a 
large  demand  for  labor,  not  only  in  the  factory 
itself,  but  on  the  farm.  It  is  one  of  the  things 
in  which  the  farmer  can  invest  with  the  assur- 
ance that  he  has  a  sure  market  and  a  fixed  price 
for  his  crop  to  begin  with. 

Benefits  to  O&er  Induitrlea.— The  estab- 
lishment of  a  beet-sugar  factory  opens  up  not 
only  a  large  field  for  the  employment  of  labor, 
but  also  a  field  for  the  employment  of  capital- 
It  becomes  at  once  a  market  for  considerable 
crude  material  to  be  used  in  conducting  the 
business.  First  and  most  important  it  furnishes 
a  market  for  the  beets.  Then  the  factory  is  a 
targe  consumer  of  coal,  and  as  the  factories  ftre 
often  established  in  communities  having  local 
coal  fields  they  became  at  once  local  markets 
for  a  local  product.  The  amount  of  coal  neces- 
sary  to  work  up  a  certain  amount  of  beets  is 
generally  computed  at  about  20  per  cent  by 
weight,  or,  in  case  of  an  ordinary  factoiv  of 
1,000  tons  capacity,  about  200  tons  of  coal  per 
day,  or  20,000  tons  for  a  full  campaign  of  100 
days.  A  facto^  also  consumes  a  large  amount 
of  lime  rock,  which  of  necessity  must  also  be  a 
local  product.  It  usually  consumes  lime  rock  to 
the  extent  of  about  8  per  cent  of  the  crude 
weight  of  beets  worked,  which  in  the  case  of  a 
1,000-ton  factory  would  be  80  tons  of  lime  rock 
per  day,  or  8,000  tons  for  the  campaign.  It 
consumes  about  one-tenth  aft  much  coke  as  lime, 
or  about  1,000  tons  during  a  campaign. 

The  establishment  of  a  factory  m  a  commu- 
nity  necessitates  considerable  transportation  of 
crude  products  —  beets,  coal  and  lime  rock  — 
to  the  factory,  and  in  carrying  the  finished  prod- 
uct to  the  market.  It  stimulates  baiddng  and 
almost  all  kinds  of  mercantile  business  through- 
out the  community. 

The  total  expenditure  for  beets,  manufac' 
turing  and  transportation  by  the  factory  is  not 
far  from  $100  per  acre  of  beets  harvested,  most 
of  which  is  disbursed  in  local  channels  and 
which  furnishes  one  of  the  best  means  of  an 
intensification  of  economical  activities  in  rural 
communities. 

The  Potnre  of  the  Iiidiutiy.r—  The  present 
consumption  of  sugar  in  the  United  States  is 
8,500,000,000  pounds  of  which  beet  and  Louisi- 
ana cane  sugar  furnish  about  25  per  cent,  27 
per  cent  comes  from  our  insular  possessions  and 
48  per  cent  comes  from  foreign  countries, 
mostly  from  Cuba. 

It  has  been  the  ambition  of  those  encourag- 
ing the  beet-sugar  industry  lo  establish  factories 
enough  at  least  to  avoid  this  foreign  importa- 
tion. Making  due  allowance  for  failure  of  fac- 
tories lo  reach  in  actual  production  their  full 
capacity  under  ideal  conditions,  it  would  require 
160  factories  having  a  daily  rapacity  of  1,000 
tons  of  beets  to  produce  the  sugar  imported,  or 
a  sufficient  number  of  cane-sugar  factories  to 


produce  an  equal  amount  of  sugar.  To  build 
and  equip  these  factories  will  require  an  ex- 
penditure of  $250,000,000  in  labor,  building  ma- 
terials and  machinery.  The  anniral  require- 
ments of  these  will  be  as  follows : 

BEQUIKEHENTS   OF    160    BEET-SUGAX 


Baeti  required tou. .         ti.OOO.IM 

Ccvtcf  bccU tIS, 000,00) 

Cod  required toni. .  3.100,000 

Ontdcxfi 110,000.001 

Lime  TDck  requirod torn. .  1.300,0)0 

Cost  of  lime  rock tJ.m.mO 

Coke  Teqnirad. ...................  .tOAi. .  130,000 

Cott  of  coke Mo, on 

Con  of  mgti  bav la. 000,0)0 

Coet  of  fectorr  labor tl6,000.O)0 

In  addition  lo  the  foregoing  list  large 
amounts  of  money  have  been  paid  for  mill 
supplies,  transportation,  etc.  As  working  capital 
to  operate  these  factories  $135,000,000  was 
required.  This  sum  being  in  use,  however,  for 
about  four  months  in  the  year,  the  interest 
charged  thereon  is  equal  to  an  interest  charge 
on  $45,000,000  for  one  jiear.  The  above  es5- 
mates  do  not  include  capital  already  invested  in 
the  business  and  operations  of  factories  already 
built,  the  statement  of  which  is  as  follows: 

PRESENT    DEVELOPMENT    01    THE    BEEI-SVOM 
INDUSIBY 
Cepitil  invetted  in  fkctoriea,  eqnipraent,  vid 

Croundi flOO.OOO.on 

Beet*  puniuMd  *ana*llT tou. .       T,OM,00t 

Cuh  pud  1«  beeU  porcbeMd  uniullr SM.JOO.OM 

Coalcoiuomed  ennuAllr. ..-..,-.-... -looi  .       1,400.000 

Cub  paid  (or  coal  anniuUr (I,W),00> 

limeltick  puicbMed  emuuDT. ....... .tow. .  540,000 

Cub  laid  for  lima  rock  uihiuUt 11,300,001 

Coke  purchued  annually tool. .  ]i,000 

Cub  paid  for  coke  annsally (170,001 

Caab  paid  f cr  Ubo  aBnuaUr f.OOa.m 

OpcrMing  capital  anoualljr  employed 110,000,001 

Also  there  is  a  considerable  amount  an- 
nually expended  for  crude  material  and  various 
other  things.  It  hardly  seems  possible  that  an 
industry  which  aSects  so  many  people  over 
such  a  wide  scope  of  country  can  fail  to  re- 
ceive anything  but  the  most  friendly,  careful 
and  fostering  consideration  on  the  part  of  those 
who  shape  industrial  affairs. 

The  immensity  of  future  demands,  it  seems, 
answers  eRectually  those  who  feel  that  tbt  in- 
dustry might  be  overdone.  Attention  should 
be  called  to  the  fact  that  not  only  are  prestol 
demands  great,  but  that  the  rate  of  increase  of 
consumption  is  considerable.  According  lo 
statistics  for  the  last  19  years,  consumption  of 
sugar  in  the  United  States  has  been  increas- 
ing at  the  average  rate  of  about  6j^  per  cent 
annually. 

Aarok  Govt 
Represeniatxvt  of  tkt  Btet  Sugar  Inditiln  " 
the  Arid  Stales. 

BEETHOVEN,  bi-to-fen,  LudwU  Vm 
the  greatest  orchestral  composer  of  me  1^ 
century:  b.  Bonn,  16  Dec.  1770;  d.  Vienna,  Z6 
March  1827.  While  classed  among  the  GerniM 
masters,  the  Dutch  Van  in  his  name  (which  is 
not  a  sign  of  nobility)  indicates  his  descral 
from  a  family  in  the  Netherlands  the  worlds 
musical  centre  in  the  ISth  and  16th  centuries. 
This  family  moved  in  1650  from  Louvain  lo 
Antwerp.  Beethoven's  grandfather  was' a  basJ 
singer  and  a  conductor;  his  father  was  a  I"*'' 
who  did  not  lead  an  exemplary  life;  W*  "[! 
come  wms  only  $150  a  year,  wherefore  it  w  "<" 


DijilizcdbyGoOl^le 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


^UCTHOTSN 


*n 


nnpmmc  that  be  eagerly  availed  himself  of 
his  son's  mtuical  talent  and  exploited  iL  He 
personally  tau^^t  Ludwig  to  play  the  violin  and 
the  clavier,  in  the  hope  of  making  of  him  a 
*wonder-cbild>  like  uoiart.  While  Ludwig 
was  not  remarkably  precocious  (he  even  shed 
tears  over  his  music  lessons),  he  is  said  to  have 
written  a  fimeral  cantata  at  11,  and  in  the 
same  year  was  taken  on  a  concert-tour  by  his 
father,  who,  to  make  his  performances  seem 
more  remarkable,  representml  him  as  being  two 
years  younger.  Before  he  bad  reached  bis 
12th  year  the  organist  Neefe  spoke  of  biro  aa 
*playing  with  force  and  foiish,  reading  well  at 
sight,  and,  to  sum  up  all,  paying  the  greater 
part  of  Bach's  'Well-Tempered  Clavier,>  a  feat 
whidi  will  be  understood  by  the  initiated.  If 
he  goes  on  as  he  b^ian,  he  will  certainly  be- 
come a  second  Mozart.* 

Mozart  himself  appears  to  have  been  of  this 
opinioii,  for  when  he  heard  young  Beethoven 
improvise  in  Vienna  he  exclaimed  to  the  by- 
standers, *Keep  your  eyes  on  him  I  He  will 
give  the  world  something  to  talk  about  I'  This 
was  m  1787.  Beethoven  had  been  sent  to 
Vienna  in  the'hope  that  he  might  be  able  to 


hasten  back  to  Bonn.  Although  Bonn  was  a- 
small  town,  it  had  quite  a  musical  atmosphere, 
and  Beethoven  had  good  opportjmities  to  b^ 
come  acquainted  with  the  operas  and  the  con- 
cert pieces  then  in  vogue.  He  was  only  13 
when  he  got  a  position  as  assistant  court  organ- 
ist, and  subsequently  he  played  the  pianoforte 
accompaniments  at  the  rehearsals  of  the  opera 
orchestra.  He  also  played  the  viola.  His  first 
salaried  position  (£63  a  year)  was  as  assistant 
organist  under  Reicha.  The  most  important 
occurrence  of  the  Bonn  period  was  die  forma- 
tion of  an  intimate  friendship  with  Count  von 
Waldstein,  to  whom  he  subsequently  dedicated 
one  of  his  best  sonatas.  The  CouHt  had 
promptly  recognized  his  genius,  and  it  was 
probably  owing  to  his  suggestion  that  the 
Elector  of  Cologne,  Max  Franz,  decided  to  pro- 
vide the  yotmg  musician  with  the  means  for 
going  to  Vienna  again  and  there  continuing  his 
studies  with  Haydn,  to  whom  Beethoven  had 
already  been  introduced  when  Haydn  stopped 
at  Bonn,  in  1790,  on  his  way  to  London,  It  was 
in  November  1792,  nearly  a  year  after  Mozart's 
death,  that  Beethoven  entered  Vienna,  which 
was  to  remain  his  home  till  the  end  of  his  life. 
The  lessons  from  Haydn  were  duly  arranged 
for  and  the  first  was  given  in  Haydn's  house 
on  12  December,  the  payment  being  eight  gro- 
schcn  (about  20  cents).  But  HayiSi,  Lke  most 
creators,  was  not  a  good  teacher  and  although 
Beethoven  took  lessons  of  him  more  than  a 
year,  he  soon  began  to  take  his  exertises  for 
correction  to  Schenk  before  showing  them  to 
Haydn,  He  subsequently  took  lessons  of  the 
pedantic  contrapuntist  Albrechtsberger,  who, 
however,  complained  that  his  pupil  was  unwill- 
ing to  «do  anything  in  decent  style*  and  had 
100  little  respect  for  rules —  this  last  being  a 
peculiarity  which  he,  fortunately,  soon  began 
to  manifest  in  his  compositions.  To  these  com- 
positions he  was  so  lucky  as  to  be  able  to  devote 
iMTly  all  his  time.  From  his  father  he  re- 
ceived no  pecuniary  assistance,  but  there  were 
Kvcial  sources  of  incotac.    Prince  Licluiowsky 


gave  bim  an  annual  stipend  of  600  ftorina,  and 
when,  in  1809,  an  attempt  was  made  to  entice 
him  to  Kassel,  where  a  position  as  Kapell- 
meister was  offered  him,  some  of  his  princely 
friends  gave  him  an  additional  annuity  of  4,000  i 
florins,  to  chain  him  to  Vienna.  This  lasted  only 
till  ISll,  but  at  this  time  he  was  already  deriv- 
ing ft  considerable  income  from  the  sale  of  his 
works.  Many  of  his  letters  show  that  he  knew 
how  to  make  a  good  bargain.  Had  it  not  been 
for  a  spendthrift  nephew,  of  whom  he  was  very 
fond,  and  for  whom  it  was  found  at  the  time  of 
his  death  he  had  even  placed  7,000  florins  in  the 
bank,  he  would  have  never  suffered  any  finan- 
cial tribulations  such  as  Mozart  and  Schubert 
had  to  endure  all  their  lives. 

It  was  fortunate  that  the  Kassel  offer  was 
refused,  and  that  an  earlier  attempt  (in  1796)  to 
win  him  for  Berlin  had  also  led  to  naught; 
for  Vienna  was  the  proper  place  for  Beethoven. 
It  was  at  that  time  the  world's  musical  centre, 
owing  largely  to  the  unusual  interest  taken  in 
music  by  the  aristocratic  circles.  To  undei^ 
stand  the  significance  of  this  fact  we  must  bear 
in  mind  that  at  that  time  there  were  few  public 
concerts ;  it  was  the  nobility  who  maintained  the 
orchestras  and  patronised  the  great  artists,  the 
audiences  being  invited  guests.  Beethoven 
brought  with  him  from  Bonn  letters  of  intro- 
duction to  leading  members  of  the  aristocracy 
and  thus  found  himself  at  once  "in  the  swim.' 
He  had  not  yet  done  anything  very  remarkable 
as  a  composer  and  was  at  first  adlnired  chiefly 
for  his  improvisations  on  the  pianoforte ;  but 
gradually  a  sense  of  his  greatness  dawned  on 
his  patrons,  who  bore  patiently  all  his  eccentrici- 
ties. While  recognizing  the  advantage  of  being 
intimate  in  the  houses  of  the  aristocracy,  he 
never  truckled  to  rank  and  refused  to  submit  ^ 

to  the  intricate  and  artificial  rules  of  court 
etiquette.  At  the  same  time  he  expected  the 
aristocrats  to  behave  like  ladies  and  gentlemen ; 
one  day  when  a  young  man  talked  loudly  while 
he  was  playing,  he  suddenly  stopped  and  ex- 
claimed: "I  play  no  longer  for  such  hogs.» 
His  attitude  toward  wealth  is  illustrated  by  his 
once  sending  back  his  brother's  card  on  which 
■johann  van  Beethoven,  land  proprietor'  was 
printed,  after  writing  on  the  back:  "Ludwig 
van  Beethoven,  brain  proprietor.* 

In  the  homes  of  some  of  his  aristocratic 
friends  he  gave  lessons  to  the  women  and  girls. 
He  did  this  unwillingly,  looking  at  the  time  thus 
spent  as  filched  from  his  compositions.  He  often  > 
hiiled  to  keep  his  appointments  and  was  apt  to 
be  irascible  and  bearish;  but  his  fair  pupils 
were  only  too  glad  to  put  up  with  all  this  for 
the  sake  of  die  benefit  they  got  from  his  lessons. 
He  was,  at  the  same  time,  a  great  admirer  of 
women  and  often  in  love,  although  none  of  bis 
infatuations  appears  to  have  lasted  more  than 
seven  months.  He  was  never  married,  for  al- 
thou|^  he  repeatedly  proposed  he  was  each  time 
refused.  These  love  affairs  call  for  mention 
because  they  had  an  influence  on  not  a  few 
of  his  compositions.  A  well-regulated  house- 
hold was  a  blessing  he  greatly  needed.  His 
eccentric  habits  were  forever  forcing  him  to 
change  his  lodgings  and  he  seldom  could  keep 
a  servant  longer  Qan  a  few  wedcs.  If  his  cook 
brought  him  a  bad  egg  he  threw  it  at  her.  He 
often  got  angry  when  the  servants  lati^ed  at 
the  siE^t  he  presented  while  composite;— toss- 


BBBTMOVBH 


ii^  bis  hands  about,  beating  time  with  his  feet, 
and  singing  or  rather,  growling.  His  rooms  pre- 
sealed  scenes  of  great  disorder.  His  gastro- 
nomic habits  were  unwise,  and  the  dyspepsia 
they  gave  rise  to  was  responsible  for  much 
mefancho^  and  for  many  of  the  outbreaks  of 
ill-temper  for  which  he  became  notorious  as  he 
grew  older.  While  naturally  of  an  aSectionate 
disposition  (as  instanced  in  his  fondness  for  his 
uephew)  and  always  fond  of  jokes,  he  would, 
on  occasion,  insult  and  abuse  his  best  friends 
on  slight  provocation;  but  these  outbursts  of 
irascibility  were  usually  followed  by  the  most 
abject  apolo^es.  He  was,  in  short,  like  his 
music,  highly  emotional  and  regardless  of  rules. 

The  cuief  cause  of  his  growing  moroseness 
and  irritability  was  the  difliculty  of  hearing 
which  began  in  1798  and  gradually  ended  ia 
complete  deafness.  In  1802  (25  years  before 
bis  death)  he  wrote  in  his  last  will:  'O  ye, 
who  consider  or  declare  roe  to  be  hostile,  ob- 
stinate, or  misanthropic,  what  injustice  ye  do 
me!  Ye  know  not  the  secret  causes  of  that 
which  to  you  wears  such  an  ap^arance^  -  and 
he  proceeds  to  speak  of  his  hearing,  which  had 
been  growing  more  and  more  defective  for 
six  years,  and  which  made  him  shun  people, 
as  he  dia  not  wish  to  say  constantly:  'Speak 
louder— bawl — for  I  am  deaf,"  His  last  appear- 
ance in  public  in  concerted  music  was  in  1814. 
Two  years  later  he  be^an  to  experiment  with 
ear-trumpets,  his  collection  of  which  is  oow  in 
the  Royal  Library  of  Berlin,  His  attempts  to 
conduct  after  this  usually  led  to  mortifying 
and  pathetic  scenes.  The  last  was  in  182^ 
when,  although  totally  deaf,  he  insisted  on  con- 
ducting his  ninth  symphony;  he  could  not  even 
hear  the  applause  which  followed  it.  All  com- 
munication with  him  was,  in  the  last  years  of 
his  life,  carried  on  with  the  aid  of  pencil  and 
pa^r.  The  autopsy  showed  that  not  only  were 
the  auditory  nerves  practically  paralyzed,  but 
there  were  other  advanced  troubles  (the  liver 
was  tou^  as  leather  and  shrunk  to  half  its 
normal  site),  which  made  it  remarkable  that 
he  should  have  retained  his  vitality  so  long. 
The  immediate  causes  of  death  were  inflamma- 
tion of  the  lungs  and  dropsy.  A  week  before 
his  death  he  was  still  busy  with  letters  and  with 
plans  for  new  compositions,  including  a  tenth 
symphony,  a  requiem  and  music  to  Faust  He 
cuea  during  a  violent  thunder  and  hail  storm, 
about  six  o'clock  on  ^  March  1827.  The 
Viennese,  who  had  been  neglecting  him  during 
the  last  few  years,  because  of  the  Rossini  furore 
(in  1823  no  operas  but  Rossini's  were  sung 
in  Vienna,  and  the  whole  musical  atmosphere 
was  affected  by  them),  now  realized  their  loss 
and  a  crowd  of  20,000  persons  attended  the 
funeral.  He  was  buried  in  the  Wahringer  Fried- 
hof,  but  in  1888  his  remains  were  transferred, 
with  those  of  Schubert,  to  the  Central  Ceme- 
tery. Statues  of  him  were  erected  at  Bonn  in 
1845,  in  Vienna  in  1880,  in  Brooklyn  in  1894, 
at  Leipzig  (Max  Klinger)  inl902.  In  1815  the 
freedom  of  the  city  of  Vienna  had  been  con- 
ferred upon  him. 

A  certain  wildness  was  civen  to  Beethoven's 
appearance  b^  his  long,  abundant  hair,  which 
was  always  in  a  state  of  disorder.  He  was 
strongly  built  and  muscular,  but  below  medium 
stature,  his  height  being  £ve  feet  6ve  inches. 
His  small  black  eyes  were  bright  and  piercing 


his  forehead  broad  and  hi^  his  cdmfdeiiM 
ruddy.  His  friend  Schindlcr  wrote  that  when 
a  musical  idea  took  posaession  of  bis  niML 
^'there  was'  an  air  of  inspiration  and  dignity  ia 
his  aspect;  and  his  diminutive  figure  seemed  (o 
tower  to  the  gigantic  proportums  of  his  mind' 
Already  in  Bonn  his  friends  used  to  note  the 
occasions  when  he  was  'in  his  raptm.*  These 
moments  of  inspiration  would  come  to  him  at 
any  time  and  anywhere  —  in  his  room,  in  the 
streets  of  Vienna,  and  particularly  in  the  coun- 
try. '  He  was  extremely  found  of  nature  and 
country  life,  and  spent  bis  summers  in  the 
picturesque  regions  near  Vienna.  A  sketch 
book  was  always  in  his  pdcket,  and  into  this  ht 
jolted  his  ideas  as  they  came.  Afterward  be 
revised  and  re-revised  these  sketches.  "Thftc 
is  hardly  a  bar  in  his  rausi<^^  says  Grove,  *of 
which  it  may  not  be  said  with  confidence  that 
it  has  been  rewritten  a  dozen  times.  Of  tlit 
air  <0  Hoflinung,*  in  'Fideho,'  the  sketch 
books  show  18  attempts,  and  of  the  concludine 
chorus  10.^  These  sketdies  have  been  collected 
by  Nottebohm  and  i>riiited;  they  give  an  in' 
teresting  and  instructive  insist  into  the  work- 
shop of  genius.  Another  curious  fact  r^ard- 
ing  his  creative  power  is  that,  like  Wagner's,  it 
matured  slowly.  Uendelssobn  wrote  his  best 
piece,  the  'Midsummer  Night's  Dream'  oveiluie 

-^t  the  age  of  17;  Schubert  was  18  when -he 
wrote  his  wonderful  'Elrlking;'  but  Wagnei 
was  28  when  he  wrote  his  Erst  really  oiigmal 
opera    ('The    Flying    Dutchman'),    and  Bee- 

.  tboven  29  when  he  composed  his  first  symphonr, 
and  that  might  have  been  almost  as  well  written 
by  Mozart  or  Haydn. 

customary  to  divide  Beethoven's  com- 


1852,  issued  a  book  entitled  'Beethoven  et  ses 
trois  »tyles,'  The  first  group  in  wtiicfa  the 
influence  of  his  predecessors  is  still  more  or 
less  obvious  includes,  among  many  other  things, 
the  first  two  symphonies,  the  septet,  the  first  six 
string  quartets,  the  aria  'Ah  Perfido,'  die  song 
'Adelaide,'  etc.;  the  second,  which  shows  Bee- 
thoven in  the  full  vigor  of  his  manhood,  orig- 
inally and  creative  power,  begins  ^ftd  tbe 
year  1800,  and  includes  six  symphonies,  from 
the  third  (Eroica)  to  the  eighth,  the  opera 
'Fidelio,'  the  violin  concerto,  the  Coriolaii 
overture,  the  Egmont  music,  the  Rasumovsky 
(luartets,  the  Kreutzer  sonata,  the  'cello  snuta 
in  A,  14  sonatas  for  pianoforte,  etc,;  d)«  thint 
which  begins  after  a  period  of  great  trUnilation 
and  depression  in  bis  life,  includes  tbe  last  i^ 
pianoforte  sonatas,  the  string  quartets  op,  l^i 
130,  131,  132,  135,  tbe  'Missa  solemnis,'  the 
ninth  syinphony,  the  'Ruins  of  Adieni.'  etc. 
Concerning  some,  at  least,  of  the  works  of  diis 
third  period  opinion  is  still  divided.  There  are 
critics  who  think  that,  partly  in  consequence  ol 
his  deafness,  Beethoven  had  become  garrulous, 
incoherent  and  vague,  whereas  others  P"*'*' 
to  find  in  the  composituns  of  this  period  (be 
highest  summit  of  all  musical  crcativeness. 

A  better  way  than  Lenc's  of  considering  tbe 
achievements  of  Beethoven's  genius  is  to  c^ 
a  glance  at  each  class  of  his  compositic">'  V 
itself.  The  eminent  English  critic,  Dr.  Hu«- 
fer,  wrote  that  'Beethoven  is  in  music  *»' 
Shakespeare  is  in  poetry,  a  name  before™ 
greatness  of  whidi  all  other  names.  ho«<*** 


BBETUOVEH 


pnt,  seem  te  dwindle.*    This  is  

tkm.  There  is  >»  realrty.  only  one  departinent 
of  music  —  the  symphony  —  in  which  Beethoven 
is  incontestably  pre-etninent ;  in  all  the  others 
be  has  his  equals,  and  in  some  his  superiors. 
Id  the  Li«d,  or  art-song,  he  i»  far  inferior  to 
Schubert  and  half  a  doieu  other  masters;  in 
the  ETandenr  of  choral  writing  be  nerer 
CQUallcd  Bach  and  Handel;  his  'Fidelio'  is  not 
equal  to  the  best  ojMras  of  Mozart,  Weber, 
Wagner,  Gounod,  Buet  and  Verdi;  his  piano- 
forte compositions  are  hannonicaily  less  fasci- 
nating, and  less  idiomatic  in  style,  fnan  Chopin's 
and  Schumann's,  and  in  the  realm  of  chaster 
music  there  arc  works  of  Haydn,  Moiart, 
Brahms,  and  particularly  Schubert  and  Schu- 
mann, quite  equal  to  the  best  of  Beethoven's. 
His  weakest  works  are  in  the  department  of 
vocal  music,  especially  the  Lied.  He  onoe  said 
to  Rochliti:  'Songs  I  do  not  like  to  wttte.* 
He  looked  on  them  as  bagatelles  into  which  it 
was  hardly  worth  while  to  put  his  best  ideas. 
Hence,  amoiuj  his  songs,  there  are  only  a  few 
which  show  His  genius  to  advantage.  The  best 
of  them  are  'Adelaide,*  'Die  Ehre  Gottes,' 
and  'In  questa  tomba.'  (Consult  Finck's, 
'Songs  and  Song  Writers,'  pp.  28-34}.  One 
of  the  most  judicial  biographers,  Wasielewsldj 
remarks:  ■While  Beethoven  wrote  a  good  deal 
for  the  voice,  he  cannot  be  considered  a  vocal 
composer  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word.  Full 
appreciation  of  the  real  nature  of  the  human 
voice,  the  subtle  knowledge  of  its  resources 
which  we  admire  in  Handel  and  Uozart,  he  did 
not  possess.  His  realm  was  instrumental 
music^  Nevertheless,  there  is  much  that  is  of 
great  beauty  in  his  vocal  works,  which  include 
ln«  opera  "Fidelio,*  the  oratorio  'Chrislus  am 
Oelberg,'  (wo  masses,  a  sonata.  66  songs  with 

Slano forte,  18  canons,  7  books  of  English, 
colch,  Irish,  Welsh  and  Italian  songs  with 
pianoforte,  violin  and  'cello,  etc.  He  nimself 
considered  his  second  mass  — 'Missa  solemnis' 
—his  most  successful  worl^  but  the  musical 
world  is  much  more  enamored  of  his  'Fidelio,' 
which,  while  conventional  in  the  first  act,  rises 
in  the  second  to  such  a  sublime  level  of  drama- 
tic expressiveness  that  it  is  lo  be  much  regretted 
he  never  found  time  to  execute  his  other 
plans,  which  included  a  Macbeth,  a 
Alexander.      The    history    of 


S" 


For  pianoforte  there  are  38  sonatas,  5  con- 
certos, 21  sets  of  variations,  and  more  than 
50  short  lueccs  —  bagatelles,  rondos,  preludes, 
Undlers,  etc  Hans  von  BiUow  spoke  of  Bach's 
'Well-Tempered  Clavichord'  as  the  Old  Testa- 
ment of  music  and  Beethoven's  sonatas  as  the 
New,  *in  both  of  which  we  must  believe;'  and 
be  declared  that  the  mere  technical  mastery  of 
these  sonatas  is  'the  task  of  half  a  life-thne.* 
Thnr  mark  a  tremendous  advance  over  all  his 
predecessors  excepting  Bach.  In  wealth  of 
melodic  ideas  and  rhythmic  variety,  as  well  as 
ui  structural  finish,  and  especially  in  emotional 
expressiveness,  they  far  surpass  all  previous 
works  of  their  kind ;  yet  tt  was  not  till  several 
decades  after  the  composer's  death  that  they 
pegan  U)  be  generally  appreciated  and  played 
in  public  The  pendulum  then  swung  to  the 
Opposite  extreme,  and  every  Beethoven  sonata 
was   supposed    to   be    a    peerless    masterwork 


which  is  f>r  from  being  true.  (Read  the  ad- 
mirable comments  on  all  these  works  in  chap, 
VII  of  J.  S.  Shedlock's  'The  Pianoforte 
Sonata').  In  the  matter  of  form  Beethoven 
was  by  no  means  the  pedant  many  of  his  ad- 
mirers would  have  him.  The  orthodox  sonata 
is  supposed  to  consist  of  four  movements;  but 
of  his  3B  sonatas  only  15  have  four  movements; 
11  have  3,  and  6  have  only  2;  nioreover,  his 
two-movement  sonatas  are  by  no  means 
'torso*,*  as  some  have  foolishly  called  them; 
they  include  op.  90  and  op.  Ill,  two  of  his  very 
best  works,  the  op.  Ill  being,  in  fact,  his  test 
word  on  the  subject 

The  chamber  music  includes  8  trios  for  piano 
and  'cetlo ;  S  trios,  16  quartets  and  2  qumtcts 
for  strings;  10  sonatas  for  piano  with  violin, 
5  with  'cello,  1  with  horn.  3  sextets  and  1  septet 
for  string  and  wind  instruments;  2  octets  for 
wind.  The  quartets  have  been  made  tolerably 
familiar,  but  among  the  other  works  here  re- 
ferred to  there  are  many  ^ems  of  which  the 
public  is  still  unaware.  But  it  is  when  we  come 
to  the  orchestral  works  —  the  11  overtures,  and 
9  n'mphonies  —  that  we  see  Beethoven  in  his 
real  grandeur.  Of  these  works  Richard  Wag- 
ner, who  worshipped  Beethoven,  has  written 
most  eloquently  (see  index  to  vol,  I  of  Glase- 
^app's  'Wagner  Encyclopiidie,'  or  to  Ellis's 
translation  of  Wagner's  prose  works;  Grove's 
'Beethoven's  Nine  Symphonies'  gives  an  excel- 
lent analysis  for  ainateurs).  Concerning  the 
symphonic  works,  Wagner  wrote:  'He  de- 
veloped the  symphony  to  such  a  fasdnating 
fullness  of  form  and  &lled  this  form  with  such 
an  unheard-of wealthofenchantingmelpdy.that 
we  stand  to-day  before  the  Beethoven  symphony 
as  before  the  boundary  line  of  an  entirely  new 
the  history  of  art ;  for  with  them  a 
ion  has  ap{>eared  in  the  world,  with 
which  the  art  of  no  time  and  no  nation  has  had 
anything  to  compare  even  remotely,*  It  b 
not  only  that  Beethoven's  symohonies  are  longer 
than  those  of  Haydn  and  Mozart,  or  broader 
and  richer  in  melody,  more  varied  in  rhythm, 
and  fuller  in  minute  details  of  elaboration;  what 
particularly  distinguishes  them  is  their  greater 
emotionality  and  more  powerful  contrasts  of 
moods.  On  the  one  side  we  have  (as  in  the 
pianoforte  sonatas)  those  soulful,  tearful 
adagios  which  are  a  specialty  of  Beethoven;  on 
the  other  the  humorous  scherzo,  which  he  put  in 
place  of  the  dainty,  graceful  minuet  of  his  pred- 
ecessors. This  symphonic  scherzo  was  really 
a  new  thing  in  music,  for  while  there  is  much 
fun  in  Haydn,  it  is  of  a  much  lighter  quality. 
In  Beethoven's  there  are  elements  of  grinmess 
and  the  grotes^jue;  with  an  undercurrent  of 
melancholy,  as  in  die  scherzos  of  Chopin,  In 
theart  of  dyeing  the  music  in  deeper  and  more 
varied  orchestral  colors  Beethoven  s  symphonies 
and  overtures  also  mark  a  great  advance  over 
his  predecessors. 

While  Beethoven  stands  at  the  head  of  com- 
posers of  the  classical  school,  an  almost  equal 
claim  to  distinction  lies  in  this  rtiat  in  his  woHcs 
are  to  be  found  many  of  the  germs  which 
Weber,  Schubert,  Uenaelssohn,  Schumann  and 
others  developed  into  die  German  romantic 
school.  Among  these  germs  are  his  inclination 
to  shatter  the  sonata  form  (particularly  in  the 
of   the  nintii   symphony,  which 


e; 


440  BSff 

tonn  in  which  they  are  to  be  uttered;  the 
subjective  expressiveness  of  his  masic,  which 
bit  five  times  as  many  expression  marks  as 
Uozart's;  the  use  of  characteristic  (realistic) 
orchestra]  colors ;  his  way  of  playing  the 
pianoforte  and  conducting  an  orchestra,  with 
tempo  rubato,  or  f  reqnent  modification  of  pace ; 
and  above  all,  his  sanctioning  of  program 
music  by  his  'Pastoral  Symphony,'  which  illus- 
trates qpisodes  in  the  countiy  —  a  scene  at  a 
brook,  tlie  merrymaking  of  peasants,  the  samf 
of  birds  and  a  uiunderstonn.  It  is  also  siBntfi' 
cant  of  his  romantic  inclinations  that  toward 
the  end  of  his  life  he  conceived  a  plan  of  giv- 
inft  poetic  titles  to  all  bis  sonatas  and  even  to 
the  separate  movements.  The  'Moonligbt 
sonata,'  it  is  well  to  remember,  did  not  get  its 
inappropriate  name  from  him. 

Bit- 
was  written  in  English  t^  the  "American  A.  W. 
Thayer  and  published,  tn  a  German  version 
only  (Vols.  I-III,  Berlin  1866-77;  Vols.  IV,  V, 
Leipzig  1907-08).  Thayer  also  furnished  a 
useful  'Chronologisches  Verzeichniss'  of  Bee- 
thoven's works,  of  which  a  complete  edition  was 
printed  by  Breitkopf  and  Hartel  in  1864-67. 
Another  important  work  in  this  connection  is 
G.  Nottebonm's,  'Thematisches  Verzeichniss 
der  Werke  Beethovens'  (Leipzig  1913). 
Consult  also  Bekker,  P.,  Beethoven'  (Berlin 
1911);  Kalischer,  A.  C,  'Beethoven  und  seine 
Zeitgenossen'  (4  vols.,  Leipzig  1910)  ;  Kerst, 
P.,  'Beethoven  im  eignen  Wort'  (Berlin 
1904;  English  trans.  Inr  Henry  E.  Krehbiel, 
New  Yorkl90S);  Nohl.L, 'Beethoven's Leben' 
(3  vols,,  Berlin  1867;  revised  by  P.  Sakolowski, 
Berlin  1912) ;  Schindler,  A.,  'Biographie  von 
Ludwig  van  Beelhoven>  (Munster  1840)  ; 
Marx,  A.  B.,  'Ludwig  van  Beethoven,  Leben 
und  Schaflfen"  (2  vols.,  Berlin  1884) ;  Wegeler, 
F.  G..  and  Ries,  P.,  'Biographisdhe  Notizen 
fiber  Ludwig  van  Beethoven'  (Coblenlz  1838; 
reprinted  by  A.  C.  Kalischer,  Leipzig  1906). 
For  analyses  of  his  sonatas  and  symphonies 
consult  Grove,  G.,  'Beethoven  and  his  Nine 
Symphonies'  (London  1896) :  Helm,  Th., 
'Beethoven's  Streichquartette'  (Leipzig  1910)  ■ 
Lenz,  W.,  'Beethoven  et  ses  trols  styles'  (2 
vols.,  Paris  J8SS;  new  edition  by  D.  Calvo- 
coressi,  Paris  1909)  ;  Nesieht,  R.,  'Das  goldene 
Zeitalter  der  Klaviersonate'  (Cologne  1910) ; 
Reinecke,  C.,  'Me  Becthovensehcn  Klavier- 
sonaten'  (Leipzig  1897;  English  trans., 
London  1898)  ;  Nagcl,  W.,  Beethoven  und 
seine  Klaviersonaten'  (2  vols.,  Langensalia 
1904).  For  Beethoven's  correspondence  con- 
snlt  the  selections  by  Leichtentritt,  H.  (Ber- 
lin 1912) ;  Leitzmann,  A.  (Leipzig  1909) ; 
Sachs,  C.  (Berlin  1909);  Thomas-San-Galli.  W. 
A.  (Halle  1910)  and  Kalischer,  A.  C,  'Bee- 
thoven's sammtiiche  Brief e'  (5  vols,  Berlin 
1908;  English  trans,  by  J.  S.  Shedlock,  Lon- 
don 1909)  and  Prelin^er,  P.,  <L.  van  Bee- 
thoven's simmtliche  Brief e  und  Aufzeiehnun- 
gen'  (4  vols.,  Vienna  1908).  A  yearbook  en- 
titled Beethoven  Forsckung  has  been  issued  at 
Vienna  since  I91I. 

Henby  T.  Finck, 
Musical  Critic,  Evening  Post,  New  York. 

BBBTLB.  an  insect  of  the  order  Coleopttra. 
Beetles  arc  distinguished  from  all  odier  insects 
by  the  elytra  or  thickened  fore  wings,  wbidi 


are  not  actively  used  in  flight,  the  hind  wings 
being  especially  adapted  for  that  purpose.  Th* 
elytra  cover  and  encas^  thug  protecting,  tht 
posterior  segments  of  the  thorax  and  the  abdo- 
men. The  protboracic  s^ment  is  greatly  en- 
larged, often  exarated  in  front,  to  receive  die 
head  These  characters  are  very  persistent 
There  are  few  aberrant  forms  and  the  order  is 
remarkably  homogeneous  and  euily  limited.  The 
head  is  free  from  the  thorax;  it  is  scarcely  ow- 
rowed  behind,  and  its  position  is  usually  hoii- 
lontal.  The  eyes  are  usually  quite  large,  and 
there  may  be  one  or  two  ocelli  —  not  men. 
The  antennx  are  usually  inserted  just  in  front 
of  the  eyes,  and  rarely  between  them.  Thej 
are  either  filiform  where  the  joints  are  cylindri- 
cal, as  in  the  ground  beetles  iCar<^nda),  not 
enlarging  toward  the  end,  or  serrate,  as  in  the 
Elateridie,  where  the  joints  are  triangular  and 
compressed,  giving  thereby  a  serrate  outline  to 
the  inner  edge;  or  clavate  as  in  the  Silphida, 
where  the  enlarged  terminal  joints  ^ve  a 
rounded,  club-shaped  termination ;  or  lamellate 
when  [he  terminal  joints  are  prolonged  inter- 
nallv,  forming  broad,  leaf-like  expansiona,  » 
in  the  Scarabttidit,  while  the  geniculate  nntenni 
is  produced  when  the  second  and  s 
joints  make  an  angle  with  the  first, 
mandibles  are  always  well  developed  as  biliDg 
and  chewing  organs,  becoming  almormally  en- 
larged in  the  stag-beetles  (Lucanus),  while  in 
certain  Scarabaiair  they  are  smalt  and  mem- 
branous. The  maxillsE  prepare  the  food  to  be 
crushed  by  the  mandibles.  The  greatly  en- 
larged prothorax  is  free  and  movable. 

In  the  running  species,  as  carahida,  the 
hind  wings  being  useless  are  aborted,  and  very 
rarely  in  some  tropical  Latnf'yridtf  and  Scara- 
baidtf  both  pairs  of  wings  are  wanting  in  both 
sexes,  though,  as  in  the  glow-worm  and  some 
of  its  allies,  the  females  are  apterous.  The  legs 
are  well  developed,  as  the  Metles  are  unong 
the  most  powerful  running^  insects,  the  hinder- 
most  pair  of  le^s  becoming  oar-like  in  die 
swimming  Dytisctda  and  seme  HydrofkUida, 
while  in  the  Gyrinida  both  pairs  of  hind  le^t 
become  broad  and  flat.  The  number  of  tarsal 
joints  varies  from  the  normal  number  five, 
to  four  and  three  joints,  the  terminal  joint  as 
usual  being  two-clawed.  These  claws  art 
known  to  be  wanting  only  in  Phatutitt^  t 
5Caral»eid,  and  the  aberrant  family.  Styiopida. 
According  to  the  number  of  the  tarsal  joints 
the  families  of  the  Coleoptera  have  been 
grouped  into  the  Pentamtra  (five-jointed),  the 
Tetramera  (four-jointed),  the  Trimero  (three- 
jointed),  and  the  Heteromera,  which  are  foar- 
joinled  in  the  hind  pair,  while  the  first  and 
second  pairs  are  five-jointcd.  The  abdomen, 
usually  partially  concealed  by  the  wings,  is  ses- 
sile,  its  base  broad;  in  form  it  is  usually  some- 
what flattened. 

A  few  genera  are  capable  of  producing; 
sounds  by  rubbing  the  limbs  or  elytra  over 
finely  wrinkled  surfaces,  which  in  Trox  are 
situated  on  the  side  of  the  basal  segments  of  the 
abdomen,  and  in  Strategus  on  the  tergum  of 
the  penultimate  segment  of  the  abdomen,  while 
such  a  surface  is  found  in  Higyrtis  on  fc 
surface  of  the  elytra. 

The  larv*  when  active  and  not  permanently 
enclosed  (like  the  cureulio)  in  the  substances 
ttat  form  their  food,  are  elongated,  flattened. 
worralikc,   with   a   large  head,   well-developed 


mouth-parts  and  three  pairs  o£  tboradc  feet, 
dtlier  Domy,  or  fluhy  fUid  retractile,  whik 
there  is  often  a  aiogte  tenninal  prop-lcg  on  the 
terminal  sesment  of  the  body  and  a  lateral 
homy  spine.  The  wood'boriog  Um  of  the 
Ctrambycida  are  white,  soft  and  more  or  less 
cylindrical,  while  thoK  of  the  Curcuiionidir  are 
footless  or  nearly  so,  and  resemble  those  of 
the  Kali-flies,  both  the  hymenopterous  and 
the  dipterous. 

The  pupse  have  free  limbs,  and  are  Mther 
enclosed  in  cocoons  of  earth,  or,  ;f  wood-borers, 
in  rude  cocoons  of  fine  chips  and  dust,  united 
by  threads,  or  a  viscid  matter  supplied  by  the 
insect.  None  are  known  to  be  coarctate, 
though  some  Coccintlla  transform  within  the 
oM  larva-skin,  not  rejecting  it,  as  is  usual  in 
the  group,  while  other  pupse  are  enclosed  in 
the  cases  in  which  the  larva  lived.  In  some 
Slaphylinidte  the  pupa  shows  a  tendency  to  be~ 
come  obtected,  the  limbs  bring  soldered  to  the 
body,  as  if  enclosed  in  a  common  sheath. 
Generally,  however,  the  antennx  are  folded  on 
each  side  of  the  clypeiis,  a.nd  the  mandibles, 
maxill^  and  labial  palpi  appear  as  elongated 
papilhe.  The  wing-pads  being  small  are  shaped 
like  those  of  the  adult  Meloe,  and  are  laid  upon 
the  posterior  femora,  thus  exposing  the  meso- 
and  meta-thorax  to  view.  The  tarsal  joints  lie 
parallel  on  each  side  of  the  middle  line  of  the 
body,  the  hinder  pair  not  reaching  to  the  tips 
of  ue  abdomen,  which  ends  in  a  pair  of  acute, 
prolonged,  forked,  incurved  homy  hooks,  which 
must  aid  the  pupa  in  working  its  way  to 
the  surface  when  about  to  transform  into  the 
beetle. 

The  number  of  known  living  species  is  be- 
tween 100,000  and  200,000,  and  over  10,000  spe- 
cies are  known  to  inhabit  the  United  States. 
About  1,000  fossil  species  are  known. 

Coleoptera  have  been  the  favorites  of  ento- 
mologists. They  have  been  studied  when  in 
their  perfect  state  more  than  any  other  insects, 
but  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  finding  their 
larvK  and  carrying  them  throu^  the  successive 
stages  of  growth,  the  early  stages  of  compara- 
tively few  species  are  known.  The  metamor- 
E hoses  are  complete,  and  in  this  respect  the 
eetles  are  much  in  advance  of  the  orders  of 
net-veined  insects  in  which  the  transformations 
are  incomplete.  Many  beetles,  as  the  species 
of  Cetonia,  etc.,  visit  flowers  to  collect  and  eat 
the  pollen,  and  in  doing  so  bring  about  the 
fertilization  of  those  Rowers. 

Clanificatioii.— The  systematic  arrange- 
ment  of  the  ColeopUra  is  in  an  unsettled  state. 
The  tiger  and  ground  beetles  are  generally  con- 
sidered to  be  the  'highest"  Coleoptera,  but  in 
reality  they  appeared  to  be  allied  to  what  were 
the  more  primitive  and  generalised  hT)eSi  while 
what  are  by  some  aufliors  regarcled  as  the 
•lowest*  beetles,  that  is,  the  weevils,  are  the 
most  specialized  or  most  highly  modified.  As 
all  our  classifications  begin  with  the  more 
priiniiive  or  earliest  forms,  and  end  with  the 
most  specialized,  we  should  begin  with  the 
Carabida  or  ground  beetles,  as  being  the  near- 
est representatives  of  what  are  supposed  to  be 
the  earliest  beetles.  We  would,  therefore, 
adopt  provisionally  Sharp's  primary  divisions 
of  Coleoptera,  with  some  important  changes. 
His  first  division  of  series  comprises  the  lamel- 
liconn  (May  beetle,  etc),  and  hts  second  the 


TIM  Ml 

Adtlthaga  or  groimd  beetles.  This  order 
should  be  reversed. 

Series  I.  Adelpkaga  {Carabida  of  some  au- 
thors). Antennas  long,  slender,  filiform;  tarsi 
five-jointed;  maxillat  highly  developed,  three- 
lobed,  the  outer  palpus  shaped.  (Ground  and 
tiger  beetles). 

Series  2.  Lamellicomia.  Antenna  short,  the 
terminal  joints  leaf-like;  tarsi  five-jointed. 

Series  3.  Polymorfha.  Antennae  either  club- 
like or  serrated,  variable  in  shape,  as  are  the 
number  of  joints  of  the  tarsus.  (Buprestidcej 
spring-beetles,  etc.,  including  many  families). 

Series  4.  Htteromera.  Front  and  middle 
tarsi  five-jointed,  hind  tarsi  four-jointed ;  other 
characters  veiy  variable.  Tcnebrionida,  Can- 
Iharidtr,  or  blister-beetles   Cq.v.),  etc 

Series  5.  Pkyiophaqa.  Tarsi  four-jointed 
but  with  a  smaU  additional  joint  at  the  base  of 
the  fourth  joint ;  sole  usually  densely  pubescent 
(Boring  or  longicom  beetles ;  Cerambycid^, 
leaf.beetle,  potato  beetle). 

Series  6.  Rhyncopkora.  (Weevils).  Head 
prolonged  in  front  to  form  a  beak;  palpi  ranch 
reduced;  tarsi  four-jointed,  but  with  an  ad- 
ditional minute  joint  at  the  end  of  the  fourth. 
The  term  Isomera  was  applied  by  Le  Conte 
and  Horn  to  a  combination  of  series  1,  2,  3 

PhylogMij.— The  Coleoptera  are  stipposed 
by  Braver  and  also  Packard  to  have  descended 
from  some  type  allied  to  a  Campodea-Kke  an- 
cestor. The  larvx  of  die  ground  beetles  are 
allied  by  their  long  legs  and  biting  mouth-parts 
to  the  common  Cam^odeo-like  progenitor;  they 
appear  to  have  undergone  the  least  modification 
from  the  shape  of  the  primitive  coleopterous 
larva;  the  footless  grubs  of  boring  beetles, 
longicomg  and  weevils,  being  secondary  forms. 
Thus  the  Coratida  and  next  after  them  the 
roie-beetles  (Slaphylinida)  have  been  r%arded 
as  the  nearest  to  the  earliest  tyjit:  of  beetles. 

Foanl  Beetle!. —  The  earhest  known  re- 
mains of  ColeopteiB  are  five  specimens  from 
the  carboniferous  strata'  of  Silesia,  of  which 
four  are  wing  covers  and  one  is  a  pronotum ; 
these  have  been  referred  by  Karsch  to  the 
families  Carabidce  or  Tenebriotiida.  In  the 
lower  Jurassic,  however,  comparatively  well- 
preserved  remains  of  six  famihes  (Carabida, 
Dytiscida,  Elateridce,  Scarabaida,  Ceromoyrida 
and  ChrysomeKda)  have  been  detected,  showing 
thai,  early  in  the  Mesozoic  era,  nearly  all  the 
principal  types  of  beetles  had  appeared ; 
whence  we  naturally  suppose  that  their  an- 
cestors evolved  during  the  Carboniferous 
period,  though  their  remains  have  not  yet  been 
discovered  EXiring  the  Tertiary  age  beetles 
became  more  abundant,  and  a  greater  number 
of  species  belonging  to  exbting  genera  have 
been  found.  The  Oligocene  fresh-water  de- 
posits of  Aix  and  Prorence,  of  Florissant,  Colo., 
contain  many  kinds  of  beetles,  as  also  do  the 
Miocene  amber  of  the  Baltic  coast  in  Prussia 
and  the  lignite  of  Bohemia,  as  well  as  the 
fresh- water  marls  of  Germany,  Utah  and 
Wyoming.  Of  the  weevils  350  Tertiary  species 
have  been  described,  their  hard  bodies  account- 
ing for  their  preservation. 

Bibliograpby. — The  writii^ts  of  Say,  Hai^ 
ris  and  others;  eMiecially  Le  Conte  and  Horn; 
'Rhynchophora  of  America  north  of  Uexico,' 
'Classification  of  the  Colosptera  of  Nordi 
AmericB.' 


Google 


BEETLEUEAD  —  BB0A8 


BEETLEHSAD.  See  Blacx-bellixd 
Ploveb. 

BEETS,  bits,  Nicolatia,  Dutch  poet  and 
writer:  b.  Haarlem,  13  SepL  1814;  d.  1903.  He 
studied  theology  at  Leyden,  and  after  serving  sit 
Heetnstede  near  Haarlem  he  was  in  1854  ap- 
pointed to  the  pastorate  of  Utrecht  and  in  1874 
to  the  chair  of  theology  there.  His  poetical 
works  were  collected  (4  vols.,  1873-81). 
Through  the  earlier  pieces  runs  a  strong  vein  of 
misanthropic  sentiment  due  probably  to  Byron, 
some  of  whose  works  he  translated  into  Dutch 
(2  vols.,  1835-37).  His  prose  writings  include 
'Camera  Obscura'  {13th  ed.,  1880),  a  series  o£ 
tales  and  sketches  of  life  and  scenery  in  Hol- 
land, published  under  the  pseudon>^  of  HlLDB- 
BBAND;  they  display  keen  observation  and  con- 
siderable humor.  Besides  several  critical  works, 
he  published  in  theology  notes  on  the  life  of 
Saint  Paul  (3d  ed.,  1858),  and  'Stichtetijke 
Uren'  (new  ed.,  8  vols.,  1872). 

BEEVILLE,  Tex.,  town  and  county-seat 
of  Bee  County,  90  miles  southeast  of  San 
Antonio,  on  the  San  Antonio  &  Aransas  Pass, 
and  the  Galveston,  Harrisburg  &  San  Antonio 
railroads.  The  re^on  is  wcD  suited  to  fruit 
and  vegetable  cultivation  and  cottoo,  honey 
and  live  stock  are  exported  in  large  quantities. 
The  town  has  a  cottonseed'oil  mill  and  a  broom 
factoiy.  In  1912  the  commission  form  of  gov- 
ernment was  adopted.     Pop.  3,269. 

BEPANA,  bi'fi'na  (Italian,  Befania, 
^Epiphany*),  a  figure,  generally  representing 
an  old  woman,  which  is  exhibited  in  Italy  on 
the  day  of  Epiphany  by  children,  or  in  shops, 
etc.,  where  mings  for  children  are  sold.  It 
symbolizes  the  ancient  woman  of  Palestine 
who,  saying  she  would  see  them  on  their  return, 
would  not  leave  her  household  duties  to  view 
the  Three  Kings  of  the  Orient  passing  on  their 
way  to  bear  iBdr  rich  offerings  to  the  infant 
Jesus.  Unknown  to  Befana,  they  returned  in 
a  different  direction,  and  she  is  supposed  to  be 
still  fruitlessly  waiting  for  them.  Her  influence 
watches  over  little  children  who,  on  the  eve  of 
Epiphany,  hang  their  stockings  before  the 
hearth-fire^  go  to  bed  early  and  wait  to  hear 
tho  ciy  'Ecco  la  Befana,"  when  up  they  jump 
to  find  the  presents  awarded  for  good  behavior 
during  the  past  12  months.  A  stockingful  of 
ashes  is  the  award  for  bad  behavior.  The 
parallel  custom  in  the  United  States,  (rfeat 
Britaiti,  Germany  and  Protestant  communities 
generally  is  obviously  the  visit  of  Santa  C^aus 
on  Christmas  Eve.  In  France  the  children's 
•4trennes»  or  gifts  are  distributed  on  New 
Year's  Eve ;  in  Russia  on  Twelfth  Night,  which 
is  also  the  eve  of  Epiphany.  (See  Nicholas, 
Saint,  op  Mvra).  Among  the  Hebrews  at 
Hannukah  or  Channukah,  the  Festival  and 
Dedication  of  Lights  (John  x,  22),  celebrated 
2S  December,  money  is  given  the  children  and 

E'fts  are  exchanged.  At  Purim  —  the  Feast  of 
Ither  (15  Adar  — March),  a  festival  of  mirth, 
rejoicing  and  masquerading,  •salachmonnes,* 
a  dish  of  sweetmeats  including  "humuntash* — 
a  sweet  three-cornered  seed  cake,  is  sent  to 
the  homes  and  friends  and  relatives  by  the 
hands  of  servants  or  children,  who  generally 
receive  "tips."  The  poor  also  during  this  fes- 
tival are  the  recipients  of  generous  charity. 
At  the  Passover  (14  Nisan  —  April),  which  in- 
cludes the  Fast  of  the  First-Bom  and  the  Fev 


tival  of  Unleavetied  Bread,  a  piece  of  *mai- 
zoth*  or  unleaveaed  bread  is  hidden  whidi  h 
is  the  privilege  of  the  youngest  diild  to  seek. 
When  discovered,  (he  finder  can  ask  any  favor 
or  gift  from  the  parent,  which  is  granted 

BBQ,  or  BEY,  bS,  a  title  of  honor  amnij 
the  Turks,  meaning  "lord.*  Beg  is  an  inferior 
title  to  pasha, 

BSGASBLLI,  ba-ga-r«ne,  AntotUo,  Ital- 
ian designer,  styled  Antonio  or  Modena:  b. 
Modena  about  1498;  d.  1565.  By  his  contem- 
poraries he  was  considered  the  greatest  d^ 
signer  of  his  day.  He  was  a  friend  of  Cor< 
reggio  and  co-operated  with  him  in  decoiatiiiB 
the  cathedral  of  Parma,  furnishing  many  of 
the  designs  and  models  for  the  artist's  pictures. 
His  groups  were  commonly  of  life  siie  or 
heroic,  and  were  greatly  admired  by  Michtl- 
angelo.  He  influenced  strongly  the  succeeding 
Lombard  artists  in  the  matter  of  design.  HU 
"Descent  from  the  Cross,'  the  most  significant 
of  his  remaining  works,  still  adorns  the  church 
of  San  Francesco  at  Modena. 

BEGAS,  t4'g4S,  Karl,  Prussian  painter:  b. 
Heinsberg,  near  Aix-la-Chapelle,  30  April 
1794;  d,  Berlin,  23  Nov.  1854.  He  studied  £rsl 
under  Philipparf,  and  in  Paris  under  Gros.  His 
first  work,  a  copy  of  the  Madonna  della  Sedia, 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  King  of  Prussia, 
who  appointed  him  painter  of  the  Pnisiias 
court.  His  productions  comprise  historical, 
^enre  and  portrait  paintings,  of  which  the  most 
important  are  'Henry  rv  at  the  Castle  of 
Canossa' ;  the  'Sermon  on  the  Mount' ;  'Christ 
on  the  Mount  of  Olives'  ;  the  'Lorelei*:  and 
the  portraits  of  Humboldt,  Schelling,  Rittrr, 
RaucD,  Cornelius  and  Meyerbeer.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Berlin   Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 

BEGAS,  Karl,  (^rman  sculptor  (son  of 
the  preceding)  :  b.  1B45.  He  studied  in  the 
studio  of  his  brother  Reinhold  and  at  the  Berlin 
Academy  of  Art.  Among  his  most  important 
works  are  the  Franco-Prussian  memorial  un- 
veiled at  Cassel  in  1898;  the  groups  in  the 
Berlin  «Siegesallee,»  of  Margrave  Otho  IV  and 
Frederick  William;  the  statue  of  Knobelsdori 
in  the  Berlin  Museum ;  those  of  Columbus  and 
Aristotle  in  the  Uiuversity  of  Kiel ;  of  Emperor 
Wilhelm  II  in  the  Hall  of  Fame  at  Barmen; 
and  of   Empress   Augusle  Victoria   at  Unillt 

BEGAS,  Oikar,  German  artist  (eldest  son 
of  Karl  Begas  (q.v.)> :  b.  Berlin,  31  July  1828; 
d.  there,  10  Nov.  1883.  He  receiwd  his  first 
tuition  in  painting  from  his  father,  and  at  the 
age  of  12  could  already  paint  good  portraits. 
In  1852  he  won  a  scholarship  at  paintii^  which 
enabled  him  to  continue  his  studies  in  Italy  for 
two  years,  after  which  he  visited  France  and 
England  for  a  period.  While  in  Rome  he  gained 
a  gold  medal  with  his  'Deposition  from  the 
Cross,'  a  life-size  canvas,  and  also  the  title  ot 
official  painter  in  the  Prussian  Academy.  Among 
his  best  portraits  arc  those  of  Peter  von  Cor- 
nelius (in  the  Antwerp  Museum,  1861).  PanliDC 
Lucca,  Crown  Prince  Frederick,  General  *oa 
Moltke  (1868)  and  William  I.  Of  W"  ""*'**' 
paintings  the  best  is  ''™  '* 
(National  Ciallery,  B^ 
some  of  the  mural  j' 
Rathaus  (1870)  ^ 

BEGAS.  J 

of  Kari  r-^ 


BEQBIB  —  BEGGAR'S  OPERA 


anv.)  ■  b.  BerUn,  16  July  1831;  d.  3  Aue.  1911. 
It  is  gener^ly  conceded  ttut  he  was  the  leading 
German  sculptor  of  his  own  period.  Begianioe 
his  studies  in  the  Berlin  Academy,  he  later 
studied  under  Wichmann  and  Ranch.  Earn- 
ing a  sdiolarship  from  the  Berlin  Academy 
through  a  group  he  had  executed,  he  went  to 
Rome  to  finish  nis  training.  In  1860,  after  his 
return,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  the  art 
school  at  Weimar,  but  two  years  later  returned 
to  Rome.  As  is  shown  in  his  later  work,  while 
in  Rome  Begas  was  strongly  influenced  by  the 
realism  of  the  Baroque  School..  His  'Fan  Con- 
soling a  Deserted  Nymph'  (1857)  was  one  of 
the  nrst  of  his  works  which  showed  his  ten- 
dency toward  the  portrayal  of  a  live  vigor  in 
the  cold  stone,  and  it  made  an  immediate  im- 
pression on  his  countrymen,  who  were  growing 
tired  of  the  softer  contours  of  the  classical 
school.  Only  two  years  after  this  he  was  com- 
missioned to.  execute  a  group  surmounting  the 
Berlin  Bourse,  which  was  soon  followed  by  the 
monument  to  Frederick  Wilham  III  at  Colc^ne: 
the  Schiller  monument  in  Berlin  (1871);  and 
the  Strousberg  sepulchral  monument  (1^4) 
which  won  the  Grand  Prize  at  the  Paris  Ex- 
position in  1900.  This  was  die  early  period  of 
his  career,  during  which  he  also  modelled  the 
busts  of  many  of  the  Carman  royalties  and  high 
ofKcials,  including  a  whole  series  of  the  Hohen- 
10 Hem  family.  By  this  time  he  had  been 
placed  in  charge  of  the  portrait  sculptures  of 
the  Berlin  arsenal  and  its  Hall  of  Fame.  He 
was  at  this  time  the  official  sculptor  of  the 
Prussian  court.  Among  his  other  notable  works 
performed  during  this  period  are  the  brome 
group  "(^crmania,"  on  the  Reichstag  building; 
the  marble  sarcophagus  of  Frederick  II  erected 
in  the  mausoleum  at  Potsdam  and  the  colossal 
'Fountain  of  Neptune'*  (1886),  surrounded  by 
allegorical  figures  of  the  rivers  and  sea 
monsters.  By  many  this  latter  is  considered  his 
masteipiece. 

In  1892  Emiieror  William  II,  without  the 
formality  of  an  official  competition,  commis- 
sioned Begas  to  execute  the  national  monument 
to  William  I,  and  another  to  Bismarck  (1901) 
in  front  o*  the  Reichstag  building.  These  were 
followed  by  a  marble  statue  of  the  Empeittr 
himself  in  the  palace  at  Potsdam  (1904).  But 
in  general  the  works  which  he  performed  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  first  and  in  the  beginning 
of  his'  second  periods  are  considered  his  best. 

BEGBIE,  Harold,  EngHsh  audior :  b. 
Fomham  Saint  Martin,  Suffolk  in  1871.  His 
education  was  obtained  entirely  from  private 
tutors  and  in  private  schools,  at  the  conclusion 
of  which  he  immediately  embarked  on  a  liter- 
ary career.  His  books  are  largely  novels,  with 
a  strong  didactic  tendency.  Among  his  more 
important  works  are  'The  Political  Struwwel- 
peter  Series>  (1889-1901);  'The  Handy  Man' 
(1900);  'The  Fall  of  the  Curtain'  (1901); 
'Master  Workers'  (190S)  ;  'The  Priest*  (1906) : 
'The  Cage'  (1909);  'Broken  Earthenware' 
(1909.  published  in  America  under  the  title 
'Twice  Bom  Men,'  1910)  ;  'Souls  in  Action' 
(1911);  'The  Ordmary  Man  and  the  Extraor- 
dinary Thing'    (1912);   'Other  Sheep'    (1912); 


d  1894.  He  was  educated  at  (Cambridge  and 
called  to  the  Elnglish  bar  in  1844.  He  was  a^ 
pointed  judge  in  the  colony  of  British  ColumtMa 
in  1858;  and  was  chief  justice  of  British  Cor' 
lumbia,  1870-94. 

BEGG,  Alexander,  Canadian  author:  b. 
Quebec,  19  July  1840;  d  1896.  He  was  educated 
in  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  and  in  Saint  John's,  P. 
Q.  He  was  the  pioneer  of  Canadian  trade 
(1867)  in  Manitoba  and  in  the  Northwest  Terri- 
tories. During  the  rebellion  of  1869  he  advo- 
cated representative  government  for  the  people. 
In  1878-84  he  was  deputy  treasurer  of  the 
province  of  Manitoba.  His  works  include  'Dot 
It  Down';  'The  Creation  of  Manitoba'.;  'A 
Story  of  the  Saskatchewan' ;  'A  Practical  (^de 
to  Manitoba' ;  'Ten  Years  in  Winnipeg' ;  'A 
History  of  the  Northwest'  (3  vols.),  etc 

BEGOAR-MY-NEIQHBOK,  a  game  at 
cards,  usually  played  by  two  persons,  wno  share 
the  pack,  and,  laying  their  shares  face  down- 
ward, turn  up  a  card  alternately  until  an  honor 
appears.  The  honor  has  to  be  paid  for  by  the 
less  fortunate  player  at  the  rate  of  four  cards 
for  an  ace,  three  for  a  king,  two  for  a  queen 
and  one  for  a  knave;  but  if  in  the  course  of  pay- 
ment another  honor  should  be  turned  up,  the 
late  creditor  becomes  himself  a  debtor  to  the 
amount  of  its  value. 

BEGGAR-TICK,  a  troublesome  weed.  See 
Buna  Marigold. 

BEGGARS,  a  term  first  applied  to  the  300 
Protestant  deputies  under  Henri  de  Brederode 
and  Louis  de  Nassau,  who  protested  against  the 
establishment  of  the  Inquisition  in  Holland  in 
April  1566.  The  Dutch  patriots  assumed  this 
designation  when  they  rebelled  against  Spain  in 
IS72. 

BEGGAR'S  LICE,  a  coarse  weed  also 
called  Dog's  Tongue. 

BEGGAR'S  OPERA,  The,  a  play  by  John 
Gay,  which  first  presented  in  1728,  excited  a 
"tempest  of  laughter.*  Its  object  was  to  satirize 
the  predatory  habits  of  'polite'  society  in  thief- 
infested  London,  and  to  hold  up  to  ridicule 
Italian  opera.  The  chief  characters  are  thieves 
and  bandits.  Gay's  language  often  conforms 
to  the  coarse  taste  and  low  standards  of  his 
time ;  and  the  opera,  still  occasionally  sung,  now 
appears  in  expurgated  form.  Its  best-known 
number  is  Macheath's  famous  song  when  two  of 
his  inamoratas  beset  him  at  once: 


Captain  Macheath,  the  hero,  the  leader  of 
a  gang  of  highwasmien,  is  loved  by  the  ladies 
and  feared  by  all  but  his  friends  —  with  whom 
he  shares  his  booty.  Peachum,  the  'respect- 
able* patron  of  the  gan^,  and  the  receiver  of 
stolen  goods,  betrays  bis  confederates  from 
self-interest,  Macheath  is  married  to  Polly 
Peachum,  a  pretty  ^ri,  who  really  loves  her 
husband,  and  remams  constant  under  many 
vicissitudes.  Macheath  engages  to  marry 
others,  hut  this  gets  him  into  trouble.  Being 
betrayed,  he  is  lodged  in  Newgate.  His  escape, 
recapture,  trial,  condemnation  to  death,  and 
reprieve,  form  the.  leading  episodes  in  his  dat- 
ing career.  After  his  reprieve  he  mains  tar^ 
at^owledgment  of  Polly,  and  promises  to.  re- 

Googlc 


BKOQAKWBED  —  BEGONIA 


main  constant  to  her  for  the  future.  Polly  ii 
an  interesting  dramatic  character ;  at  least  three 
actresses  attained  matrimonial  peerages  through 
artistic  interpretation  of  the  part. 

BEGGASWBBD,  or  TICK  TREFOIL 
(Meibomia),  a  genus  of  about  170  species, 
mostly  herbs,  of  the  family  Fabacea,  natives 
of  warm  and  temperate  climates.  Some  of  the 
species,  notably  the  Florida  begsarweed  {M,  tor- 
htosa),  are  used  in  Florida  and  elsewhere  as 
fodder  plants  and  as  green  manures  on  It^t 
soils.  Like  the  clovers  these  plants  can  assimi- 
late free  nitroBen  from  the  air.  The  species 
mentioned  yields  heavy  crops  of  highly  nutri' 
live  hay  which  is  relished  by  stock.  At  the 
Louisiana  Experiment  Station  six  tons  of  hay 
per  acre  is  reported.  The  plant  is  an  annual 
from  three  to  10  feet  tall,  has  pinnate  leaves, 
small  flowers  in  racemes,  and  flat,  jointed  pods 


well  in  the  West  Indies  and  as  far  north 
Virginia.  About  10  native  species  worthy  a 
place  in  the  flower-^rden  have  been  offered 
for  sale  by  dealers  in  native  plants,  but  not 
generally  oy  seedsmen.  M.  gyraas,  the  tele- 
graph plant,  a  purple  Rower  perennial,  native 
of  southern  Asia,  is  sometimes  raised  in  hot- 
houses on  account  of  the  interesting  movement! 
of  its  leaflets  when  exposed  to  favorable  tem- 
perature and  sunshine. 

BBGGIATOA,  one  of  the  bacteria  of  the 
family  Beggialoacea.  They  are  of  sanitary 
interest  as  indicating  the  character  of  the 
water  in  which  they  grow,— it  usually  contains 
sulphur, —  and  their  presence  in  large  quantities 
in  a  water  supply  is  usually  held  to  mean  that 
the  water  is  contaminated  and  should  be  inves- 
tigated- Their  growth  in  natural  sulphur  waters 
is  to  be  expected. 

BEGGING  THE  QUESTION,  in  logic, 
is  the  assumption  of  a  proposition  which  in 
reality  involves  the  conclusion.  Thus,  to  say 
that  parallel  lines  will  never  meet  because  they 
are  parallel  is  simply  to  assume  as  a  fact  the 
very  thin^  you  profess  to  prove.  The  phrase  is 
a  translation  of  the  Latin  term,  petitio  principii, 
and  was  first  used  by  Aristotle, 

BEGHARDS,  societies  of  laymen  in  France, 
Germany  and  the  Netherlands,  hrst  appeared  in 
the  13th  century,  subsisting  mostly  by  begging, 
and  little  esteemed.  They  disappeared  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  14th  century.  Their  history 
is  veiy  obscure. 

BEGIN,  ba-ghafi,  Louia  Nazaire,  Canadian 
cardinal:  b.  Levis,  10  Jan.  1840;  educated  at 
the  College  of  Saint  Michael  de  Bellechasse, 
the  Seminary  of  Quebec,  Laval  University  and 
the  Grand  Seminary  of  Quebec  About  the 
time  of  his  graduation  from  the  last  institution 
its  trustees  decided  to  found  a  theological  de- 
partment in  connection  with  Laval  University, 
and  it  was  their  wish  that  the  faculty  of  this 
theological  school  should  be  educated  in  Rome. 
Therefore  Dr.  Bfgin,  who  had  been  elected  a 
member  of  the  faculty,  was  sent  to  Rome  in 
1863,  and  remained  abroad  till  1868.  During 
this  time  he  traveled  extensively  and  studied 
many  branches  of  theology.  On  his  return  to 
Quenec  he  was  appointed  professor  of  dog- 
matic theology  and  eccle^astical  history  in 
Laval  University  and  held  the  chair  till  1884. 


He  became  principal  of  the  Laval  Nomul 
School  in  18M ;  was  appointed  Hsbop  of  CU- 
coutimi  in  1888;  coadjutor  to  Cardinal  Tascbir- 
eau,  with  the  title  of  archbishop  of  Cyrene,  in 
1891 ;    in    1894    became    administrator  of  ^ 

Sovince  of  Quebec;  and  in  1898  archUshop. 
e  was  elected  to  the  cardinalate  in  1914.  His 
works  include  <La  Primauti  et  MnfaillilHliti 
des  Souverains  Pontifs,*  'La  Sainte  Ecritnrt 
et  la  rigle  de  foi'  (1874);  'Le  culte  Cailio- 
lique'  (1875) ;  'C^tichisme  de  controversc' 
(1902),  etc. 

BEGLERBEC,  bi-Ier-ba',  or  more  accu- 
rately Beylerbegi,  ba-ler  ba'e,  '■prince  oi 
princes,"  or  *lord  of  lords,*  is  the  title  among 
the  Turks  given  to  the  governor  of  certain 
provinces,  but  is  not  very  commonly  cmplojtd 
at  the  present  day.  The  governors  of  Runiili, 
of  Anatolia  and  of  Syria,  in  particular,  have 
this  title.    See  Bgq. 

BEGON,  Michel,  bi~g&A,  me-sh<l,  French 
administrator:  b.  Btois,  France,  1638;  d.  Rocbe- 
fort,  4  March  1710.  He  was  a  naval  officer. 
and  successively  intendant  of  the  French  West 
Indies,  of  Canada,  of  Rochefort  and  La  Ro- 
chelle.  He  is  celebrated  for  his  love  of  sdencc, 
and  the  weil-known  genus  of  plants.  Begonia, 
was  named  in  his  honor. 

b4G0N,  Michel,  French  administrator:  b, 
1674;  d.  1740.  He  was  from  1707-10  inspector- 
general  of  marines  in  France;  intendant  in 
Canada  1710-26;  and  subsequently  intendant  of 
justice  in  Normandy. 

BEGONIA,  a  genus  of  400  to  500  spedcs 
of  succulent  tropical  herbs  or  under-shrubs  of 
the  family  Begoniacex,  most  abundant  in  Mct- 
ico  and  Central  and  South  America.  Since  die 
introduction  of  the  first  species  (.B.  nitHa) 
into  England  in  1777  about  200  species  have 
been  utiliied  by  horticulturists,  who  have  pro- 
duced thousands  of  varieties  noted  for  ibt 
superb  coloring  of  either  or  both  their  flowen 
or  foliage,  In  general  the  plants  are  charac- 
terized by  variable,  lop-sided  (except  in  one 
Eoup),  alternate,  entire  or  lobed  leaves;  awl- 
ry  cymes  of  usually  large  moncedous  flowers, 
varying  in  all  shades  of  red,  also  white  and 
yellow ;  numerous  stamens  free  or  basally 
united;  two  to  four  styles;  branched  or  twbted 
stigmas;  and  three-winged  capsular,  oftra  col- 
ored, fruits  containing  numerous  tiny  'seeds. 
The  cultivated  varieties   may   be   grouped  inlo 

(1)  summer-flowering  or  tuberous- tooted, 
which  produce  large  single  and  double  flowers; 

(2)  winter-flowering  or  fibrous-rooted ;  (J) 
semi- tuberous,  with  peltate  leaves;  (4)  orna- 
mental-leaved,  or  rex,  Asiatic  species  and  their 
descendants,  with  remarkably  handsome  or 
striking  foliage.  There  are  also  hybrids  between 
members  of  these  groups.  Each  group  demand-- 
somewhat  different  cultural  treatment,  bul  in 
general  the  tuberous  sorts  are  started  Eroc 
seeds,  and  the  tubers  thereafter  used  from  year 
to  year;  other  varieties  are  usually  increased  by 
means  of  cuttings,  either  of  stem  or  of  tilt 
leaf,  by  various  methods  almost  confined  to 
this  group  of  plants.  The  varieties  are  usually 
easy  to  cultivate,  but  some,  especially  the  tubei- 
ous  sorts,  are  somewhat  sensitive  to  dryness  I'i 
atmosphere  and  hot  sun,  which  usually  accoani' 
for  the  poor  behavior  of  these  plarits  in  bou^ 
heated  by  hot  air,  steam  or  hot  wrater.     Fcr 


BBOUINAGBS  — BBHAK  AND  ORI88A 


descripdoQ  of  species  ^rown  in  America,  and 
for  details  of  propagation,  cultivation,  etc.,  con- 
sult Bailey,  'Standard  CyclofNedia  of  Horticiil- 
ture-  (New  York  1914).  Consult  also  Dry- 
sander,  *The  Genus  Begonia'  (in  'Transac- 
tions of  the  Unnean  Society,>  Vol.  I,  ITS))  ; 
Klatsch,  'BcKoniaceen-Gatfungen  nnd  Arten* 
(12  plates,  185S);  De  Candolle,  'Prodomui* 
(Vol.  XV,  1664);  Ravenscroft,  'Begonia  Cul- 
ture for  Amateurs'  (1894)  ;  Wynne.  'Tuberous 
Begonias.' 

BEOUINAOE8,  societies  of  wohmiI,  called 
Beguines,  in  Holland,  Belgium  and  Germany, 
not  bound  by  vows;  their  mode  of  life,  like 
that  of  the  Beards  ((j.v.),  ndther  clerical 
nor  lay.  Their  principal  institution  is  at  Qient 
in  Belgium. 

B£GUINES,  beg-en',  BRUINS.  big-Tnz, 
or  BftGUINJE,  big-wl-ni.  the  women  who  live 
in  communities,  the  members  of  which  dwell 
not  in  one  household,  as  in  convents  but  in  a 
group  of  small  cottages  surrounded  by  a  wall, 
with  a  chapel  in  the  centre. .  TTiey  vow  povcr^ 
and  chastity  so  long  as  they  remain  in  die 
bfguinage  as  their  village  is  called.  They  are 
the  associations  of  praying  women  which 
arose  in  the  Netherlands  in  the  13th  centuiy, 
the  first  being  formed  at  Nivelles,  Brabant,  m 
1226,  and  spread  rapidly  in  the  adjoining  coun- 
tries. They  said  they  originated  from  a  cer- 
tain Saint  Begga,  Duchess  of  Brabant,  in  the 
7th  century;  but  it  is  believed  that  they  were 
founded  by  Lambert  le  Begue,  a  pnest  of 
Li6ge,  in  the  12th  century,  Mosheim  rejects 
both  statements.  Communities  were  established 
in  Mechlin  in  1207,  Louvain  1234,  Bruges  1244 
and  Brussels  1245.  They  used  to  weave  doth, 
live  together  under  a  directress  and  leave  on 
facing  married,  or  indeed  whenever  they  pleased. 
During  the  religious  convulsions  of  the  I6th 
century,  and  later  at  the  French  Revolution, 
the  communities  —  which  had  exercised  con- 
siderable influence  on  the  religious  conscious- 
ness of  the  urban  centres — were  suppressed; 
but  a  few  still  exist  in  some  of  the  Belgian 
towns,  notably  at  Ghent,  which  has  1,000  mem- 
bers, also  in  Germany,  and  at  least  in  one 
b^uinage  in  France,  where  they  are  renowned 
as  makers  of  lace,  though  under  different  rules 
from  those  formerly  observed.  The  corre- 
spond ins  communities  of  men  were  called 
Bighards,  but  having  developed  heretical  ten- 
dencies these  were  suppressed  in  1650  by  Pope 
Innocent  X. 

BEGUU,  iA'sfim,  or  NAWAB  <a  feminine 
form  correspondiiig  to  beg,  or  bey),  an  Indian 
title  of  honor  equivalent  to  princess,  conferred 
on  the  mothers,  sisters  or  wives  of  native  rulers. 
The  Begrmn  ot  Oudh  is  well  known  in  Indian 
history.  The  Begiun  of  Bhopal  is  the  regent 
in  behalf  of  her  son,  a  minor. 


learned  mathematicians  and  astronomers 

of  bis  age.    He  was  eng^ed  in  commerce,  and 


himself  to  the  study  of  the  mathematical  and 
nautical  sciences.  He  went  from  Atitweip  to 
Lisbon  in  1480,  where  he  was  received  with 
marks  of  distinction.    He  sailed  in  the  fleet  of 


Diego  Cam  on  a  voya^  of  discovery  (1484- 
86),  and  explored  the  islands  on  tbe  coast  of 
Africa  as  far  as  tbe  river  Zaire.  He  is  also 
said  to  have  discovered,  or  at  least  to  have 
coioniie(L  the  island  of  Fayal,  where  he  re- 
mained for  several  years,  and  assisted  in  the 
discovery  of  the  other  Aiores.  He  was  after- 
ward knighted,  and  returned  to  his  native 
country,  where  he  constructed  a  terrestrial 
plobe  in  1492,  which  bears  the  marks  of  the 
imperfect  acquaintance  of  that  age  with  the 
true  dimensions  of  the  earth.  Some  ancient 
Spanish  historians  assert  that  he  made  many 
discoveries,  and  that  he  gave  to  his  friend 
Columbus  the  idea  of  another  hemisnbere. 
Robertson  (in  his  'History  of  America*)  and 
odiers  contradict  this  statement  It  is  also  re- 
jected by  Irving. 

BBHAH,  bftliiiDL  Baithel,  German  painter 
and  engraver:  b.  Nuremberg  1502;  d.  Rome 
1540.  He  began  his  studies  under  tbe  tuition 
of  Atbrecht  Durer  and  his  brother  Sebald 
(q.v.).  On  account  of  their  revolutionary  agi- 
tations he  and  his  brother  were  banished  from 
Ntiremberg  in  1525.  He  settled  in  tfunich, 
where  he  became  attached  to  the  court  of  Duke 
William  of  Bavaria  as  official  painter. 

Many  paintings  that  were  formerly  ascribed 
to  Beham  are  now  believed  to  have  been  painted 
by  others.  Yet  there  remains  a  large  number 
which  can  with  certainty  be  accredited  to  Um. 
Among  these  are  the  portraits  of  Chancellor 
Eck  (1527.  Weber  Collectitm,  Hamburg) ; 
Count  Palatine  Otto  Hdnrich  (1535,  Augsburg 
Gallery);  'The  Miracle  of  the  Cross'  (bis 
masterpiece,  1530,  Munich),  %nd  17  portraits 
of  Bavarian  royal  princes  and  dukes,  in  the 
palace  of  Scbldsheim.  Of  his  engravings 
nearly  a  hundred  are  still  in  existence.  Con- 
sult A.  Rosenberg's  'Sebald  und  Barthel 
Beham'  (Ldpdg  1^5). 

BEHAM,  Hmns  Sebald,  German  painter 
and  engraver;  b.  Nuremberg  1500;  d.  Frank- 
furt, 22  Nov.  1550.  He  was,  for  a  time,  at 
least,  a  pupil  of  Albrecht  Diirer.  In  1525  he 
and  his  brother  Barthel  (q.v.)  were  expelled 
from  d(elr  native  city  on  account  of  their  so- 
cJalistit  '  doctrines  and  agitations.  After  a 
wandering  life  of  some  six  years  he  settled  in 
Frankfort,  where  he  remained  for  the  rest  of 
his  life.     This  marked   the  beginning  of  his 

Many  of  lus  drawings  are  in  existence  and 
are  found  in  the  important  German  collections. 
Of  alt  the  en^vers  of  his  period,  he  was  one 
of  the  most  industrious,  for  the  most  recent 
catalogue  of  his  works  includes  1,074  wood- 
cuts, 252  copper  engravings  and  18  etchings. 
His  specialty  wa^  large  wood-cuts  designed  for 
mural  decorations.  Of  these  the  most  notable 
are  'The  Fountain  of  Youth,'  'The  Military 
Pageant  in  Munich'  and  'The  Marching  Sol- 
diers.' Each  of  these  is  almost  a  yard  in 
width.  Of  his  many  illustrations,  the  most 
famous  are  those  which  he  designed  for  the 
publisher  Egenolph  in  Frankfurt,  illustrating 
the  Old  Testament  (1533).  At  about  that  same 
time  be  painted  the  well-known  table  now  in 
the  Louvre. 

BEHAR  AND  ORISSA,  province  in  lower 
Bengal,  British  India.  It  was  constituted  in 
1912  and  includes  the  Bebar,  Choata-Nagpur, 


digitized  byGoOgle 


Me 


BEHAVIOR  AND  BBHAVIORI8U 


Turhut,  Patna  and  Orissa  divisions  and  the  dis- 
tricts of  Pumea,  Mon^yr,  Bhagalpur  and  the 
Sonthal  Parganas  in  the  Bh^alpur  division. 
It  is  located  in  a  square  area  between  the  Bay 
of  Bengal  and  the  Himalayas.  In  the  north  it 
is  low  and  flat,  bordering  pn  the  Ganges,  -while 
in  the  southwest  rise  the  tablelands  of  Nag- 
pur  and  Orissa.  The  principal  crop  is  rice; 
this,  together  with  sugar-cane,  com,  indigo  and 
the  o[>ium  poppy  plants,  is  grown  in  large 
quantities.  The  total  area  is  some  120,000 
square  miles.  In  1911  ifae  population  was  about 
4ft000,D00.  more  than  the  total  population  of 
the  British  Isles  themselves.  The  capital  is 
Patna. 

BEHAVIOR  AND  BEHAVIORISM. 
The  term  behavior  was  used  first  to  describe 
the  conditions  of  animal  activities,  but  because 
of  the  peculiar  relations  that  exist  between  the 
actions  of  man  and  animals  it  has  developed 
into  a  name  for  one  general  explanation  of^or 
attitude  toward  human  and  animal  actions  and 
psychological  problems  in  general.  The  prob- 
lem as  to  how  the  activities  of  men  and  of  ani' 
mals  are  related  has  been  discussed  from  the 
beginning  of  thou^t.  For  the  most  part  it  was 
assumed  that  one  could  Imow  directly  the  mind 
of  man  and  that  all  Ihat  remained  was  to  de- 
termine whether  and  to  what  degree  animals  had 
3  similar  mind.  As  there  is  no  direct  method 
of  determining  whether  animals  have  mental 
states,  the  development  of  scientific  analysis 
compelled  the  investtgator  to  raise  the  more 
definite  question  of  what  the  criteria  of  mental 
activities  in  animals  might  be.  This  again  led 
away  from  the  pfoblcm,  since  an  unambiguous 
atuwer  could  not  be  jpven  to  the  more  general 
question  of  what  different  kinds  of  acts  is  the 
animal  capable  and  what  is  the  explanation  of 

One  can  trace  the  gradual  development  of 
the  notion  of  behavior  as  a  separate  t^pe  of 
organic  activity  through  three  stages  m  the 
work  of  the  last  three  decades.  The  first  stage 
is  represented  by  Loeb,  whose  experiments  on 
animals  led  him  to  the  conclusion  that  one 
must  distinguish  two  types  of  contr^^in  the 
responses  of  animals.  The  lower  atfrna^ls  re- 
spond as  plants  respond  by  heliotropism,  f  eotro- 
pism,  etc.,  a  response  that  might  very  easily  be 
reduced  to  simple  mechanical  laws,  the  con- 
traction  of  the  tissue  on  the  side  toward  the 
light  and  its  expansion  on  the  opposite  side, 
e.g.,  would  explain  positive  heliotropism.  The 
movements  of  higher  animals  were  explained 
from  the  more  human  analogy  as  due  to  "asso- 
ciative memory,"  the  simplest  of  the  learning 
processes.  Bethe  a  little  later  made  an  attemot 
to  explain  all  actions  of  animals  in  purely 
mechanical  and  chemical  terms.  He  asserted 
that  movements  similar,  to  those  of  the  amceba 


long   series  of  experiments,   became  

that  there  could  be  no  sharp  break  in  the  line 
of  development  from  lower  to  higher.  In  at- 
tempting to  repeat  Belhe's  experiments  he 
found  tiiat  the  reactions  of  the  lowest  organ- 
isms were  by  no  means  as  simple  as  Bethe  had 


assumed.  Traces  of  learning,  i.e., 
of  responses  as  a  result  of  earlier  responset 
could  De  detected  even  in  unicellular  organ- 
isms. At  the  same  time  he  believed  nothing 
was  to  be  gained  by  assuming  consciousness  as 
a  cause.  To  all  forms  of  action  he  applied 
the  term  *behavior.* 

Behavior,  then,  is  a  term  that  designates 
the  activities  of  animals  as  wholes.  It  dxitin- 
guishes  their  movements  from  the  movements 
of  inanimate  objects,  and  at  the  same  time 
does  not  make  reference  to  consciotisiKss  or  to 
any  mental  state.  Behavior  as  the  action  of 
the  whole  is  not  referred  to  the  action  of  the 
parts  as  in  physiology.  In  thi»  way  it  leave* 
room  for  an  explanatioa  of  the  organism's 
activity  apart  from  physiology,  althoi^  the 
behaviorist  asstmies  that  the  laws  of  phvsiology 
hold  and  be  essential  for  the  eii 


the  members,  behavior  is  explained  by  ref- 
erence to  the  natural  endowment  of  the  organ- 
ism through  instinct  and  particular  here^Qr 
and  to  its  earlier  acts  caused  by  forces  in  the 
environment.  While  originally  developed  as  a 
negative  term  to  show  how  animal  movements 
were  not  to  be  explained,  the  term  has  ^du- 
ally taken  on  a  somewhat  positive  meanmg  to 
designate  the  explanation  of  these  movements 
in  terms  of  wider  influences.  This  comes  in 
part  frtim  the  success  of  the  psychologist  and 
zoolo^st  in  determining  the  laws  of  behavior 
in  ammals.  Within  the  last  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury the  laws  of  learning,  certain  of  the  in- 
stincts and  the  differential  responses  to  stimuli 
have  been  pretty  fully  determined  in  many 
animals  ranging  from  the  amceba  to  die  ape, 
These  together  give  a  fairly  satisfactory  ex- 
planation of  behavior. 

Behaviorism  as  a  psychological  and  phiIos<f 
phical   interpretation   of   man   and   mind  grew 


LUL  ui  the  ape  from  the  outside,  and  can  by  ex- 
periments determine  the  capacities  of  the  ani- 
mal and  how  it  leams,  discriminates  between 
stimuli,  and  then  can  explain  these  capacities 
in  terms  of  instinct  and  training,  it  is  easy  to 
take  the  next  step  in  the  assertion  that  the 
activities  of  man  are  also  forms  of  behavior 
and  cm  be  examined  and  explained  in  the  same 
way.  They,  too,  may  be  treated  merely  _*> 
forms  of  response  to  definite  stimuli.  WitS 
that  the  traditional  attempt  to  understand  lit 
lower  animals  in  terms  of  human  characteris- 
tics is  reversed,  and  man's  acts  are  expbiriM 
in  terms  of  the  categories  of  animal  buiavior. 
Man  is  to  be  studied  as  the  animal  is  stndicd. 
without  any  help  from  the  individual  under 
investigation.  One  discovers  what  the  indi- 
vidual can  do  under  given  conditions  and  from 
the  changes  in  accomplishment  and  the  anie- 
cedents  of  the  changes  develops  laws  diat  mv 
explain  them.  Behaviorism  makes  no  use  ol 
introspection  and  omits  all  consideration  of  con- 
sciousness. Several  of  its  exponents  go  on  to 
deny  that  consciousness  has  any  existence. 

This  attitude  toward  consciousness  is  w 
part  due  to  other  tendencies  that  have  been 
active  since  the  beginning  of  the  century.  For 
several  reasons  the  notion  of  conscionsness 
has   been  undergtMng  transformations  4anag 


tizcdbyGoOl^Ie 


BEHAVIOR  AND  BBHAVIORISH 


ihe  intenrcniiie  years.  By  earlier  writers  con- 
sciousness was  taken  for  granted  as  in  some 
way  made  up  of  images  of  the  objects  thought 
about,  which  at  the  same  time  were  not  identical 
in  strudure  with  those  things.  An  image  of  the 
object  was  in  consciousness  and  the  sum  total 
of  these  images  constituted  consciousness. 
Charcot,  (Walton  and  others  observed  that  the 
character  of  the  images  was  not  the  same  for 
all  individuals,  that  certain  individuals  thought 
largely  in  terms  of  one  or  two  senses,  others 
used  different  senses  or  combinations  of  senses 
in  the  representation  of  objects.  Still  Galton 
assumed  that  thoughts  were  these  images  and 
that  nothing  else  except  perhaps  words  could 
constitute  the  vehicle  of  thoi^t.  Later  work- 
ers, primarily  Kiilpe  and  his  followers  in  Ger- 
many and  Woodworth  in  this  country,  noticed 
that  there  were  many  cases  in  which  the  mental 
content  bore  no  relation  to  the  thought  repre- 
sented and  that  in  other  instances  no  ajipreci- 
able  imagery  was  present  during  the  thinking 
process.  In  the  more  abstract  forms  of  rea- 
soning, in  reaching  decisions  and  even  in  in- 
itiating movements  often  no  imagery  may  be 
detected.  In  consequence  the  theory  developed 
that  imagery  was  not  essential  to  thinking  and 
therefore  that  consciousness  either  might 
have  no  existence  or  be  very  different  from 
what  it  had  been  assumed  to  be.  The  *New 
Realists*  (q.v.)  also  reached  the  conclusion 
from  more  abstract  considerations  that  there 
CouM  be  no  distinction  between  the  objective 
reality  and  the  mental  state  and  prefer  to  call 
the  common  experience  objective  rather  than 
subjective.  Both  tendencies  prepared  the  way 
for  behaviorism. 

Behaviorism   as   a  purely   negative   doctrine 
requires  little  space  for  the  statement  of  its 
theses.     As  a  method  of  investigation  it  makes 
positive  contributions  as  has  been  seen,  bat  as 
a  system  of  metaphysics  it  asserts  merely  that 
consciousness  does  not  exist,  that  one  can  be- 
come aware  of  man  only  from  the  outside  and 
that    it    is  useless  to  speculate  what  goes  on 
inside    because    there    is    nothing    there.      The 
highest   mental  operations  can  be  distinguished 
from    the   lowest   reflex   activi^es   only  by  the 
complexity  of  the  actions  that  result,  the  time 
that   elapses  between  the  stimulus  and  the   re- 
sponse,  and  by  the  greater  number  of  stimuli 
that     co-opers(te    in    determining    the    former. 
As  a  method  behaviorism  abaiidons  all  attempt 
to    m^e    use  of   introspection,'  or  to  take   any 
account   of  what  the  observer  may  note  of  the 
circumstances  that  may  precede  or  accompany 
his  action.     It  replaces  these  Hy  more  careful 
observation      of      the      slightest      movements. 
Thought    is   to   be   examined,   not   by   studying 
what  the  individual  says  but  by  interpreting  the 
slight    unconscious    movements    of    tne   human- 
larynx.      As  a  metaphysics  behaviorism  is  but; 
another    attempt  at   a   complete   materialism,   a' 
system   that  has  always  fascinated  certain  types' 
of    mechanically  minded   individuals.     It  dif-' 
fers      from    materialism    largely    in    that    the 
explanations  are  less  detailed,  movements  are- 
reouced   to  reflexes  and  to  instinct  rather  than 
immediately  to  chemical  and  mechanical  forces. 
That     toe    behaviorisis    are    not    altogether 
satisfied     to   eliminate   consciousness   and   leaved 
notfain£f     in   its    stead   to   account    for   intemat 
awareness  is  admitted,  perhaps  unwittingly,  in^ 


the  attempts  to  identify  the  sensory  exdtations 
from  the  various  muscles  of  the  body  with  a 
subjective  appreciation  of  the  activities  that  may 
be  observed  from  without.  The  more  cognitive 
processes  are  in  some  way  related  to  the  "back^ 
stroke*  from  the  voluntary  muscles,  the  feeU 
ings  and  emotions  to  excitations  from  the  visr 
ceral  and  other  vital  organs.  Watson  identifies 
thinking  with  movements  of  the  lamyx,  pleas* 
ure  and  pain  with  various  contractions  and 
relaxations  of  the  sex  organs.  As  neither  haS' 
any  immediate  value  in  the  world  of  behavior, 
they  must  have  value  only  for  subjective  aware- 
ness. Whether  consciousness  is  to  be  replaced 
by  kiiuesthetic  processes,  a  familiar  position,  oc 
whether  it  is  merely  an  inconsistency  that  has 
been  inadvertently  admitted  to  the  system  can. 
not  at  present  be  determined. 

Any  judgment  that  may  be  passed  upon  the 
value  of  the  system  must  take  into  considera- 
tion the  incomplete  deveioijment  of  the  forttiu- 
lations.  At  present  it  is  still  little  more  than  a 
program.  There  is  much  more  of  prophecy 
than  of  statement  of  results.     Bchaviori: 


_.  _.id  accomplishments  of  the  indi- 
vidual can  be  determined  objectively  is  obvious 
from  the  ordinary  laboratory  procedure  and  an 
extension  of  the  method  is  always  welcome.  It 
is  also  true  that  many  explanations  of  the  fjie- 
nomena  ordinarily  called  mental  can  be  denved 
quite  as  well  from  the  related  physiological 
and  neurological  processes  as  from  the  obser- 
vation of  consciousness.  How  far  this  can  be 
extended  is  always  a  question  that  can  be 
answered  onh"  by  the  outcome  of  the  attempts. 
Statements  of  results  can  also  be  given  in  terais 
of  behavior,  but  whether  the  present  incon- 
sistencies can  best  be  eliminated  by  giving  over 
the  notion  of  consciousness  altogether  is  not 

Several  obvious  objections  to  the  statement 
that  consciousness  has  no  existence  in  any 
form  at  once  present  themselves.  First  and 
most  apparent  is  the  conviction  of  many  com- 
petent pbervers  that  they  are  actually  con- 
scious .wid  that  this  consciousness  takes  the 
form  oi'  images.  That  the  behaviorisis  also 
feel  the  necessity  of  recognizing  some  process 
of  the  kind  is  evident  from  the  attempt  men- 
tioned above  to  give  an  internal  awareness  by 
means  of  sensory  impulses  from  muscles  and 
elands.  A  second  objection  is  that  so  far  they 
have  made  no  attempt  to  explain  how  the 
observer  interprets  the  movements  that  consti- 
tute the  behavior  of  another.  Some  attempt 
should  be  made  to  account  for  the  way  m 
which  behaviorists  appreciate  the  phenomena 
in  question  as  well  as  to  explain  the  phenomena 
themselves.  It  might  be, objected,  too,  that  the 
activities  of  man  are  fully  explained  in  terms 
of  physiological  processes,  i.e.,  ultimately  in . 
chemical  and  physical  terms.  In  that  case  be-; 
haviorism  becomes  but  a  branch  of  physiology. 
In  fact  Bechterew  has  developed  this  point  of 


reduces  human  a _,   ._  

of  various  complexities  and  orders.  Behavior- 
ism must  steer  a  narrow  course  between  phy- 
siology on  the  one  side  and  some  sort  of  psy- 
chologism  on  the  other,  if  it  ij  to  retain  an 
independent  position. 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


BEHEMOTH — BBHH 


While  behaviorism  as  a  final  metaph^sic  is 
at  present  but  a  su^isestion  with  many  incon- 
sistencies involved  in  it,  it  does  offer  many 
advantages  as  a  point  of  approach  for  psycho- 
logical problems  and  as  a  means  of  defining 
psydiology  as  a  science  without  presupposinE 
controverted  positions.  This  definition  need 
not  exclude  the  use  of  introspection,  or  com- 
pel one  to  make  use  of  elaborate  roundabout 
methods  of  detenninitig  simple  facts.  Thus  it 
is  certainly  much  simpler  lo  study  reasoning 
by  means  of  speech  tt^n  by  slight  movements 
of  tongue  or  lamyx.  The  results  are  much 
more  certain  and  easier  to  interpret.  Why 
speech  should  not  be  admitted  to  be  a  form  of 
behavior  or  writing  used  in  place  of  the  laryn- 
Ijograph  is  not  apparent  from  logical  considera- 
tions. Stripped  of  these  unesscntials,  behavior- 
ism is  of  value  as  a  method  and  as  a  slightly 
different  point  of  view  for  the  interpretation  of 
the  relation  of  mental  and  physical. 

BibliOKntphjr.— Angell,  'Behavior  as  a 
Category  of  Psychology'  [Psychohgicai  Re- 
view. XX,  255) ;  Becbterew,  <Objelrtive  Psy- 
chologie*  (1913);  Bode,  'Psychology  as  a 
Science  of  Behavior'  (Psychological  Review, 
XXI,  46) ;  Dunlap,  *  Thought-Con  tent  and 
Feeling'  (Psyckolog\c(U  Review,  XXIII,  49)  ; 
Titchener,  'Psychology  as  the  Behavionst 
Views  It'  (Proceedings  American  Philosophical 
Society,  Vol  LIIl,  No.  213) ;  Watson,  'Psychol- 
ogy as  the  Behaviorist  Views  It'  (Psyekological 
Review,  XX.  158);  Watson,  'Behavior'  (1914, 
Chaps.  1  and  10) ;  Watson,  'The  Place  of  Uie 
(Conditioned- Reflex  in  Psychology*  (.Psycho- 
logical Review,  XXIII,  89). 

W.  B.  PiLLSBUSY, 

Professor  of  Psychology,  University  of  Michi- 

BEHBMOTH,  the  name  of  an  animal  de- 
scribed in  Job  x\,  15,  to  the  end.  It  is  evidently 
an  herbivorous  animal;  but  commentators  and 
naturalists  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  particular 
species.  Bochart,  Gesenius  and  the  generality 
of  English  commentators  think  the  description 
most  applicable  to  the  hippopotamus;  others 
think  it  was  the  elephant.  Nor  would  it  mili- 
tate much  against  (his  interpretation  that  the 
elephant  is  not  a  native  of  the  country  in- which 
the'  scene  of  the  poem  is  laid.  The  author  of 
the  book  of  Job,  whether  Moses  or  not,  may 
have  been  familiar  with  life  in  E^ypt  and 
Arabia,  and  if  so,  would  naturally  introduce 
scenery  and  adjuncts  Egyptian  or  Arabian,  or- 
both  combined;  and  that  the  elephant  was  well 
known  in  E^gypt  is  proved  not  only  by  the  use 
of  ivory  in  the  arts,  specimens  of  which  are 
preserved  in  abundance,  but  also  by  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  animal  itself  on  early  Egyptian 


BSHISTUN.  ba-hls-toon',  a  mountain  near 
a  village  of  the  same  name,  not  far  from  Ker- 
manshah,  in  Persian  Kurdistan,  celebrated  for 
the  sculptures  and  cuneiform  inscriptions  cut 
upon  one  of  its  rocky  sides,  which  rises  almost 
mrpendicularly  to  the  height  of  1,700  feet. 
These  works  are  about  300  feet  from  the 
ground,  and  were  executed  by  the  orders  of 
Darius  I,  King  of  Persia.  The  inscriptions  set 
forth  his  genealogy,  enumerate  his  19  victories 
obtained  against  the  rebels  in  different  prov- 
inces of  his  empire,  and  proclaim  the  final  pacifi- 
cation of  the  latter  and  his  gratitude  to  God. 


The  sculptures  consiat  of  a  large  tablet,  on 
which  are  represented  a  king  with  his  foot  upon 
a  prostrate  man,  two  long' speared  warrion 
belund  him,  nine  captives  (mined  together  by 
the  neck  before  him,  and  above  the  whole  a 
mytholt^cal  figure.  The  inscriptions  are  ex- 
ecuted with  great  neatness,  and  the  whole  mon- 
ument is  very  well  preserved,  the  rock,  which 
had  been  carefully  polished,  having  been  coated 
with  a  hard  silicious  varnish,  much  harder,  in- 
deed, than  the  limestone  beneath.  The  mountain 
was  well  known  in  ancient  times,  being  men- 
tioned by  Dtodorus  under  the  name  of  Bagis- 
tanon.  The  same  writer  states  also  that  an 
inscription  and  figures  were  engraved  upon  the 
rock  by  the  orders  of  Semirunls,  but  these,  if 
they  ever  existed,  have  now  disappeared  Raw- 
linson  was  the  first  to  copy  and  dedlJier  the 
Behistun  inscriptions. 


15  March  1884.  In  1856  he  became  Dr.  Peter- 
mann's  chief  assistant  in  editing  the  famous 
geographical  periodical  Milteilungen,  to  the 
editorship  of  which  he  succeeded  on  his  chief's 
death  in  I87&  In  1866  he  founded  the  Geo- 
graphisches  Jakrbuch.  In  1872  he  began,  in 
conjunction  with  H.  Wagner,  the  useful  'Popu- 
lation of  the  Earth,'  intended  as  a  statistical 
supplemeni  to  the  Mitteilungen;  and  from  1876 
he  undertook  the  statistical  department  of  the 
'Almanach  de  Gotha.'  His  more  extended 
writings  of  this  nature  are  marked  by  fullness, 
accuracy  and  marked  lucidity  of  arrangement 
BEHN,  Un,  Aphra,  or  Aphsra,  English 
novelist  and  dramatist:  b.  Wye,  Kent  1640: 
d.  London,  16  April  1689.  She  was  the  dau^ter 
of  John  Johnson,  a  barber;  went  to  Surinam, 
then  an  Enghsh  possession,  when  she  was  very 


prince,  Oroonoko,  whom   she  made  the 

subject  of  a  novel,  subsequently  dramatized  by 
Thomas  Southeme.  On  her  return  she  married 
Mr.  Behn,  a  London  merchant,  but  was  probably 
a  widow  when  selected  hrj  (Hiarles  II  to  acquire 
intelligence  on  the  Continent  during  the  Duich 
War.  She  took  up  her  residence  at  Antwerp 
and  it  is  said  that,  by  means  of  one  of  ber 
admirers,  she  obtained  notice  of  the  intention 
of  the  Dutch  to  sail  up  the  Thames,  and  trans- 
mitted the  news  to  England.  This  intelligence 
being  discredited,  she  returned  to  England!  and 
devoted  herself  to  intrigue  and  writing  for 
support.  She  published  three  volumes  of  poemj 
by  Rochester,  Ethercge,  Crisp  and  others,  witn 
some  poetry  of  her  own ;  and  wrote  17  plm 
the  heartless  licentiousness  of  which  was  (Ui- 
graceful  both  to  her  sex  and  to  the  age  which 
tolerated  the  ptcrformance  of  them.  She  wM 
also  the  auihor  of  a  couple  of  volumes  of 
novels,  and  of  the  celebrated  love-letters  be- 
tween a  nobleman  and  his  sister-in-law  (Lord 
Gray  and  Lady  Henrietta  Berkeley).  Pope,  » 
his  '(Hiaracter  of  Women,'  alludes  to  Mrs. 
Behn,  under  the  poetical  name  of  Astiiea: 
'  Tba  (Maa  bnw  laoacly  dsca  Aitna  tmd, 
Who  uirly  puts  her  UAr^ofcen  to  bed.* 

She  was  buried  in  the  cloisters  of  WestaiiniW 
Abbey.  An  edition  of  her  works  was  publiaKfl 
in  London  (1872).  Consult  AngHa  for  Jan- 
uary 1902. 


Digitized  =y  Google 


UBHRBNS  — ASlAUt 


BEHRENS,  U'nbu,  Bertha,  popular  Gei^ 
man  novelist,  who  lus  writtea  over  the  signa- 
ture, W.  Heimburg:  b.  Thale  ISSO;  d  1912. 
She  completed  'Das  Eulenhaus,'  a  posthumous 
novel  l^  E.  Marlitt,  whose  successor  as  con- 
tributor to  Die  Gartetilaitbe  she  became,  and 
among  her  own  novcb  may  be  named  'Aus 
dem  Leben  meiner  alten  Freunden'  (1878; 
12th  ed,  1908) ;  'Lumpenmullers  Ueschen' 
(1879);  <Ihr  einziger  Bruder>  (1682;  ISth  cd. 
1909);  'Waldblumcn'  (1882;  6th  cA,  1894); 
'DaiumaP  (1887);  'Trudchens  Heirat'  (1884): 
'Urn  fremde  Schuld'  (1895);  'Anions  Erben' 
V898);  <Se»e  Oldenroths  Liebe>  (1902); 
^Gesainmelte  Romane  und  Novellen'  (10  vols., 
1894-97);  <Dr.  Dani  und  seine  Frau'  (1903); 
'Wie  auch  wir  vergeben'  (1907);  'Ueber 
itdniee  Wege'  (1908) ;  'Der  Starkere>  (1909)  ; 
•Familie  Loreni*  (1910). 

BEHRING,  ba'ring,  Emll  Adolf,  (German 
physician :  b,  Hansdorf  1S54.  He  received  his 
education  in  medical  science  at  Berlin;  became 
an  army  surgeon  in  1880,  and  was  appointed 
to  the  chair  of  medicine  at  Halle  in  ISM.  In 
the  following  year  he  received  the  appointment 
of  director  of  the  Hygienic  Institute,  Uartmrg. 
Behring  became  loiown  intemabonally  througn 
bis  discovery  of  a  diphtheria  antitoxin.  He  also 
made  great  progress  in  the  stady  of  immunity 
in  tuberculosis  and  a  new  diphtheria  serum  was 
brought  out  by  him  in  1913.  He  has  published 
"Die  Blutserumther^pie*  (1892) ;  'Bekampfung 
der  ln(elctionskrankheiten>  (1894);  <Beitraee 
lui  experimentellen  Therapie*  (_1900).  In 
1901  he  received  the  Nobel  prize  m  medicine 
for  his  discovery  of  diphtheria  serum. 


BBIOB.  a  light  woolen  fabric,  made  of 
wool  of  the  natural  color;  that  is,  neither 
dyed  nor  bleached 

BEIJEREN,  bfir-in,  Abraham  van,  Dutch 
painter:  b.  The  Hague  1620  or  1621;  d  1674. 
He  studied  first  in  his  native  ci&,  later  at 
Delft.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  he  was  one  of 
the  foremost  genre  painters  of  his  time,  most 
of  his  life  was  spent  in  abject  poverhr.  His 
paintings  are  almost  exclusively  still  Ufe,  his 
favorite  subjects  being  fish  and  iruit.  His  can- 
vases are  found  in  great  number  in  many  of 
the  principal  European  galleries,  but  he  is  espe- 
cially well  represented  in  Dresden,  Vienna,  Ber- 
lin, Stockholm,  Petrograd  and  Lille. 

BEIJBRLAND,  btir-lant  Holland  a  fer- 
tile island  in  the  Netherland  province  of  South 
Holland  at  the  mouth  of  the  Maas  or  Meuse, 
five  miles  south  of  Rotterdam.    It  is  15^  miles 


BBILAN,  ba-lan',  Syria,  town  on  the  Gulf 
of  Iscanderoon,  near  the  Beilan  Pass,  not  far 
from  Alexandretta.  The  town  is  1,584  feet 
above  the  Mediterranean  and  is  a  summer  re- 
sort for  the  foreign  colony  of  Alexandretta. 
The  pass  has  more  than  once  been  of  military 
importance,  and  in  1832  was  the  scene  of  a  bat- 
tle between  Turks  and  Egyptians.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  Pylx  Syriz  of  the  ancients  and 
to  have  been  traversed  by  Alexander  and  the 
Crusaders  in  their  marches  to  the  Orient 

%*L.  J  — » 


BEILSTEIH,  faU'stiii,  FriBdrkb  Konrad, 

Russian  chemist:  h.  Saint  Petersburg  1838;  d 
1905.  He  acquired  his  knowledge  of  diemiitry 
at  Heidelbeig,  (jottiagen,  Uunicn  and  Paris;  in 
1860  was  made  assistant  to  the  celebrated 
Wohler  at  (jotlingen  and  six  years  later  wa* 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  chemistry  at  the  Saint 
Petersburg  Institute  of  Technology,  He  made 
extensive  original  investigations  in  analytical 
and  organic  chemistry.  His  published  works 
include  'Anleitun^  zur  quatitativen  cbemitehen 
Analyse'  (Leipzig  1867) ;  'Die  chemische 
(iross Industrie  auf  der  Wdtansstdlung  in  Wien 
1873'  (1873);  'Handbuch  der  orsanischen 
Chemie'  (1883),  a  standard  work  of  which 
five  supplementaiy  volumes  were  issued  by  the 
German  Chemical  Society  (1901'06). 

BEIRA,  bft'ra,  Portugal,  a  province  bound- 
ed by  the  river  Douro  on  the  north,  by  Spain 
on  the  east,  and  by  the  Tagus  and  Portuguese 
Estremadura  on  the  south  and  by  the  Atlantic 
on  the  west.  It  was  formerly  divided  into  Betra 
Alta  (Upper  Bcira)  and  Beira  Baixa  (Lower 
Beira).  Its  extent  is  9,208  square  miles,  and 
the  pop.  (1911)  1.626,484.  The  capital  is  Coim- 
bra.  It  b  traversed  by'  the  Serra  d'Estrella, 
and  well  watered  by  the  Douro,  Tagus,  etc. 
With  the  exception  of  the  coastal  strip  the  soil 
is  rocky.  Chestnuts,  grain,  oil  and  wine  are 
the  principal  products  of  toe  soil,  while  coal, 
iron,  marble  and  salt  are  mined  Manufactures 
are  at  a  low  ebb,  thread-making  being  about 
the  sole  industry  at  alt  developed.  Commerce 
is  slight,  a  condition  due  in  great  part  to  in- 
adequate transportation  facilities.  For  purposes 
of  adminisl ration  the  province  is  lubdivided 
into  the  districts  of  Aveiro,  Viscu,  Coimbra, 
Guarda  and  Castello  Branco. 

BEIRA,  Ponuguese  East  Africa,  seaport 
on  ttie  coast,  at  the  month  of  the  Pimgwe  River, 
about  35  miles  north  of  Sofala.  It  is  the  near- 
est ]^rt  to  the  gold  fields  of  Mashonaland,  and 
a  railway  through  FontesviUa,  Chimoio,  Massi- 
kesse  and  New  Umtah  to  Salisbury  was  com- 
pleted in  1899.  Beira  has  a  good  harbor.  A 
breakwater  guards  the  town  from  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  river.  The  principal  articles  of 
export  are  rubber,  sugar,  tropical  fruits,  mining 
products  and  wax,  while  cotton  manufactures, 
iron  and  liquors  are  among  the  chief  imports. 
The  port,  established  in  1891,  is  Ndsited  t^ 
about  500  vessels  annually,  approximating  a 
total  tonnage  of  1,(KH,000  tons.  Before  the  war 
the  annual  exports  amounted  to  ^,750,000  and 
the  imports  to  about  $3,000,0(».  Pop.  3,450.  of 
which  /SO  are  whites. 

BEIRAH,  bi'rim.    See  Baikaii. 

BEIRUT,  or  BEYROUT,  be-nit',  or  WU 
root'  (ancient  Berytue),  Syria,  a  flourishing 
seaport,  60  miles  northwest  of  Damascus,  fi 
stands  on  a  tongue  of  land  projecting  into  an 
open  bay,  and  spreading  out  toward  the  land 
into  a  beautiful  plain,  backed  by  the  mountains 
of  Lebanon.    It  consbts  of  the  old  town,  c 


ness. place  of  the  merchants;  and  of  die  r 
town,  which  stretches  around  it.     The  latter, 
with    its  modem   houses,    carriage   roads   and 

Sardens, —  its  chnrches,  colleges,  schools  and 
otels, —  has  little  or  nothing  of  the  Oriental 
in  its  composition.    Beirut  has  rapidly  increased 


Google 


iBaiS4— BBJAfiOS 


4iBca  IS44-'wUin:^  populatioa  wai  only  8,000, 
its  rise  beins  larnly  due  to  the  exCension  of  the 
siik  trade,  of  which  it  is  the  centre.  The  bettor 
IH-otectfon  aSorded  both  ta  loreignen  and  na- 
tivea  by  its  beine  ihe  residence  of  the  conwiU- 

Jeaeiai  has  alio  contributed  to  its  ^asperity. 
I  is:the  scat  of  a  coiuulateo^the  United  States. 
fiiesidaE  silk  its  principal  exports  are  olLve  oil, 
Rctcala,  scaame  seed,  tobacco  and  -nool.  Ship- 
building is  carried  on  here;  an  English  cooipaay 
«ottiplet«d  watenforks  fiefe  in  1875  atad  gas 
^orks  Were  built  by  a  French  cfvupan;  in  1^6. 
£cside3  a  Scottisfa  school  lor  Jews,  theec  it  an 
Americas-Synau  misiioii  in  Beirut,  printinfi  an- 
nually thousands  of  Arabic  Bibles  and  having 
s.,5W>bl  and  hospitsl  connected  irith  it  in 
t  times  Bdrut  was  a  large  and  important 


.Phcenician  city,  and  under  the  Bomans  was  fonR 
celebrated  for  its  school  of  jurisprudence.  Tb^ 
Byiantine  Emperor  Theodosius  II   raised  It  to 


the  rank  of  a  metropolis.  It  was  destroyed  by 
an  earthquake  in  551.  The  Arahs  look  posses' 
sion  of  »  in  635,  and  yielded  it  to  Baldwin  L 
King  of  Jerusalem,  in  UIO.  Saladin  rec^tureo 
It  from  the  Christians  in  U87  bnt  it  soon  feU 
into  the  hands  of  the  Druses,  wlio  maintained 
their  contiol  of  it.  until  the  last  ceatury.  It  sv»s 
bombarded  and  taken  by  the  British  on  29  Au«C. 
1S40.  There  is  a  railw^  to  Damascus,  Aleppo 
and.  Tripoli.    A  pasha,  a  Greek  bishop,  a  Uaro- 


composed '  of  SbfiOO  Mohammedans,  76,000 
Chnstians,  2,500  Jews,  400  Druses  and  about 
4^300   Europeans. 

'  BBI3A.,  bfsa  a  larM  Abvssinian  antelope 
tOryx  beixa),  differing  from  the  gemsbok  prin- 
dpaily  in  lacking  the  tuft  of  hair  on  the  Ihroat 
Snd  by  the  black  patch  on  the  front  of  the 
face  heimt  completely  separated  from  the  chedc 
stcqie.  Tbis  is  probably  the  animal  called  oiyx 
by  the  ancients,  and  may  be  the  animil  from 
which  is  derived  ibe  legend  of  the  unicorn.  Its 
straight  horns  (about  36  inches  long)  when  seen 
in  proflk  might  easily  appear  as  one.  Herdt 
ol  beisas  are  stiti  numerous  upon  the  plains  of 
Somaiiland.    See  also  Gemsbok;  OrVx. 

BEISSBL,  bi'sel,  Johann  Conrad,  German 
mystic :  b.  Eberbach  IfflO;  d.  Ephraia,  Pa,  1768. 
He  learned  the  trade  of  a  baker,  .also  studied 

Eusic  and  was  a  successful  violinist.  Later 
;  studied  theoloi^  at  Halle,  but  havintt  been 
haiiislied  in  1720  ior  his  Pietistic  opinions  he 
emigrated  to  Pennsylvania,  settling-  first  at  G«r- 
mantown  and  later  in  Lancaster  County.  In 
1724  he  returned  to  Germantown  and  adopted 
the  Dunker  faith,  but  his  views  as  to  celibacy 
and  his  .obMrvance  oE  Saturday  as  the  Sabbath 
W«r<  unacceptable  to  his  aei^hbors,  and  he 
therefore  «stablished  a  SM*  of  Seventh  Day 
Dunkcfs.  He  attempted  a  hermit  life;  but  his 
fellow  believers  gathered  aboot  hhn  and  in  1735 
he  founded  the  famous  Settlement  of  Ephrata, 
Pa.  (q-v.).  and  remained  at  ita  head  till  his 
death.  At  the.  settlement  he  practised  mai^  of 
his  socialistic  and  rdigious  theories.  He  was 
the  author  of  the  earliest  volume  of  German 
poctrv  published  In  America,  'GottHcbe  Liebet- 
Biid  Lobeslone'  (1730),  and  published  severat 
Collections  of  hymns,  such  as  "The  Voice  of 
llie  Lonely  and  Forsaken  Turtle  Dove  — thoe 
is,  of  the.Chriatian  Chiutdi;  by  a  Peaceable  Pil- 


the  latter  are  found  the  'Brother  Song*  of  the 
met  with  its  215  stanzas,  and  the  '^ Sister  Scog' 
with  250.  He  was  known  at  E^jirata  as  Fri^ 
Mm,  and  on  his  tomb  may  be  read  the  inscrip- 
tion :  *Hcre  rests  an  outgnnvth  of  the  love  of 
God,  'FriedsMn,'  a  solitary  Btolher,  afterward 
a  leader,  ruler,  teacher  of  the  Solitary  and  the 
CongregatioD  of  Christ  In  xai  around  Epbrata.' 
For  an  account  of  his  life  consult  *Oironicon 
F.phraiensc'  (Ephrata  I7B6) ;  Sachse,  '(jermaii 
Sectarians  of  Pennsylvania'  <1899-1900). 

BEIT^L-PAKIH,  bit-il-fa'ke.  Arabia. 
a  town  in  Yemen,  32  miles  south- southeast  of 
Hodeidah,  77  northeast  of  Uocha  and  about 
20  miles  from  the  Red  Sea.  It  is  celebr^lcd 
for  its  trade  in  Mocha,  coffee,  which  is  chiefly 
grown  in  the  i;eu;hborhood.  and  ai  which  about 
l2,00O;0OO  pouh(«  are  exported  annually.  Pop. 
about  8,0O(X  The  word  Bfil,  signifying  a  hoost 
or  hut,  is  prefixed  to  the  name  of  various 
other  small  towns  and  villages  in  Arabia. 

BBZTALLAM,  blt-an*  (Ar.,  '  «God-i 
House*),  ihe  name  of  the  building  hi  Mecca 
widtin  -whose  enclosure  the  Caaba  (q.v.)  is  W 
cated.  It  is  also  known  as  :*the  holy  house* 
and  'the  old  bouse.* 

BBITZKB,  bltsltS,  Melnricb  UdwJf, 
German  historian:  b.  Muttrin,  15  Feb  1798: 
A  10  May  1867.  His  publications  include  'Hi^ 
tory  of  the  German  War  for  Freedom'  (1855); 
'History  of  the  Russian  War  — Year  of  I8U' 
(1856)  :  'History  of  the  Year  1815'  (1865).  etc 

BBJA>.b''i'>»  (anciently  Pak  Juwt),  Por- 
tugal, (own  in  the  province  of  Aleintejo,  S5 
miles  southeast  of  Lisbon.  It  stands  on  a 
height,  Eurroimded  hy  waUs  flanked  wiUi  40 
towerv,  and  ia  defended  by  an  old  fort  It 
was  founded  b^  the  Romans,  md  some  RoniB 
remains  are  still  visible.  5t  coatains  an  inter- 
esting mediaeval  castle,  a  cathedral,  the  notable 
church  of  Our  La^  of.  the  Conception  and  i 
Roman  aqueduct.  Two  fairs  are  held  here  an- 
nually. Tiie  city  has  a  considerable  trade  in  iht 
Cattle  and  agricultural  products  of  the  fextilr 
region  adjacen^  and  there  are  also  tanneries, 
potteries  and  oil  refineries.     Pop.  9;000. 

BBJAPUR,  be-i*-i>6r'  (anciently  VijaTa- 
pintA.  me  impregnable  city),  Hindustan,  a  town 
in  the  fiombar  presidency,  near  the  borders  of 
the  Nizam's  dominioas,  about  245  miles  seuifa- 
east  of  Bombay  and  near  the  ri^ht  bank  of  an 
affluent  of  the  Krishna.  For  many  centuries  il 
was  the  capital  of  a  rich  and  powerful  king- 
dom,  coming  under  the  sway  of  Hindu  ana 
Mussulman  altematelyi  Aurungzebe  captured  it 
In  1686  and  in  the  I8th  century  the  Mahrattw 
seized  it  In  1818  the  British  gave  it  !□  ibr 
Rajah  df  Satara.  From  the  great  eKteut  of  thr 
rami  here  il  would  seem  to  have  been  foimerfy 
ODC  of  flic  largest  cities  of  India.  In  its  present 
state  it  may  be  described  as  two  towns  adjoin- 
ing each  other —  the  fort  on  the  east  and  tlx 
oU  town  on  the  west.  The  former,  ihougS 
much  less  than  the  latter,  has  otie  entire  and 
Titular  Street  50  feel  wide  and  nearly  fhrM 
miles  long.  Some  of  the  mosques  and  mauso- 
lonms  of  Bejapur  are  elaborately  elegant,  but 
the  prevalKng  character  iii  solid  and  oussn^ 


,  Google 


BEJAK:^  ttlUr  ANS  4He  DRAGON 


The  great  dome  of  Mahomet^  Shah'' b  tomb  ia 
visible  far  ■toff,  the  fretwork  on  the  cdtiiiKs 
and  verandahs,  the  panels  covered  with  passages 
of  the  Koran  in  bas-relief,  and  the  st<>iie  trel- 
lises pierced  with  a  mesh-work  of  ArsWc  liar- 
acters,   are  all  in  fte  richest  style  of  Oriental 


Brahmanicat  architecture.    There  are  here  some 

ems  of  enormous  size;  OTie  cast  in  1549  is  the 
rKWtKieCe  of  brass  ordnance  eKtant,  Beja^r 
has  become  the  chief  town  or  Kalad^  district, 
and  some  of  the  old  palaces  are  Ro«r  used  (or 
public  purposes.  Pop.  (1911)  27,615.  Consult 
Fergusson,  'Ancient  Architecture  in  Hindu- 
stan' (1847);  Ferguson,  <The  Study  «f  Iti- 
diati  A«hit«ture>    (ISW). 

BBJAR,  bi'jir,  Spain,  town  In  the  province 
of  Salamanca,  41  miles  south  of  ,the  town  of 
that  namei  on  the  Cuerpo  dc  Hombre  River, 
on  a  plateau  3,150  feet  above  searlevel.  It  is 
an  important  industrial  centre  an^  manufac- 
tures cotton  and  WAoIen  ^oths,  ^n;, ,  thread, 
ribbons,  soap  and  bread.  There  is  ajsoa  large 
trade  in  the  products  of  the  region,  consisting 
of  chestnuts,  grain,  vflgetables  and  wine.,  Bejar 
is  the  seat  of  the  Didce  of  fiejar.  whose  palace 
is  located  here.  The  town  a'so  contains  three 
churches  of  architectural  note,  Lord  Hill  de- 
feated a  French  f9rce  her^'  in  l8l3.  In  Its 
vicituly  are  warm  sulphur  springs.'  Poip.  9,209, 
B$K£l  bek.  Chaiiw  TilBtoa«,  English 
travder:  b.  Stepne?,  Middlesex,  19  Oct.  1^00; 
d.  Bromley,  Kent,  31  Jul/  1874.  In  his  20th 
year  he  entered  on  ^  busmess  car«er  suid  was 
thus  led  to  visit  Italy.  On  his  return  he  studied 
law  at  Lincoln's  Inn  and  in  1834  he  followed  up 
several  archaso logical  articles  in  periodicals  by 
publishing  'Origmes  Biblicse,  or  Researches  in 
PfimevaJ  History.'  In  1840  he  set  out  on  his 
first  journey  to  Abyssinia,  in  which  he  not  only 
rendered  important  services  to  cKscoveiy  but 
collected  vocabularies  of  the  native'  dialects. 
Returning  in  1843  lie  Was  award<it- the  gold 
mcdais  of  Hie  Koyal  GeograpJucal  sofietiqs  of 
London  aad  Paris,  and  again  lengaged  in  busi- 
ness. He  subsequently  made  several  efforts  to 
open  up  commercial  intercourse  with  Abyssinia, 
and  in  1861-42  he  traveled  in  Syria,  jPalestiae 
and  Egypt.  When  the  news  of  the  detention  of 
several  British  subjects  by  the  Kii^.of' Abys- 
sinia arrived  in  1864,  Beke  went  opt  to  secure 
their  release,  and  was  temporarily  suwessful, 
but  ultimately  Kit^  Theodore  bad  to  be  coerced 
by  war.  In  the  direction  of  the  military  opera- 
tions Beke's  knowledge  of  (he  country  proved 
of  the  utmost  vatue.  In  1S70  he  was  aw^dod 
a  civil  list  pension  of  $500  per. annum.  In  18?3 
he  set  out  for  Egypt  in  ordflr  tp  CKplore  the 
country  traversed  Dy  the  Israelites,  and  to  locate 
Mount.  Sinai.  His  published  works '  ctunprise 
'The  Sources  of  the  /v'Ue'  (1860):  'The  Bntish 
Captives  in  Al^ssinia*  (1865) ;  ''^King  Theodore 
md  Mr.  Rassam'  (1869) ;  'The  l^io  Horet> 


BfiKfiS,     hitiA,     ._     

ch6'b6,  Hungary,  maricet  tmvn  and  ciiwlal  of 
the  county  of  ttic  same  itaOie,  at  thi  junction  df 
tbe  Blackand  White  Koros,  41  miles  Sotithwest 
of  GroeawandciM  and  105'  miles  east-soiitliwest 
of  Bo^meab  tdrtnetfy  stPM^y  forlifiM:  Tltere 
boBnwiraole  ttade  iaeax,-  esmlCi^wUeatiwlwe 


afld'hbns)'.    Linen  andheffib  fabriOB  are  a: 


Budapest  Bikes  haa  th«  largest  Proi^si?!^  col- 
ony in  Hungary.  Of  its  42,599  sowls,  the  ma- 
jprity  profes»  the  Lutheran  faith. 

BBKKBK,  htrVktr,  Bllzabeth,  Dutch  nov- 

■  elist:  b.  Vlissingcn,  24  July  1738;  d.  The  Hague, 
■5  'Nov.  1804.  She  married  Adriaan  Wolff,  a 
Reformed  Church  minister  at  Beemster,  who 
died  in  1?77;  and  she  lived  afterward  in  closest 
friendship  with  Agathe  Deken,  who  also  col- 
laboratea  in  her  most  important  works,  'Hb- 
tory  of  Sara  Burgcrhart'  (1782);  'History  of 
WflUam  Leevend>  (1784-83) ;  'Letters  of  Ahr^- 
Iianl  B!ank3art>  0787-39):  'Cornelia  Wild- 
schut'  (1793-96J. 

BEKKKR,  liBBMnnf  1| .  German  scholar,  ^- 
tiagulsbed  by  hia  rMiCBsions  of  the  texts  af 
GnekcUsEica:  b.  Berlin  21  May  1785:  d.  thexe. 
7  >tne  1871.  He  studied  in  Halle,  wd  ia  IgLl, 
became  pr6faisor  o£  philology  in  hb  natvve  city. 
The  resvlta  oC  his  rcsearcbes  in  the  Ubrariea  of 
FcanoB.  iltaly,   England  aad  Geraaaiar  appeir 

I  ia  Usi  numDraus  lecenslAns  of  toxta  diiiived 
dolcly-  fiom  JBUniscripts,  and  iod^endant^  of 
printed.  editiMts:  The  writers  included  in'  theee 
recensions  are  PlatOt  tbe  Attic  oratoi?,ArUtotle, 

.  ThucycBdes,    Theogius,    Anstophaties.    Sejttus 

I  £mpirk\is,  Rs  well  as  Livy  and  Tacitus.  He 
was^  also  a  collaborator  of  'Cor^s  Inicrip- 
tionum  Gracanim,*  and  edited  25  volumes  of 

:  the  'Corpus  Scriptorum  fiyzantinoFum.'  He  -is 
the  author  of  'Aftecdota  Graca'  (3  vdIil.  1814- 
21)    and    'Studies   in   Old   Ftfcncb.)      Consult 

,  Sandys,  <A  History  of  Qassic^  Scholarships 

.(Vol.  III.  1908).   ■ 

BBL,  bel,  one  of  th^  most  important  gods 
of  the  Babylonian  mythdlogy  and  the.Phceni- 
cian  counterpart  pf  Baal;  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
huw,  in  IB.  xlvl,  I;  Jei-.  I,  i/\\\  44;  in  tbe 
Sepwaaint,  in  Baruch  vl,  40,  and  in  the  apocry- 

:  phal  adTditlooe  to  the  bocdc  of  Daniel,  as  well  as 

<  by  classical  aothors.    See  Baal 

BEL  AND  THE  DRAGON,  certain  apoc- 

,  ryphaJ  chapters  added  to  the  canonical  Book  of 

'-DanieL    Tlic  Jews  do  not  consider  ttem  part 

.  of  their  Scriptures.     They  were  penned  prob- 

,  ably  fry  an  Alexandrian  Jew,  the  language  used 

.being  not  Hebrew  or  Aramaean,  out  Greek. 
The  story  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon  consists  of 

.  two  legetids  recounting  (1)  liow  paniel  en- 
lightened Cyrus,  represented  as  having  been  a 
devout  worshipper  of  Bel,  hy_  proving  tlut  the 
immense  suppVies  of  food  laid  beEore  the  idol 
were  really  consiuned,  not  by  it  or  by  the  in- 
habiting djvinity,  but  by  the  priests   and  their 

.  ifamilics.'  (2)  On  Cyrus  urging  that' the  djagon, 
also  Worshipped,  '  was  at  least  a  living  god, 
Daniel  poisoned   it,   for  which  he  was  thrown 

'?nto  a  hon's  den,  where  the  Prophet' Habakkuk 
fed  him!  tntimately  he  was  released,  and  his 
persecutors  put  to  death.  Tile  above  narrative 
must  not  be  confounded  wfth  one  called  also 
■Bel  and  the  Dragon,^  cranttated  by  Pox  Talbot 
from  the  cmieiform  tablets.  Mr.  Talbot  be- 
lieves that  die  dragon,  seven'^ieadeA,  Uke  the 

one  >»  Revtlatfcn,  woiiM,  'if  the  tablets  were 
complete  pmte  tht  same  being  that  seduced 

'.aarne  of  the  lieavcoly  'gods,*  Or  angels,  from 
their  dleiiiance  (fiev.  xii,  4;  Jud*  vi),  for 
«rhicfa  he  -wtE  sMia  by  Bel.    The  resemblaMe  Is 

(Mi  td  tUapoartpha)  book  now  under  contlA- 


Ciooglc 


BBLA  — BBLCHER 


eration,   but   to   the  combat  between   Michael 
and  the  Dragon  in  Rev.  xii,  7-17. 

BELA,  b&'ld,  die  name  of  four  Hungarian 
kincs  of  the  Arpad  dynasty.  Beu  I,  son  of 
Ladislaf,  competed  for  the  crown  with  his 
brother  Andrew,  whom  he  ultimately  defeated, 
and  mounted  the  throne  in  1061.  He  established 
a  coinage  and  weights  and  measures.  Bela  II, 
sumamed  the  Blind,  because  his  eyes  had  been 


.J  act  with  moderation  and  justice,  but  the 
vindictive  spirit  of  his  Queen  involved  him  in 
quarrels  with  his  nobles,  and  his  own  intem- 
perate habits  brought  on  a  disease  which  ter- 
minated his  life  in  U41.  Bela  III,  grandson  of 
Bela  II,  succeeded,  in  1173,  and  held  the  reins 
of  government  with  a  stroi^  hand,  vigorously 
correcting  the  abuses  and  putting  down  the  tur- 
bulent spirit  which  the  troubles  of  previous 
reigns  had  engendered.  He  also  repelled  in- 
cursions of  Bohemians,  Poles  and  Anstrians, 
and  retaking  the  towns  of  which  the  Venetians 
had  possessed  themselves,  compelled  them  to 
accept  of  peace  in  1189.  He  died  in  1196^  and 
was  succeeded  by  Emcric,  one  of  two  sons  by 
his  Queen,  a  sister  of  Philip  Augustus,  king  of 
France.  Bela  IV  succeeded  his  father,  Andrew 
II,  in  1235,  and  was  shortly  after  obliged  to 
collect  an  army  to  oppose  the  Tartars,  who  had 
invaded  the  country.  In  the  battle  which  en- 
sued he  was  signally^  defeated,  and  obliged  to 
take  refuge  in  Austria,  where  he  was  detained 
prisoner,  and  only  recovered  his  liberty  by  the 
payment  of  a  large  ransom.  The  Tartars  hav- 
mg  retired  in  1242,  Bela  regained  his  throne, 
and  made  it  his  object  to  repair  the  results  of 
their  invasion.  He  subsequently  established  his 
rule  over  Bosnia  and  northern  Serbia,  and  died 
in  1270. 

BELAND,  Henri  Sivirin,  Canadian  physi- 
cian and  statesman;  b.  Louisvillt^  province  of 
Quebec,  11  Oct  1869.  He  graduated  B.A.  at 
Three  Rivers,  and  took  his  medical  course  at 
Laval -University  (M-D.  1893),  afterward  prac- 
tising his  profession  at  New  Bedford,  Uass. 
He  was  returned  to  the  Quebec  legislature  in 
1897  for  the  county  of  Beauce,  and  since  1901 
has  represented  that  constituency  in  the  House 
of  Commons  in  the  Liberal  interest  In  1909 
he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  commission 
of  conservation,  and  in  1911  was  Postmaster- 
General  in  the  Laorier  administration,  until  the 
defeat  of  that  administration  in  the  same  year. 
He  was  in  Bel^um  when  the  Great  War  broke 
out  in  1914,  joined  the  Belgian  Hospital  Corps, 
served  at  Liege  and  the  siege  of  Antwerp,  was 
wounded  by  shell  fire  and  taken  prisoner  by 
tlie  Germans,  and  held  by  them  as  a  prisoner 

BELARIUS,  a  character  of  prominence  in 
Shakespeare's  'Cymbeline.'  Exiled  'ly  King 
Cymbeline,  he  carries  away  with  him  the  two 
sons  of  the  monarch  and  rears  them  as  his  own. 

BELASCO,  David.  American  dramatist:  b. 
San  Francisco,  Cal.,  25  July  1859.  He  was 
eraduated  at  Lincoln  College  in  1675.  In  1874 
he  made  hi;;  stage  dihat  at  the  Metropolitan, 
San  Francisco,  and  for  a  time  was  stage  man- 
ager of  the  house  and  of  Baldwin's  Grand 
Opera.  His  success  in  adapting  plays  to  the 
local  needs  of  his  community  led  him  to  devote 
hiniseK  exclusively  to  the  latter  work.    In  1880 


n899  . 
(1898   ; 

Women' 


he  produced  'Hearts  of  Oak>  and  toured  the 
country  in  it  with  James  A.  Heame.  He  be- 
came stage  manager  of  the  Madison  Square 
Theatre,  New  York,  and  later  was  connected 
with  the  Lyceum  Theatre.  He  is  now  owner 
and  manager  of  the  Belasco  Theatre,  New 
York.  Of  late  years  be  has  devoted  himself 
to  the  betterment  of  the  mechanical  details  of 
the  stage.  Among  Mr.  Belasco's  great  successes 
have  been  'The  Wife'  (1887)  and  'The  Charily 
Ball'  (1889),  written  jointly  with  H.  C  de 
Mille;  'Lord  Cbumley,'  with  K  H.  Sothem  in 
the  title  role  (1888)  ;  'The  Girl  I  Left  Behind 
Me,'  jointly  with  F.  Fyles  (1893)  ;  'The  Hean 
of  Maryland,'  with  Mrs.  Leslie  Carter  in  iht 
principal  rote  (1895);  'Naughty  Anthony' 
Among  his  other  plays  are  'Zaza' 
'May  Blossom'  (1894);  'Men  and 
(1890);  'La  Belle  Russc>  (1882); 
'Valerie'  (1886)-  'Du  Bariy>  (1901);  'The 
Darling  of  the  Gods'  (1902);  'Sweet  Kittie 
Bellairs'  (1903)  ;  'Adrea'  {19M)  ;  'The  Music 
Master'  (1904) ;  'The  Rose  of  the  Randw' 
n905);     'The    Girl    of    the    Golden    West' 


Hope'  (1908);  'The  Easiest  Way'  (1909); 
'The  Lily*  (1909);  'Is  Matrimony  a  Failure." 
(1909);  'The  Concert'  (1910):  'Nobodj's 
Widow'  (1910);  'The  Woman'  (1911);  'ft* 
Return  of  Peter  Grimm'  (1911)  ;  'The  Cast  of 
BecW'  (1911);  'Years  of  Discretion'  (1912); 
'A  Good  Little  DeviP  (1912);  'The  Secret' 
(1913);  'The  Phantom  Rival'  (1914);  'M»rit 
Odile'   (1915);  'The  Boomerang'   (1915). 

BELBEIS,  bil-bis',  Egypt,  town  20  railed 
north-northeast  of  Cairo,  near  the  railway  to 
Suez  and  on  the  border  of  the  desert,  formerly 
of  some  importance  as  being  on  the  route  to 
the  East.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  Bubastis  att 
in  its  neighborhood.    Pop.  about  11,000. 


BBLCHER,  Six  Sdwxrd,  Eiwlish  admiral 
and  hydrographer:  b.  Halifax,  N.  S.,  1799;  d  18 
March  1877.  Having  taken  part  as  midslupman 
in  the  defense  of  Gaeta  and  the  battle  of  Al- 
giers, he  was  in  1819  appointed  to  the  Myrmidon 
stoop,  destined  for  the  African  station,  and  in 
1625  became  assistant  surveyor  to  the  Berii« 
Strait  discovery  expedition  under  Captain 
Beechey.  In  1829  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  commander,  and  served  on  the  coast  of 
Africa,  and  of  Portugal,  rendering  on  the  latter 
valuable,  services  to   the   British  resi- 


political  troubles  in  Portugal.  Subsequendy  be 
was  engaged  for  a  number  of  years  in  a  voyage 
around  the  world  in  the  survwing  vessel.  Sul- 
phur. In  1841  he  explored  the  miets  of  th( 
Canton  River,  and  materially  assisted  in  secur- 
ing the  triumph  of  the  Bntish  army.  In  ac- 
knowledgment of  these  services,  he  was  knighted. 
Afterward  he  was  employed  on  board  of  the 
Samarans,  on  surveying  service  in  the  East 
Indies,  and  was  severely  wounded  while  aisisl- 
ing  the  Rajah  of  Sarawak.  Sir  James  BroolK, 
to  subdue  the  pirates  of  Borneo.  From  18S2 
to  1854  he  commanded  the  expedition  in  search 
of  Sir  John  Franklin.  On  his  return  to  Eng- 
land, he  was  tried  before  a  court-martial  for 
voluntarily  abandoning  the  sh«)s  The  «« 
against  him,  however,  was  not  legally  nipportw, 


BELCHBR — BELFAST 


e  of  the  other  officers  were 

mded,  his  name  was  passed  over  in  sig- 
ni6cant  silence.  In  1872  he  became  rear- 
admiral.  He  published  'The  Last  of  the  Arctic 
Voy^es*  (185S)  ;  'Narrative  of  a  Voyage  to 
the  East  Indies.' 

BBLCHBR,  Jonathan,  colonial  governor 
of  Massachusetts :  b.  Cambridge,  Mass.,  8  Tan. 
1681 ;  d.  Elizabethtown,  N.  J.,  31  Aug^  1757. 
He  was  graduated  at  Harvard,  in  1^9,  and 
spent  six  years  in  Europe  before  retuminff  to 
Boston,  as  a  merchant.  From  1730  to  1741  he 
was  governor  of  Massachusetts  and  New  Ham^ 
sbire,  a  dispute  over  his  salary  causing  bis 
removal.  In  1747  he  was  made  governor  of 
New  Jersey  and  gave  it  a  successful  adminis- 
tration. He  enlarged  the  charter  of  the  Col- 
lege of  New  Jersey  (Princeton)  and  gave  that 
institution,  among  other  benefactions,  his  own 
valuable  library.  'The  Belcher  Papers'  were 
issued  by  the  Massadiusetts  Historical  Sode^, 

BSLCHITE,  bel-che'ta.  Spain,  town  22 
miles  south- southeast  of  Saragossa,  on  the 
Aguas,  a  tributary  of  the  Ebro,  noted  as  the 
scene  of  a  victory  gained  18  June  1809.  by  the 
French,  under  Suchet,  over  the  Spanish  forces 
under  Blake.  Belchite  has  some  manufactories 
of  woolens.    Pop.  3,333. 

BELCIKOWSKI,  b«l-tsi-lcdv'-ske,  Adam, 
Polish  writer:  b.  Cracow  1839;  d.  1909.  Grad- 
uating from  Cracow  University  in  186S,  he 
was,  in  the  following  year,  api»inted  instructor 
in  Polish  literature  at  the  University  of  War- 
saw. Three  j;ear5  later  he  was  appointed  to 
the  same  position  at  Cracow,  where  be  became 
a  member  of  the  Cracow  Academy  in  1870,  Hia 
writings  are  chiefly  dramatic  and  critical 
Among  his  historical  dramas  are  'Adam  Tario' 
(1869);  'Hunyady'  (1870);  'Dwaj  Radziwil- 
lowie*  (1871);  'Franeeska  da  Rimini'  (1873); 


'Kmita  i  Bondaro 


'  (187S);  'Krol  Wladys- 

ITS        TIS„ II * r    


law  Wamenciyk'  (1877).  His  collected  essays 
appeared  in  Warsaw  (1886)  with  a  biographical 
introduction  by  Chmielowski. 

BELCOURT.bir-coor',  Napoleon  Antoine, 
C^anadian  lawyer  and  statesman:  b.  Toronto, 
15  SepL  I860.  He  was  educated  at  Three  Rivers 
and  Laval  University,  Montreal  (master  of 
laws,  1882).  He  vras  called  to  the  Quebec  bar, 
1882,  and  to  that  of  Ontario  1884.  He  reprt^- 
sented  the  ciw  of  Ottawa  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, 1896-1907,  and  was  speaker  from  1904  to 
1907,  when  he  was  nominated  to  die  Senate. 
A  representative  French-Canadian,  he  I»s 
written  much  on  social  and  educational  subjects; 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  bi-lineual  controversy, 
and  pleaded  the  case  of  French  schools  of  On- 
tario in  the  appeal  before  the  judicial  com- 
mittee of  the  imperial  privy  council  in  1915, 


--Jt  of  Grand  Rapids  and  139  miles  northwest 
ftom  Detroit.  Il  has  silk  mills,  basket,  casket 
3nd  furniture  factories,  machine  shoQ  paper 
box  factories  and  other  industries.  The  first 
siDt  mill  in  the  West  was  erected  here.    Pop. 

BELEH,  or  BBLEH  DO  PAKA,  the  of- 
noal  name  of  Uw  capital  of  the  Brazilian  state 
of  Par4  (q.v.). 


BELEHNITSS,  a  name  for  straight,  sol- 
id, tapering,  dart- shaped  fossils,  popularly 
known  as  arrow-heads,  thunder-bolts,  finger- 
stones,  etc.,  but  in  reality  the  internal  shell  or 
skeleton  of  a  molluscous  animal  allied  to  the 
squid  or  sepia,  and  the  type  of  an  extinct  fam- 
ily, Belemnitida.  The  name  was  first  applied 
by  Agricola  in  1546.  The  fossil  remains  of  the 
animal  (of  which  350  species  are  known)  are 
met  wila  in  rocks  ranging  from  the  lower 
Liassic  to  the  uppermost  cretaceous,  and  are 
most  abundant  in  Europe,  Asia  and  North 
America.  They  vary  from  one  to  IS  inches  in 
size;  and  are  particularly  abundant  in  the  strata 
of  the  green  sand  formation  in  New  Jersey. 
The  part  preserved,  often  detached  from  the 
loose  strata,  is  a  pointed  cone  of  brown  color 
and  stony  material,  resembling  in  shape  the 
head  of  a  dart  or  javelin,  whence  their  name. 
Belemnites    are    one    of    the    earliest    known 

BBLERIUU,  or  BOLBRIUH,  the  an- 
cient appellation  of  Land's  Emd  in  Cornwall, 
England,  but  the  orij^n  of  the  name  is  un- 

BELFAST,  Ireland,  the  chief  commercial 
and  tnanufacturing  citv  of  the  island,  a  par- 
liamentary borough  ana  the  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Ulster,  on  the  river  Lagan  al  the  head 
of  Belfast  Lough,  about  113  miles  b};  rail  north 
of  Dublin.  It  is  the  terminal  Station  of  the 
Great  Northern  and  the  Belfast  and  (bounty 
Down  railways,  the  latter,  80  miles  of  tracl^ 
connecting  with  chief  ^ints  on  the  seacoast. 
The  greater  part  of  it  is  built  on  low  alluvial 
land  OQ  the  banks  of  the  Lagan,  not  more  than 
six  feet  above  high-water  mark.  The  country 
around  is  extremely  beautiful;  the  position  of 
the  town  renders  its  appearance  from  a  dis- 
tance by  no  means  imposing,  but  die  Lough 
itself  presents  a  fine  scene;  and  the  slopes  of 
the  hills  that  bound  it  and  partly  encircle  the 
town  are  thickly  studded  with  uie  villas  and 
country  houses  of  the  merchants. 

Street*  and  Bridget.— Many  old  squalid 
districts  have  been  destroyed  to  make  way  for 
spacious,  re^ar  and  well-lighted  streets,  the 
finest  of  which  is  Royal  avenue,  where  numer- 
ous public  buildings  are  situated  An  excellent 
electric  tramway  service  and  electric  light  have 
been  introduced  and  the  sewage  system  has 
been  improved.  There  are  many  handsome 
houses,  but  architecturally  the  city  has  scarcely 
kept  pace  with  its  commercial  prosperity.  Four 
bridges  cross  the  river,  one  of  which,  the 
Queen's  Bridge,  is  an  elegant  structure  of  five 
arches,  each  of  50  feet  span. 

Churches,  Public  and  Coimnercial  BoOd- 
inf  s.  etC'"  Many  of  the  churches  are  handsome 
buildings.  Saint  Anne's  Cathedral  on  the  site 
of  the  oldest  Episcopal  (Church  of  Ireland^ 
church  had  the  foundation  stone  laid  in  1899. 
and  was  opened  for  service  in  1904 ;  Trinity,  a 
fine  specimen  of  (jothic,  and  Saint  George's, 
adorned  with  a  beautiful  portico,  are  also  de- 
serving of  notice  among  the  Episcopal  churches. 
The  Presbyterian  churches,  which  outnumber 
all  others  in  the  city,  include  two  fine  buildings 
on  Fitiroy  avenue  and  Elmwood  avenue.  Saint 
Patrick's  serves  as  the  Roman  Catholic  cathe- 
dral, but  is  architecturally  inferior  to  Saint 
Malachy's.  The  secular  buildings  include  the 
new  city  hall,  costing  $1,800,000;  Queen's  Uni- 


Cioogle 


4H^ 


versity.'a.masuvE  {^  in  the-)am<^ioAui:al|yle, 
with  a  facade  600  feet  in  length ;  the  Presbj- 
terian  Theological  College;  the  Idethodi&t  Col- 
lege a  handsome  builduig  erected  and  endowed 
in'  1868  at  a  cost  of  $^,000;  Uie  municipal 
buildings;  the  county  courthouse;  the  cocmser- 
Ctal  buildiugs  and  exchange;  the  buildings  for 
tht  customs  and  inland  revenues;,  the  post- 
office;  the  offices  of  the  Ulstef  Bank,  the  Bank 
4f  Ireland,  the  Provincial  Ba:^,  the  Belfast 
Bank;  the  National  Bank,  the  Scottish  Aini- 
<^le,  Scottish  Piovideut  and  North  British  and 
Mercantile  Assurance  coiDpanies;  the  Grand 
Opera  House;  the  Theatre  Royal;  the  county 
jail;  the  Ulster  Hall;  the  Presbyterian  As- 
sembly Hall;  the  Belfast  Museum;  thie  Albert 
Uemorial  clock  tower,  143  feet  high,  etc, 

EdncAdonal  InttitationB.— Of  the  eduoa- 
tional  instituttons  the  most  prominent  is  Qudcti'ir 
Uirivei^sity,  firat  opened  to  students  in  1B49,  and 
raised  to  the  rank  of  a  university  in  1908,  with 
^  teachers  and  530  pupili.  (19L^M).  Candi- 
dates for  the  ministry  of  the  Presbj^te'rian, 
Church  of  Ireland  receive .  a  training  in  the 
General  Assembly's  Theological  College, 
founded  in  1S53.  The  Meth<vii^  College  and 
the  Campbell  College  (a  secondary  ■  school) 
are  important  institutions;  while  the  New  Mu- 
nicipal Technical  Institute  and  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy and  the  Royal  Academical  Institution  also 
deserve  mention.  There  is  a  free  public  library 
belonging  to  the  city. 

Newsrapera,  Charitable  InstitutioiiB, 
Parks. — The  chief  and  oldest  newspaper  in  the 
Belfast  News-Letter,  established  1/37.  The 
charitable  institutions  ar,c  very  numerous  and 
important.  In  the  city  there  are  six  extensive 
public  parks,  besides  the  borough  cemetery. 

Trade,  Manufactares,  Shlppins,  Harbor, 
etc.—  Belfast  is  the  centre  of  the  Irish  linen 
trade  and  manufacture,  having  within  itself  the 
great  majority  of  the  spinning- mil  Is  and  powerr 
Ipom  factories  in  Ireland,^  some  of  them  of 
immense  size  and  of  imposing  appearance.  The 
winning,  of  flax  and  weaving  of  linen  are  the 
Staple  industries.  Linen  goods  to  the  value  of 
^131.000  were  exported  from  Belfast  in  1916. 
The  cotton  manufacture,  which  had  decreased 
considerably,  showed  a  considerable  increase, 
imports  ot  cotton  yarn  in  1916  being  10,486 
tons,  compared  with  6,222  tons  io  1915  and  3i2Sl 
tons  In  1914.  There  are  two  large  shipyards, 
and  in  their  yard  and  engineering  works. 
Messrs.  Harland  and  Wolff  employ  some  12,000 
hands,  and  have  turned  out  some  of  the  finest 
vessels  afloat,  one  of  their  triumphs  being  the 


flour-mills,  bll-mills,  saw-mills,  foundries,: 
printing  and  lithographic  works,  tanyards, 
chemical  works,  aerated  waterworks,  the 
largest  rope  works  and  toliacco  factories  in 
Great  Britain,  feh  manufactories  etc  The 
commerce  of  Belfast  surpasses  that  of  any 
other  Irish  seaport  and  is  rapidly  increasing. 
By  Ms  customs  revenue  it  is  the  fifth  port  in  the 
United  Kingdom.  The  port  covers  an  area  of 
over  2,000  acres,  including  docks,  wharves  and 
shipyards.  Belfast  Lou^  which  forms  the 
approach  by  sea,  is  a  Jine  sheet  of  water  be- 
tween  the  counties  of  Down  and  Antrim, 
about  14  miles  in  length  and  six  miles  in  breadth 
aj   the   enlrancti   narrowing  toward  the  city.. 


The:  Victoria  Qunnd  (300  feM.  itadc>  wiucvt 
about  1340,  and  improved  ,in  1882,  tot  accoauao- 
date  largo  vessels.  .  New  docks  bfive  been  con- 
structed, giving  a  total  harbpr  area,  of  ovei  100 
acres.  Tae  Alexandra  '  Oodc  iS'  SSZ  ieet  Ions. 
and  the  new  graving  dock,  constructed  I903-- 
10,  at  a  cost  o7  $1,750,000,  is  the  bi^st  in  dkC 
world.  The  most  ii»pqr(^  hrfm^:  gf  ifaffic 
by  sea  is  across  tue'  uiannel.'  A  large  9e«t  of 
steamers  ply  regularly  between  Belfast  asd 
London,  via  Hsysham,  Plymouth,  BrisloL  Liv- 
erpool, KoWh^d,  Fleetwood,  Barrow,  White* 
haven.  ArdroBsan,  Glasgow;  Dubli%..  Water- 
foid,  etc.  There  is  also  an  exteasive  direct 
trade  with  British  North  America,  the  Medi- 


^^60a  The  exports  to  the  United  Slates 
alone  in  1916  ataonnted  to  $19,587,133.  The 
chief  eiEportB  are  linea,  wlfisky,  aerated  waters, 
iron  ore  and  cattle ;  the  chief  imports 
grain,  cotton,  fiax,  -hmea  yan,  unn.'-iteel, 
cbii.  timber,  etc.  In  1916  'over  2,639.- 
000  tons  oi  goods  were  brougjit  in  and 
674,000  tons  went '  out  The  customs  duties 
amount  to  over  $15,400,000  per  anntun,  exclu- 
sive of  what  passes  through  the  Inland.  Reve- 
nue Department.  Much  of  the  inland  ^de  is 
carried  on  by.the  Lagan  Navioati^o,  which  .con- 
ntcts  ttie  town  with  Lough  NeagHf  tht  Ulster 
Canal,  connectii^  Lou^  Neagl^  with'  Ennis- 
Idllen;  and  by  systems  of  railway,  nainely,  the 
Great  Northern,  (he  Belfast  and  County  Down. 
HiBt0T7  and  Addfaustratioti.—  Belfast  is 
comparatively  modem.  In  the  16th  century  it 
was  merely  a  fishing  village  with  a  fortress; 
in  1613  it  was  granted  a  charter  by  James  I, 
and  about  163/  it  obtained  the  privilege  ot 
levying  certain  duties  on  goods  and  became  a 
regular  seaport;  but  its  prosperity  sutuequenlly 
was  much  impeded  by  the  civil  war.  Eaily  in 
the  18rti  century  it  was  described  as  a  hand- 
some, thriving  town,  but  its  period  of  modem 
prosperity  dates  from  the  introduction  of  the 
cotton  manufacture  in  1777,  the  establishment 
of  ship-feuildihg  on  a  large  scale  iit  1791  and 
the  introduGtion  of  machinery  in  the  linen  In- 
dnstry  in  1830.  Id  )8SS  Belfast  became  a  city; 
in  1392  the  noayor  received  the  title  of  lord 
nnyor.  and  in  1896  the  city  boundaries  were 
extended,  the  wards  were  increased  from  live 
to  15,'  and  the  mtmidpal  corporation  yras  made 
to  conSst  of  15  aldermen  instead  of  10  and  of 
45  councillors  instead  of  30.  In  1899  it  became 
a  county  borough.  Belfast  has  frequently  been 
the  scene  of  riots  between  the  Protestant  and 
Roman  Catholic  popttlatioUjlhe  latter  of  whom 
are  largely  outnumbered.  The  barter  is  imder 
the  management  of  an  independent  board.  "Hie 
dty  maintains  the  elementary  schools,  working- 
men's  dwellings,!  Ubraries,  rndseMis  ftii£  fire 
department,  and  owns  the  gas  and'clectrio-E^' 
plants,  abattoirs  and  tramways.  Bttlfast  returns 
four  members  to  Pariiameiit.  An  AitveiieaB 
consul  is  residem  here.  Total  arva  i6,i9* 
acres.  Pop.  (1901)  349,180;  <1911>  386.947. 
Consult  Benn,  G.,  'History  of  Bel&st*^  (!B»lfast 
1877)  ;    Fisher,    'Trading   Centres   of   the   Em- 

"       " "     ICJb  M.. 

<BeU«sl 


tizcdbyGoOl^Ie 


JEIBLBAST  —  BILQCOJOaO 


BSLFA8T,  Me,,  oily  aad  icoim^^eat  of 
Waldo  County,  at  the  head  of  PenobBcot  Bay', 
and  on  the  Maine  C.  Railrosd,  30  miles  from 
Uie  ocEBn,  and  132  miles  noitbrost  of  Poftland. 
It  has  a:  fine  harbor,  a  targe  domestic  trade  atid. 
important  manufactures,  including  ireta  worln,: 
shoe  factories  lumber  mitls  and  cbeniical  worics; 
The  public  libiary  contains  5,000  Volumes.  The 
dty  contains  also  a  tfKatre,  opera  house  and 
several  fine  bank  buildings.  The  most  trntable 
industry  is  ship-boildiiiK.  begun  here  in  1793. 
Beliast  was  settled  in  1770:  incorporatod  as  H 
town  and  luuned  from  Belfast,  Irelatid,'  in 
1773;  wa&  invested  by  the  Bntiifi  in  1815,  md 
was  given  a  city  durter  in  1K3.  Government 
b  vested  in  a  mayor,  -  elected  annually  and  a 
city  [loundl  of  two  chambers.  Consult  Wil' 
lianuon,  'History  of  the  City  of  Belfast'- 
(1877).    Pop.  4,618. 

BBLPORT,  Ul-for,  France,  fortified  town' 
in  the  department  of  Haul  Rhin,  on  the  Sa- 
voureuse,  commanding  the  Tronic  dc  Belfort  or 
pass  between  the  Vosg^s  and  Jura  Mountains, 
47  miles  northeast  of  Besancon.  It  is  wefl  built 
and  has  an  ancient  caitle  situated  on  a  lofty 
rock,  a  fine  parish  church,  barracks,  town  house, 
coMTf  of  primary  resort,  public  library  contain- 
ing 20,000  volumes  and  a  communal  college. 
Manufactures  —  hats,  clocks,  wax  tapers,  iron 
wire,  sheet  iron,  etc.  There  are  also  breweries. 
tanneries  and  iron  furnaces.  The  prindpal. 
trade  is  in  grain,  wine,  brandy  and  Kquore.  Iron 
is  e)i tensive ly  worked  in  the  neighborhood. 
Austria  ceded  Belfort  to  France  in  1648  and  it 
was  later  fortified  bj^  the  celebrated  Vauban.  In 
1814  Belfort  was  besieged  by  the  Allies  without 


holding  out  with  great  bravery,  capitulated,  16 
Feb.  187!.  In  recognition  of  the  bravery  which 
the  garrison  had  shown  In  its  defense,  it  was 
allowed  to  march  out  with  full  military  honors. 
This  defense  is  commemorated  by  the  huge 
■Lion  of  Belfort*  in  fjont  of  the  citadel,  the 
work  of  Bartholdi.  Belfort^  with  the  district 
immediately  surrounding  it,  is  the  only  pari  of 
the  department  of  Haut  Rhin,  wlych  remained 
to  France  on  the  cession  of  Alsace  to  Germani', 
26  Feb,  1871.  Previous  to  the  Great  War  Bel- 
fort was  deemed  impregnable  because  of  its 
extensive  system  of  forliiications.  The  fate  of 
the  Belgian  fortresses  in  the  war  has,  however, 
caused  a  revision  of  this  estimate.  Pop.  39,371, 
Consult  Bardy,  'Etude  historique  sur  Belfort' 
(BeUort  I9O0). 

BELFRY,  a  bell-tower  or  faell-turpEt  The 
term  was  employed  ia  medieval  sieae-craft 
fot  a  movable  wooden  tower  of  several  stages, 
employed  in  attack:  atid  ako  {or  a  watch-tower 
with  as  abrm  beQ.  A  bell'tower  may  be  at- 
tached to  another  building,  or  may  atatid  apart; 
a  bell-turret  usually  riees  above  the  roof  of  a 
building,  and  is  often  placed  above  tfaje  top  of ' 
the  western  gable  of  a  church,  the  terms  bdl' 
cotcv  bdU-gaUe,  being  also  used.  The  part  of 
»  tower  containing;  a  bdl  or  bdls  is  aim  called 
a  belfry.  Strict^  seeaking,  belfry  is  a  civil  and 
not  an  eccleStastica]  term :  in  the  Middle  ^es 
the  bells  in  the  municipal  belfry  were  empMred 
in  calling  the  citizens  to  arms  or  to  council,  and 
tbua  became  the  symbols  oi  popular  freedom. 
The  belfry  b£  Bnwcs,  commenced  in  LZ91,  is 
353  feet  iMgh;  uid  kas  a  celebrated  carillon  of 


bcDs,-  It  Was  not' till  tfacUth  century  tkat 
docks  Tftio  placed  in  bdfriefe.  The  detached 
ben  tower  is  of  frequent  occurrence  on  tbe  cOit- 
tinent  of  Europe,  and  in  England  the  Cathedral 
Qf  Chichester  and  3,  few  parish  cburdies  pos- 
sess such  an  adjunct.  In  the  United  Slatas 
such  structures  are  infrequent,  but  in  the  town 
of  Waterville,  N,  Y.,  is  a  detached  belfry  or 
clo^K-tgwer  with  quarter  chimes,  and  Brown 
Umversity  at  Providence  has  a  handsome  de- 
tached clock  tower  erected  within  Its  grounds. 
'  SKUOM,  *  group  of  German  and  Celtic 
tribes  who  inhabited  tbe  country  extendingrfrom 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  Rhine,  and  fPom  the 
Usone  and  Seine  to  the  southern  moutb  oi  tbe 
Rhino,  which  is  united  with  the  Meuse.  Frcmi 
time  to  time  until  tbe  period  of  Cnsar,  German 
nations  pushed  forward  beyond  the  Rhm^  partly 
QxpelUqg  the  Celts  from  their  seats,  partly  nnit-* 
iog  with  them;  and  from  this  union  ^pntng  a 
mixed  nation,  which,  in  its  language  as  welL 
as  in  its  manners,  r«sctiibled  the  GeFmans  tnorei 
than  the  Celts.  Accoraing  to  the  testimony  of 
Cassar,  they  were  the  most  valiant  of  the  Qaub. 
Belgic  tribee  »eem  also  to  have  settled  in  early 
Britain. 

BELCAUM,  bei-^m'.  India,  town  in  the 
district  of  Belgaum,  Bombay  presidency,  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  westerii  Ghats,  2,500  feet 
above  the  ses.  It  consists  of  a  native  town, 
fort  and  cantoimients,  and  contains  the  usual' 
courts  and  offices,  two  schools  for  the  children 
of  natives  of  rank  and  various  other  schools. 
In  IMS  the  fort  and  town  were  taken  by  the 
British  atter.  a  gallant  resistance  by  the  Feish- 
wa's  forces.  The  place  has  progressed  iinder' 
British  rnle  and  hs  citizens  have  not  been  ba*.;' 
ward  in  furtherinff  various  piibRc  enterprises!.' 
In  1848  they  snbacnbed  a  large  sum  for  the  bet- 
terment of  the  means  of  commum'cation,  of. 
which  their  community  has  continued  to  reap 
the  Emits.  Prom  the  salubrity  of  the  climate 
and  rile  .purity  o(  the  water  Belgaum  has  been 
selected  as  a  permanent  military  station.  Bel' 
gaom  manufactures  cotton  cloth  and  carries  on 
i  trade  in  salt,  dried  fish,  dates,  coin,  etc.  Fop. 
42,623.  Area  of  district  4,656  square  miles; 
pop.  943,820. 

BELGIC  CONFESSION,  a  credal  state- 
ment put -forth  in  French  in  1561  by  Guido  de 
Bres  of  Brabant  and  others,  and  sent  to  Philip' 
n  (/f  Spain  to  persuade  him  to  tolerate  the. 
Calvinistic  faith.  In  1562  it  was  pubhshed  in 
the  vernacular  and  subsequently  in  Dutch  and 
German,  and  was  acknowledged  by  the  synods 
df  Antwerp  <1566)  and  Dort  (1619).  A  trans- 
lation appears  in  Schaff's  'Creeds.' 

BELGIOJOSO,  bil-io-yo'sfi,  Cristina 
CPkiKCess  6f),  Italian  patriot:  b.  Milan;  '28 
June  leOS;  d.  there,  5  July  1871.  She  1ook'^> 
promineni  part  in  the  revolution  of  1830  and 
was  exiled  by  the  Austrian  government.  She 
lived  in  Paris  for  several  years  and  then  re-, 
turned  to  Italy  in  1847,  mid  in  the  revolution 
of  1848  offered  her  whole  fortane  to  the  pUriot 
ckuse  and  equipped  several  hundred  volunteers- 
at  her  own  oqtense.  A  second  exile  folbiwed 
on  the  occupation  of  Some  by  the  French  in 
1849,  but  she'  returned  under  the  amnesty  of 
ISSb  and  supported  the  policy  of  Cavour.  She 
edited  perioiScals'in  the  interest  of  Italian  lib- 
erty  and    was   the    author  of    several   boohs,' 


Google 


BELGIOJ080  —  BBI.GIUH 


'History  of  the  House  of  Savoy'  (1860);  and 
'Reflecbons  oo  the  Actual  Condidon  of  Italy' 
(1869). 

BELGIOTOSO,  Italy,  town  in  the  province 
and  eiefat  miles  southeast  of  Pavia,  It  is  situ- 
ated in  a  beautiful  and  fertile  plain  between 
the  Po  and  the  Olona,  and  is  well  built,  con- 
taining a  parish  and  an  auxiliary  church.  The 
old  castle,  in  which  Francis  I  was  temporarily 
lodged  after  bein^  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle 
of  Pavia,  in  1525,  has  been  converted  into  a 
magnificent  chateau,  surrounded  by  fine  gar- 
dens.   Pop.  4300. 

BBLQIUM  (Flemish,  Belgie;  French,  Bel- 

e'que;  German,  Belgienl,  a  kingdom  of  Europe, 
lunded  north  by  Holland,  northwest  by  the 
North  Sea,  west  and  south  by  France,  and  east 
by  the  duchy  of  Luxemburg,  Rhenish  Prussia 
and  Dutch  Limburg.  Its  greatest  length, 
northwest  to  southeast,  is  165  miles;  greatest 
breadth,  north  to  south, .120  mites;  area,  11,373 

SLiare  miles.  The  country  is  triangular  in 
ape,  having  its  vertex  in  the  west,  the  base 
resting  on  Germany  in  the  cast,  the  -shorter 
side  facing  Holland  and  the  sea  and  the  larger 
forming  the  frontier  of  France.  For  adminis- 
trative purposes  Belgium  is  divided  into  nine 
provinces  —  Brabant,  Antwerp,  East  Flanders, 
West  Flanders,  Hainaut,  Liige,  Limburg,  Lux- 
emburg and  Namur.  Differing  little  in  area, 
these  provinces  are  arranged  to  form  a  com- 
pact and  commodious  division  of  the  country. 
Brussels,  the  capital,  is  situated  in  Brabant, 
which  occupies  the  centre  and  may  be  consid- 
ered the  roelropolitan  province.  The  follow- 
ing table  shows  the  areas  of  the  provinces,  with 
their  estimated  population.  31  Dec  1912: 

'oputiUiotl 
\.V)*.9t» 


^dSi"  Bitii  ■ " 

i;!S 

SU;.::: 

Ml 

JM.lTl 

The  popul; 
1912  were: 

adons  of 

. .  111.804 

the  principal 

towns  in 

fiS^;::::::: 

Courtr«i".V. 
Alo«t.. 

cSXd;;::: 

The  last  census,  taken  31  Dec.  1910,  placed 
the   papulation   at   7,423,784;   the   above   official 
e  reveals  an  increase  of  147,603  in  two 


sus  (1910)  showed  that  2^33,334  spoke  only 
French-  3,220,662  only  Flemish;  31,415 
only  German ;  871,288  both  French  and 
Flemish;  74,993  both  French  and  German; 
8,eS2  German  and  Flemish;  and  52,547 
who  were  conversant  with  all  three  lao- 
eua^ps.  At  the  same  time  there  were  254,547 
foreigners  residing  in  Belgium,  distributed  as 
follows:    French,  80,765;   Dutch,  70^950;  Ger- 


mans,  57(010:  Laxemburgers,  10;367-  Russi^a, 
7,401 ;  British,  6^974;  Austro- Hungarians, 
5,927;  Italians,  4,498;  Swiss.  2,335.  and  8^38 
of  other  nationalities.  Statistics  of  Belgian 
emigration  show  13,492  in  19D0;  14752  in  1904; 
in  1908  these  figures  were  more  than  doubled, 
namely,  32,294;  in  1909  there  were  38,190  and 
in  1912  a  total  of  35,775.  The  inunignition  of 
foreigners  into  Bel^um,  on  the  other  hand, 
exceeded  the  emigration  of  the  natives  to  other 
countries.  The  latest  available  figures  are ;  in 
1910.  44,950;  in  1911,  41,062;  and  42,980  in 
1912.  The  majority  of  the  population  is  Roman 
(Zatholic,  but  as  no  inquiries  on  the  subject 
of  reli^us  belief  are  made  in  the  census 
enumeration^  there  are  no  figures  available  to 
show  the  distribution  of  creeds.  The  govern- 
ment impartially  subsidizes  Roman  Catholic, 
Protestant  and  Jewish  places  of  wontup  by 
contributing  to  the  stipends  of  ministers.  So 
far  back  as  1831,  when  religious  tolerance  was 
still  an  almost  unknown  quantity  in  Eurcqie, 
the  Belgian  Congress  made  freedom  of  con- 
science and  religious  equality  fundamental 
parts  of  their  Constitution.  The  Belgian  pop- 
ulation is  the  densest  in  Eurwe  ana  is  com- 
posed of  two  distinct  races  —  Flemish,  who  are 
of  Carman,  and  Walloons,  who  are  of  French 
extraction.  The  former,  by  far  the  more  nu- 
merous, have  iheir  principal  locality  in  Flan- 
ders ;  but  also  prevail  throughout  Antwerp, 
Limburg  and  part  of  BrabanL  The  latter  are 
found  chiefly  in  Hainaut,  Li£ge,  Namur  and 
part  of  Luxemburg.  The  language  of  each 
corresponds  with  their  origin  ~  die  Flemii^s 
speaking  a  Germanic  dialect  and  the  Walloons 
a  dialect,  or  rather  a  corruption,  of  French, 
with  a  considerable  infusion  of  words  and 
prases  from  Spanish  and  other  langu^es. 
This  distinct  mixture  of  races,  and  the  repeated 
changes  of  masters  to  which  they  have  been 
subjected,  have  necessarily  been  very  unfavor- 
able to  the  formation  of  a  national  character. 
Still,  in  some  leading  features,  there  is  a  re- 
markable uniformity  in  the  population.  Though 
the  position  of  the  country  between  France 
and  Germany  has  made  it  the  battlefield  of 
Europe,  the  inhabitants  show  tew  warlike  ten- 
dencies and  are  unwearied  in  pursuing  arts  of 
peace.  The  fact  bears  strong  testimony  to  the 
patient   endurance   of    the   Belgian   people,   but 


called  on.  French  is  the  ofHdal  language  of 
Belgium  and  in  general  use  among  the  edu- 
cated classes.  Of  late  years,  however,  patriotic 
feelings  have  acquired  new  strength ;  and  one 
of  its  first  manifestations  has  been  an  ea^er 
desire  to  cultivate  the  vernacular  Flemish, 
which  differs  little  from  Dutch. 

The  population  generally  is  industrious  and 
apparently  in  comfortable  circumstances.  The 
far  larger  proportion  of  it  is  rural;  and  though 
landed  property  is  veiy  much  subdivided,  Ott 
Bel^ans  manage,  by  a  happy  combination  of 
agricultural  with  other  industrial  employments, 
to  derive  from  their  little  holdings  all  the  nec- 
essaries and  not  a  few  of  the  comforts  of  life. 
It  is  not  to  be  denied,  however,  that  in  some 
of  the  provinces,  particularly  in  Flanders,  pop- 
ulation, in  so  far  at  least  as  it  can  be  main- 
tained by  agricultural  resources,  had  reached 
its  limit  and  that  a  deficiency  of  other  employ- 
ment,   particularly    spinning    and    hsmd-ioom 


?,ooglc 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


DijilizcdbyGoOl^le 


tbe 

^hjridul  Features,— The  surface  of  Bel- 
gium may  be  described  as  a  rugfted,  inclined 
plane,  elevated  in  the  southeast  and  sloping 
^dually  toward  north  and  west  till  it  sinks 
into  low  plains  only  a  few  feet  above  the  sea- 
level.  In  some  parts  the  land  is  even  several 
feet  below  that  level.  The  coast  line  is  abont 
42  miles ;  a  frontier  of  60  miles  faces  German 
territory;  384  miles  borders  on  the  northeast 
of  France,  and  a  curve  of  80  miles  separates 
Belgium  from  the  grand  duchy  of  T-uxembure. 
The  elevated  distncts  are  formed  by  ramifi- 
cations of  the  Ardennes,  which,  entering  Bel- 
gium from  France,  stretch  along  the  south  of 
Namur,  occupy  the  greater  part  of  Luxemburg, 
and  attain  their  culminating  point  in  the  south- 
east of  IJ£ge  al  Stavelot,  near  Spa,  where  the 
height  exceeds  2,000  feet.  The  rocks  appear 
to  rest  on  primary  formations;  but  those  which 
reach  the  surface  generally  consist  of  slate, 
old  red  sandstone  and  mountain  limestone. 
Proceeding  northwest,  in  the  direction  of  the 
dip,  these  rocks  take  a  cover  and  the  coal  for- 
mation becomes  fully  developed.  This  coal 
lield  is  a  continuation  of  that  of  the  north  of 
France  and  stretches  through  Belgium  in  a 
northeasterly  direction,  occupying  the  greater 
part  of  the  province  of  Hainaut  and  a  consid- 
erable part  of  that  of  Ltfge,  and  skirting  the 
provinces  of  Namur  and  Luxembuiv.  It  con- 
tains numerous  workable  seams  of  coal  and 
iron.  North  and  west,  beyond  the  limits  of  this 
coal  field,  are  deep  beds  of  clay  and  sand.  In 
parts  tbe  clay  is  suitable  for  the  manufacture 
of  fine  pottery;  in  others,  for  coarser  earthen- 
ware or  bricks. 

The  main  streams  of  Belmum  have  a 
northern  direction;  and  the  whole  country  lies 
within  the  basin  of  the  North  Sea.  In  the  ele- 
vated and  broken  surface  of  the  soutlteast 
numerous  torrents  descend  with  ra^dity;  be- 
coming confined  within  rocky,  preapitous  and 
richly-wooded  banks,  they  often  furnish  en- 
chanting landscapes.  Their  speed  slackens  on 
reaching  the  lower  country  and  their  au^ent- 
ed  volume  flows  along  in  a  slow,  winding 
course.  Only  two  ot  them  are  entitled  to  the 
name  of  rivers  —  the  Meusc  and  the  Scheldt 
—  and  their  importance  is  greatly  enhanced  by 
numerous  tributaries,  so  that  no  country  in 
Europe  is  more  lavistily  provided  with  internal 
water  communication.  Other  navirabte  streams 
are  the  Ambleve,  Demer,  Dender,  Darme,  I^e, 
Lys,  Great  Nethe,  Little  Nethe,  Ourtht  Rupel, 
Sambre,  Yperlee  and  Yser,  Though  subject  to 
.  sudden  changes,  the  climate  of  Belgium  is  on 
the  whole  temperate  and  agreeable,  reiemblii^ 
that  of  the  same  latitudes  in  England.  In  the 
higher  regions  of  Namur  and  Luxemburg  the 
air  is  keen,  pure  and  healthy;  on  the  low  flats 
which  occur  m  Flanders  and  over  the  reclaimed 
tracts  in  Antwerp,  a  humid  and  sluggish  atmos- 
phere prevails. 

Vfoodn  uid  For«its,— Nearly  one-fifth  of 
the  whole  surface  of  Belgium  is  covered  with 
wood,  thoi^  unequally  £stributed.  Whereas 
East  and  West  Flanders  fall  far  below  the  aver- 
age amount,  Luxemburg  and  Namur  rise  far 
above  it.  In  the  two  latter  are  extensive  tracts 
of  natural  forest,  still  sheltering  wolves  and 
wild  boars.     They  arc  the  remains  of  the  an- 


lUH  49T 

cient  forest  of  Ardennes  which  Ctesar  de- 
scribed as  stretching  far  out  into  France  from 
the  banks  of  rtie  Rhine.  They  yield  btge 
quantities  of  valuable  hard  wood,  prindpalljr 
oak.  By  the  most  scientific  methods  of  sjrlvi- 
culture  and  unremitting  industry  the  Belgians 
exploit  these  natural  resources  to  their  fullest 
capacity.  The  total  value  of  timber  produced 
annually  is  about  22,000,000  francs  ($4,400,000). 
The  less  valuable  grades  of  wood  are  converted 
into  charcoal  and  the  bark  is  largely  exported 
to   England. 

Agricnlhire,—  It  would  be  more  appropriate, 
in  describing  the  trade,  commerce  and  domestic 
industries  of  Belgium,  to  employ  the  past  tense 
in  all  verbs.  At  the  present  moment,  1917, 
Belgium  is  a  devastated,  war-ravaged  land, 
bleeding  under  the  heel  of  an  invader;  her 
commerce  and  indnstries  have  vanished;  her 
former  prosperity  no  longer  exists ;  fire,  desti- 
tution and  starvation  have  taken  its  place.  Tbe 
physical  —  if  not  tbe  sjMritual  —  activities  of 
Belgium  to-day  are  one  with  those  of  Nineveh 
and  Tyre,  Hence  the  following  chapters  on 
the  life  and  labor  of  tbe  Belgian  people  should 
be  read  —  for  tbe  time  beii%,  at  least  —  ai  a 
record  of  things  that  once  were;  of  tbe  brief- 
er days  before  the  plow  and  the  artisan's  tools 
yielded  to  the  overwhelming  strength  of  can- 
non and  bayonet. 

The  greater  part  of  Belgium  is  well  adapt- 
ed for  agriculture  and  the  inhabitants  had  so 
industriously  availed  themselves  of  their  nat- 
ural advantages  that  they  were  regarded  as  the 
model  farmers  of  Europe.  Those  parts  where 
climate  and  soil  were  unfavorable  for  raising 
crops  have  been  converted  into  pasturages. 
Here  is  raised  a  hardy  breed  ot  horses  admir- 
ably adapted  for  light  cavalry  and  largely  ex- 
ported to  France  for  that  purpose,  while  vast 
nerds  of  swine  are  fed  almost  at  no  expense 
on  the  mast  of  tbe  forests.  No  part  oi  the 
arable  soil  is  allowed  to  lie  waste,  but  is  care- 


of  tobacco  is  raised  in  the  Ardennes  valleys. 
In  the  province  of  Antwerp  and  partly  in  that 
of  LJmburg  occurs  a  vast,  dreary  expanse  of 
moorland  waste  known  as  the  Campine,  com- 
posed  mainly  of  barren  sand,  and  apparently 
destined  to  remain  forever  in  its  wild,  natural 
state.  Yet  wherever  a  patch  of  more  promis- 
ing appearance  occurs,  the  hand  of  industry 
has  transformed  it  into  com  fields  and  green 
pastures.      Agricultural    colonies,    partly    free 


.  of  persons  generalljr  in  poor  circum- 
stances who  have  voluntarily  engaged  in  re- 
claiming barren  tracts  as  the  means  of  procur- 
ing a  maintenance  and  saviiig  them  from  the 
d^radation  of  pauperism.  The  latter  consist 
of  convicts,  who,  having  forfeited  their  liber- 
ty, give  compulsory  labor  as  the  penalty  of  their 
offenses.  By  the  united  exertions  of  both  a 
wondrous  improvement  has  been  made  and  on 
parts  of  this  waste  some  of  the  linest  cattle  of 
the  country  are  raised  and  much  dairy  produce 
of  excellent  quality  is  obtained. 

Beyond  the  districts  mentioned,  there  is  no 
part  of  Belgium  in  which  agriculture  does  not 
flourish;  but  the  skill  in  husbandry  is  seen  at  its 
best   in   the  two   Flanders.     Its  excellence  it 


Google 


priates  eveiy  gain,  however  small,  and  a 

<)iutTy  which  grudgcf  no  labor,  however  greai, 
provided  it  is  posGibte,  by  the  application  of  i^ 
to  obtaJn  an  additional  amount  of  valuable 
produce.  In  fact,  the  FlemiBb  husbuidry  par- 
takes mors  of  the  nature  of  garden  than  of 
fieM  cultnre.  In  many  of  its  operatioms,  no 
doabt,  horse  labor  is  employed.  The  plow  anil 
Ibe  harrow  are  in  frequcnl  requisition,  but  the 
implement  on  which  the  greatest  dependence  19 
pltxxd  is  the  earliest  and  simplest  of  all  — the 
wade.  To  give  full  scope  for  the  use  of  it: 
luc  groiUKl  is  parceled  out  into  small  fields  or 
3  square  form,  which  have  their  bifhegt  point 
ill  the  centre  and  slope  gently  icotn  it  in 
all  directiooa  toward  the  sides,  where  ditches 
of  siriEcient  size  carry  off  the  saperfluous  wa-, 
ter  as  it  filters  into  them.  To  promote  this 
filtration  the  ground  is  ttenched  to  a  uniform 
depth,  so  that  the  slope  of  the  subsoil  corrc- 
spooo)  as  nearly  as  possible  to  that  of  the  sur- 
face. In  performing  this  trenching  a  consid- 
ttiiAt  degree  of  skill  and  ingenuity'  is  displayed. 
The  performance  of  the  whole  at  once  would 
be  a  formidable  and  not  a  very  efficient  process. 
In  a  few<  years  a.  new  subsoil  would  be  formed 
and  the  trenching  would  require  to  be  renewed. 
This  is  rendered  unnecessary  in  the  foUowing 
manner;  The  land  U  laid  cut  ia  ridges  about 
five  feet  wid«  and  when  the  seed  is  sown  it  ia 
not  covered  as  usual  by  the  harrow,  but  by 
eatth  dug  from  the  furrows  to  the  depth  o£ 
two  spit >  and  sfiread  evenly  over  ttw  surface. 
Bv  ctansing  the  ridges  and  throwing  the  fur- 
row of  iho  previous  year  into  the  ridge,  of  the 
next  the  whole  ground  becomes  iurrow  in  the 
eourse  of  five  successive  crops  and  is  conse- 
quently treached  to  die  depth  of  about  IS 
bicheE.  This  process  of  trenching  never  ce&seS 
and  ia  unquestionably  one  of  the  most  impout-. 
ant  characteriatics  of  the  Flemish  husbandly. 

The  only  other  process  partiojlsrly  desetrv- 
m^  of  notice  is  the  care  and  skill  nuuifcstcd 
in  secnriag  an  adequate  supply  of  manure. 
Every  farm  is  fully  stocked  and  the  cattle, 
instead  of  being  grazed  in  the  fidds,  are  fe4  at 
home,  in  winter  on  turnips  and  other  roots 
ami  in  the  Htmiuier  on  green  crops  carefully 
drrangtd  so  as  to  come  forward  in  regular  anc- 
eession  -and  yield  a  f  uU  supply  of  rich,  spcculent 
food.  En  addUion  to  this  every  homesutad  has 
a  tank,  built  and  generally  arched  with  bride, 
into  which  all  the  hquids  of  the  cattle  sheds 
at^  conveyed  and  hnvb  their  fertilizing  pmper< 
ties  increased  by  the  disst^tion  of  large  C}uan- 
tittcs  of  TB^  cake.  This  liquid  manure  is  of 
singular  efficacy  in  promoting  the  growth  of 
flax,  ^ich  caters  I'egularly .  into  the  Flemiih 
rotation  and  ii  perhaps  the  moat  valtiable  crop 
of  aJl.  As  this  crop  is  oi»e  of  the  most  ex- 
hansdng  which  can  be  grown  and  requires  the 
richest  manure,  while  it  yields  none,  the  growth 
of  it  to  any  great  extant  must,  without  the  ^d 
oi  the  tank,  have  been  imposaible. 

About  two-thirds  of  lhe  whole  Mcgdon  i» 
nnder  cultivation  and  nearly  eight-niullu  profi^' 
ably  occupied,  leaving  only  about  one-ninth 
waste.  Of  this  last  the  far  greater  part  be- 
longs to  the  comparatively  barren  districts  of 
die  southeast  and  northeast;  and  hence,  in  4he 
more  favored  pitovincct,  particularly  thope  of 


BFab^t,  the  twp  Flanders  and  Hainaut,  the 
quantity  of  waste  is  so  very  small  that  the 
whde  surface  may  be  regarded  as  one  vast 
gaxden.  Considerable  attention  has  been  paid 
to  the  raising  of  stock  and  the  breeds  both  of 
cattle  and  horses  are  of  a  superior  description. 
The  horses  of  Flanders  in  particular  are  ad- 
mirably suited  for  draught  and  an  infusion  of 
their  blood  has  contributed  not  a  little  to  form 
the  magnificent  teams  of  the  London  drayinen. 
Ingeneral,  however,  Belgian  stock  of  all  kinds 
b  inferior  to  that  of  England.  Every  province 
has  an  agricultural  cocunission  and  a  special 
council  to  advise  the  government  on  all  quev 
tions  of  national  industries. 

Mines. —  The  mineral  riches  of  Belranm  are 
{[Teat  an<4  after  agriculture,  form  tne  most 
important  at  her  national  interests.  Thejr  are 
alnsost  entirely  confined  to  die  four  provinces 
of  Mainaut,  X-iisa,  Namur  and  Luxemburg,  and 
consist  of  lead;  tnanganes^  calamine  or  zinc, 
iron  and  ooal.  The  lead  is  wrou^t  to  some 
extent  at  Vedrij^  in  Liige;  but  the  quantity 
obtained  forms  only  a  small  part  of  the  aciu^ 
consinnption.  Manganese,  well  known  for  its 
important  bleaching  properties,  is  obtained  both 
in  Li^e  and  Namur.  The  principal  fidd  of 
calamioe  is  at  Liige,  where  it  is  worked  to  an 
axieot  which  not  only  supplies  the  home  de- 
mand but  leaves  a  Urge  surplus  for  export. 
All  these  minerals,  however,  are  insignificant 
compared  with  those  of  iron  and  coal.  The 
former  has  its  seat  in  the  country  between  the 
Samhre  and  the  Meuse  and  also  in  the  province 
o£  Liige.  The  largest  quantity  of  ore  is  mined 
in  that  of  Naj^onir.  The  coal  field,  already  de- 
scrihed,  has  an  area  of  above  500  square  nnles. 
The  export  is  about  5,000,000  tons,  forming  one 
of  the  largest  and  most  valuable  of  all  the 
Belgian  exports.  Nearly  the  whole  of  the  coal 
thns  exported  is  taken  by  France.  Tliere 
oannot  be  a  doubt  that  this  export  adds  largely 
to  the  national  \vealth ;  but  a  .nuestian  has  beem 
railed  as  to  the  policy  of  thus  lavishly  dis- 
posing of  a  raw  material  which  is  absolutely 
tsseniiat  to  (he  existence  of  a  mannfacturing 


coaununity,  and  the  quantiu  of  which,  thouffl 
great.  is_  by  a  ■. .       ^ 


lexhaustihle.    One  ^>- 


lannfacturing 


of  the  most 
_  of  the  coun- 
for  compeUng 


try  m  an  unfavorable  t 

successfully    with    so    t 

Great  Britain.     Besides  minerals,  property   so 

i^led.     Belgium  is  abunduitly  supplied   with 

builtUog    stone,    pavement,    Umestone,    roofing 

slate  and  mdtble.    Of  the  Iftst,  the  black  rufUe 

of  Dinant  is  the  most  cetehrated. 

HaiMiactitrea.— The  industrial  products  of 
Belgittn  are  Vety  numersMiS  and  the  siq>criorit7 
of  many  of  them  to  those  of  tnost  other  coun- 
tries is  confessed.  The  £rie  linms  of  Flaoders 
and  lace  of  Brabant  are  of  Eor<^an  rqtuta- 
tioo.  Scarcely  kas  celebmted  aje  the  carpets 
and  porcelain  of  Toumay,  the  cloth  of  Vei- 
vitr&  (he  extdnvve  foiin^ivSi  faachine  Morks 
and  odier  iron  and  steel  establishments  of  Liege, 
Serving  and  -other  places.  The  cotton  and 
wiM^en  manufactures,  confined  chiefly  to  Flan- 
ders and  the  province  of  Antwerp,  hav«  ad- 
vanced greatly.  Other  manufactures  include 
jilks,  glass  and  glassware  hosieiy,  paper,  beet 
sugar,  beer.    Tkvttft  w«re  1.7  pig-iron  ;»oi1cs  ia 


=y  Google 


«eel  wwks;- beside*  89  sugar  (actarwaf  21  ■r«ri 
fineriea  and  13S  distiUcries.  Ttwr«.  vr«re  alt« 
over  600  Adlitie' vesatls.    .  :     - 

Trwkl  and  Coi»iMrcqr~  The  geogr^bicai 
position,  the  adirar»b1e  facilities  of  tranqrott 
and  the  indefatigable  indMStry  of  ttac  inhaUtaotg. 
eaiLy  cbtti)Mt>ed  to  pibce  Sieltfmn  at  the  verP 
head  of  the  trading  cttuntriei  ol  Europe.    Th« 
STftduHl  ritt  ot  compelitort  >till  more  Ughly 
favpred  ha*  deprived  her  lof  this  vrv-eaiinence, 
and  with  the  limited  extent,of >er  stajjottsl  it  is 
AM  t»  be;eiq>ectetl.tliat  sjie  can  ever  tsM.high 
rank  Bs  a  naval  «ine{  bw-  hw  trade  is  still  of; 
great  imfoftwace  and  vWiin  r««it  years  haa 
□»de  a  lapid  advaaca.    Htr  coal  and  iron  ana 
the  aivneroiis   prodiKt*  ol  httr  ED^mifaiitureB' 
fumisli  ia  themselves  the  materials  oi  axwn- 
sive  traffic;  whil«  the  poMpssjon' of  oae  of  the 
best  harbon  in  the  wocld  (Aatwerr).  jUiwted 
oo  a  tnasnifioent  rivcir,  which .  direcUyj.  pr  Itf- 
canala,  stretuhea  its  arms  «Mo  every  part  of  tbft 
Idngdomi  and  ioow  made  accessible  at  ft  syssem 
of    rutway*   with    every   kincdori   of   ceatial 
Earoptv  naturally  renders  B^^ta  the  seat  of 
a  trawtt  tAa4e  even  nioT«  iteportant  thu%  loat; 
wkidi  it  monopoUaed  during  the  Ulddle  Affe*. 
This  she  owes  chiefiy  lo  th*  admirable  sydtem 
of   raU\vay  communication  wfiith.  in;  theexer-, 
cise  of  an  enlightened  folicv, ,  was  eaj-Jy  eitab- 
lisbed    tivoughout  the  laaeAam.     This  «yBteaai 
has  its  cuitre  at  Marines,  jrom  which  a 'line 
proceeds  north  to  Antwew);  another  west  to 
Oatend:  another  southwest  throwh  Mons  and 
on  to  tie, NorthErn  Railroad  of  France, .which 
cooimumcates  airactly  .with  Paris,  and  anMlier 
southeast  to  Lifee,  and. on  into  Prussia,  whore 
it  first  communicates  with  the  Rhine  at  Co- 
lofpoe,    and  thence  t^,  that  river  and-  by  rail 
gaina   acce&s  both  east  and  south   to  ,  all   the 
countries   oi   central    Europe.      In.   additioa   to 
these  .great  trunks,  one  in^lDrlant  branch  con- 
nects Liege  -with  Nanwr  and  Uonjs;,  and  an- 
other  from  Aotweii,  after  crossing  the-  west 
trunk   at  Ghent,  gasses  Courtrai,  aiid  proceeds' 
directly  toward  Lille.    The  ramification  is  thus, 
complete;  and  there  is  not  a  towti  in  Belgium 
of  any  importance  which  may  not  now,  with 
the  utmost  facility,  convey  the  products  of  iti 
industry   by    the    safest   and  speediest   of    all 
means     of    transport.      The    railways    have    a^ 
length  of  5,401  miles,  of  which  2,708  are  state- 
owned  ;  private  lines,  190  miles,  and  2,503  .^ilea 
o£  light  railways.    In  1911  the  navigable  nvcrs 
and  canals  had  a  total  length  of  1,238  miles. 
The    valne  of  the  geroral  commerce  in   1913 
was   $1,632.0?0,OQO,  of  which  suai_^  16,725,000 
represented  imports  and  $715,365^000  .  exports. 
Germany,    France   and   Great    Bnt^    respect 
lively  w<re^  Belgitun's  best  customers. 

'The  articles  of  itnporl  tor  home  consump- 
tior»  include  grain  and  flour,  raw  cotton,  wool, 
hides,  coffee,  tobacco,  chetntcats,  oil- seeds. 
yam,  timber,  petroleum,  etc.  The  exports  arc 
principally  coal,  vara  (chiefty  linen  and  wool- 
en), .cereaU,  machinery,  Aax,  woolens  and  cot- 
tons. cbemicaK  steel  itnd  iron,  glass  and  glass- 


grown  considerably  of  late  years,  the  chief  ex- 
ports being  silks,  woolen  yarn,  cottons,  flax, 
glass,  e^gs;.  the  chief- imports  cottons,  woolens, 
raw  cotton,  liiclals  and  machinery.  The  exter- 
nal trade,  ip  chiefly  cafijei^  on  bjr;  ifiean^  of  for-. 


Mgn,  (Brjttsh}  vBHtlfl  juid;  the  creat  buUcof 
toe  shipping.  entei;s  and  clears  from  the  port 
9f  Antwerp,  f  The  total  burden  of  the  BelgLaa. 
mercantik  marine  is  over  180,000  tons.  Im-; 
portant  resulfs  are  expected  from  the  Associa- 
tion Bflgo-Hollandaise,  an  international  asso- 
ciation of  Belgian  and  Dutch  manufacturersi 
and  busirkeas  mqn  f^nuided.in  1903  to  effect  ft 
qjoscF' eommercial  ttnion  between  the  two  conn-' 
ttics.  The  trade  with  the  United  States  is  im-.' 
fortanl^  Jlel^um  being;  classed  as  fifth  in  the 
Tal^e.  of  its  imports  fiom  this  country  and  sev-; 
tfath  in  the  exports  it  sends  hither.  , 

:  Education.— As  already  stated,  almost  the 
tntire  population  of  Belgium  adheres  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  P  rotes  tan  tisnv  (hough 
tnUy  tolerated  and  recognized,  doei  not  count 
^ore  than  a  mercfraction  of  the  people  armon£ 
Its  adherents...  For  nearly  a  centurv  there  has 
raged  an  incessant  struggle  over'the  question, 
of  education  between  the  Clerical  party  on  the, 
opa  side  and  the  Liberal  on  the  other.  During 
aiimerous  politiral  crises  the  Socialists  haive, 
thrown  their  weight  into  the  yalc  against  the 
Oericals.  Th^  position,  of  the  Qiv^rch  tow-ard 
the  state  is  based  on  the  Constitution  aiid  cer- 
tain unrepealed  laws  datina  back  Lo  ISOZ.  By 
the  former  absolute  freedom  is  <de<;rced,  no 
compulsion  in  regard  to  religiqus  obsaryancesr 
^o  state  interference  wil^  api>omtment  of  mia-, 
ister^  all  reli^ous  marriage  ceicmonies  to  be> 
preceded  by  a  civil  marriage  and  salaries  o£ 
ministers  of  all  creeds  to  be  defrayed  tjy  the 
ftatc.  By  the  older  .  law  provincial  counciU 
were  to  provide  for  the  mAlntenanca  of  cathe-, 
deals,  episcopal  palaces  and  diocesan  seminaries, 
and'  .the  state  to  provide  funds  for  the  con- 
struction of  .  churches  and  the  expenses  of. 
religious  services.  At  various  intervals  these 
prescriptions  have  been  altered  to  meet  modem 
conditions,  Belgium  bung  no  longer  a  French, 
possession,  as  she  was  at  the  time  those  laws. 
were  jpasscd.  Daring  the  first  decade  of  Bel- 
gian independence  (ne  Cathoilics  had  gathered 
the  whole  educational  system  into  their  hajid^ 
wbeft  the  Liberals  began  to  raise  their  voices., 
A  compromise  was  effected  between  the  ^rtiefi, 
by  the  Education  Act  oi  1842,  by  which  re- 
heious  teaching  became  obligatory  In  elementary 
schools,  with  a  contr acting-out  provision  for 
children  of  other  beliefs.  This  arrangement 
worked  smoothly  for  the  next  25  years,  during) 
wliich  the  Catholic  party  appropriated  ever-; 
increasing  sums  for  the  up-keep  of  ''ofliciaP 
schools,  and  matters  came  to  a  cUmax  with  the 
fall  of  the  Catholic  ministry  in  1878.  Radicals, 
Freemasons  and  Socialists  united  to  secularize 
education;  the  power  of  appointing  teachers 
passed  into  their  hands,  and  anti-clericaUsts 
were  frequently  chosen.  The  new  ministry  cre-i 
ated  a  Deparlmeot  of  Public .  Instruction  oa 
the  basis  that  public  education  "must  depuid 
exclusively  on  the  civil  authorities.'  An  edu-. 
cation  bill  was  introduced  in  1879  aiming  at. 
the  abolition  of  religious  instruction  and  sul>-  - 
stituling  therefor  a  "universal  morality."  The, 
measure  provoked  violent  opposition ;  many, 
thousands  signed  petitions  of  protest  to.  ParUa- 
ment ;  the  intervention  of  the  Pope,  was, 
solicited,  but  the  ministry  remained  obdurate 
and  tlje  hill  became  law.  M.  FrerenQrhan,  the 
Premier,  severed  diplomatic  relations  with  the, 
Vatican:  the  Belpan  bishops  prohibited  Cath-- 
olic  children  .fton^  attent^gflhe  gch^oL;  a»d 


Google 


480  BBU 

Catholic  teachers  from  giving  instruction  in 
diem.  Thousands  of  teachers  and  children 
dropped  out  of  the  schools,  and  new  school 
buildings  were  speedily  erected  by  public  sub- 
scriptions, the  artisans  giving  Uieir  services 
tree  to  the  task.  Within  a  year  the  Catholics 
had  established  over  2,000  free  schools  with 
close  on  9,000  teachers,  while  the  state  schools 
had  lost  more  than  half  of  their  jiup its.  Though 
resorting  to  all  lands  of  tyrannical  devices  the 
government  was  unable  to  force  parents  to  send 
their  children-  even  lavish  offers  of  prizes  and 
clothing  failed  to  produce  the  desired  effect.  A 
government  commission  of  inquiry  proved 
equally  futile,  and  the  Liberal  mimstry  suffered 
a  crushing  defeat  in  the  elections  of  1884. 

On  their  return  to  power  the  Catholics  re- 
pealed the  education  bill  and  restored  Ae  old 
system  with  additional  improvements.  Stormy 
scenes  were  enacted  in  the  chamber.  At  the 
ensuing  communal  elections  the  Liberals  re- 
ceived increased  majorities  and  claimed  that 
public  opinion  was  on  their  side.  Yielding  to 
the  clamor  the  King  dismissed  his  leading  min- 
isters and  peace  was,  for  the  time  being,  re- 
stored. Since  then  the  Catholic  party  has  re- 
mained in  power,  revising  the  educational  code 
in  I89S,  1911  and,  finally,  introducing  compul- 
soi^  education  in  1913.  But  the  conflict  over 
religious  or  secular  education  has  never  been 
definitely  decided.  Up  to  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  the  schools  were  perform ii^  valuable 
service,  and  the  high  rale  of  illiteracy  was 
rapidly  diminishing.  At  the  census  of  1890 
nearly  27  per  cent  of  the  population  above  15 
years  of  age  could  neither  read  nor  write;  in 
1913  it  had  fallen  to  slightly  over  3  per  cent 
Colleges  and  middle-class  schools  have  been  es- 
tablished, where  a  superior  education  may  be 
obtained.  A  complete  course  for  the  learned 
profession  is  provided  by  four  universities,  two 
of  them  at  Ghent  and  Liige  respectively,  es- 
tablished and  supported  by  the  state;  one  at 
Brussels,  called  the  Free  University,  fotmded 
by  voltmtary  association^  and  one  at  Louvain, 
called  the  Catholic  University,  controlled  by 
the  clergy. 

Newspapers  and  Litenttire.— There  were 
2,245  newspapers  in  Belgium  in  1911;  of  these 
112  were  daily  and  1,061  weekly  papers,  and 
1.072  others.  The  Belgian  newspaper  press  is 
not  hi^ly  spoken  of  by  those  who  know  it 
best.  Baron  d'Ancthan,  then  Prime  Minister, 
told  the  Senate  in  1870  that  the  management  of 
native  newspapers  was  in  the  hands  of  stran- 
gers, as  were  also,  in  great  part,  their  editorial 
departments.  'People  are  falsely  led,'  he 
stated,  'to  consider  the  language  of  the  news- 

Epers  an  expression  of  public  opinion.  Their 
i^age  causes  sentiments  and  preferences 
which  are  not  ours  to  be  attributed  to  us  in 
foreign  countries.*  As  but  few  Belgian  news- 
papers make  enough  profit  to  pay  their  way, 
most  of  them  call  themselves  organs  of  this  or 
'  that  political  party.  While  many  have  a  H^t 
to  make  this  claim  there  are  others  with  large 
foreign  circulations  which  are  —  or  at  least 
were — merely  the  mouthpieces  of  foreign  gov- 
ernments and  not  by  any  means  friendly  to 
Belgium.  After  the  Franco- Prussian  War 
French  journalists  swarmed  into  the  country 
and  gained  control  of  many  papers,  using  their 
power  in  a  manner  calculated  to  injure  Bel- 
gian interests.     In  recent  years  a  number  of 


journalists,  *Belther  Belgian  by  birth  nor  adop- 
tion, obtained  control  of  journals  consideitd 
important  outside  Belgium.*  It  is  stated  by 
one  authority  (J.  de  C.  MacDonnell,  'Belgiuin, 
Her  Kings,  Kingdom  and  People')  that  these 
journalistic  intruders  *were  mercenaries  in  the 
pay  of  Englahd's  enemies,  and  succeeded  in 
damaging  Belgium  as  well  as  England  by  vio- 
lently upholding  what  they  pretended  to  be 
Belgian  causes,  and  attacking  En^and  as  the 
foe  of  Belgium.*  This  statement  wa*  written 
the  year  before  the  war,  1913. 

Belgian  literature,  regarded  from  a  national 
point  of  view,  is  a  very  modem  creation  dating 
from  the  erection  of  Belgium  as  an  indraendenl 
kingdom  in  1830.  But  a  purely  Flemish  litera- 
ture has  existed  since  the  13th  century,  wh«i 
that  language  and  the  Walloon  dialect  weie 
spoken  tbroueliout  the  Low  Countries.  (Set 
I^uiSH  Language  awd  Litbratukb).  After 
the  separation  from  Holland  (1830)  a  strong 
sentiment  of  nationality  arose  in  Belgium,  to- 
gether with  a  desire  to  break  away  from  I>utdi 
traditions.  The  Flemish  language  was  revived 
and  a  literair  renascence  inaugurated  tmdcr  the 
leadership  of  Jan  Frans  Willems,  a  freethinker, 
and  the  Abbi  David,  a  clergyman.  This  straese 
combination  worked  separately  for  tiic  same 
object,  and  each  founded  a  society  to  promote 
it.  The  memory  of  both  is  still  honoiwl  by  two 
literary  funds  oearing  their  respective  names. 
At  the  death  of  Willems  in  1846,  his  mantle  fell 
upon  Henri  Oin  science,  a  romantic  story- 
writer.  Thoug{i  his  talcs  were  of  a  somewhat 
childish  nature,  it  is  said  that  he  'retaugbt  bis 
countrymen  to  read.*  The  publication  of  his 
'De  Leeuv  van  Vlanderen'  (The  Lion  of 
Flanders),  gave  an  enormdus  stimulant  to  the 
literary  renascence,  which  has  grown  and  flour- 
ished in  Belgium  to  this  day.  Quite  a  number 
of  Belgian  authors  write  in  French;  the  most 
celebrated  of  these  is  Maurice  Maeterlinck 
(q.v.).  The  modem  school  of  Belgian  writers 
have  largely  emancipated  themselves  from  the 
powerful  influence  of  French  style  and  (ona 
and  created  a  distinct  type  of  literature  purely 
national  in  spirit  and  abnosphere.  The  strong- 
est incentive  to  the  •emancipation  movement* 
was  given  in  1846  by  die  poet  Lede^nck,  who 
protested  against  n^lecting  the  national  char- 
acter and  language  for  those  of  another  coiu- 
try.  Belgian  auOiors  cover  the  whole  field  of 
literary  activity  —  history,  biographv.  jdiitoso- 
phy,  economics,  poetry,  fiction,  drama  and 
btlles-Uttret.  Louis  Gachard  (d,  1885)  wrote 
16th  century  history;  Charles  Rahtenbeck  (d. 
1903)  published  a  history  of  Protestantism  in 
Belgium ;  Baron  Kervyn  de  Lettcnhove  wrote 
a  big  history  of  Flanders;  Alphonse  Wauters 
was  a  famous  archxologist ;  Emile  de  Lavaleye 
was  a  learned  exponent  of  economics;  F.  A 
Gevasrt  wrote  a  history  and  theory  of  ancient 
music;  Joseph  Delbceuf  was  celebrated  for  his 
writings  on  psychology;  Baron  de  Gerlachc 
wrote  a  history  of  the  Netherlands;  Ernest 
Nys  is  recognized  as  an  expert  on  intematioiul 
law;  Georges  Rodenbach  was  the  auAor  of 
that  well-known  work  'Bruges  la  Morte';  dw 
Abbi  David  already  referred  to  wrote  a  his- 
tory of  Belgium  in  Flemish;  van  Rijswijck  was 
a  patriotic  song  writer  in  the  vernacular;  Jan 
Sleeckx  was  a  renowned  dramatist,  novelist  mw 
literary  critic ;  among  dramatists  and  p«ls 
may  also  be  mentioned  Charles  van  LerbergD^ 


Max  Elskftmp,  Albert  Ginuid,  Jan  van  Been. 
Prudeni  van  Duyse,  Edmonil  Picard,  Edouara 
Smits,  Julius  de  Geyter,  Andrf  van  Hasselt, 
Julius  Viylsleke,  Ivan  Gilkin,  Charles  Potvin, 
Emmanuel  Hie  I,  the  world-renowned  Emit 
Verbaeren  and  a  host  of  others,  M.  Henry 
Carton  de  Wiart,  Belgian  Minister  of  Justice 
is  a  famous  novelist  whose  masterpiece,  'Cite 
Ardente,'  should  be  read  by  lovers  of  b^utifut 
(French)  prose.  There  are  many  learned  so- 
cieties in  Belgium,  archsological,  historical  and 
scientific.  The  Belgian  Academy,  which  is 
modelled  on  the  lines  of  ihe  Acaoemie  Fran- 
caise,  has  performed  most  valuable  services  in 
the  propagation  and  encouragement  of  useful 
knowlef^e  in  Belgium.  A  number  of  literary 
reviews,  written  and  published  by  Belgians,  at- 
tain a  hiKh  standard  of  excellence  that  is  quite 
ComparaUe  with  their  French  and  Dutch  con- 
temporaries. 

Defense.— The  question  of  national  de- 
fense bad  long  been  a  knotty  problem  in  Bel- 
gium and  it  was  not  imtil  1913-^  on  the  eve 
of  the  war— that  Baron  de  Broqueville,  the 
Prime  Minister,  carried  an  army  bill  through 
Parliament  involving  compulsory  service.  Al- 
ready in  1890  the  question  of  obligatory  service 
had  assumed  an  acute  form,  when  the  govern- 
ment categorically  refused  to  introduce  that 
system,  notwithstanding  that  it  met  with  general 
favor  from  the  Liberal  party  and  the  working 
classes  eencrally,  and  was,  besides,  strongly  sup- 
ported by  all  native  competent  authorities.  At 
that  time  Lieutenant-General  Van  der  Smissen, 
one  of  the  ablest  Bel^an  oflicers  seiied  the 
first  available  opportunity  to  express  openly 
and  loudlv  his  format  disapproval  of  the  con- 
duct of  the  Minister  of  War,  General  Pontus, 
on  the  subject  of  personal  service.  For  this 
freedom  of  speech  the  general  was  promptly 
dismissed,  a  circumstance  that  was  regarded  as 
a  great  loss  to  the  Belgian  army.  The  bill 
of  1913  called  all  young  Beif^ans  who  were 

Ehysically  fit  to  serve  in  the  army,  which  would 
ave  doubled  its  nominal  strength  and  raised 
the  number  of  effectives  to  300,000  men.  But 
the  measure  arrived  too  late;  the  war  clouds 
burst  over  the  country  before  the  reforms  were 
carried  out  The  total  available  was  263,000, 
of  which  number  nearly  half  were  required  to 
garrison  the  fortifications,  leaving  only  133,000 
for  service  in  the  field.  To  bnng  the  latter 
force  up  to  the  necessary  strength  the  govern- 
ment had  perforce  to  call  up  the  old  Gvic 
National  Guard.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
Franco-Prussian  War  in  1870  the  Belgian  army 
was  immediately  placed  on  a  war  footing,  and 
undoubtedly  saved  the  country  from  once  more 
being  'the  battle-field  of  Europe.'  It  is  an 
open  secret  that  the  French,  on  the  eve  of 
Sedan,  meditated  a  raid  through  Belgium;  the 
Emj>eror  Napoleon  III  was  only  prevented  from 
taking  the  step  when  one  of  hi^enerals  pointed 
out  that  it  would  mean  70.000  more  enemies 
for  France.  Under  the  old  law  of  1902  the 
Belgian  anny  was  recruited  by  voluntary  en- 
listment ai^niented,  in  case  of  necessity,  by 
annual  levies  of  young  men  who  had  completed 
their  19th  year.  Anyone  unwilling  to  serve 
might  provide  a  substitute,  for  which,  of  course, 
he  would  have  to  pay.  The  period  of  service 
was  6xed  at  eight  years  with  the  colors  and 
five  years  in  the  reserve.  About  14,000  men 
were  required  annually,  white  the  war  strength 


was  calculated  at  180^000.  While  the  new  law 
of  1913  retains  the  same  legal  period  of  scrvic^ 
it  drafts  about  half  of  the  number  of  the  total 
available.  The  men  receive  an  excellent,  all- 
round  training,  havii%  to  serve  in  all  the 
branches    in    rotation,    viz.,    infantry,    fortress 


dvitiMt,  numbering  dose  on  50,000  men  in  time 
of  peace,  in  addition  to  which  there  were  over 
90,1X10  non-active  men  belonging  to  this  force. 
Belgium  has  no  navy  beyond  a  small  flotilla 
of  gunboats  for  river  and  coast  service. 

The   j^incipal   means   of   defense   to   which 
the   Belgians  had  long  pinned  th^r   faith  was 


destined,  in  the  early  stage  of  the  European 
War  in  1914,  to  play  a  prominent  and  instruc- 
tive part.  On  the  one  hand,  they  stemmed  the 
German  invading  avalanche  for  a  week;  on 
the  other,  they  proved  die  utter  uselessness  of 


,      :<i  her 
independence,  plans   for  fortified  d  .     _ 

engaged  the  attention  of  her  best  military  engi- 
neers. The  first  proposal  was  laid  before  a 
military  committee  by  General  Chazel  in  1845. 
Besides  a  reorganization  of  the  army,  he  advo- 
cated the  demolition  of  existing  defenses  that 
were  in  the  wrong  places,  and  the  establishment 
of  powerful  entrenchments  at  Antwerp,  Vears 
later,  when  the  plans  were  about  to  be  put  into 
execution,  Na[)oteon  III,  who  had  climbed  to 
power  in  the  interim,  vetoed  the  plan  on  the 
ground  that  he  might  some  day  be  obliged  to 
enter  Belgium  himself,  in  which  case  the  forts 
it  was  proposed  to  demolish  would  be  his  last 
support.  It  was  not  till  four  years  after  the 
close  of  the  Franco-Prussian  War,  when  Brial- 
mont  became  inspector-general  of  fortifica- 
tions, and  Napoleon  had  fallen,  that  the  task 
was  begun.  He  had  already  fortified  Antwerp 
in  1868;  by  1892  he  had  completed  the  forts 
at  Liege  and  Namur.  In  his  designs  he  broke 
away  from  the  old  French  star-shaped  forts 
with  bastioned  ramparts  and  adopted  the  Ger- 
man type  of  long  front  and  tletached  forts. 
Before  the  advent  of  artillery,  forts  were  high 
as  castles;  thereafter  they  were  made  as  low 
as  possible,  burrowlns  underground,  and  show- 
ing onl^  a  mousd  hardly  visible,  cased  and 
roofed  in  concrete  and  covered  with  earth. 
The  guns  within  were  of  the  'disappearing* 
type,  which  were  raised  just  high  enough  to 
^eep"  over  the  level,  fire  and  sink  out  of 
sight  again.  The  sections  between  the  forts 
were  supposed  to  be  provided  with  infantry 
and  artillery  trenches,  hut  this  most  important 
point  was  apparently  overlooked,  and  thus  the 
passages  between  the  forts  were  left  unde- 
fended against  night  attacks  tipf  infantry.  Li£^e 
was  defended  by  12  forts,  six  main  and  six 
smaller  ones,  called  fortins;  between  two  of 
them  lay  an  undefended  gap  of  five  or  six 
mites^  presenting  an  open  entrance  to  the  Dutch 
frontier.*  Across  the  Meuse,  to  the  south- 
east, was  Fort  Barchon  and  Fortin  Evegn^e; 
farther  south  stood  Fort  Fleron,  which  com- 
manded one  of  the  railroad  lines  to  Aix;   the. 


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tWo  fortiris  Chauilfontaine  and  Eiiiboure,  on 
opposite  banks  of  the  Vesdre,  controllea  ibc 
hue  to  Germany  via  Verviers;  Fort  Bonc«llss 
to  the  west  commanded  the  elevated  ground  be- 
tWeen  ihe  Meuse  and  the  Ourthe;  while  noiii 
of  Bcmcelle?  stood  Forts  Fletiialle,  HoHogne  and 
Lonciif,  and  between  the  fetter  and  Pontisse 
lay  iwB  more  forlitts.  Lanthi  and  Lien.-  This 
irregnlar  circle  around  Li£ge  was  considered 
a  sate,  double  line  of  defense;  the  forts  being 


fire  from  right  and  left  even  if  a  fort  fell  into 

'his  hands.  As  it  happened  in  actua!  experience, 
in  1914,  by  the  captore  of  Fort  Loncin,  a  vital 
spot,  bj^  the  Gennans,  the  whole  railway  system 
of  Belgium  was  laid  open  to  the  invadii^  forces, 
and  the  fall  of  Namur  and  Antwerp  (neither 

"of  which  could  hinder  their  progress  to  French 
territory  after  thai),  was  only  a  question  of 
lime  after  Ihe  world  had  seen  with  What  com- 
parative ease  the  Liege  forts  had  been  demol- 
ished.    Sec  Ant^'erp;  Namur. 

But  perhaps  more  than  to  her  army  and 
fortifications,  Belgium  trusted  in  the  protective 
Influence  of  international  treaties  among  the 
Great   Powers   guaranteeing  her   independence 

-Bjid  neutrality,  The  Tfeaiies  of  1831  and  1839 
framed  between  Great  Britain,  France,  Austria, 
Prussia  and  Russia  provided  that  'Belgium  shall 
form  an  indyiendcnt  and  perpetual^'  neutral 
Stale;*  m  186/ the  same  powers,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  Italy  and  Holland,  collectively  guaran- 
teed the  neutrality  of  Lujcemburg.  In  1870,  on 
the  outbreak  of  the  Franco- Prussian.  War, 
Great  Britain  immediately  made  separate  trea- 
ties with  both  France  and  Prussia  by  which 
the  neutrality  of  Belgium  was  specially  guaran- 
teed during  the  war.    At  the  same  time  Great 

-firitain  pledged  herself  to  co-operate  a^inat 
either  of  the  two  belligerents  that  might  violate 

.that  neutrality.    In  addition,  the  Treaty  ot  1839 

.  was  positively  reaffirmed.  When  Germany  de- 
clared war  against  France  in  1914,  Qreat  Britain 
again  celled  upon  the  two  powers  to  forswear 
any    violation    o  f    Belgian    territory ;     Fran(;e 

-  readily  gave  the  desired  promise,  and  Germany 
refused  it. 

GoTenunmit.—  The     Belgian     Constitution 

'.combines  monarchial  with  a  stroog  infusion  of 
the  democratic  principle.  Contrary  co  the  cits- 
torn  obtaining  id  cOuslitutipnal  countries,  the 
king  of  the  Belgians  has  the  imwer  to  initiate 

'  tegislatioii.  The  exKutive  power  is  vested  in 
a  hereditary  king;  the  legislative  in  the  king 
and  two  chambers  —  the  Senate  and  the  Cham- 
ber of  Bepresentitivea— the  former  elected  tor 
eight  years,  the  latter  for  foUr,  but  one-haJf 
of  the  former  reuewaile  etery  four  years  and 
one-half  of  Ae  latter  every  two  years.  The 
senators  (of  whom  there  ane  120)  are  elected 
partly  directly,  paitlr  indbectly-  (by  the  pro- 
vincial oounciIs)i  and  must  be  40  years  of  aee. 
Their  nnmbers  depend  on  popiilxtion.  The 
deputies  or  representatives  are  elected  directly 
one  for  erery  40,000  inhabitants  at  most.  AJi 
citiiens  of  25  years  of  age  are  electors,  and, 
according  to  certain  (jualifications,  one  elector 
may  have  three  votes.  Abstention  from  voting 
is  punishable  by  law.  Eadi  deputy  is  allowed 
$800  per  annum  and  a  free  railway  pass  be- 
tween his  place  of  residence  and  ihe  capital. 
In  1913  the  Senate  was  composed  of  70  CathA- 


,Jksi'B5  Libetab  iiul'ilE'StxiilistsL'  in  the  dam- 
.'b«r  tii  Representatives  there  were  lOI  Catho- 
lics, 44  Liberals,  39  Socialists  and  two  Christian 
Socialists.  0«  the  fall  of  Bmascls,  20  Aug. 
1914,  Ihe  Belgian  government  was  removed  id 
Havre,  France.  The  estimated  rsvenue  for 
1913,  chiefly  from  railways,  customs,  «xcise  and 
direct  ta3calion,  was  $151,531000;  tfae  estimated 
expenditure  $151,108,000.  About  one-fourdi  of 
the  eMpenditure  is  in  paynli^nt  of  the  interest  of 
the  national'  debt,  tbe  total  of  wiikh  in  1913 
wag  $74^,826,7^.  The  coins,  weights  and  meas- 
ures are  the  same,  both  in  name  and  valoe,  as 
fliose  of  France. 

HipterT.— l^e  history  of  Belgium  as  a 
separate  longdotn,  beginning  in  IBM),  when  it 
was  constituted  an  independent  European  stale, 
would  not  truly  represent  the  life  of  the  people 
or  accoimt  even  for  rtie  events  of  the  period 
embraced  in  it  Situated  betw.een  the  hro  lead- 
ing states  of  Europe,  and  deeply  interested  in 
air  the  political  a^tatiolis  renjlting  alike  Erom 
their  rivalries  and  their  alliances,  the  Belgian 

S;ople  often  chaftged  masters.  Moreover,  Iht 
elgian  territory  contained '  within  itsdf  one 
leading  element  of  the  dissensicms  which  raged 
around  it  The  two  great  races  of  differenl 
ori^n  and  habits,  the  Celtic  and  Tmtonic,  or 
,Lalm  and  German-speaking  peoples,  whose  dif- 
;  ferent  poGcies  have  dividea  Europe  from  the 
time  of  the  Romans,  were  combined  in  its  pop- 
ulation; the  Walloon  provinces,  Hainaut,  Na- 
mur, Luxemburg,  being  nearly  allied  to  Ibt 
French,  while  Flanders,  Brabant  and  Limburg 
approximated  more  in  character  and  language 
to  the  Germans.  Thus  not  only  were  the  ^eat 
rivalries  of  Europe  r^resented  here  in  minia- 
ture, but  their  conipression  within  the  narrow 
limits  of  what  is  now  one  of  the  smallest  of 
European  states  has  resulted  Id  the  formation 
,oE  a  distinct  national  character.  While,  there- 
fore, the  dijef  events  in  which  Belgium  was 
J  interested  prior  to  1830  are  matters  of  Euro- 
pean fiistory,  a  brief  outline  of  them  is  needed 
here  to  give  a  distinct  concMf ion  of  the  char- 
actet  of  the  people  which  they  cotitributed  to 

The  territory  anciently  Icnown  as  Belgian 
differed  considerably  from  that  which  has  as- 
sumed the  name  in  modern  times.  According 
to  Cfesar.  the  territoiy  of  the  Belgs,  who  were 
one  of  the  principal  tribes  of  ancient  Gaul, 
extended  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Seine  to 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  and  to  the  ocean. 
We  have  it  oCi  the  authority  of  Strabo  that 

.there  were  IS  Belgian  tribes.  This  district 
continued  under  Roman  sway  till  the  decline 
of  the  enlpirie  and  suteequently  formed  part 
of  the  kingdom  of  Clovis,  who  subdued  nearlr 
the  whdle  of  Gaul  from  tie  Rhine  to  the  Med- 
iterranean.    The  Franks  at  this  time  did  not 

.  recwcnife  the  law  of  primogeniture.  On  the 
death  of  a.  monarch  his  dominions  were  divided 
ifmOBg  hb  sons,  the  more  amMtious  oE  witoin 
agaui  stnjve  to  unite  diem  under  their  own 
sway.     Thus  the  Prankish  kingdoms  under  die 

-descendants  ot  Clovis  were  subject  to  taaOJxm 
vidssittides,    in    whiiii    the    Belgian  territow 

.  shared,  forming  Euccesstfcly  a  pbrtion  ol  1°^ 
Idngdoms  of  Meti,  Soissoas  and  Australia,  iw 

.the  whole  wis  reunited  under  Charlemagne  or 
Charles  the  tSroat.  This  grwlt  cdnqoeror  md 
aduinbtrator,  the  &ct  ^thostrotarfo.onitBtlK 


.Google 


atates'  at  ■&iifa/pi  ih  a  tdvUifeett  comtMoii^idth, 
was  of  Belgian  extrficlion;  It  Was  at  Latiden 
and  H«ntal,  on  tfie  eonlines  of  the  fortest  6( 
Ardennes,  that  his  predecessors,  t&e  great  may- 
ors of  the  ^lace,  held  Sway,  while  his  owh 
ca^ttl  was  cstabh<Aed  at  Aiit.  CharteniagtK 
in  ffftAt  measure  dcsicoytd  his  own  work  t^ 
adopting  the  Ft^nktsh'  custoiti  of  ^ivldhietus 
klngdcMi  amoRK  his  sons  at  his  death.  Thh 
practke,  wUch  had  proved  so  diaasll-ous  to  the 
dynasty  of  Clovis,  was  continued  for  some  tinfe 
in  his  family,  but  was  ultimately  abolished  iti 
France.  ■  It  long  preraSed  among  die  principal- 
ities <fi  permany,  hindering  their  unity  and  eon- 
triMiting  to  the  astendancy  of  Prance  in  Eu- 
rope. Thus  Belgium  fell  to  Lotiiaire,  the  grand- 
son of  Charlemagne,  filming  part  of  the  Idng- 
dom  of  Lotharingia,  which  was  dep«ident  on 
the  Oerman  EttipJre!  tiMbylhe  Trewy  of  Verf- 
4ttn  (8ti)  Artois  and  Flanders  were  united  tb 

For  TtiOT^  ^an  a  century  thi^  kingdom  wds 
contended  for  by  the  kings  of'  fS'raiiCe'  and  the 
emperors  of  Germany.  In  9S3  il  was  cMifcn^d 
by  Ihe  Emperor  Otto  upttn  Bnino,  arcbbisbdp 
of  Coloe^e,  who  asstimed  thi;  title  of  aKhduke 
and  divided  it'  into  two  duchies  —  Upper  Lor- 
raine, containing  modern  t-orraine,  Lnxemburg 
and  the  dioceses  of  Meti,  Toul,  Verdun  and  the 
Palatinate-  and  Lower  Lorraitie,  containing 
Brabant,  Guelders,  the  Mshotmcs  of  Crfogne, 
Liige  and  Cambray.  Tliese  diichtes  wtre  tem- 
porarily rewiited  under  Gontbdan  I,  Duke  of 
Lower  Lorraine,,  who  acquired  Upper  Lorraine 
in  1033.  Among  the  didces  of  Lower  Lorraine 
may  also  be  mentioned  Godfrey  of  BbitllloA, 
the  great  Crusade  leader,  who,  In  10^,  was 
crowned  King  of  Jerusalem. 

The  feudal  system,  which  had  estabHshed 
itself  over  the  greater  part  of  Europe,  iitrewise 
prevailed  in  the  Belgian  terri to ty,  which  in  the 
11th  centnry  Was  divided  into  duchits,  counties 
and  marquis ates,  under  the  sway  of  t^lefe 
owing  allegiance  to  the  empire  or  other  Wf  the 
greater  prhices,  but  exercising  an  almost  abso- 
lute dominion  over  their'  own  sub>ectj.  Thus 
were  formed  the  couniies  of  Holland,  Bt&bant, 
Zealfttid,  Frtesland,  Namur,  Hainattt;  the 
ducfaies  of  Limbui^,  Guelders,  Julier!,  Luxem- 
burg; the  manjuisate  of  Atrtwet^and  otberj. 
In  the  Erequent  strtiggtcs  which  tooh  Jilace  dui^ 
ing '  ^s  period,  Luxemburg,  Namur,  Heinant 
and  Li€ge  were  usually  found  siding  with 
Prance,  while  Bi^bant  Hoiland  am}"  Fhindei^s 
conunonly  look  the  side  of  Germany.  The 
princes  and  the  people,  hot^evtr,  pafticulariy  of 
Flanders,  were  atk  always  found  on  the  same 
side.-  * 

The  12th  and  13th  centurie^  were  disttn- 
gttished  by  a  general  uprisin|f  of  the  Midwstrigl 
comMtMittes,  which  had  began  to  ((row  in  iM- 
portasce'  throughout  Europe,  againW  the  feudal 
system.  This  movement  was  very  Stttwigfy 
luanifesttd  throughout  tjie  Nefberlands,  less 
strongly  ptrhaps  in  Belgium  that)  in  Holland. 
In  both  countries  prosperous  mutticipalirtss  be- 
gan to  ariw  and  assart  dicir  ff«cdom;  btn  the 
spirit  of  ccntr^nation,  more  stMingly  developed 
among  the  Ladn-<3peiridng  races,  piievBlt«d  more 
in  the  southern  provinces,  while  the  lot*  df 
individual  liberty' was  more  strongly: manifested 
in  the  aotA.  Many  of  the  towns  df  l^Rdet>s 
and.Bmbantt  hawevef,  fcecamd  exiMnicly' dtta- 


ocratic  'Gteuit  in  pani<:Bla«  dibtingulshad  itsrff 
■  by  the  violence  and  frequency-  of  its  revolt 
against  its  rulers. 

From  this  time  the  popular  and  dvic  element 
began  to  connt  for  something  in  political  oom- 
binatjons.  If  one  potoitate  Secured  the  alliance 
of  a  count,  another  might  strengthen  himself 
by  secr^^  encouraging  insurrection  in  bis 
towns:  llie  people  of  Flanders  often. allied 
themselves  witii  the  English,  with  whom  tlieir 
commercial  intercourse  and  their  love  of  frea- 
dom  gat«  tham  many  commoH  ioteresta  and 
feelings,  and  both  their  own  connts  and  the 
French  monarchy  often  felt  the  effects  of  this 
-alliance.    ' 

The  battle  of  Courtrai  in  1302  gfeatly  #e^ 
«ned  4a  feudal  authority,  but  the  asc£ndan<7 
of  the  poputar  element  led  to  variote  exc«sset. 
The  ofganiaation  of  popular  power  was  rosorved 
for  a  later  age,  and  the  battle  of  Rosebcqiie, 
1382,  in  which  the  Gheatese  under  Philip  van 
-Art«veMe  (who.  had  Offered  the  c*own  of 
France  to  Richard  11  of  England  as  th«  pride 
of  his  assistance)  -were  totally  defeated,  restored 
the  authority  of  the  noNes.  In  1384,  Flanders 
and  Artois  fell  to  the  house  of  Burgundy  bv 
the  marriage  of  the  Duke,  a  scipn  of  the  French 
Crown,  wiA  Margaret,  daughter  of  Louis  II, 
Count  of  Nevers,  the  last  ruler  of  these  prov- 
inces. By  a  succession  of  happy  marriages,  by 
purchase  or  by  force,  Holland,  Zealand,  Hain- 
aut,  Brabant,  Limbnig,  Antwerp  and  Namur 
bad  all  by  1430  become  the  inheritance  of  the 
same  house'.  In  1442  the  dncby  of  Luxemburg 
was  acoLHred,  and  in  1470  Guelders  and  Fries- 
land.  This  extraordinary  prosperity  induced 
■Charles  the  Bold,  who  succeeded  in  1467,  to  at- 
tetni^t  to  unite  his  territories  by  the  conquest 
of  Alsace,  Lorraine  and  I'i^^  ^nd  raise  hts 
ducby  to  a  fcirigdom.  The  details  of  this  enter- 
prise, which  forms  one  of  the  most  exciting  epi- 
sodes in  European  history,  belong  more  imnM- 
diateiy  to  the  history  of  France,  it  ended  in 
his  defeat  and  death  at  the  battle  of  Nancy  m 
1477.  His  daughter  Mary,  who  succeeded  him, 
carried  the  fortunes  of  her  house  still  hi^er,  or 
rather  she  carried  them  into  a  house  still  more 
fortunate  than  her  own,  by  her  union  with  the 
Arcbduke  Maximilian,  »on  of  the  Emperor 
Frednidt.  Her  splendid  possessions  had  been 
coveted  by  many  potentates  and  there  were  five 
candidate^  f6r  her  hand^  among  whom  the  most 
importaM  were  the  Danphb,  son  of  Louis  XI, 
and  the  Archduke. 

■  It  now  became  tbepart  of  France  to  excite 
-troiJbles  in  Flanders.  The  policy  of  Meximiliart^ 
conformably  to  the,  traditions  of  the  house  of 
Austria,  was  directed  to  the  aggrandizement  Of 
his  house.  He  was  frequently  at  feud  with  his 
'  Netherlan^sh  subjects,  whose  manners  he  took 
Ihtte  pEiins'to  understand,  and  for  whose  libep- 
ties  he  had  Jlttle  respect.  Wars  and  laaeues 
succeeded  eadi  dther,  which  belong  to  the  his- 
tory of  the  great;  states  of  Europe.  The  Nether- 
landi  were  by  thiS' union  again  bronght  under 
'dte  German  empire,  and  especially  under  ibe 
house  of  Austria,  destined  goon  to  become  the 
most  powerful  in  Europe.'  In  1512  tliey  were 
formal  into  a  division  of  the  empire  under  i4(e 
title  of  the  cirele  of  Bungundy.  East  Friesland 
was  included  in  the  cir<^  of  Westphalia.  On 
being  called  to  the  entpire,  MaximiKdn  cotl- 
■tertea  the  government  of  liw  Netherlands  on 


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his  son,  Philip  the  Fair,  under  whom  they  b^can 
to  experience  the  material  advantages  of  an 
alliance  with  the  house  of  Austria.  The  vast 
European  possessions  of  this  house  opened  up 
to  its  subjects  the  greatest  facilities  of  the  age 
for  commercial  intercourse,  while  the  discovery 
of  America  gave  them  in  addition  the  commerce 
of  a  new  world.  The  industrial  skill  and  en- 
terprise of  the  Netherlands  fitted  them  much 
more  than  the  Spaniards,  whose  haughty  dis- 
position made  them  apt  to  substitute  rapacity 
for  industry,  to  derive  perrnanenl  benefit  from 
these  opportunities.  Margaret,  the  aunt,  and 
Mary,  the  sister  of  Charles  V,  who  succeeded 
to  the  government  of  the  Low  Countries,  cxer- 
cbed  it  in  many  respects  wisely  and  welL  The 
former,  a  patroness  of  arts  and  letters,  kept  her 
court  surrounded  with  poets,  artists  ana  men 
of  learning.  A  council  of  state,  consisting  of 
the  governors  or  stadtholders  of  the  17  prov- 
inces, assisted  them  in  the  administration  of 
affairs,  and  such  was  the  prosperity  of  the  coun- 
try that  more  than  one  of  the  cities  of  the 
Netherlands  rivaled  in  extent  and  opulence  the 
capitals  of  the  greatest  European  kingdoms. 
This  bright  day  was  too  soon  clouded.  The 
reign  of  Charles  V  is  less  distinguished  for  the 
political  stru^les  excited  by  a  too  prosperous 
■  ambition,  which  shook  nearly  every  nation  of 
Europe,  than  for  the  religious  dissensions  and 
the  social  troubles  resulting  from  them  which 
attended  the  dawa  of  the  Reformation. _  The 
Reformed  opinions  made  great  progress  in  the 
Netherlands;  but  here  agam  a  remarkable  illus- 
tration was  afforded  of  the  strength  of  those 
differences  of  race,  language  and  sentiment 
which  divided  their  populations.  In  Holland, 
as  in  Germany,  the  Reformation  triumphed.  On 
the  Belgian  territory,  especially  where  the  Wat- 
loon  or  French  element  of  the  population  pre- 
vailed, although  these  opinions  spread  widely, 
they  yielded  at  length,  as  in  France,  to  the 
force  of  authority  or  the  sentiment  of  luiity. 
In  153S  Mary  published  at  Brussels  an  edict 
condemning  all  heretics  to  death.  An  insurrec- 
tion excited  by  persecution  was  suppressed  by 
Charles  V  in  1540,  and  the  Netherlands  were 
inseparably  united  by  the  law  of  primogeniture 
with  the  crown  of  Spain.  No  union  could  have 
been  more  unfortunate.  The  bigotry  of  the 
Spanish  branch  of  the  Austrian  family  has  be- 
come proverbial,  and  a  country  torn  with  re- 
ligious dissensions  could  not  have  found  itself 

Charles  V,  himself  a  Netherlander,  bom  in 
Ghent,  and  still  more  his  son^  Philip  II,  of 
Spain,  strove  to  extinguish  the  Reformed  opin- 
ions amon^  the  Netherland  subjects  in  seas  of 
blood.  Philip  discarded  all  respect  for  the  lib- 
erties of  the  Netherlands  and  subjected  them 
under  his  governors,  particularly  the  Duke  of 
Alva,  to  all  the  horrors  of  a  hpstile  military 
rule.  Thousands  of  victims  perished  by  every 
variety  of  execution  which  a  barbarous  cruelty 
could  devise  —  hanging,  beheading,  burning. 
drowning,  interring  aUve,  to  which  tortures  ana 
imprisonments  were  added  in  still  ffrealer  num- 
ber. During  this  period  of  desolation,  great 
numbers  of  artisans,  abandoning  their  country, 
carried  elsewhere,  especially  to  England  and 
Germany,  which  sympathized  with  their  opin- 
ions, the  arts  that  nad  enriched  their  own 
country  and  which  now  acquired  through  them 


a  wider  scope,  and  contributed  to  the  industrial 
progress  of  Europe.  William  of  Orange,  the 
Silent,  DOW  made  himself  the  champion  of  the 
liberties  of  his  country.  Supported  chiefly  by 
the  northern  states,  thwarted  by  the  jealousy  of 
the  Flemish  nobles  and  opposed  by  the  Walloon 
provinces,  which  remained  faithful  to  Spain  and 
even  supplied  her  with  troops,  be  at  length  suc- 
ceeded in  freeing  the  seven  northern  states  and 
forming  them  into  the  confederation  of  the 
United  Provinces,  whose  independence,  declared 
in  1S31,  was  ultimately  acknowledged  1^  Spain. 
These  events  belonged  chiefly  to  me  history  of 
Holland. 

Requesens,  the  successor  of  Alva,  had  tried 
too  late  a  more  humane  policy.  At  Antwerp 
and  Ghent  the  Spanish  soldiers  broke  out  into 
excesses.  The  confederates  assembled  in  the 
latter  town  signed  ike  pacification  of  Ghent, 

froclaiming  liberty  of  conscience  and  convcJc- 
ig  the  Estate 5 -G^eral.  The  Estates  called  in 
the  aid  of  France  and  offered  the  crown  to 
Henry  III,  who  declined  to  accept  it,  dreading 
the  Roman  Catholic  League  in  his  own  country. 
It  is  a  special  feature  of  the  history  of  those 
days  that  while  the  great  rulers,  particularly 
those  of  France  and  Germany,  persecuted  thdr 
Reformed  subjects,  each  was  ready  to  protect 
the  Protestant  subjects  of  the  others  when  op- 
posed to  their  poUtical  policy.  The  success  of 
the  revolutionary  party,  consummated  in  the 
north,  was  at  length  decked  in  die  southern 
provinces  by  the  aoility  of  Alexander  Famese. 
Duke  of  Parma,  the  Spanish  commander,  and 
by  the  reactionary  spirit  evoked  in  the  prov- 
inces themselves,  strengthened  by  the  emigra- 
tion of  many  influential  reformers  to  the  north- 
em  states,  and  the  Belgian  Netherlands  re- 
mained attached  to  Spain.  From  1596  to  163J 
the  Spanish  Netherlands  were  transferred  to 
the  Austrian  branch  of  the  family  by  the  mar- 


of  Isabella  they  reverted  to  Spain.  By  the 
Treatv  of  Rastadt  in  1714  they  were  again 
placed  under  the  dominion  of  Austria.  During 
this  period  they  were  the  subject  of  continual 
intrigues  and  frequently  of  o^en  warfare  among 
the  European  states.  Twice  conquered  1^ 
Louis  XIV,  conquered  again  by  Marlborough, 
coveted  by  Holland.  Spain,  Germany,  Fraace 
and  England,  they  lay  continually  open  to  the 
invasions  and  struggles  of  foreign  armies,  and 
it  was  at  this  period  especially  that  they  were, 
as  they  have  been  called,  the  battlefield  of 
Europe.  Some  portions  of  maritime  Flanders, 
Brabant  and  Limburg  which  had  remained  to 
Spain  were  during  this  period  conquered  and 
annexed  by  Holland,  while  France  acquired 
Artois  and  Walloon  Flanders,  the  south  of 
Hainaut  and  part  of  Namur  and  Luxemburg, 
including  the  important  towns  of  Douai,  Lille, 
Valenciennes,  Dunkirk  and  many  others.  Frcwn 
1714  Austria  was  left  in  undisturbed  possession 
of  the  remainder  of  the  northern  Netherlands. 
Joseph  n,  styled  the  Philosoi^cal  Emperor, 
excited  by  his  reforms  a  revolt,  headed  or  stin>- 
ulated  by  the  monks  of  Flanders  and  Brabant, 
whom  he  had  dispossessed  of  their  cc«ivents.  The 
Estates  of  the  two  provinces  refused  to  vote 
the  imposts  and  were  dissolved.  The  popu- 
lace took  to  arms.  The  Virgin  was  procUimed 
generalissimo  of  the  patriot  army.    The  Ans- 


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trian  army  conceatrated  at  Tunibout  was  totally 
defeated.  After  applying  in  vain  for  assistance 
to  Holland  and  France,  neither  of  which  could 
be  expected  to  have  much  sympathy  with  thtdr 
movement,  the  insurgents  were  at  length  sub- 
dued and  the  Austrians  re-entered  Brussek 
October  1790.  Soon  after  the  whole  Nether- 
lands were  conquered  by  the  revolutionary 
armies  of  France  and  the  country  was  divided 
into  French  departments,  a  change  whicbt 


J  ruled  France,  his  brother  Louis  became 

King  of  Holland,  in  1806.  Before  lone,  hovi- 
ever,  the  two  brothers  quarreled,  and  when 
Napoleon  sent  an  aniiy  against  the  Dutch  capi- 
tal in  1810  Louis  fled  to  Bohemia.  The  lat- 
ter's  son,  Charles  Louis,  afterward  became 
Napoleon  III. 

Just  before  the  battle  of  Waterloo,   fought 
on   Belgian   territory,  had  once  more  changed 
the  face  of  Europe,  Belgium  was  united  by  the 
congress  of  Vienna  to  Holland,  under  the  title 
of  Uie  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.     The  new 
ruler  was  Willcm   I,  of  the  house  of   Orange, 
who  commanded  Dutch  and  Belgian  troops  at 
Waterloo.     This    fusion   had   much   to   recom- 
mend it.     The  ports  and  colonies  of  the  north 
formed  a  suitable  complement  to  the  arts  and 
industry  of  the  south.    The  Flemings  and  the 
Dutch  s^ke  the  same  language  and  had  the 
same   ongin;   but   there   remanicd  outside  of 
this  harmony  the  Walloon  provinces,  French 
in  language  and  extraction.    A  most  injudicious 
measure  of  the  Dutch  government,  an  attempt 
tc  assimilale  the  langua^  of  the  provinces  by 
prohibiting  the  use  of  French  in  tne  courts  of 
justice,  excited  an  opposition  which,  encouraged 
by    the    success   of   the   French   Revolution   of 
1830,  broke  out  into  revolt.    The  electoral  sys- 
tem, moreover,  gave  the  preponderance  to  the 
northern  provinces,  thou^  inferior  in  popula- 
tion,  and  the  interests  of  the  provinces  were 
diametrically   opposed   in   matters  of   taxation. 
Belgium   was  agricultural  and  manufacturing, 
Holland   commercial;   the  one  wished  to  tax 
imports    and   exports,   the   other   property   and 
industry.      Three     different     languages    were 
spoken   in  the  Chamber  —  Dutch,  German  and 
French ;    frequently,   indeed,   the   members   did 
not   understand  each  other.     Nothing  but  the 
most  skilful  government  could  have  overcome 
these    fundamental  differences,  and  no  stales- 
man  appeared  fitted  to  grapple  with  them.    The 
Kin^,   Willem,  was  far  too  bigoted  and  auto- 
cratic    to    reconcile    his    Flemish    subjects    to 
liutch    preponderance.      The    Belgians,   thou^ 
insistinf;   upon  a   separate  government,  offered 
to    accept  the  Kings  son  as  viceroy,  but  the 
tactless    conduct    of    that   prince   snapped    the 
link    that  might  have  held  the  two  countries 
together.     The  rcvohilionary  movement,  which 
broke  out  in  Brussels  on  25  Aug.  1830,  became 
Rreneral    in   the    south,    and   the    Dutch    troops, 
at   first   successful  before  Brussels,  were  finally 
repulsed   and  compelled  by  the  ever  swelling 
ranks    of   the   insnrKents   to   retire.     Austria, 
EnK'a"^   Prus-iia   and   Rtissia   each  threatened 
armet]    intervention  to  maintain  the  union,  but 
France    stood  behind  the  Belgian   revolution- 
aries-     A  seven  hours'  bombardment  of  Ant- 
werp   by  the   Dutch   so   horrified   and   enraged 
the   Belgians  that  reconciliation  passed  beyond 


lUH  miK 

the  bounds  of  human  possibility.     Undeterred 

by  the  mutterings  of  the  powers,  the  provi' 
sional  government  continued  to  frame  a  new 
constitution  and  to  tight  the  Dutch.  They 
offered  the  crown  to  the  Due  de  Nemours, 
second  soti  of  Louis  Philippe;  but  the  father 
refusing  his  consent,  they  next  offered  it,  on 
the  recommendation  of  England,  to  Leopold, 
fourth  son  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Cobura-Saal- 
feld.  who  accepted  it  4  June  1831  under  the 
title  of  Leopold  I  (q.v.).  In  the.  following 
year  Leopold  marrico,  as  bis  second  wife,  the 
daughter  of  Louis  Philippe,  a  circumstance 
that  no  doubt  contributed  toward  curbing  the 
French  King's  designs  on  the  annexation  of 
Belgium  to  his  own  dominions.  A  conven- 
tion of  the  powers  was  held  in  London  to 
determine  on  the  affairs  of  the  Netherlands 
and  stop  the  effusion  of  blood.  It  favored  the 
separation  of  the  provinces  and  drew  up  a 
treaty  to  regulate  the  change.  The  powers 
divided  LuxcmlJurg,  Limburg  and  the  national 
debt  between  Holland  and  Belgium,  awarded 
Antwerp  to  the  latter,  declared  the  Scheldt 
open  to  both  countries  and  recognized  Belgium 
as  a  neutral,  independent  state.  But  the  Dutch 
king  refused  to  accept  these  terms  and  in- 
sisted  on  holding  Antwerp.  A  combined  French 
and  British  fleet  sailed  for  Holland  and  a 
French  army  was  sent  to  besiege  Antwerp. 
These  manceuvres  had  the  desired  effect;  the 
Dutch  evacuated  Antwerp  but  retained  two 
forts  commanding  the  Scheldt.  In  retaliation, 
the  Belgians  held  on  to  Limburg  and  Luxem- 


powers,  and  in  1839  the  Belgians  yielded,  most 
reluctantly  and  under  pressure,  the  portions  of 
Limbure  and  Luxemburg  —  which  they  had 
retained  since  1832 — back  to  Holland. 

Under  the  wise  and  enlightened  reign  of 
Leopold  I,  a  prosperous  period  of  34  years, 
Belgium  became  a  united  and  patriotic  com- 
munity. Arts  and  commerce  flourished,  and  a . 
place  was  taken  in  the  family  of  nations  upon 
which  the  Belgian  people  could  look  with  .un- 
alloyed satisfaction.  During  the  French  Revo- 
lution of  1S48  Leopold  was  supposed  to  have 
declared  his  willingness  to  resign  the  crown  if 
his  subjects  wished  it,  but  there  is  no  historical 
foundation  for  that  statement  although  many 
Belgians  believed  it.  Yet  the  tact  that  the 
crisis  which  shook  most  of  the  thrones  of  Eu- 
rope passed  harmlessly  over  Belgium  con- 
firmed the  stability  of  the  monarchy  at  a  crit- 
ical moment.  The  explanation  may  perhaps  be 
found  in  the  intensely  democratic  character  of 
the  Constitution  framed  in  1830-31.  By  its 
provisions  the  King,  while  nominally  endowed 
with  all  the  prerogatives  of  executive  power 
and  even  the  rights  of  initiative,  is  neverthe- 
less so  strictly  hand-tied  by  ministerial  control 
that  his  power  is  practically  non-existent.  "Our 
Constitution  .  ,  .  brea&ed  hatred  of  the  past 
King  and  fear  of  the  future  King.  It  snatched 
from  the  Crown  the  faculty  of  doing  good  or 
evil.*  Leopold  1  died  in  I86S,  regretted  and 
respected.  He  began  the  task  of  molding  the 
Belgian  people;  it  was  continued  with  equal 
prudence  by  his  eldest  son  and  successor,  Leo- 
pold H. 

Leopold  I  had  ruled  for  34_years;  notwith- 
standing all   constitutional   limitations,  it  was 


:,  Google 


466  BSL 

his  will,  and  not  that  of  his  ministers,  which 
prevailed  on  important  occasions.  Leopold  il 
(q.v.)  was  destmed  to  reign  10  years  longer 
than  his  father,  and  to  illustrate  the  political 
theory  of  a  'benevolent  despotism."  A  man  of 
iron  resolution,  shrewd  business  sense  and  not 
overburdened  with  ethical  ballast,  he  widened 
the  narrow  vision  of  his  people,  built  up  an 
amaiing'  degree  of  prosperity,  carried  the  Bel- 
gian flag  far  beyond  the  narrow  confines  of  his 
kingdom   by  commerce  and  coloniiati 


standing  feature  of  his  reign  is  the  acquisition 
and  development  of  that  rich  territory  now 
known  as  the  Belgian  Kongo  (q.v.).  Between 
1886  and  1894  Belgium  was  convulsed  with 
labor  strikes,  socialist  risings  and  universal 
clamor  for  electoral  reforms.  The  working 
men's  party  threatened  to  organize  a  general 
strike  it  their  grievances  were  not  speedily 
recognized.  At  the  end  of  1889  the  28,000 
workmen  in  the  coaling  district  of  Charleroi 
joined  the  movement  without  abandoning  for 
a  moment  a  perfectly  calm  and  legal  attitude, 
and  gained  a  complete  victory  on  economic 
points  in  dispute.  From  this  developed  a  po- 
litical strike,  and  a  few  weeks  later  an  assem- 
bly in  Brussels  of  50,000  workmen  from  every 
part  of  the  country  demanded,  with  all  the 
calm  that  the  knowledge  of  their  power  gave 
them,  an  extension  of  electoral  rights.  For 
nearly  five  years  the  struggle  raged  in  the 
country  and  in  the  Parliament  before  a  modi- 
fied system  of  universal  suffrage  was  adopted. 
Leopold  II  died  in  1909.  His  only  son  had 
died  in  childhood,  since  when  the  succession  de- 
volved upon  Leopold's  brother,  Philippe  Eu- 
gene, Count  of  Flanders,  who  immediately  re- 
nounced his  right  of  succession  when  his  first 
son,  Prince  Baldwin  (Baudoin),  was  born.  To 
prepare  him  for  his  eventual  inheritance  the 
young  prince  was  carefully  educated,  but  he 
■  died  suddenly  of  pneumonia  in  1891,  at  the  age 
of  21.  The  second  son  of  the  Count  of 
Flanders,  Prince  Albert,  then  16  years  of  age, 
became  heir- presumptive  to  the  throne,  and 
succeeded  his  uncle,  Leopold  II,  on  17  Dec. 
1909.    See  Albf.ht  1,  Kino  op  the  Belgians. 

The  new  King  proved  himself  a  monarch  of 
a  different  type  from  his  predecessors.  Of 
great  stature  and  masterful  will  like  his  uncle, 
his  character  and  demeanor  run  in  entirely 
different  channels.  Before  he  had  been  five 
years  on  the  throne  he  became  a  king  without 
a  country,  an  exile  with  his  family  and  gov- 
ernment. The  main  events  of  his  short  reign 
before  the  war  were  inherited  troubles^ the 
religious  strife  and  the  question  of  military 
reforms. 

Bibliography,— Baedeker's  'Belgium  and 
Holland,  including  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxem- 
bourg' (iSth  ed.,  Leipzig  1910)  ;  Balan,  L., 
*Soixante-dix  ans  d'histoire  de  Belgique' 
(Brussels  1890);  Banderfcinken,  "History  of 
the  Formation  of  the  Belgian  Principalities  in 
the  Middle  Ages';  Banning,  E.,  'La  Belgique 
au  point  de  vue  milt t aire  ct  Internationale' 
(Brussels  1901);  Bavary  Ch.  Victor  de,  'His- 
toire  de  la  rfvoiution  beige  de  1830*  (Brussels 
1876) ;  Bouch^,  B.,  'Les  oiivricrs  agricoles  en 
Belgique'  (ib.  1914)  ;  Botilger,  D,  C,  'Belgium 
of  the  Belgians'  (London  1911);  id.,  'History 


of  Belgium'  (Vol.  I,  1902;  Vol.  II,  1909;  rev. 
ed.,  London  1913}  ;  Bumpus,  F.,  'CaUiedrals  and 
Churches  of  Belgium'  (London  1909);  Char- 
riaut,  H.,  'La  Belgique  modeme'  (Paris  1910); 
Delplace,  'Belgium  under  French  Rule';  id,, 
'Belgium  in  the  Reign  of  William  I' ;  Dc- 
schamps,  Le  Chevallier,  'La  constitution  Inter- 
nationale de  la  Belgique'  (Brussels  1901) ; 
Errera,  'Das  Staatsrecht  des  konigrdehs  Bel- 
gien*  (Tiibingen  1909)  ;  Essars,  'Banking  in 
Belgium'  (in  <A  Histoiy  of  Banking  in  All  the 
Leading  Nations.'  Vol.  Ill,  New  York  1896); 
Garcia  de  la  Vega,  'Royaume  de  la  Belgique' 
(Brussels  1883)  ;  Genonseaiuc,  *La  Belgiqne 
physique,  politique,  etc'  (ib.  1878);  Grifo, 
W.  E.,  'Belgium,  the  Land  of  Art'  (New  York 
1912);  Hanslik,  E.,  'Das  Konigreich  Belgien' 
(Berlin  1912)  ;  Holland,  Oive,  'The  Belgians  at 
Home'  (London  1911) ;  Hymans,  'Hi^toire 
parlementaire  de  Belgique  de  1830  a  1880'  (Brus- 
sels 1678-80)  ;  Jacquart  C,  'Etude  de  la  de- 
mographic, statique  et  dynamique,  des  agglom- 
erations urbaines,  et  special ement  des  villes 
beiges'  (Brussels  1903)  ;  id.,  'Mouvement  de 
I'ifat  civil  et  de  la  population  en  Belgique 
pendant  les  annees  1876-I9O0';  id.,  'Brussels- 
La  mortalite  infantile  dans  les  Flandres';  id, 
Essais    de    statislique   morale  —  I,    Le    suicide' 

i Brussels  1908)  ;  II,  'Le  divorce  et  la  separation 
u  corps'  (ib.  1909);  id..  <La  criminaliti  Beige, 
1868^1909'  (Louvain  1912)  ;  Jourdain,  A.,  and 
Stalle,  L.  von,  'Diclionnaire  encyclopediquc  de 
gfegraphie  de  Belgique'  (Brussels  1895  et  seq.) ; 
Julin,  'Le  recenscmcnt  general  des  industries 
et  des  metiers  en  Belgique  an  31  Octobre,  1896' 
(in  La  Reforme  Sociale,  Vol.  IX,  Paris  1900) ; 
Juste,  'History  of  Belrium';  id.,  'Memoirs  of 
Leopold,  King  of  the  Belgians';  Laveieye,  'Le 
parti  clerical  en  Belgique'  (Leipzig  1874),  a 
statement  from  the  Liberal  view^int ;  Leroy, 
'Geographic  gdnerale  de  la  Belgique,  (Namur 
1889);  Lavisse,  E.,  (ed.),  'Hisloire  gineralc' 
(Vols.  X.  XI,  XII,  Paris  1898-1900);  Mac- 
Donnell,  J.  de  C,  'Belgium:  Her  Kings,  King- 
dom and  People'  (London  1914);  id.,  'Kin? 
Leopold  II ;  His  Rule  in  Belgium  and  the  Kon- 
go' (ib.  1905);  Martel,  H.,  'Lc  devcloppcment 
commercial  de  la  Belgique*  (Bnissels,  an- 
nually) ;  Moke,  'Histoire  de  la  Belgique,'  con- 
tinued by  E.  Hubert  (Brussels  1881);  Mossel, 
H.  G.,  'Histoire  de  la  Belgique'  (Brussels 
1881);  Nothomb,  'Political  and  Historical 
Essay  on  the  Belgian  Revolution' ;  Penck,  'Das 
Konigreich  Bclgien'  (in  Kirchoff's  'Laiider- 
kunde  von  Europa,'  Vol.  11,  Leipzig  1889); 
Pirenne,  'History  of  Belgium';  Prost.  E,  'La 
Bel^que  agricole,  indusirielle  et  commerciale' 
(Paris  and  Liege  1904)  ;  Rossel,  E.,  (ed),  'La 
patrie  beige,  1830-1905'  (Brussels  1905); 
Sen  dam  ore,  C,  'Belgium  and  the  Belgians' 
(London  1901);  Seignobos.  C,  'Histoirt 
politique  de  I'Europe  contcmporaine'  (Paris 
1897;  Eng,  trans.,  London  1900);  Siosteen.  G, 
'Das  modeme  Belgien'  (Berlin  1909);  Smythe, 
C,  'The  Story  of  Belgium'  (London  1900): 
Thonissen,  'La  Belgique  sous  le  regne  de  Leo 
pold  I'  (4  vols.,  louvain  1858);  Van  Bruyssel. 
'History  of  Ctnnmerce  in  Belgium';  Vincent. 
1898). 

Charles  Lbokahd-Stuait, 
HCNM  F.  Klein. 
Editorial  Slag  of  The  Ammcana. 


Google 


BBLOniH  AMD  THE  WAR 


407 


BBLQIUH  AND  THE  WAS.  Whereas 
the  various  I  y-dcKribed  "causeis*  of  which  the 
war  was  the  effect  may  long  remain  the  sub- 
ject of  controversy  among  historians  —  accord' 
ing  to  the  national  viewpoint  of  each,  the  man- 
ner in  which  Belgium  was  swejrt  into  the  con- 
flict is  comparatively  clear  and  simple  of  expla- 
nation. The  political  status  of  Belgium  was 
one  of  'perpetual  neutrality,*  imposed  upon  her 
without  consultation  or  consent  by  powerful 
neighbors.  The  historic  instrument  which 
guaranteed  the  independence,  inteErity  and  per- 
petual neutrality  of  the  kingdom,  dated  London, 
19  April  1839,  bears  the  seals  and  signatures  of 
the  plenipotentiaries  of  Austri^  Belgium, 
France^  Great  Britain,  Prussia  and  Russia.  *In 
the  name  of  the  Most  Holy  and  Indivisible 
Trinity*  the  sovereignty  of  Belgium  was 
strictly  drciunscribed  at  her  birth;  being  'held 
to  observe  the  same  neutrality  toward  all  the 
other  states,*  she  was  not  permitted  to  enter 
into  political  agreements  with  any  other  stat^ 
and  was  only  entitled  to  call  for  help  if  one  of 
the  guarantors  broke  faith  and  invaded  her  ter- 
ritory. Of  this  solitary  privilege  Belgiimi  duly 
availed  herself  on  4  Aug.  1914.  On  1  Aug. 
1914  Germany  declared  war  on  Russia  and  in- 
vaded Luxemburg,  a  little  state  adjoining  Bel- 
gium, and  similarly  a  neutral  territory  with 
guaranteed  independence  and  integrity  (11  May 
186?).  On  2  August  (7  p.m.)  the  German 
government  issued  an  ultimatum  to  Belgium 
asserting  'the  intention  of  France  to  march 
through  Belgian  territory  a^nst  Germany,* 
and  expressing  a  'fear  that  Belgium,  in  spite 
of  the  utmost  goodwill,  will  be  unable,  without 
assistancCj  to  repel  so  considerable  a  French  in- 
vasion with  suificient  prospect  of  success  to 
afford  an  adequate  guarantee  against  danger  to 
Germany.  It  is  essential  for  the  self-defense 
of  Germany  tiiat  she  should  anticipate  any  such 
hostile  attack.*  On  the  other  hand,  *the  Ger- 
man government  would,  howeve^  feel  the 
deepest  regret  if  Belgium  regarded  as  an  act 
of  hostility  against  Herself  the  fact  that  the 
measures  of  Germany's  opponents  force  Ger- 
many, for  her  own  protection,  to  enter  Belgian 
territory."  The  note,  which  was  written  in 
German  and  marked  "Very  Confidential,*  pro- 
ceeded with  the  following  declaration,  'in  order 
to  preclude  any  possibility  of  misunderstand- 
ing,* that: 

1.  Germany  has  in  view  no  act  of  koslUily 
againjt  Belgium.  In  the  event  of  Belgium  be- 
ing prepared  in  Ike  coming  war  to  maintain  an 
attitude  of  friendly  neutrality  toward  Germany, 
the  German  government  bind  themselvet,  at  the 
conclusion  of  peace,  to  guarantee  the  possei' 
tions  and  independence  of  the  Belgian  king- 
dom in  full. 

Z.  Germany  underiaket,  under  the  above- 
mentioned  condition,  to  evacuate  Belgium  ter- 
ritory on  the  condition  of  Peace. 

J.  //  Belgium  adopts  a  friendly  attitude, 
Germany  is  prepared,  in  co-operation  with  the 
Belgian  authorities,  to  purchase  all  necessaries 
for  ker  troops  against  a  cash  payment,  and  to 
pay  an  indemnity  for  any  damage  that  may 
have  been  caused  by  German  troops. 

4.  Should  Belgium  otpose  the  German 
troops,  and  in  particular  should  she  throw  dif- 
ficulties in  the  way  of  their  march  by  a  resist- 
ance of  the  fortresses  on  the  Meuse,  or  by  de- 


stroying raHwayi,  roads,  tunnels  or  other  Ji'm- 
ilar  works,  Germany  wilt,  to  her  regret,  be  com- 
pelled io  consider  Belgium  as  an  enemy. 

In  this  event,  Germany  can  undertake  no 
obligations  toward  Belgium,  but  the  eventual 
adjustment  of  the  relations  between  the  two 
States  must  be  left  to  the  decision  of  arms. 

The  German  government,  however,  enter- 
tain the  distinct  hope  that  this  eventuality  will 
not  occur,  and  that  the  Belgian  government 
will  know  how  to  take  the  necessary  measures 
to  prevent  the  occurrence  of  incidents  s»ch  as 
those  mentioned.  In  this  case  the  friendly 
lies  which  bind  the  two  neighboring  states  will 
grow  stronger  and  more  enduring. 

The  Belgian  government  were  given  a  time 
limit  of  12  hours  within  which  to  reply.  At 
1 :30  A.H.  on  3  August  the  German  Minister  in 
Brussels  called  on  Baron  van  der  Elst,  the  Bel- 
gian Foreign  Secrctaty,  and  informed  him  that 
French  dirigibles  had  dropped  bombs  and  a 
French  cavalry  ^latrol  had  crossed  the  frontier 
in  violation  of  intemationat  law,  as  war  had 
not  been  declared.  The  Belgian  official  asked 
where  these  incidents  had  happened;  and  was 
told  that  it  was  in  Germany.  Baron  van  der 
Elst  then  observed  that  in  that  case  he  could 
not  understand  the  object  of  this  communica- 
tion, to  which  the  German  Minister  replied  that 
these  acts  were  contrary  to  international  law 
and  'were  calculated  to  lead  to  the  supposition 
that  other  acts,  contrary  to  international  law, 
would  be  committed  by  France.*  During  the 
same  day  the  Belgian  representatives  at  Paris, 
London,  St.  Petersburg,  Vienna,  Berlin  and. 
The  Hague  were  instructed  to  announce  the 
terms  of  the  German  demands  and  the  Belgian 
reply  thereto :  'Our  answer  has  been  that  this 
infringement  of  our  neutrality  would  be  a  flag- 
rant violation  of  international  law.  To  accept 
the  German  proposal  would  be  to  sacrifice  the 
honor  of  the  nation.  Conscious  of  her  duty, 
Belgium  is  firmly  resolved  to  repel  any  attack 
by  all  means  in  her  power.*  At  the  same  time 
the  King  of  the  Belgians  telegraphed  to  King 
George  making  a  'supreme  appeal*  to  the  Brit- 
ish government  *to  safeguard  the  neutrality  of 
Belgium.*  The  British  government  had  (31 
July)  requested  the  French  and  German  gov- 
ernments to  state  whether,  in  the  event  of  war, 
both  countries  would  be  ■prepared  to  engage 
to  respect  the  neutrality  of  Belgium  so  long 
as  no  other  power  violates  it.*  France  gave  a 
read^  guarantee;  Germany  did  not  reply.  On 
receipt  of  the  Belgian  King's  appeal  the  British 
government  again  requested  from  Germany  an 
assurance  that  Belgian  neutrality  would  be  re- 
spected. Later  in  the  day  news  came  that  Ger- 
man troops  were  at  l^mmenich  inside  the  Bel- 
^an  frontier  opposite  Aix -la- Chape  He.  The 
British  Ambassador  was  instructed  to  demand 
a  reply  before  midnight.  The  telegram  reached 
Berlin  at  7  P.M.,  ana  the  (Jerman  government, 
without  waiting  for  the  full  time  to  expire, 
handed  the  Ambassador  his  passports.  The  in- 
vasion of  Belgium  had  begun.  In  a  speech  to 
the  Belgian  Chambers  (4  August)  King  Albert 
said :  'if  we  are  called  upon  to  re^st  the 
invasion  of  our  soil  and  to  defend  our 
threatened  hearths,  this  duty,  however  hard  it 
may  be,  will  find  us  armed  and  ready  for  the 
greatest  sacrifices  .  .  .  one  vinon  alone  fills 
our  thoughts  —  our  menaced  independence!  (MK  i 

Coogle 


BBLCUUH  —  BBLOKADB 


duty  alone  preients  itself  to  out  wills  —  stub- 
born resistance.  In  these  grave  circumstances 
two  virtues  are  requisite,  a  courage  that  is 
calm  and  stedfast,  and  complete  unity  among 
all  Belgians.  If  the  foreigner  violates  our 
territory,  in  contempt  of  the  neutrality 
whose  claims  we  have  always  scrupulously  ob- 
served  he  will  find  all  Belgians  grouped  around 
their  Sovereign,  who  will  never  betray  his  con- 
lititutional  oath,  and  around  the  government 
which  enjoys  the  full  confidence  of  the  entire 
nation.  ...  A  country  which  defends  itself 
wins  the  respect  of  all.  .  .  ,  That  country 
does  not  perish.*  See  Albert,  King  of  the 
Belgians  ;  Bethuann-Hollweg,  von  Thec>- 
bald;  Wai,  European  —  Diplomatic  Histohy. 
Biblioerkphy. —  Belloc,  Hilaire,  'General 
Sketch  ofthe  European  War>  (London  1916)  ; 
Billiard,  R.,  'La  Belgique  tndustrielle  et  com- 
merciale  de  demain'  (Paris  191S);  Brangwyn, 
F.,  and  Stokes,  H.,  'Belgium*  (London  1916); 
Cram,  R.  A.,  'Heart  of  Europe'  (ib.  1916); 
Buchan  J.,  (cd.),  'Nelson's  History  of  the 
War'  (London  1914  et  seq.)  ;  Essen,  L^  van  der, 
'A  Short  History  of  Belgium'  (ib.  1916); 
Gibson,  Hugh,  'A  Journal  from  Our  Legation 
in  Belgium'  (New  York  1917);  Hampe.  Karl, 
'Bclgiens  Vergangenheil  und  Gegcnwart' 
(Leipzig  1916) ;  Fried,  A.  H.,  'The  Restoration 
of  Europe'  (London  1916) ;  Huberich,  C  H., 
and  Nicol-Speyer,  A.,  'German  Legislatio  ' 
"      "         ied  Te    ■ " 


the  Occupied  ' 


Texts   (The  Hague   1915  et  seq.);   Ingpen,  R., 
'The  Glory  of  Belgium^  (London  1914)  ;  Kess- 


'Das  neutral  e  Belgien  und  Deutschland  -.- 
Urteil  belgischer  Staatsmanner  und  Juristen' 
(Munich  1916)  ;  Massart,  J,  'Belgians  under 
die  (Jerman  Eagle*  (London  1916)-  Probst, 
Eugen,  'Belgien ;  Eindrucke  eines  Neutralen' 
(Zurich  1916)  ;  Quelle,  Otto,  'Belgien  und  die 
franzosischen  Nachbargebiete'  (Brunswick 
1916)  ;  Visscher,  C.  de,  'Belgium's  Case;  A 
Juridical  Enquiry'  (London  1916)  ;  Waxweiler, 
E.,  'Belgium  and  the  Great  Powers'  (ib,  1916). 
Consult  also  'The  Times  Documentary  History 
of  the  War'  (London  191S  et  seq);  'Reponse 
au  Livre-Blanc  allemanddu  lOMai  1915'— "Die 
Volkerrechtswidrige  Fiihrung  des  belpischen 
Volkskrie^s"  (Royaume  de  Belgique,  Minist^re 
de  la  Justice,  et  Ministere  des  Affaires  Elran- 
geres.  Guerre  de  1914-16,  Paris  1916)  ;  Slowell, 
E.,  and  Munro,  A.  F.,  'International  Cases: 
Peace'   (London  1917). 

Henbi  F.  Klein, 
Editorial  Staff  of  The  Americana. 

BELGIUM.  PriDceBB  Dowager  Marie  of. 
Countess  of  Flanders  and  mother  of  the  reign- 
ing King  Albert;  b.  184S;  d.  26  Nov.  1912; 
daughter  of  Prince  Charles  Anton  of  Hohen- 
TOllern-SigraarinRen.  She  married,  1867, 
Philip,  Count  of  Flanders  and  third  son  of  Leo- 
pold 1.  Her  husband,  who  became  very  deaf, 
died  in  1905,  having  renounced  his  right  of 
succesMon,  and  her  eldest  son.  Prince  Baldwin, 
died  unmarried  in  1891,  She  was  known  as 
"La  Princesse  artiste,"  and  was  an  accom- 
plished painter,  etcher  and  musician. 

BELGOROD,  bySl'go-rSt,  or  BIBLOO- 
ROD,  Rus^a,  town  in  the  government  of,  and 


87  mile*  sottth  ffom  the  town  of,  Kural^  on  Au 
Donetz.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop's  set 
and  has  important  fairs.  Belgorod,  which  de- 
rives its  name  from  a  neighboring  chalk  hill,  is 
divided  into  two  —  the  old  and  new  —  towns. 
It  has  manufactures  of  leather  and  soap,  and 
agriculture  is  fairly  well  devekiped.  There  b 
a  considerable  trade  in  wax.  apples,  tallow  can- 
dles and  especially  of  chalk,  of  which  about 
l,3O0  tons  are  produced  annually  within  the 
city  limits.    Pop.  about  2ZJ00Q. 

BBLGRADE,  SerUa,  die  caiHtal  of  die 
kingdom,  situated  in  the  angle  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  Save  with  the  Danube,  over- 
looked by  a  citadel  on  a  rodcy  eminence  about 
160  feet  high.  The  town  has  been  almost  en- 
tirely transformed  in  recent  times  and  now 
contains  a  number  of  fine  buildings  and  wide 
streets,  being  provided  with  the  dectric  li^t. 
tramways,  telephones,  waterworks,  etc,,  anil 
having  generally  the  aspect  of  any  modem  Eu- 
ropean town.  It  contains  the  royal  palace. 
residences  of  various  ambassadors  or  ministers, 
the  chief  courts  and  government  dqnrtmcnts, 
archiepiscopal  cathedral,  Protestant  diurch  and 
school,  hign  school  or  college,  gprinasia,  mili' 
tary  school,  national  library  of  8a;000  volunies, 
national  museum,  etc;  also  very  fine  parks 
and  an  old  Turkish  kiosk.  At  the  head  of 
the  educational  institutions  is  a  univerii^  with 


of  Belgium'— Official 


Academy  of  Sciences.  The  most  numerous 
places  of  wor^p  are  the  Greek  Catholic. 
There  are  no  industries  -of  any  importance,  bat 
trade,  however,  is  active,  Belgrade  being  the 
chief  emporium  of  the  langdom,  the  place  <o 
which  most  of  the  imports  and  exports  of 
Serbia  are  brought,  and  through  which  a  la^ 
transit  trade  passes  between  Austria  and  Tur- 
key. It  is  now  connected  by  railway  with 
Budapest  and  with  (Constantinople  and  Sakiaica, 


of  Singiduoum,  Bel^ade  was  the  s._. 
Roman  legion,  and  ui  later  years  was  several 
times  destroyed  in  the  contests  of  the  Byzan- 
tines, Bulgarians  and  Hungarians.  Being  the 
IS  long  an  object  of  fierce 
the  Austrians  and  die 
Turks.  It  was  taken  by  the  latter  iu  1521  and 
held  by  Uiem  till  1688,  when  it  was  retaken  tg- 
the  imperial  army.  Two  years  afterward  il 
was  again  captured  by  the  Turks,  who  per- 
petrated eveiy  sort  of  atrocity  in  the  conquered 
city,  besides  killing  1,200  of  the  garrison.  From 
this  period  it  remained  in  possession  of  the 
Turks  till  1717,  when  it  was  besieged  by  Prince 
Eugetje.  After  a  desperate  eonfljct  between  the 
contending  armies  the  Turks  were  defeated.  In 
1739  the  Turks  came  into  possession  of  it  by 
treaty,  retaining  It  till  1789,  when  il  was  taken 
by  the  Austrians.  It  was  restored  by  treaty  to 
the  Turks  in  1791 ;  since  which  time  it  has 
shared  the  varying  fortunes  of  Serbia.  TTioudi 
Serbia  became  practically  tnilependcnt  in  it" 
early  part  of  the  19th  century,  the  Turkish  gar- 
rison was  not  withdrawn  till  1867.  In  conse- 
quence of  a  quarrel  with  the  Serbians  it  wp 
bombarded  by  the  Turkish  garrison  in  1862.  In 
1867  it  was  evacuated  by  the  Turks  altonether, 
and  from  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  (July  "^' 
'  tal  of  an  independent 

occupied  bj  Austrcf 


BBLLGRADE  —  BBLINSKY 


Geimati  troops  an<L  a^ter  the  Austro-Bulgariait 
occupation  of  the  country,  completed  2  Dec 
1915,  the  Serbian  govenunent  was  established 
at  Corfu.  An  Ameriun  consul  resides  here. 
See  Sbkbia;  Wa>.  Eubopkas.    Pop.  90^90. 

BSLORADE,  Forest  of,  is  the  only  forest 
on  the  European  shore  of  the  Bosporus.  It 
has  an  area  of  about  20  square  miles  and  is 
preserved  untouched  by  the  are  to  attract  ram. 

BELGRAND,  bcl  grafi,  Marie  Franfiois 
Engine,  French  civil  engineer:  b.  Ervy,  23 
Apnl  1810;  d.  8  April  18:ra.  He  designed  the 
gigantic  sewerage  system  and  water  supply  sys- 
tem of  Paris,  and  published  'La  Seine';  *Lcs 
Lra\'aux  soutcrrains  de  Paris' ;  'Les  eaiix 
ancicnnes  de  Paris';  'Les  caux  nouvelles,'  etc, 

BEX.CRAVIA,  the  name  given  to  the 
fashionable  ouaiter  of  London  south  and  west 
of  Bclgrave  Souare.  Till  the  early  part  of  the 
19th  century  tile  district  was  a  marshy  farm. 
The  district  was  drained  and  filled  in  about 
1825. 

BELHAVEN,  N.  C,  town  in  Beaufort 
County,  120  miles  caat  of  Raleigh,  located  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Fungo  River  on  Pamlico 
Sound  and  6n  the  Norfolk  Southern  Railroad. 
It  is  in  the  centre  of  an  agricultural  region 
whose  products  are  chiefly  cotton,  com  and 
potatoes.  Another  industry  of  some  import- 
ance having  its  centre  here  is  fishing  and  dredg- 
ing for  oysters  in  the  Sound.  In  the  town  are 
a  number  of  larec  saw  mills  and  cooperage 
shops.     Pop,  3,200, 

BELIAL,  be1i-3l  or  bel'yal.  By  the  trans- 
lators of  the  English  Biblt  this  word  which 
occurs  27  times  in  the  Old  Testament  is  often 
treated  as  a  proper  noun^  as  in  the  expression 
'daurfiter  of  Belial,"  which  the  translators  of 
the  Revised  version  translate  as  'wicked 
woman."  Cheyne  in  the  Expontor  for  1895,  pp. 
435-39.  gives  as  its  equivalent  (I)  subterra- 
nean waters  (and  so  connected  with  Belite,  a 
goddess  of  the  underworld  in  Babylonian  myth- 
ology) ;  (2)  a  hopeless  ruin ;  and  Q)  a  worth- 
less scoundrel.  To  the  later  Jews  Belial  seems 
to  have  become  what  Pluto  was  to  the  Greeks, 
the  name  of  the  ruler  of  the  infernal  regions; 
and  in  2  Cor  vi,  15  it  seems  to  be  used  as  a 
name  of  Satan,  as  the  personification  of  all 
that  is  bad 

BSLIEF.  In  a  general  sense  belief  is  the 
assent  of  the  understanding  to  the  truth  of  a 
propositioii,  but  in  a  tecfaoical  and  theological 
sense  has  ccaie  to  be  used  as  a  mental  exercise 
somewhat  depending  upon  the  volition  of  the 
individual.  The  word  is  used  to  mean  the  ac- 
ceptance of  a  proposition,' statement  or  fact  as 
true  on  the  ground  of  evidence,  authority  or 
irresistible  mental  predisposition ;  the  slate  of 
trust  in  and  reliance  on  a  person,  thing  or  prin- 
ciple; as  also  for  the  fact  believed,  and  some- 
times specifically  for  the  Apostles'  Creed.  Be- 
lief is  oy  some  distinguished  from  knowledge, 
inasmuch  as  the  latter  rests  on  evidence,  while 
belief  rests  on  authority.  Belief  should  some 
say,  not  be  used  of  facts  occurring  in  one's 
own  experience,  or  principles  of  which  the 
opposite  implies  absurdity,  such  as  the  law  of 
contradiction  in  deductive  logic.  These  we 
know.  and.  according  to  this  view,  the  term 
should  be  limited  to  cases  where  a  proposition 
is  accepted  without  evidence,  or  where  such 


evidence  a: 
On   the   o1 

accustomed  to  regard  as  beliefs  the  fundamental 
data  on  which  reasoning  rests ;  and  to  say 
^at  all  knowledge  rests  ultimately  on  belief. 
Belief,  they  say,  may  admit  of  ail  degrees  of 
confidence,  from  a  slight  suspicion  to  full  as- 
surance. There  are  many  operations  of  mind 
in  which  it  is  an  ingredient  —  consfiousness, 
remembrance,  percnition.  Kant  defined  opinion 
as  a  judgment  which  is  insufficiently  based,  sub- 
jectively as  well  as  objectively;  belief,  as  sub- 
jectively  sufficient   but   objectively   inadequate; 


be  false;  beliefs  in  ghosts,  astrological  prog- 
nostications, etc.,  are  usually  treated  as  supersii- 
tions.  Beliefs  as  such  rest  on  grounds  regarded 
as  sufiicient  by  the  person  believing,  who  is  pre- 

Kred  to  act  on  his  belief;  but  their  grounds  may 
,ve  absolutely  no  validity  for  any  other  per- 
son. Such  beliefs  are  nevertheless  very  real. 
On  the  other  hand  there  are  many  propositions 
accepted  traditionally,  and  spoken  of  as  beliefs, 
which  are  not  real,  vital  abiding  truths  for 
those  who  nominally  accept  them ;  which  have 
no  influence  on  character  or  mental  ton^  and  on 
which  those  who  hold  them  would  not  be  pre- 
pared to  act  Faith  is  a  word  used  in  very  much 
the  same  sense  as  belief,  but  especially  ngnijies 
the  acceptance  of  and  reliance  on  the  truths  of 
reKgion. 

BibUognphy. —  Bain,  'The  Emotions  and 
the  WilP  (London  1800) ;  Balfour,  'The 
Foundations  of  Belief;  Brentano,  'Psycholo- 
gic' (Leipiig  18?4):  Carvelh,  'Conditions  of 
Belief  in  Immature  Minds*   (in  British  Journal 


ny,  'Knowledge, 
■Brahmavadin,'  Vol,  IX,  p.  85,  1904) ;  Hume, 
'Inquity'  (Oxford  1894)  ;  James,  'Psychology' 
(New  York  1890);  Ladd.  'What  Shall  i  Be- 
lieve' (1915);  Mill.  'Analysis  of  the  Phenom- 
ena of  the  Human  Mind'  (London  1869) ;  New- 
man, 'Grammar  of  Assent'  ;  Spencer,  '"Psf- 
chology'  (New  York  1881);  Thomas,  'Judg- 
ment as  Belief  (1910)  r  Verbrot,  'Die  Psychol- 
ogie  des  Glaubens';  Ward.  'The  Wish  to  Be- 
lieve"   0884). 

BELINDA,  a  novel  by  Maria  Edgeworth. 
Belinda  Portman  goes  to  spend  the  winter  in 
London  with  Lady  Dclacour,  a  brilliant  and 
fashionable  woman;  at  her  house  she  meets 
Oarence  Hervcy  for  the  first  lime.  Various 
obstacles  keep  the  lovers  apart,  but  the  story 
ends  happily  with  the  marriage  of  Hervey  and 
Belinda.  Despite  a  didactic  vein,  apparent 
here  as  in  others  of  her  novels,  Belinda  is  an 
interesting  work  and  secures  for  its  author  her 
prominent  place  in  English  fiction. 


of  Penia,  1810;  d.  Saint  Petersburg,  28  May 
1848.  Entered  the  Univeraty  of  Moscow  1829, 
but  was  expelled  before  graduation  on  account 
of  a  drama  he  had  written  which  fiercely  at- 
tacked the  institution  of  serfdom.  His  first  im- 
portant work,  however,  was  his  'Literary  Rev- 
eries' (1834),  a  critical  review  of  the  develop- 
ment of  Russian  literature.  In  1839  he  removed 
to  Saint  Petersburg,  where  he  became  proiiu- 
nent  as  a  critic,  especially  after  the  appearance 
of  his  essays  on  the  Russian  writers  of  his  til — 


Google 


470 


BBLISARIUS  —  BBUZB 


the  last  of  these,  on  Pushkin,  constitutinR  a  vol- 
ume of  over  500 yagcB  (1848).  His  last  import- 
ant work  was  his  'Literary  Review  for  1847,' 
in  which  he  strongly  expressed  tbe  radical 
views  that  tingred  alT  his  works.  His  collected 
worlu  were  published  in  12  volumes  in  1862. 
Bdinsky  is  now  considered  to  have  been  the 
foremost  critic  of  Russian  literature,  his  fame 
having  augmented  considerably  since  his  death. 
Consult  Pyptn,  'Belirsky:  His  Life  and  Corre- 
spondence'   (Saint  Petersburg  1876). 

BELISARIUS,  Byzantine  general :  b.  about 
SOS;  d.  565.  To  him  ihe  Emperor  Justinian 
chiefly  owed  Ihe  splendor  of  his  reign.  Belisa- 
rius  first  served  in  the  bodyguard  of  ihc  Em- 
peror, soon  after  obtained  the  chief  command 
of  an  army  of  25,000  meu  stationed  on  the  Per- 
sian froDtiers,  and  in  the  year  530  gained  a 
complete  victory  over  a  Persian  army  of  not 
less  than  40,000  soldiers.     The  historian  Proco- 

fius  was  at  this  time  secretary  of  Belisarius. 
n  531,  however,  he  lost  the  battle  of  Callini- 
cum  against  tbe  same  enemy,  who  had  forced 
his  way  into  Syria  — the  only  battle  which  he 
lost  during  his  whole  career.  He  was  recalled 
from  the  army  and  soon  became  at  home  the 
support  of   his   master,   the   Emperor.     In   the 


and  the  blue  and  who  caused  great  disorders 
in  Constantinople,  brought  the  life  and  reign  of 
Justinian  into  the  utmost  peril,  and  Hypatius 
was  already  chosen  emperor,  when  Belisarius 
with  a  sni^l  body  of  faithful  adherents  restored 
order.  Justinian,  with  a  view  of  conquering 
the  dommions  of  Gelimer,  king  of  the  Vandals, 
sent  Belisarius  with  an  army  of  15,000  men  to 
Africa.  After  two  victories  he  secured  the 
person  and  treasures  of  the  Vandal  King.  Geli- 
mer was  led  in  triumph  through  the  streets  of 
Constantinople,  and  Justinian  ordered  a  medal 
to  be  strudc  with  the  inscription  'Belisarius 
gloria  Romanorum,'  which  has  descended  to 
By  reason  of  the  dissensions  exist- 


Italy  and  Rome  under  his  sceptre.  Belisarius 
reduced  Sicily  in  S3S  and  in  the  followii^  year 
received  the  submission  of  the  cities  of  lower 
Ital^,  with  the  exception  of  Naples,  which  he 
carried  by   storm.      In   December  of   the   same 

J  ear  he  entered  Rome,  where  he  was  besieged 
y  the  Goths  for  an  entire  ^ear.  The  latter 
were  finallj;  compelled  to  raise  the  siege.  In 
538  Belisarius  was  reinforced  by  Narses,  but 
the  latter  failed  to  co-operate  with  hfm  and 
Milan  was  sacked  by  the  Goths  under  Braias. 
Narses  was  recalled  and  both  armies  were 
placed  under  the  command  of  Belisarius.  In 
540  Belisarius  pushed  the  Goths  hack  to  Ra- 
venna, and  here  vanquished  their  army  and  cap- 
tured their  king,  Vitiges,  whom,  together  with 
many  other  Goths,  he  conducted  to  Constanti- 
nople. The  war  in  Italy  against  the  Goths  con- 
tinued, but  Belisarius,  not  being  sufficiently 
supplied  with  money  and  troops  by  the  Emperor, 
demanded  his  recall  in  548,  Narses,  his  rival, 
was  appointed  to  Ihe  command.  He  afterward 
commanded  in  the  war  against  the  Bulgarians, 
whom  he  conquered  in  the  year  559.  Upon  his 
return  to  Constantinople  he  was  accused  of 
having  taken  part  in  a  conspiracy.  But  Jus- 
tinian was  convinced  of  his  ir  '  ' 


said  to  have  restored  to  him  his  pioperty  and 
dtgnities,  of  which  he  had  been  dq)rived.  Hit 
history  has  been  much  colored  by  the  poets, 
and  particularly  by  Marmontel,  in  his  other- 
wise admirable  politico-idiilosoriiical  romance. 
Acxx>rding  to  his  narrative,  the  Kmperor  caused 
the  eyes  of  the  hero  to  be  strwic  out,  and 
Belisarius  was  compelled  to  beg  his  brad  in 
the  streets  of  Constantinople.  Other  writers 
say  that  Justinian  had  him  thrown  into  a  prisan. 
which  is  still  shown  under  the  appellation  of 
the  Tower  of  Belisarius.  From  tois  tower  be 
i.i  reported  to  have  let  down  a  bag  fastened  to 
a  rope  and  to  have  addressed  the  passers-by  in 
these  words :  "Give  an  obolus  to  Belisarius, 
whom  virtue  exalted,  and  envy  has  oppressed.* 
Of  this,  however,  no  conlemporaiy  writer 
makes  any  mention.  The  blind  Belisarius 
forms  the  subject  of  a  noted  painting  by 
Gerard.  Tzetzes,  a  slightly  esteemed  writer  of 
the  12th  centur^f,  was  the  first  who  related  this 
fable.  Certain  it  is  that,  throu^  too  great  in- 
dulgence toward  his  wife,  Antonina,  Belisarius 
was  impelled  to  many  acts  of  injustice,  and  that 
he  evinced  a  seivile  submissiveness  to  the  de- 


(Voi.  I,  New  York  1910  ;  Hodgkin,  'Italy  and 
Her  Invaders'  (Oxford  1880-85):  Bury, 
'Later  Roman  Empire'   (London  1893). 

BELIZE,  biE-lea'  (sometimes  written  Beuce 
or  Balize),  British  Honduras,  the  capital  of  the 
colony,  Lat,  17°  29*  N.;  long.  88°  8*  W,  It 
has  been  suggested  that  the  name  is  derived 
from  the  French  balise,  a  beacon,  but  more 
probably  it  is  a  corruption  of  Wallace,  a  Scotch 
buccaneer  named  Peter  Wallace,  with  80  com- 
panions, having  erected  houses  enclosed  with  a 
rude  palisade  at  this  point  after  the  Spaniards 
abandoned  Bacala,  leaving  a  large  part  of  the 
rugged,  uninviting  north  coast  of  the  Gulf  of 
Honduras  unoccupied,  save  by  freebooters, 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  I7th  century,  Ac- 
cordinEly  the  name  Walis,  Baits  or  BeliM  was 
applied  by  the  natives  and  Spaniards  to  the  set- 
tlement, the  river  on  which  it  was  situated  and 
subsequently  to  the  whole  region  occupied  by 
the  English.  (Consult  Bancroft's  'History  of 
Central  America,'  Vol,  H,  p  624).  Wood-cut- 
tii^  was  the  chief  occupation  of  the  establish- 
ment. The  value  of  the  forests  attracting  other 
settlers,  Belize  was  attacked  by  the  authorities 
of  Yucatan,  who  sou^t  to  expel  them  as  tres- 
passers in  1733.  Various  unsuccessful  attempts 
with  the  same  object  were  made  in  subseqaeni 
years,  the  most  formidable  in  1754.  Again  in 
1779,  war  existing  between  England  and  Spiin, 
the  governor  of  Yucatan  organised  an  expedi- 
tion against  Belite;  and  Spain's  last  effort  to 
regain  possession  by  force  was  made  in  1798. 
Before  that  time  the  settlers  had  organized  a 
government  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that, 
originating  as  it  did,  the  town  has  become,  with 
its  population  of  more  than  5,000,  its  ehurrh, 
schools  and  hospital,  a  centre  for  the  mainte- 
nance of  good  order.  It  has  the  ehaiacteristic 
features  of  a  small  English  colonial  capital  — 
the  governor's  house,  etc.  Coral  reefs  form  a 
natural  breakwater  for  the  harbor.  Lar|!:e  ves- 
sels are  loaded  and  unloaded  by  means  of 
tenders.    Logwood  and  mahogany  are  the  chief 


.Google 


BELKNAP  —  BELL 


471 


items  of  trade.  Other  staple  products  are 
bananas,  coffee,  cacao,  plantains,  etc.  See  Hok< 
DUBAS,  Drttibh,  and  consult  works  there  re- 
ferred to.    Pop.  10,478. 

BELKNAP,  Georse  Ennne,  American 
naval  officer:  b.  Newport,  N,  H.,  22  Jan.  1832; 
d.  Key  West  Fla.,  7  April  1903.  .He  was  ap- 
pointed midshipman  in  the  navy  in  1847 ;  be- 
came lieu  tenant- commander  in  1862;  com- 
mander in  1866;  captain  in  1872;  commodore 
in  1885.  and  rear-admiral  in  1889,  and  was  re- 
tired in  1894.  He  took  part  in  the  capture  of 
the  Barrier  Forts  on  the  Canton  River,  China, 
in  1856;  and  in  the  Civil  War  commanded  the 
New  Ironsides  at  the  bombardment  of  the  forts 
and  batteries  in  Charleston  Harbor,  and  in  both 
of  the  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher.  In  1873,  as  com- 
mander of  tfic  Tuscarora,  while  engaged  in 
deep-sea  sounding  in  the  north  Pacific  Ocean, 
he  made  discovenes  concerning  the  topography 
of  the  bed  of  the  ocean  that  found  high  favor 
among  scientists.  He  was  appointed  superin- 
tendent of  the  United  States  Naval  Observa- 
tory in  1885  and,  among  other  works,  published 
■'Deep  Sea  Soundings.' 

BELKNAP,  Jeremy,  American  Coi^rega- 
tional  clcrcj-man ;  b.  Boston  Mass.,  4  June  1744 ; 
d.  there,  20  June  1798.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1762;  was  pastor  of  the  Congrega- 
tional Church  in  Dover,  N.  H.,  1767-86,  and  of 
the  Federal  Street  Church  in  Boston,  1787-98; 
and  was  active  for  the  American  cause  during 
ihe  Revolution.  The  Massachusetts  Historical 
Society,  organized  in  1790,  recognizes  him  as 
its  founder.  In  1792  he  became  an  overseer  of 
Harvard  Collf^e.  A  very  great  part  of  his 
time  was  spent  in  biographical  and  historical 
research.  He  was  the  author  of  a  'History  of 
New  Hampshire'  (3  vols.,  1784-92)  ;  <A  Dis- 
course Intended  to  Commemorate  the  Discov- 
ery of  America  by  Columbus,  with  Fonr  Dis- 
sertations' {1792)-  'An  Historical  Account  of 
Those  Persons  Who  Have  Been  Distinguished 
in  America.'  generally  known  a5  the  'Amer- 
ican BiograiJiy'  (2  vols.,  1792-98)  ;  'The  For- 
esters: An  American  Tale'  (1796);  'CoHec- 
tion  of  Psalms  and  Hymns'  (179S).  Consult 
his  'Lite,'   (New  York  1847). 

BELKNAP,  WUlUm  Worth,  American 
military  officer,  son  of  Gen.  W.  G.  Belknap: 
b.  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  22  Sept.  1829;  d,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  13  Oct.  1890.  In  1861  he  entered 
the  Union  army  as  major  of  the  I5th  Iowa 
Volunteers  and  was  engaged  at  Shiloh,  Corinth 
and  Vicksburg;  but  became  most  prominent  in 
Sherman's  Atlanta  campaign  He  was  pro- 
moted  to  brigadier-general,  30  July  1864,  and 
major-^ncrai,  13  March  1865.  He  was  collec- 
tor of  internal  revenue  in  Iowa  from  1865  to 
13  Oct.  1869,  when  he  was  appointed  Secretary 
of  War,  which  oflice  he  occupied  till  7  March 
1876.  He  resigned  in  consequence  of  accusa- 
tions of  oflicial  corruption.  Subsequently  he 
was  tried  and  acquiited. 

BELL,  Acton.    See  Bronte,  Anne. 

BELL,  Alexander  Crabam,  American 
scientist^  inventor  of   the   telephone:    b.   Edin- 


burgh, Scotland,  3  March  1847.  He  'was 
of  Alexander  U.  Bell  (q.v.),  and  was  taugut 
at  home  by  bis  parents,  more  especially  by  his 
mother,  whose  musical  talent  he  inherited,  and 
by  August  Bcnoit  Bertini,  a  musical  authority 


and  compter.  He  entered  UcLauren's  Acad- 
emy in  Edinburgh  and,  a  year  later,  the  Royal 
High  School,  graduating  shortly  after  his  13th 
binhda:y.  Then  he  went  to  London  and  re- 
ceived instruction  in  elocution  aitd  the  mech- 
anism of  speech  from  his  grandfather,  Alex- 
ander Bell  (b.  1790;  d,  1865),  a  recognized 
authority  on  these  subjects.  Returning  home, 
he  was  further  trained  along  the  same  lines 
by  ins  father,  with  a  view  to  following  the 
family  profession.  Was  then  employed  durinR 
a  year  as  pupil-teacher  at  Weston-House  Acad- 
emy, Elgin,  Scotland,  after  which  he  entered 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  and  attended  lec- 
tures upon  Latin  under  Doctor  Sellers  and  upon 
Greek  under  Professor  Blakie.  Then  he  re- 
turned to  Elgin  as  resident  master  and  teacher 
of    elocution    and    music,    and    remained    two 

i rears.  Was  instructor  in  Somersetshire  Col- 
ege,  Bath,  England,  during  a  year,  then  be- 
caroe  assistant  to  his  father  in  London  (the 
latter  having  removed  there  and  received  the 
appointment  of  lecturer  on  elocution  in  Uni- 
versity College).  In  186B  he  taught  several 
deaf-bom  children  to  speak,  and  from  July 
to  December  had  entire  charge  of  his  father's 
professional  affairs,  including  the  giving  of 
lessons  and  lectures  at  the  difTerent  scEooli 
and  the  correcting  of  defects  in  speech,  white 
the  father  was  deliverii^  lectures  in  America. 
E^rly  the  next  year  he  was  taken  into  partner- 
ship with  his  father.  During  1868-70  he  at- 
teMed  courses  on  anatomy  and  physiology  at 
University  College,  London,  joined  the  college 
medical  society  and  matriculated  as  an  under- 
graduate at  the  London  University.  Owing  to 
the  death  of  two  of  his  sons  by  tuberculosis 
and  the  fear  that  his  only  remaining  son  might 
fall  a  victim,  Graham's  father  resigned  his  lec- 
tureships, disposed  of  bis  practice  in  London 
and,  witn  his  family,  moved  to  Canada  and 
secured  a  country  place  at  Tutelo  Heights,  near 
Brantford,  Ontario.  Through  living  out-of- 
doors  as  much  as  t>ossible,  Graham  Bdl  re- 
gained his  health. 

Beginning  1  April  1871,  Alexander  Graham 
Bell  gave  special  instruction  to  teachers  of 
deaf  children  in  the  use  of  bis  father's  physio- 
li^cal  symbols  of  visible  speech  in  Boston  and 
Northampton,  Mass.,  Hartford,  Conn.,  and 
other  cities.  In  1872  he  opened  in  Boston  a 
normal  training  school,  known  as  the  School 
of  Vocal  IJhysiolo^,  for  teachers  of  the  deaf 
and  for  instruction  in  the  mechanism  of  speeds 
faults  of  speech,  etc  In  1873  he  was  appointee 
professor  of  vocal  plqrsiolagy  in  the  school  of 
oratory  of  the  Boston  University.  Here  he 
remained  until  1877,  when  he  went  abroad  to 
lecture  on  the  telephone.  Before  be  was  17 
years  of  age  be  devised  a  method  lor  removing 
the  husks  from  wheat,  and  he  and  his  brother 
made  a  speaking  automaton.  Amon^  the  more 
important  inventions  are  the  harmonic  multiple 
telegraph  (1874)  ;  the  fundamental  method  that 
underlies  the  electric  transmission  of  speech 
in  any  form  in  any  part  of  the  world  (1875)  ; 
the  magneto-electric  speaking-telephone  (1875)  : 
the  photophone  for  transmitting  speech  and 
other  sounds  to  a  distance  by  means  of  a  beam 
of  light  (1880)  ;  an  induction-balance  with 
magneto-electric  telephone  for  painlessly  locat- 
ing bullets  or  other  metallic  masses  lodged  in 
the  human  body  (1881);  the  telephone  probe 


.Google 


47a  BB 

to  determine  the  position  and  i^fb  of  metal- 
lic masses  in  the  human  body  (1881) ;  the  spec-  . 
trophone  for  determining  the  range  of  audi- 
bility of  different  substances  in  the  spectrum 
1881)  1  joint  inventor  of  the  gTapnopbone 
and  flat  disc  records  for  recortfing  and 
reproducing  speech,  music  and  other  sounds, 
"the  commercial  origin  of  the  sound- repro- 
ducing art"  (1884-86);  tetrahedral  kites  and 
kite  structures  (1903);  joint  inventor  in  a 
number  of  improvements  designed  to  pro- 
mote aerUl  locomotion  in  connection  with  the 
Aeiial  Experiment  Association  (1903-06). 

Among  the  medals  awarded  to  Alexander 
Graham  Bell  are  the  following;  Centennial 
Expoution,  Philadelphia,  gold  medal  for  speak- 
ing-telephone, gold  medal  for  visible  speech 
(1876);  Royal  Cornwall  Polytechnic  Society, 
the  James  Watt  silver  medal  for  the  telephone 
(1877);  Massachusetts  Charitable  Mechanics 
Association,  ^old  medal  for  the  telephone,  gold 
medal  for  visible  speech  (1878);  Society  of 
Arts,  London,  Royal  Albert  silver  medal  for 
his  paper  on  the  telephone  (1878) ;  Republique 
Franqaise  Exposition  Universelle  Internation- 
ale, Paris,  gold  medal  for  the  telephone  and  a 
silver  medal  (1878)  ;  Society  of  Arts,  London, 
Royal  Albert  silver  niedal  for  his  paper  on 
the  photophonc  (1881)  ;  the  Karl  Koenig  von 
Wuertemberg  gold  medal ;  Society  of  Arts, 
London,  Royal  Albert  gold  medal  for  his  in- 
vention of  the  telephone  (1902);  John  Fritz 
gold  medal  (1907)  ;  Franklin  Institute  of  Phil- 
adelphia, Elliott  Cresson  gold  medal  for  the 
electrical  transmission  of  speech  (1912)  ;  David 
Edward  Hughes  gold  medal  and  a  silver  medal 
(1913)  ;  American  Institute  of  Electrical  En- 
gineers, Thomas  Alva  Edison  gold  medal 
(1914).  Among  the  honorary  degrees  con- 
ferred upon  Alexander  Graham  Bell  are  the 
following:  Doctor  of  Laws,  Illinois  College 
(1881),  Harvard  College  (1896),  Amherst  Col- 
lege (1901),  Saint  Andrew's  University  (1902). 
Edinburgh  University  (1906),  Queen's  Univer- 
sity, Canada  (1908),  George  V/ashington  Uni- 
versity (1913),  Dartmouth  College  (1914)  ; 
Doctor  of  Plulosophy,  National  Deaf -Mute 
College  (now  Gallaudet  College)  (1880),  Wiirz- 
burg  University  (1882)  ;  Doctor  of  Science, 
Oxford  University  (1906) ;  Doctor  of  Medi- 
cine, Heidelberg,  Germany  (1886).  To  him 
was  awarded  by  the  government  of  France  the 
Volta  prize  of  .S0,000  francs  for  the  electrical 
transmission  of  speech  (1880);  he  was  also 
decorated  and  created  an  officer  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor  of  France  pe81). 

Among  the  societies  of  which  Alexander 
Graham  Bell  is  a  member  are  the  following; 
Boston  Society  of  Natural  History;  American 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  Boston;  Royal 
Society  of  Arts,  London  (honorary)  ;  Society 
of  Telegraph  Engineers  and  Electricians,  Lon- 
don; Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers,  London; 
American  Association  for  'the  Advancement  of 
Science  (hfe);  Philosophical  Society  of  Wash- 
ington ;  American  Philosophical  Society,  Phila- 
delphia; National  Academy  of  Sciences;  Na- 
tional Educational  Association  (life)  ;  Society 
dc  Phj^ique  (corresponding),  Paris;  American 
Oiological  Society  (honorary) ;  American  In- 
stitute of  Electrical  Engineers  ( ex -president )  ; 
American  Association  to  Promote  the  Teach- 
ing of  Speech  to  the  Deaf  (founder,  endower 


and  ex-preaidoit) ;  Antiquarian  Society  of 
Massachusetts ;  Anthropological  Society  oE 
Washington ;    Washington    Academy    of    Sci- 


tion  of  Deaf-Mutes  (honorary)  ;  Telephone 
Pioneers  of  America;  American  Anthropologi- 
cal Society;  American  Senetic  Association; 
American  LaTyngological,  Rhinologtcal  and 
Olological  Society  (honorary).  In  1887  he 
founded  and  endowed  the  "Volta  Bureau  for 
the  Increase  and  Diffusion  of  Knowledge  Re- 
lating to  the  Deaf  °  Washington,  D.  C  In 
1900  be  assisted  in  tke  formation  of  the  Ameri- 
can Association  to  Promote  the  Teaching  o( 
Speech  to  the  Deaf  and  endowed  the  associa- 
tion. As  special  agent  of  the  Bureau  of  the 
Census  he  detennined  the  scope  of  that  part 
of  the  I2th  census  relating  to  the  deaf  of  the 
United  Sutes  living  on  1  June  1900k  initialed 
the  inquiry,  specified  the  tabulations  to  be 
made  from  the  data  secured,  conducted  the 
corraspondence  and  prepared  the  text  of  the 
special  report  of  2O0  pages  that  is  valued  highly 
by  all  who  are  investigating  any  phase  of  deaf- . 
ness.  He  was  appointed  hy_  Congress  a  regent 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  in  1898  and  has 
been  regularly  reappointed  since.  In  January 
1904  he  brought  the  remains  of  James  Smith- 
son,  founder  of  the  Smithsonian.  Institution, 
from  Genoa,  Italy,  to  New  York,  where  they 
were  received  with  national  honors  and  con- 
veyed to  Washington. 

BELL,  Alexander  Melville,  Scottish- 
American  educator :  b.  Edinburgh,  1  March 
1819;  d.  Washington,  D.  C,  7  Aug.  1905.  He 
was  a  distinguished  teacher  of  elocution  at  the 
university  oi  his  native  city;  in  1865  removed 
to  London  to  act  as  a  lecturer  in  University 
College,  and  in  1870  went  to  Canada  and  be- 
came connected  with  Queen's  College,  King- 
ston. He  invented  the  system  of  "visible 
speech,"  In  which  all  the  possible  articulations 
of  the  human  voice  have  corresponding  charac- 
ters designed  to  represent  the  respective  posi- 
tions of  the  vocal  organs.  This  system  has 
been  successfully  employed  in  teaching  the  deaf 
and  dumb  to  speak.,  Besides  writing  on  this 
subject  he  wrote  on  elocution,  stenography, 
etc.  He  was  the  father  of  Alexander  Grabani 
Beli,  the  inventor  of  the  telephone. 

BELL,  Andrew,  Scottish  educator,  author 
of  the  mutual  instruction  or  'Madras*  system 
of  education:  b.  Saint  Andrews,  27  March  1753; 
d.  Cheltenham.  England,  27  Jan,  1832.  He  was 
educated  at  the  university  of  his  native  town, 
resided  for  seven  years  in  Virginia  as  tutor  to 
a  plasterer's  family,  and  on  returning  took  or- 
ders in  the  Church  of  England,  In  1787  he 
went  to  India,  where  he  held  eight  army  chap- 
lainships  simultaneously  and  becaxoc  manager 
of  the  institution  for  the  education  of  the  or- 
phan children  of  European  soldiers  at  Madras 
established  by  the  East  India  Company.  The 
superintendence  of  this  asylum  was  undertaken 
by  Dr.  Bell,  who,  [hough  the  love  of  money 
was  his  besetting  weakness,  refused  the  salary 
of  1,200  pagoda  (i480)  which  was  attached  to 
it.  Failing  to  retain  the  services  of  properly 
qualified  ushers  he  resorted  to  the  expedient  of 
conducting  his  school  through  the  medium  of 
the  scholars  themselves.  It  was  in  the  mode  of 
conducting  a  school  by  means  of  mutual  in- 


v  Google 


a  that  tbe  new  mettlod  of  Dr.  Bell  con- 
sisted; and  its  valiK  as  an  abbreviation  of  the 
mechaiiiial  pu-[  of  teaching,  and  vihere  Urge 
numbers  were  to  be  tuight  economically,  could 
not  be  easily  overestiniated  Bt  the  time.  His 
system,  however,  is  now  abandoned.  From 
tbe  commencemeat  of  his  experiment  he  nude 
the  scholars,  as  fai  as  possible,  do  everything 
for  thonsetves ;  they  ruled  ibdr  own  paper, 
made  tbeir  own  pens,  etc.,  while  the  teacher 
only  directed  tlutn.  The  maxim  of  the  school 
was  that  no  boy  could  do  anythine  right  tbe 
first  time,  but  he  must  learn  when  he  first  set 
about  it,  by  means  of  bis  teacher,  so  as  to  be 
able  to  do  it  himself  ever  afterward.  After 
superintending  the  school  for  seven  years  be 
found  it  necessary  for  his  health  to  return  to 
Europe.  On  his  arrival  he  pt^lished  ia  1797 
a  pamphlet  entitled  'An  Experiment  in  Edu- 
cation made  at  the  Male  Asylum  of  Madras,' 
in  which  he  gave  an  account  of  his  system.  He 
founded  a  national  society  for  the  education  of 
poor  children  by  means  of  his  system,  to  be 
operated  in  accordance  with  Anglican  leach' 
ing.  Tbe  first  place  in  England  where  the  sys- 
tem was  adoDted  was  the  diarity  school  of 
Saint  BodolpA's,  Aldgate,  and  gradually,  es- 
pecially through  the  in&uencc  of  Joseph  Lan- 
caster, who  founded  a  rival  socie^  on  non- 
sectarian  lines,  it  was  widely  earned  out  in 
Ei^land,  and  indeed  in  almost  every  other 
civilized  country.  Dr.  Bell  became  in  1801 
rector  of  Swans^e,  Etorset,  and  in  1819  aC' 
quired  the  dignity  of  a  prebendary  of  West- 
minster and  was  master  of  Sherbnm  Hospital, 
Durham.  He  employed  himself  during  his 
later  years  in  writing  sevcr&l  works  on  educa- 
tion, among  which  tbe  most  valuaUe  were 
'The  Elements  of  Tuition,'  'The  English 
School'  and  'Brief  Manual  of  Mutual  Instruc- 
tion and  Discipline.'  Before  his  death  he  gave 
over  to  trustees  £120,000  3  per  cent  itodr  for 
education,  half  of  it  for  the  purpose  of  foimd- 
ing  an  academy  in  his  native  city.  His  method 
was  the  forerunner  of  the  pupil-teacher  sys- 
,  tcm.  Gxisult  'Life  by  &iuthey'  (1844); 
Meiklejohn,  'An  Old  Educational  Keformer' 
(18811. 

BELL,  Sir  Charles,  Scottish  anatomist :  b. 
Edinburgh  November  1774;  d.  near  Worces- 
ter, England,  28  April  1842.  He  studied  anat- 
omy under  his  brother.  John  Bell  (q.v.),  and 
had  scarcely  reached  manhood  before  he  had 
proved  himself  to  be  a  first-rate  anatomist  as 
well  as  an  excellent  lecturer.  In  1804,  being 
already  known  by  his  publithed  works,  he  went 
to  London,  and  m  1811  published  an  essay  en- 
titled 'A  New  Idea  of  the  Anatomy  of  the 
I3rain,'  containing  the  important  discovery  of 
th«  distinction  between  sensory  and  motor 
nerves,  on  which  his  fame  chiefly  rests.  In 
1812  he  was  appointed  surgeon  to  the  Middle- 
sex Hospital,  to  whose  prosperity  he  afterward 
(rreatJy  contributed.  In  1824  he  accepted  the 
chair  of  anatomy  and  surgery  to  the  London 
College  of  Sorgcans,  and  in  1836  that  of  sur- 
g-ery  m  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  His  i)rin- 
ctpal  works  are  'Anatomy  of  Expression' 
(1S06):  'System  of  Operative  Surgery'; 
*  Anatomy  and  Physiology,'  with  his  brother 
fohn;  'Animal  Mechanics'  (1828);  'Nervous 
System'  (1830);  and  the  'Bridgtwater  Treatise 
on    the  Hand'   (1833);   'The  Institutes  of  Sur- 


L  473  . 

gery>  (1838).  and  'Practical  Essays'  <1841). 
He  was  knitted  in  1831.  There  is  a  life  in 
Freodi  by  Pichot  (1859),  and  in  1870  a  selec- 
tion from  Sir  Charles  Bell's  correspondence 
was  published. 

BELL,  Charles  Frederick  Moberlv,  Eng- 
lish journalist,  managing  director,  of  the  Lon- 
don Timet:  b.  Alexandria,  Egypt,  2  April  1847; 
d.  London,  5  April  1911.  Started  as  a  yoong 
man  on  a  commercial  career  in  Egypt,  in  1865, 
aged  IS,  he  took  a  vacation  in  walking  along 
the  entire  length  of  the  Suez  Canal  (103  miles) 
then  in  course  of  construction,  and  sent  a  glow- 
ing account  of  his  trip  to  the  London  Times, 
pointing  out  the  enormous  advantage  and  bril- 
liant prospects  of  the  undertaking.  At  that 
time  the  venture  was  Still  decried  in  England 
as  a  colossal  folly,  and  Bdl's  article  was  re- 
ceived with  a  shower  of  reproof.  When  the 
canal  was  opened,  four  years  later,  and  speedily 
became  one  of  tbe  world's  most  important  high- 
ways, the  young  correspondent's  prophecy  was 
amply  fulfilled.  He  was  appointed  by  Tht 
Times  to  send  reports  of  news  from  Egypt, 
which  he  did  for  many  years  while  carrying  on 
his  business  as  a  cotton  merchant.  He  kept  the 
outside  world  in  close  touch  with  Elgyptian  af- 
fairs, especially  the  profliMte  rule  of  the 
Khedive  tsmaii.  The  Arabi  Pasha  rebellion  in 
1882  gave  him  his  chance.  With  unerring  fin- 
ger he  pointed  out  the  real  instigators  of  the 
revolt,  who  were  u.iing  Arabi  as  a  tool  to  fur- 
ther their  own  purposes.  The  Anglo-French 
intervention  was  directly  due  to  Bell's  writings 
in  The  Times;  it  was  he  who  drove  Gladstone 


fleet  withdrew  from  tbe  harbor  of  Alexandria, 
the  British  squadron  remained  and  bombarded 
the  rebel  positions  in  the  forts,  afterward  land- 


1914)  of  Egypt.  Bell  was  an  attentive  eyewit- 
ness of  these  historic  events,  and  his  descrip- 
tions of  them  were  masterpieces  of  journalistic 
composition.  In  1890  Bel!  was  invited  to  come 
to  London  and  take  over  the  management  of 
The  Timet.  That  ftaper  had  just  passed 
through  a  critical  period.  The  disastrous  Par- 
nell  case  (q.v.)  had  cost  The  Times  over  a 
mlllon  dollars  and  a  strong  hand  was  needed 
to  guide  the  business  side  of  the  concern.  For 
21  years  Bell  labored  with  terrific  energy  in 
that  post  aild  finally  died  in  his  office  chair 
while  writing  a  letter  respecting  newspaper 
copyright.  He  led  the  paper  into  avenues  dis- 
tinct from  journalism,  such  as  publishing  the 
9th  and  10th  editions  of  the  'Encyclopedia 
Britannica,'  The  Times  *  Atlas,'  The  Times 
'History  of  the  War  in  South  Africa,'  and 
instituted  The  Times  Book  Oub.  He  chartered 
a  steamer  for  a  Timet  correspondent  to  follow 
the  naval  operations  of  the  Russo-Japanese 
War;  established  a  private  wireless  system  and 
inaugurated  the  first  service  of  wireless  press 
messages  across  the  Atlantic.  A  man  of  im- 
mense stature,  with  a  leonine  head  and  merci- 
less driving  force,  he  spared  neither  himself 
nor  those  who  worked  under  him.  He  had 
the  frift  of  choosing  the  rif^t  men  for  allotted 
positions,  and  never  failed  to  encourage  merit 
and  reward  those  who  had  achieved  any  suc- 
cess for  the  paper.  He  published  three  books 
on  Egypt. 


t,zcd=y  Google 


474  BB 

BBLL,  Clark,  American  writer  on  medical 
jorispntdence:  b.  Whitesville,  N.  Y.,  12  March 
1832.  After  practising  law  for  eif^t  years 
he  became,  in  1861,  assistant  district  attorney 
of  Steuben  County,  N.  V.  Later  he  became 
attorney  for  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  and 
as  such  dre^  up  the  act  by  which  Congress 
authorized  its  construction.  In  1883  he  became 
editor  of  the  Medico-Legal  Journal,  in  which 
position  he  continued  for  many  years.  He  was 
president  of  the  Medico-Legal  Society  for  16 
terms  and  or^nized  the  first  Congress  on 
Tuberculosis,  In  1900  and  in  1906  he  was  a 
delegate  to  the  International  Medical  Congress, 
held  respectively  at  Paris  and  Lisbon.  Amons 
his  works  are  'Bell's  Medico-Legal  Studies' 
(II  vols..  1893);  'Judicial  History  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  and  Prov- 
inces of  North  America'  (1895);  'Spiritism, 
Telepathy  and  Hypnotism'  (1902,  2d  ed.,  1904), 

BELL,  Correr.    See  Bronte,  Charlotte. 

BBLL,  Digb;  (Valentine),  American  actor 
and  singer  in  comic  opera :  b.  Milwaukee,  Wis., 
1849;  <£  20  June  1917.  His  earlier  years  were 
spent  in  the  steamship  business,  but  later  he  was 
encouraged  to  take  up  the  cultivation  of  his 
voice  in  Naples.  His  first  appearance  was  made 
in  Malta,  in  1876.  Since  then  he  has  been  promi- 
nent on  the  American  comic  opera  stage,  tour- 
ing the  United  States  and  Canada  with  Augus- 
tin  Daly,  the  McCaul  Opera  Company  and  the 
Duff  Opera  Company.  His  most  notable  suc- 
cesses have  been  in  the  Gilbert  and  Sullivan 
operas,  especially  as  the  Admiral  in  'Pinafore,' 
as  Ko-Ko  in  'Mikado'  and  in  'Patience.'  He 
played  Sam  Weller  with  De  Wolf  Hopper  in 
'Mr.  Pickwick'  and  also  starred  in  'Tar  and 
Tartar.'  In  1912  he  appeared  in  a  revival  of 
'The  Mikado.*     Since  men  he  has  become  a 

BBLL,  Bllia.    See  Bronte,  Emily  Janb. 


burgh,  26  March  1770;  d.  1843.  He  passed  as 
advocate  in  1791,  and  became  one  of  the  first 
authorities  on  the  subject  of  mercantile  ju 


.1  of  a  work  which  first  appeared  i._  ___  , 

under  the  title  of  a  'Treatise  on  the  Laws  of 
Bankruptcy,'  but  in  subsequent  editions  was 
extended  and  appeared  as  'Commentaries  on 
the  Laws  of  Scotland  and  on  the  Principles  of 
Mercantile  Jurisprudence.'  This  worl^  not- 
withstanding recent  changes  in  the  law,  is  still 
a  standard.  Besides  the  work  above  mentioned, 
he  published  'Principles  of  the  Law  of  Scot- 
land,' the  10th  edition  of  which  was  issued  in 
1897;  and  other  works. 

BBLL,  Henry,  Scottish  engineer,  the  first 
successful  applier  of  steam  to  the  purposes  of 
navigation   in   Europe:   b.  Torphichen,  Linlith- 


Glasgow,  the  craft  of  a  house  carpenter,  but 
1808  removed  to  Helensburgh,  where  he  contin- 
ued to  prosecute  his  favorite  task  of  mechanical 
scheming,  without  much  regard  to  the  ordinary 
affairs  of  the  world,  though  he  became  proprie- 
tor of  baths  there.    The  application  of  steam  to 

navigation  had  already  been  attempted  by  Mr.      .   .._    

Miller    of    Dalswinton    (among   others),    who,      Osaka  River,  Japan. 


in  1788,  had  a  vessd  constructed,  propelled  by 
a  small  engine  and  paddle-wheel,  the  scene  of 
operations  iwing  a  loch  on  his  own  property 
in  Dumfriesshire.  Some  further  experiments 
were  matle,  yet  the  scheme  had  no  practical 
result  for  several  years.  Henry  Bell  seems  to 
have  turned  his  attention  to  the  subject  before 
the  end  of  the  century,  and  in  January  1812 
produced  the  Contet,  a  vessel  40  feet  long, 
which  was  found  in  a  great  measure  to  answer 
the  purpose  contemplated.  This  vessel  conld 
make  way  against  a  head  tide  in  the  river  at  the 
rate  of  five  miles  an  hour,  and  continued  to 

eon  the  Clyde  for  a  number  of  years.  Ii  may 
mentioned  that  Mr,  Robert  Fulton,  an  Amen- 
ican  engineer,  had  launched  a  boat  upon  this 
principle  in  1807,  and  that  it  performed  long 
voyages  upon  the  Hudson  Riyer;  but  "I  has 
been  proved  that  Fulton  had  derived  assistance 
in  the  construction  of  his  vessel  from  Bell. 
who  must  therefore  be  allowed  the  praise  oi 
having  done,  in  his  own  country,  what  all  other 
men,  notwithstanding  the  superior  advantages 
of  skill  and  capital,  had  failed  in  doing.  Bel! 
lived  to  see  the  bosom  of  the  Clyde  dotted  iar 
and  wide  by  innumerable  copies  of  his  own 
invention ;  to  know  that  steamboats  promi.sed  to 
give  a  new  turn  to  the  art  of  general  warfare; 
yet  he  reaped  for  himself  little  advantage. 
While  mankind  at  large  were  enjoying  die 
blessings  which  he  had  pointed  out  to  them,  he 
approached  the  confines  of  old  age  with  the 
prospect  of  hardly  the  average  comforts  which 
attended  that  stage  of  existence  in  the  humbler 
walks  of  society.  Touched  by  Ids  condition,  a 
number  of  benevolent  individuals  instituted  a 
subscription  in  bis  behalf,  and  it  is  creditable 
to  the  good  feeling  of  the  citizens  of  Glasgow 
and  other  places  that  a  considerable  sum  was 
raised.    The  trustees  on  the  river  Qyde  also 

Rve  him  an  annuity  of  £100,  which  he  enjoyed 
r  several  yeaii,  ue  half  of  which  sum  was 
continued  to  his  widow.  A  monumoit  vras 
erected  to  his  memory  at  Dunglass  Point  on  the 
Clyde.    See  Steam  Vessels. 

BELL,  Henrv  Glasaford,  Scottish  lawyer  - 
and  author:  b  Glasgow  1803;  d.  1874.  He 
founded  the  'Edinbur^  Literary  Journal'  1828, 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  IB32,  became  one 
of  the  most  esteemed  Scottish  mercantile  law- 
yers of  his  day  and  sheriff  of  Lanarkshire 
18S7-74.  He  published  a  spirited  defense  oi 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots  (1830),  'Summer  and 
Winter  Hours'  (1831);  'My  Old  Portfolio' 
(1832);  'Romances  and  Minor  Poems'  (1866). 
BELL,  Henry  Haywood,  American  naval 
officer:  b.  North  Canalina  1808;  d.  II  Jan. 
1868.  He  was  appointed  a  midshipman  in  1823, 
and  served  on  the  Grampus  when  she  was  en- 
gaged in  clearing  the  Cuban  coast  of  inrates. 
For  many  years  he  served  with  the  East  Indian 
squadron,  and  commanded  one  of  the  vessels 
ot  the  squadron  which,  in  November  1856,  de- 
stroyed four  forts  near  Canton,  (3hina.  Shortly 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  became 
fleet  captain  of  the  Western  Gulf  squadron. 
He  commanded  one  of  the  three  divisions  of  the 
fleet  which  captured  New  Orleans.  In  1865  he 
look  commana  of  the  East  India  squadron  with 
the  rank  of  commodore;  in  1866  was  promoted 
to  rear-admiral  and,  after  resigning  his  com- 
mand, he  was  drowned  at  the  mouth  of  the 


:,  Google 


BELL,  Isaac,  American  philanthropist:  b. 
New  York.  4  Aug.  1814;  d,  there,  30  Sept.  1897. 
He  began  his  buainess  life  in  a  banking  house 
H-hen  14  years  old,  and  in  1836  became  interested 
in  large  financial  and  other  concerns.  About 
ihis  time  he  b^[an  !□  devote  himself  to  the 
work  of  benevolent  institution^  and  was  presi- 
dent  of  the  department  of  chanties  t"' 


Bellevue  Hospital  Medical  College,  .  _.  _  . 
ed.  In  connection  with  the  first  institution  he 
established  the  system  of  ambulance  service. 
He  was  also  largely  instrumental  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Normal  College,  and  was 
responsible  for  the  schoolship  Mercury,  which 
came  under  the  control  of  the  department  of 
charities  and  correction,  and  of^  the  Saint 
Mary's,  as  well,  loaned  by  the  Navy  Depart- 
ment to  the  Department  of^ Education,  of  which 
he  was  also  for  a  long  time  a  member.  During 
the  Civil  War  he  was  active  in  raising  and  dis- 
bursing money  for  the  benefit  of  New  York 
volunteers,  and  in  aiding  soldiers'  wives, 
widows  and  orphans. 

BELL,  James,  Scottish  geographer :  b.  Jed- 
burgh 1769;  d.  1833.  After  receiving  a  liberal 
education  he  served  an  apprenticeship  to  the 
weaving  business,  and  in  1790  commenced  the 
manufacturing  of  cotton  goods  upon  a  large 
and  respectable  scale.  In  the  depression  occa- 
sioned by  the  shock  of  the  French  Revolution 
in  1793,  he  was  reduced  to  the  condition  of  a 
common  warper;  but  having  relinquished  that 
line  of  life,  he  was  about  the  year  1815  engaged 
to  improve  the  'Glasgow  System  of  Geography,* 
a  work  which  had  met  with  considerable  en- 
couragement, and  was  now,  chidiy  by  the  labors 


of  Mr.  Bell,  extended  to  five  volumes.  It  was 
well  received  by  the  public,  and  formed  the  baus 
of  his  principal  work,  'A  System  of  Popular 
and  Scientific  Geography,'  published  at  Glas- 
gow in  1830  in  six  volumes.  His  annotated 
edition  of  'Rollins'  Ancient  History*  (1828), 
was  a  notable  piece  of  work.  His  'Gaieiteer 
of  England  and  Wales*  was  in  the  course  of 
publication  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

BELL,  James,  Canadian  physician :  b.  North 
Gower,  Ontario,  10  Oct.  1852;  d.  II  April  1911. 
He  was  graduated  at  McGill  University  in 
1877 ;  became  house  surgeon  of  the  Montreal 
General  Hospital  the  same  year,  and  medical 
superintendent  of  it  in  1881.  In  1885  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  hospital  staff  as  assist- 
ant surgeon,  and  in  1886  full  surgeon.  In  1894 
he  was  made  consulting  sure;eon  lo  the  General 
Hospital,  surgeon  of   me  Royal  Victoria  H( " 


BELL,  Jamea  Franklin,  American  soldier: 
h.  Shelbyville,  Ky.,  9  tan.  1856.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  the  United  States  Military  Academy 
1878;  he  was  appointed  additional  second  lieu- 
tenant, 14  June  1878;  second  lieutenant,  28  June 
1878;  transferred  to  7th  Cavalry,  9  Aug.  1878; 
first  lieutenant  1890;  major  of  Engineers,  United 
States  Volunteers,  1898;  captain,  United  States 
army,  2  March  1899;  major,  assistant  adjutant- 
general.  United  States  Volunteers,  17  April 
1899;  colonel  of  36th  Volunteer  Infantry,  S 
July  1899;  brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  5 
Dec.  1899 ;  brigadier-general.  United  States 
army,  19  Feb.  1901 ;  major-general,  3  Jan.  1907. 


He  served  on  plains  in  7th  United  States  Cav- 
alry, 1878-94;  captured  baud  of  half  breed  Crce 
Indians,  near  Fort  Buford,  S.  D.,  1883;  in  Sioux 
campaign.  Pine  Ridge,  S.  D.,  1^1;  adjutant  of 
regiment  and  secretary  to  the  Cavalry  and  Light 
Artillery  Sdnool  1891-^94;  aide  to  Gen.  J.  W. 
Forsyth  in  California,  Arizona. and  Washing- 
ton ;  was  awarded  Congressional  Medal  of 
Honor,  27  Nov.  1899,  'for  most  distinguished 
gallantry  in  action,  9  Sept.  1899,  near  Porac, 
Luzon,  P.  I.»;  commanded  4th  brigade,  second 
division,  8th  Army  Corps,  and  third  district, 
department  of  northern  Luzon,  to  July  1900; 
provost  marshal-general  of  Manila,  P.  I,,  to  - 
Feb.  1901 ;  commanded  first  district,  depart- 
ment of  northern  Luion,  to  November  1901, 
and  third  brigade,  department  of  southern 
Luzon  to  December  1902 ;  returned  to  the 
Uniied  States  in  1903;  commandant  of  Infantry 
and  Cavalry  School,  Signal  School  and  StaR 
College  to  April  1906;  chief  of  staff,  United 
Slates  army,  April  1906  — April  1910;  com- 
mander of  the  Philippines  Division,  January 
1911 — ^ril  1914.  Assigned  to  command  of 
mobilized  second  division,  United  Stales  army. 
May  1914,  which  he  comtnanded  until  demobil- 
ized in  October  1915,  then  assigned  to  command 
Western  department,  with  headquarters  at  San 
Francisco^  December  1915.  In  1917  Major- 
General  Bell  was  placed  in  charge  of  the  77th 


occa-      Division  of  the  New  National  Army, 


BELL,  Jamea  Uontgomery,  American  sol- 
dier: b.  Williamsburg,  Pa.,  1  Oct.  1837.  He 
entered  the  S6th  Ohio  Infantry,  and  served  with 
distinction  throu^^out  the  Civil  War,  being 
twice  bre vetted  for  gallant  and  meritorious 
services  in  (be  battles  of  the  Wilderness  and 
Ream's  Station,  Va.  Entering  the  regular  army 
as  second  lieutenant  in  7lh  Cavalry,  1866,  he 
look  part  in  the  Cheyenne  and  Arapahoe  war, 
1867-69;  the  Sioux  wars,  1876-81,  and  the  Nei 
Perces  war,  1877.  He  received  a  brevet-com- 
mission of  lieutenant-colonel  for  gallant  services 
in  action  against  the  Indians  at  Canon  Creek, 
Mont,,  13  Sept.  1877.  He  commanded  Bell's 
expeditionary  brigade  to  the  Camarines  prov- 
inces, southern  Luzon,  1900-01,  and  was  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general  of  volunteers,  20  Jan. 
1900;  was  appointed  brigadier-general.  United 
States  army,  17  Sept   1901,  and  retired,  1  Oct. 


1901. 

BELL,  John,  Scottish  traveler:  b.  Anter- 
mony.  Stirlingshire,  1691 ;  d.  there,  1  July  1780. 
Having  gone  to  Saint  Petersbu;^  in  1714,  after 
the  completion  of  his  studies,  be  was  sent  as  med- 
ical attendant  on  an  embassy  to  the  Sophy  of  Per- 
sia.   On  bis  return  from  Persia  to  the  Russian 


appointment  in  it  also.  The  embassy  arrived 
at  Pekin  'after  a  tedious  journey  of  exactly  16 
months,*  and  returned  in  January  1722.  The 
Tsar  now  determined  to  undertake  an  expedi- 
tion into  Persia  to  assist  the  Sophy  against  the 
Afghans,  his  subjects,  who  had  seized  Kanda- 
har and  possessed  themselves  of  several  prov- 
inces on  the  frontiers  toward  India.  Bell's 
former  joum^  to  Persia  gave  him  peculiar 
advantages  ana  he  was  accordinKly  engageid  to 
accompany  the  army  to  Derbend.  In  1737  he 
was    sent   to    Constantinople    by   the    Russian 


.Google 


4T0  BE 

chancellor  and  the  Brhieh  Minister  at  the  Rus- 
sian court.  He  afterward  settled  at  Constanti- 
nople as  a  merchant,  and  about  1746  married 
a  Kussian  lady  and  returned  to  Scotland.  The 
only  work  written  by  him  is  his  ^Travels  from 
Saint  Petersburg  in  Russia  to  Various  Parts 
of  Asia'  (1763), 


s  a  brother  of  Sir  Charles  and  George 
Joseph  Bell,  and  after  completing  his  profes- 
sional education  traveled  for  a  short  time  in 
Russia  and  the  north  of  Europe,  and  on  bis 
relum  began  lo  deliver  lectures  on  surgery  and 
midwifery.  These  lectures,  delivered  between 
1786  and  1796,  were  very  highly  esteemed  and 


private  practice,  indeed,  rendered  it  necessary 
for  him,  in  1796,  to  discontinue  his  lectures,  and 
from  that  time  forward  he  devoted  himself  to 
his  patients  and  to  the  preparation  oE  the  sev- 
eral publicatio[is  of  which  he  was  the  author. 
Patients  came  to  him  from  all  quarters,  both  of 
Scotland  and  England,  and  even  from  the  Con- 
tinent 1  and  during  that  interval  he  performed 
some  of  the  most  delicate  and  difficult  opei 


sur^ons  1 


_  dinbui^  infirmary  led   ..    . 

s  controversy  between  Bell  and  Pro- 
fessor Gregory.  Early  in  1816  he  was  thrown 
by  i  spirited  horse  and  never  entirely  recov- 
ered from  the  effects  of  the  accident.  He  was 
the  author  of  'The  Anatomy  of  the  Human 
Body'  (1793-1802;  3d  ed.,  with  plates  by 
Charles  Bell,  1811) ;  •Engravings  of  flie  Bones, 
Muscles  and  Joints,'  illustrating  the  first  vol- 
ume of  the  'Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body,' 
drawn  and  engraved  by  himself  (1794,  3d 
cd.)  ;  'Engravings  of  the  Arteries,'  illustrat- 
ing the  second  volume  of  the  'Anatomy  of  the 
Human  Body'  (1801) ;  'Discourses  on  the  Na- 
ture and  Cure  of  Wounds'  (1795);  'The  Prin- 
ciples of   Surgery>    (1801-08). 

BELL,  John,  American  statesman :  b.  near 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  15  Feb.  1797;  d.  Cumberland 
Iron  Works.  Tenn.,  10  Sept.  1869.  Grad- 
uating at  Cumberland  College  (now  University 
of  Nashville)  in  1814,  he  practised  law  until 
1827,  when  be  was  elected  to  Congress  from 
1827^1 ;  he  then  became  Secretary  of  War  in 
President  Harrison's  Cabinet,  but  resigned 
when  President  Tyler  withdrew  from  the  Whig 
party.  From  1647  to  1859  he  was  senator  front 
his  State.  He  was  chairman  of  several  im- 
portant committees  and  v^orously  opposed  the 
Kansas- Nebraska  bill  and  the  Lecomplon  Con- 
stitution  framed  for  Kansas.  In  May  1S60  be 
was  nominated  for  President  by  the  Constitu- 
tional Union  parly  (q.v.),  but  was  defeated. 
Durtn^r  the  Civil  War  he  took  no  active  part 


known  works  are  the  'Eaple  Slayer,'  'Una 
and  the  Lion,'  'The  Maid  of  Saragossa,'  'Imo- 
gen,* 'Andromeda,'  'The  Wounded  Clorinda' ; 
statues  of  Lord  Falkland,  Sir  Robert  Walpole, 
Newton,  Cromwell,  etc.,  and  the  Wellington 
Memorial  in  the  Guildhall.  He  was  one  of  the 
sculptors  of  the  Guards'  Monument  in  Water- 
loo  Place,   London,   and   the  marble  group   of 


the  United  States  directine  the  pretest  of 
America  for  the  Albert  Memorial  in  Hyde 
Park,  a  replica  of  which  in  terra  cotta  is  in 
Washington.  His  earlier  works  were  notable 
in  their  departure  from  the  frigid  dasudim 
that  bad  up  to  then  hampered  expression  in 
English  sculpture,  but  his  later  woilcs  wen; 
marred  by  an  obtrusive  religiosity. 

BELL,  John  Joy,  Scottish  author:  b.  7 
May  187!.  He  was  educated  at  Kelvinside 
Academy,  Morrison's  Academy,  Grief!  and 
Glasgow  University.  His  first  novel,  'New 
Noah's  Ark,'  was  published  in  1898;  but  it  was 
not  until  1902  that  he  made  a  great  popular 
hit  with  a  series  of  sketches  of  humble  life, 
'Wee  Macgrecgor,'  in  which  the  broad  Glasgow 
dialect  was  effectively  employed,  the  hero  tak- 
ing his  place  at  once  among  the  notable  crea- 
tions of  Scottish  fiction.  The  story  was 
dramatized  in  1912.  'Wee  Macgreegor  Again' 
(19CM);  'Wee  Macgreegor  Enlists'  (1915),  s 
continuations  of  the  series  ?— '  ■"  ''•-  '~~-  — 
of  dialect  fiction  are  ' 
(1903) ;  'Oh  Christina'  (1909) ;  'Coortin' 
Christina'  (1913)  and  'Mr.  Pennycook's  Boy' 
(1905).     He  Is  also  author  of    'Clyde  Songs' 


(1906-11);  'A  Kingdom  of  Dreams'    (1914), 

BELL.  John  Keble  (Keblk  Howard)  :  Eng- 
lish playwright  and  novelist:  b.  8  June  1875. 
He  was  educated  at  Worcester  College,  Ox- 
ford, was  editor  of  'The  Sketch'  (1902-«); 
and  founded  the  Croydon  Repertory  Theatre 
in  1913.  He  is  the  author  of  some  10  piays 
and  his  output  in  fiction  has  been  considerable. 

BELL,  Joseph,  Scottish  surgeon  and  diag- 
nostician: K  Edinburgh  1837;  d.  Milton  Bridge. 
Midlothian,  4  Oct.  1911.  His  father,  grand- 
father and  great-((rand father  had  been  suc^iEons 
before  him.  While  his  father  was  presidoit  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  he  was  elected 
a  fellow  of  the  college.  Upon  his  father's 
death  he  succeeded  him  in  that  high  and  im- 
portant office.  While  a  medical  stiidcnt  at  the 
EdinbuT^  University  Sir  Arthur  Conan  Do^le 
became  so  impressed  by  the  successful  deiductive 
powers  of  Dr.  Bell,  from  what  appeared  to  be 
minute  details  in  diagnosis  and  prognosis,  that 
he  became  the  prototype  of  the  former's  ro- 
mantic detective  hero   "Sherlock   Holmes.* 

BELL,  Lilian,  American  novelist ;  b.  Chi- 
cago; III.,  1867.  She  began  to  write  at  the  age 
of  eight  and  afterward  became  widely  known 
as  a  contributor  to  periodicals.  In  1900  she 
was  married  to  Arthur  Hoyt  Bogue,  but  con- 
tinues to  write  under  her  maiden  name.  Her 
writings  include  'The  Love  Affairs  of  an  OU 
Maid'  (1893) ;  'A  Little  Sister  to  the  Wilder- 
ness' (1895);  'The  Under  Side  of  ThinRs' 
(1896);  'From  a  Giri's  Point  of  View'  (1897): 
'The  Instinct  of  Stcpfathcrhood'  (1898)  ;  'As 
Seen  by  Me'  (1900)  ;  'The  Ejtpatriaies' 
(1900);  'Yessnm'  (1901);  'Abroad  With  ihe 
Jimmies'  (1902);  'Hope  Loring'  (1902);  'Sir 
John  and  the  American  Girl'  (1901)  ;  'The  In- 
terference of  Patricia'  .(1903)  ;  'A  Book  of 
Girls'  (1903);  'At  Home  with  the  Jardines' 
(1904);  'Carolina  Lee'  (1906);  'Why  Men 
Remain  Bachelors,  and  Other  Luxuries'  (1906); 
'Concentrations  of  Bee'  (1909) ;  'Angela's 
Quest'  (1910)  ;  'The  Runaway  Equator' 
(1912);    'The  Story  of  the  C3iristinas  Ship' 


.Google 


«rr 


<1915) ;  'About  Miss  Mattie  UonunggloTy' 
<1916)!  <The  Land  of  Doii't-Want-To>  (1916). 
BBLL,  Robert,  Irish  journalist  and  miscel- 
laneous writer:  b.  Cork,  16  Jan.  1800;  d.  Lon- 
don, 12  April  1867.  He  settled  in  London  in 
1828,  edited  an  important  weekly  paper,  the 
Atlas,  for  several  years,  and  afterward  the 
Monthly  ChronicU,  Mirror  and  Home  News. 
He  compiled  several  volumes  of  *Lard- 
ner's   Cabinet   Cyclopaedia' ;   wrote  three  plays. 


•The  Ladder  of  Gold,>  a  novel  (1856)  ;  <Hea 
-ind  Altar,'  a  collection  of  tales  (!852),  "  ' 
I   great   deal   of   miscellaneous   lite 


the  'British  Poets'  (29  vols.,  1854-57). 

BELL,  Robert,  Canadian  geologist ;  b.  To- 
ronto, Ontario,  3  June  1841.  He  was  educated 
at  McGill  and  Queen's  universities,  and  in  1867 
joined  the  Canada  Geological  Survey,  and  in 
1900  was  an  assistant  director  of  it.  In  1861  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  American  Insti- 
tute of  Mining  Engineers;  in  1881  became  a 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  of  CJknada,  and  in 
1^8^  was  a  member  of  the  Ontario  com- 
mission which  reported  on  the  mineral  re- 
sources of  that  province.  During  his  connec- 
tion with  the  geological  survey  he  made  more 
extensive  explorations  throughout  the  Dominion 
than  any  other  man.  He  was  the  author  of 
about  IS)  reports  and  papers,  a  list  of  which  is 
found  in  the  "Biblio  of  tne  Royal  Society.' 

BELL,  Thomas,  English  zoologist:  b.  Poole, 
Dorset.  1792j  d.  Selbornt  Hampshire,  1880.  He 
studied  medicine  at  Guy  a  and  Saint  Thomas' 
hospitals,  London,  became  a  member  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in  1815  and  soon 
secured  a  large  practice  as  a  dentist.  In  1832 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  zoology  at 
King's  College,  London.  Latterly  he  lived  for 
a  number  of  years  at  Selbome  in  the  residence 
that  had  belonged  to  the  celebrated  Gilbert 
White.  He  was  president  of  the  Ray  Society 
1843-59,  and  of  the  Linnean  Society  1853-61. 
His  best-known  separsite  works  are  his  his- 
tories of  "British  Quadrupeds'  (1837,  revised 
1874);  'British  Reptiles'  (1839);  and  'Britrsh 
Stalk-eyed  Crustacea'  (1853).  In  1877  he  pub- 
lished an  excellent  edition  of  White's  'Natural 
History  of   Selbome'    with  a  memoir  of   its 

BELL,  a  hollow  vessel,  which,  by  its  vibra- 
tions when  struck,  gives  forth  sounds:  whence 
its  name,  from  the  old  Saxon  word  bellan,  to 
bawl  or  bellow.  It  is  an  instrument  of  ^reat 
antiquity,  being  spoken  of  by  Hebrew  wnters, 
as  in  Exodus  xxviii,  where  golden  belts  arc  pre- 
scribed as  appendages  to  the  dress  of  the  high 
priest,  that  notice  may  thus  be  given  o£  his 
approach  to  the  sanctuary.  And  at  this  day  the 
bel!  is  used  for  a  similar  purpose  before  the 
priest,  in  Roman  Catholic  counttieSj  as  he  pro- 
ceeds to  administer  the  Holy  Viaticum  to  Ihe 
soul  that  is  nassing  away;  and  so  when  the 
belt  is  tinkled,  in  administering  the  sacrament, 
by  the  same  priest,  it  is  in  pursuance  of  a  cus- 
tom founded  on  the  ancient  Hebrew  use  of  the 
1*11.  More  intimately  than  any  other  instru- 
ment are  bells  associated  with  the  religious  and 
imaginative,  as  also  with  the  most  joyous  and 
the  saddest  feelings  of  mankind.  The  metal 
from  which  bells  are  usually  made  (by  found- 
ing), is  an  alloy,  called  bell-metal,  commonly 


composed  of  80  parte  of  copper  and  20  of  tiiL 
The  prcwortion  of  tin  varies,  howeyei,  from 
one-third  to  one-fifth  of  the  wei^t  of  the  cap- 
per, according  to  the  sound  required,  the  size 
of  the  bell  .and  the  impulse  to  be  given.  The 
clearness  and  richness  of  the  tone  depend  upon 
the  metal  used,  the  perfection  of  its  castmg, 
and  also  npon  its  shape;  it  having  been  shown 
by  a  number  of  experiments  that  the  well-known 


bell  increases  in  proportion  to  its  size.  A  bell 
is  divided  into  the  body  or  barrel,  the  car  or 
cannon,  and  the  clapper  or  tongue.  The  lip  or 
sound  bow  is  that  part  where  the  bell  is  struck 
by  the  clapper. 

The  sound  of  a  bell  is  a  compound  tone,  pre- 
senting five  and  in  many  instances  more  notes 
to  the  ear.  There  is  a  great  difference  between 
the  harmonics  of  a  bell  and  of  a  vibrating  string. 
In  the  case  of  the  former  a  minor  third  is  not 
infrequently  one  of  the  loudest  tones  next  to 
the  fundamental  tone.  When  a  bell  is  properly 
struck  the  first  note  which  attracts  the  atten- 
tion of  the  ear  is  known  as  the  strike  note,  lap 
note  or  fmidamental,  and  forms  what  is  called 
•the'  note  of  the  bell.  The  low  sound  heard 
after  the  strike  note  has  lost  its  intensity  is 
called  the  hiun  note,  and  the  octave  above  the 
strike  note  the  nominal.  There  are  also  present 
.a  minor  third  and  a  perfect  fifth  in  the  first 
-octave,  and  a  major  third  and  a  perfect  fifth  in 
the  second  octave.  Very  few  bells  agree  with 
these  conditions.  Generally  the  hum  note  is  a 
sixth  or  seventh,  and  in  rare  cases  a  ninth 
below  the  strike  note.  The  nominal  is  some- 
where about  an  octave  or  a  ninth  abov«  the 
strike  note,  and  the  other  notes  diverge  accord- 
ingly. Bells  that  are  swung  are  more  likely  to 
conform  to  the  conditions  than  those  that  are 
struck. 

Bells  were  used  very  early  ni  the  form  of 
cymbals  and  hand  bells  ui  religious  services.  In 
Egypt  the  feast  of  Osiris  was  announced 
through  the  ringing  of  bells.  Brcmze  bells  have 
been  found  in  Assyria.  Bells  of  gold  were  worn 
by  Aaron  and  the  high  priests  of  the  Jews  on 
the  border  of  their  robes,  and  in  Athens  the 
priests  of  Cybele  used  them  in  their  offerings. 
The  Romans  also  used  bells  which  they  called 
tiniinabula,  to  announce  the  pubKc  assemblies, 
and,  according  to  Suetonius,  Augustus  had  a 
bell  suspended  before  the  temple  of  Jupiter.  In 
the  Christian  churches  a  similar  custom  early 
came  into  use,  thouf^  it  is  not  known  that  in 
the  first  Christian  diurches  divine  service  was 
announced  b^-  any  su^  method.  They  were 
used,  however,  in  the  early  monasteries  to 
announce  the  hours  of  prayer.  Generally  they 
were  made  of  tubes  struck  with  a  hammer.  They 
are  said  to  hmre  been  first  introduced  into 
Christian  churches  about  400  a.d.,  by  PauUnus, 
bishop  of  Nola  in  Campania  (whence  campana 
and  nola  as  old  names  of  bells) ;  although  their 
adoi^on  on  a  wide  scale  does  not  become 
apparent  until  after  the  year  550,  when  they 
were  introduced  into  France.  They  are  rang 
to  summon  monks  and  choir  nuns  to  the  oflice, 
and  the  people  to  mass,  to  announce  the  Ange- 
las, to  toll  during  funerals  and  peal  on  occa- 
sions of  Joy.  They  are  blessed  with  elaborate 
ceremonies  and  consecrated  or  "baptized"  in 
honor  of  some  saint. 


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4ra 


BELL  —  BELL,  BOOK.  AHD  CANDLE 


Until  Ihe  13th  century  they  were  of  com- 
paratively small  size,  but  after  die  casting  of  the 
Jacqueline  of  Paris  (6^  tons)  in  1400,  their 
weigjit  rapidly  increased.  Among  the  more 
famous  bells  are  the  bell  of  Cologne,  U  tons, 
1448;  of  Dantzic,  6  Ions,  14S3:  of  Halber- 
stadt,  754.  1457;  of  Rouen,  16,  ISOl;  of  Bres- 
lau.  11.  1507;  of  Lucerne,  7'/i,  1636;  of  Oxford, 
7H.  1680;  of  Paris,  12%.  1680;  of  Bruges, 
lOJi,  1680;  of  Vienna,  17^,  1711;  of  Moscow 
(the  monarch  of  all  bells),  193,  1736;  three 
other  bells  at  Moscow  ranging  from  16  to  31 
tons,  and  a  fourth  of  80  tons,  cast  in  1819;  the 
bell  of  Lincoln  (Great  Tom),  5yi,  1834;  of 
York  Minster  (Great  Peter),  lOJi,  1845;  of 
Montreal,  13^4,  1847:  of  Westminster  (Big 
Ben),  lSi4,  1856:  Saint  Stephen,  13>^,  1858; 
the  great  bell  of  Saint  Paul's,  l?!^,  1882.  Oth- 
ers are  the  bells  of  Ghent,  5;  Gorlitz,  lOJi; 
Saint  Peter's,  Rome,  8;  Antwerp,  7%;  Olmiiti, 
18;  Brussels,  7;  Novgorod,  31;  Peldn,  Siii. 
(See  Bells;  Chimes).  Consult  Gatty,  '"nie 
Bell:  Its  Origin  and  Uses>  (1848);  Lulds, 
'Church  Bells  and  Their  Founders*  (1857); 
Andrews,  'History  of  Church  Bells'  (1885); 
Otte,  <Glockenkunde>  (1884) ;  Tyack,  <A  Book 
About  Bells>  (1899). 

BELL,  Liberty,  the  bell  in  Independence 
Hall,  Philadelphia,  that  was  rtuiR  to  announce 
the  adoption  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
by  the  Continental  Congress.  The  bell  was  cast 
in  London  by  Robert  Charles  and  cost  about 
S500.  The  specifications  provided  that  it  was  to 
be  made  by  the  best  workmen,  to  be  examined 
carefully  before  being  shipped  and  to  contain, 
in  well-shaped  letters  around  it,  the  inscription : 
'By  order  of  the  Province  of  Pennsylvania,  for 
the  State  House  in  the  City  of  Philadelphia, 
1752."  An  order  was  given  to  place  underneath 
this  the  prophetic  words  from  Leviticus  xxv 
10:  'Proclaim  liberty  throughout  the  land  ana 
to  all  the  inhabitants  thereof.*  The  reason  for 
the  selection  of  this  text  has  been  s  subject  of 
much  conjecture,  but  the  true  reason  is  apparent 
when  the  full  text  is  read.  It  is  as  follows : 
'And  ye  shall  hallow  the  50th  yeat  and  pro- 
claim liberty  throughout  the  land  and  to  all 
the  inhabitants  thereof.*  In  selecting  the  text 
the  Quakers  had  in  memory  the  arrival  of  Wil- 
liam Fenn  and  their  forefathers  more  than  half 
a  century  before.  In  August  17S2,  the  bell  ar- 
rived, but  though  in  apparent  good  order,  it 
was  cracked  br  a  stroke  of  the  clapper  while 
being  tested.  It  could  not  be  sent  back  as  the 
captain  of  the  vessel  who  had  brought  it  over 
could  not  take  it  on  board.  Two  skilful  men 
undertook  to  recast  the  bell,  a  bell  being  pro- 
vided which  pleased  very  much.  But  it  was 
found  to  be  defective  also.  The  ori^nal  bell 
was  considered  too  high  in  tone,  and  in  an 
attempt  to  correct  this  fault,  too  much  copper 
was  added.  There  were  a  great  many  witticisms 
on  account  of  the  sound  failure,  and  ingen- 
ious workmen  undertook  to  recast  the  tell, 
which  they  successfully  did,  and  it  was  placed 
in  condition  in  June  1753.  On  Monday,  8  July 
(not  the  4th),  at  noon,  true  to  its  motto,  it 
rang  out  the  memorable  message  of  'Liberty 
throughout  the  land  and  to  all  the  inhabitants 
thereof."  For  years  the  bell  continued  to  be 
rung  on  every  festival  and  anniversary,  until  it 
eventually  cracked  8  July  1835,  while  bdng 
tolled  in  memory  of  Chief  Justice   Marshall 


An  ineffectual  attempt  was  made  to  cause  it  to 
serviceable  by  enlarging  the  cause  of  its 
,--  -..*j   ™i:-^^r_.^  »u_ ft ii. 


.._    ___    ^ _._ tower   to  a 

lower  story,  and  only  used  on  occasions  of 
public  sorrow.  Subsetguently,  it  was  placed  on 
the  original  timbers  in  the  vestibule  of  Inde- 
pendence Hall,  and  in  1873  was  suspended  in  a 
prominent  pD^tion  immediately  beneath  where 
a  larger  bell,  presented  to  the  city  in  1866,  now 
proclaims  the  passing  hours.  In  1893  it  was 
taken  to  Chicago  and  placed  on  exhibition  at 
the  World's  Columbian  Exposition.  In  1915 
it  was  taken  to  the  Panama- Pacific  Exposition 
at  San  Francisco  and  placed  on  exhibition. 

BBLL,  Song  of  the  ( 'Lied  von  der 
Glocke'),  a  poem  which  is  generally  considered 
Schiller's  masterpiece.  It  was  first  published  JD 
the  Mustnaimanach,  in  1800.  In  this  woik  du 
various  operations  attending  the  casting  of  the 
bell  are  made  to  symbolize  the  whole  course  of 
human  life. 

BELL-BIRD  the  name  given  to  birds  in 
various  parts  of  the  world,  which  utter  bell-like 
notes;  especially  the  *campanero*  (Chasniorhyn' 
chts  itkietts),  one  of  the  chatterers  of  the  Soutb 
American  family,  Cofingidie.  It  resembles,  in 
fonn  and  size,  Uie  Nortii  American  wax-wing. 


fleshy,  tapering  caruncle,  which  is  black,  thinly 
covered  with  star-lOce  tufts  of  minute  feadiers. 
This  caruncle  ordinarily  hangs  loosely  down 
at  the  side  of  the  beak,  but  in  moments  of 
excitement  becomes  swollen  and  much  extended. 
Teaching  a  length  of  even  five  inches.  This 
seems  to  be  produced  by  air  forced  into  its 
elastic  tissues  from  the  bird's  lungs,  and  occurs 
whenever  the  characteristic  notes  are  uttered 
The  bird's  voice  has  been  described  by  many 
travelers  as  like  the  sound  of  a  loud,  clear  bdl, 
which  rings  out  over  the  forest  at  mid-day, 
when  most  other  birds  are  silent  Waterton 
said:  *You  hear  his  toll  and  then  a  pause  for 
a  minute,  then  another  toll,  and  then  a  pause 
again,  and  then  another  toll,  and  so  on.*  Others 
have  compared  the  sound  to  a  blow  upon  an 
anvil,  and  all  agree  that  it  can  be  beard  a  great 
distance.  Several  other  species  exist  in  cen- 
tral and  southern  South  America,  all  of  which 
have  caruncles,  and  utter  extraordinary,  ring- 
ingf  notes;  but  the  former  belief,  that  the  loud 
voice  was  aided  by  these  hollow  appendages,  is 
now  known  to  be  erroneous.  These  birds  go 
about  in  small  Hocks,  which  Sit  through  the 
tree-tops,  and  feed  mainly  upon  forest  fruits. 
They  nave  been  particularly  studied  by  J.  J. 
Quelch,  a  naturalist  of  British  Guiana,  an 
account  of  whose  interesting  investigations  will 
be  found  in  The  Field  of  I^ndon,  for  26  Nov. 
1892. 

In  Australia,  the  name  ■bell-bird*  is  given 
to  one  of  the  honey- suckers  (q.v),  whose  cWng- 
ching  is  welcomed  by  travelers  in  the  forest  as 
an  indication  that  water  is  near.  The  •bell- 
bird'  of  New  Zealand  is  another  honey-sucker 
(Anihomis  melanura},  whose  voice,  usually 
heard  in  chorus,  resembles  the  tinkling  of  a 
silver  bell. 

BELL,  BOOK,  and  CANDLE,  a  mode 
of  excommunication  employed  in  the  Romaii 
Catholic  Church  between  the  7th  eumI  lOth  ceo- 


=y  Google 


DSLL-PLOWER — BELLAMY 


(urics.  After  sentence  read,  the  book  is 
closed,  a  lighted  candle  thrown  to  the  ground, 
and  a  bell  tolled  as  for  one  dead. 

BELL-FLOWER.    See  Caupanola. 

BBLL  ROCK,  or  INCH  CAPE,  a  danger- 
ous reef  of  sunken  sandstone  rocks  on  the  east 
coast  of  Scotland,  about  12  miles  frotn  Ar- 
broath, opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Tay.  It  is 
about  700  yards  long  and  at  certain  tides  a 
great  part  of  it  is  uncovered  and  directly  in 
the  way  of  vessels  making  for  the  firths  of 
Forth  and  Tay.  The  Inch  Cape  or  Bell  Rock 
reef  was  long  the  terror  of  seamen,  and  on  it 
numerous  vessels  were  wrecked.  At  a  very 
early  period  the  Inch  Cape  Rock  was  unhappi^ 
too  well  known,  and  tradiiion  has  it  that  one  of 
the  abbots  of  Aberbrotbock  succeeded  in  plac- 
ing a  bell  upon  it  (hence  the  name),  in  such  a 
way  as  to  be  run^  by  the  motion  of  the  waves, 
to  warn  sailors  of  its  proximity.  The  legend  tells 
us  that  a  notorious  Dutch  sea  pirate  cut  the  bell 
from  the  rock,  and  on  retumuig  with  his  ship 
laden  with  spoils  from  one  of  his  piratical  ex- 
peditions, he  and  his  crew  perished,  as  an  old 
historian  has  it,  'by  the  righteous  judgment  of 
God,"  for  want  of  the  si^al  which  he  had  so 
wantonly  removed.  On  this  legend  Southey  has 
founded  his  well-known  ballad  of  'The  Inch 
Cape  Rode'  The  lighthouse  on  the  rock  was 
designed  by  Robert  Stevenson  in  1800.  It  was 
erected  in  1810  and  is  100  feet  high. 

BELL-SMITH,  Frederic  Harlett,  English 
artist:  b.  London,  26  Sept.  1846.  He  went  to 
Canada  in  1866  and  was  for  seven  years  art 
director  at  Alma  College.  Saint  Thomas,  and 
teacher  of  drawing  in  the  public  schools  of 
London,  Ontario.  About  1888  he  became  a  por- 
trait and  figure  painter,  but  he  is  best  known  as 
a  painter  of  landscapes.  In  18^  he  produced 
'Lights  of  a  City  Street,*  his  greatest  achieve- 
ment up  lo  that  year,  and  later  two  canvases 
depicting  incidents  connected  with  the  death 
of  Sir  John  Thompson.  He  is  president  of  the 
Ontario  Society  ot  Artists. 

BELLA  GIARDINIERA.  b£ll&-zhar-d;- 
nari.  La,  a  celebrated  painting  by  Raphael,  now 
in  the  Louvre.  It  represents  the  Madonna  with 
the  holy  child,  and  the  infant  Saint  John. 

BELLADONNA,  or  DWALB,  Deadl)' 
Nightshade  {Atropa  belladonna^,  a  perennial 
disagreeable- smelling  herb  of  tne  Solanacca 
family,  is  a  native  of  the  region  from  southern 
Europe  to  India,  but  widely  naturalized  in 
civilized  countries.  It  is  an  erect  plant  which 
sometimes  attains  a  height  of  six  feet;  has  en< 
tire,  ovate  leaves,  purple,  bell-shaped,  nodding 
axillary  flowers,  single  or  in  pairs,  and  shining, 
black,  sweetish  berries  as  large  as  lai^  currants. 
The  plant  has  long  been  reputed  poisonous  but 
is  used  in  medicine,  especially  by  oculists,  be- 
cause of  its  property  of  dilating  the  pupil  of 
the  eye.  It  is  said  to  derive  its  name,  belladonna 
("beautiful  lady*),  from  its  use  as  a  cosmetic 
for  distending  the  pupil  and  ^ving  the  eye  a 
bright  glistening  appearance  and  also  from  ihc 
use  of  the  juice  for  staining  the  skin.  Its 
names,  deadly  night  shade,  and  dwale  (which 
latter  is  believed  by  some  to  come  from  the 
!:ame  source  as  the  French  deuil,  sorrow,  and  by 
others  form  the  Anglo-Saxon  dull,  because  of  its 
ptupefyin^  effects),  refer  to  popular  belief  in  the 
plant's  poisonous  properties.   The  generic  name 


came  from  Atropos,  the  fate  who  cut  the  thread, 
of  life. 

BELLADONNA  LILY.     See  Amarvlli- 

HAC£A. 

BELLAIRE,  bel-lar',  Ohio,  city  in  Belmont 
County,  on  the  Ohio  River,  and  several  rail- 
roads, live  miles  south  of  Wheeling,  W.  Va. 
The  river  is  here  crossed  by  a  costly  iron  rail- 
road bridge.  Bellaire  is  the  centre  of  a  region 
rich  in  coal,  iron,  cement,  brick,  clay  and  lime- 
stone, and  has  manufactories  of  stoves,  glass. 
carriages,  boilers  and  found i^  and  machine 
shop  products.  The  United  States  census  of 
manufactures  for  1914  reported  40  industrial 
establishments,  employing  2,865  persons,  of 
whom  2,603  w«re  wage  earners  who  receive  an- 
nually $1,566,000  in  wages.  The  capital  invested 
aggregated  $7,671,000,  and  the  value  of  the 
year's  output  was  $9,278,000;  of  this,  $2,892,000 
IS   the  value  added   by  manufacture.     Bellaire 


a  national  bank,  lu^-grade  educational  in- 
stitutions, daily  and  weekly  newspapers,  and 
an  assessed  property  valuation  of  over  $3,' 
000,000.    Pop,  (1910)  12,946;  (1914)  14.000. 

BKLLAMONT,  or  BELLOHONT,  Rich- 
ard Coot«  (Eam.  of),  rtwa!  governor  of  New 
York  and  Massachusetts:  b.  1636;  d.  New  York, 
S  March  1701.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament 
for  Droitwich  in  1688,  was  a  strong  supporter 
of  William  III,  was  raised  to  the  earldom 
of  Bellamont  in  the  peerage  of  Ireland  1669, 
and  continued  to  hold  ois  seat  in  the  Commons. 
He  was  appointed  governor  of  New  York  and 
Massachusetts  in  May  1695,  but  did  not  arrive 
in  New  York  until  May  1698.  His  administration 
was  uneventful,  his  time  having  been  occupied 
in  the  pursuit  of  the  pirates  who  infested  the 
coast,  one  of  whom,  the  notorious  iGdd,  he  had 
assisted  in  fitting  out  for  the  suppression  of 
illicit  trade  and  piracy,  but  whom  he  ultimately 
secured  and  sent  to  England  in  170().  He  was 
disliked  by  the  aristocratic  party  in  New 
York,  but  was  very  popular  in  New  Hampshire 
and  Massachusetts  and  distinguished  Xs  an 
•honorable  sympathy  for  public  freedom.* 
Hutchinson  speaks  of  Bellamont  as  bein^  a 
hypocrite  in  a  pretended  devotion  to  religion. 
It  appears,  however,  that  while  living  at  Fort 
George,  in  New  York,  he  passed  much  time  in 
meditatiffn  and  contrition  for  his  youthful  ex- 
cesses. Consult  De  Peyster,  'Life  and  Ad- 
ministration of  Richard,  Earl  of  Bellamont' 
(1869). 

BELLAMY,  Edward,  American  author :  b. 
Chicopee  Falls,  Mass..  29  March  ISSO;  d.  there, 
22  May  1898.  He  was  educated  in  Germany; 
admitted  to  the  bar;  was  on  the  staff  of  the 
Evening  Post  of  New  York  in  1871-72;  and  on 
his  return  from  the  Sandvrich  Islands  in  1877, 
founded  the  Springfield  News.  He  is  best 
known  by  his  novel  'Looking  Backward' 
(1S88).  a  soci^istic  work,  of  which  an  im- 
mense number  of  copies  were  sold  in  two  years. 
This  led  to  the  formation  of  Nationalist  clubs, 
in  wlucb  work  Mr.  Bellamy  took  active  part. 
His  other  books  are  'Six  to  One:  a  Nantucket 
Idyl'  (1878);  'Dr.  Heidenholf's  Process' 
(1880):  'Miss  Ludington's  Sister'  (1884); 
'EquaUty'  (1897);  'The  Duke  of  Stockbridge> 
(1901),  a  sequd  tc  'Looking  Backward.' 


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BELLAMY  --  BBLLB^ALLIAHCB 


1719;  d  6  March  1790.  In  1740  he  became  pas- 
tor of  ihe  church  in  Bethlehem,  Conn.,  where 
he  remained  until  his  death.  About  1742  be 
established  a  divinity  school,  in  which  man/ 
celebraled  clergymen  were  trained.  Among  his 
published  works,  besides  his  'Sermons,'  are 
'True  Religion  Delineated'  (1750)  ;  'The 
Nature  and  Glory  of  the  GospeP  (1762), 
and  'The  Half-Way  Covenant'  (1769).  An 
edition  of  his  'Complete  Works'  appeared  (3 
vols-.  New  York  1811-12;  new  ed.  with  Memoir 
by  Dr.  Tryon  Edwards,  2  vols.,  Boston  1850). 

BBLLAHY,  Samuel,  a  notorious  pirate, 
was  wrecked  in  his  ship,  the  WhidtA,  of  23 
guns  and  130.  men,  off  Wellfleet,  on  Cape  Cod, 
in  April  1717,  after  having  captured  several 
vessels  on  the  coast  and  an  indecisive  engage- 
ment with  a  French  ship  proceeding  to  Quebec. 
Only  one  Indian  and  one  Englishman  escaped 
of  his  crew.  Six  of  the  pirates,  wlio  had  been 
run  ashore  when  drunk  a  few  dayj  previous, 
by  the  captain  of  the  captured  vessel,  were 
hung  in  Boston  in  November  1717. 

BBLLANGB,  bei-lafi-zhEl,  Hippoljrte, 
French  painter:  b.  Paris  1800;  d.  1866.  Atten- 
tion was  first  directed  to  him  by  his  painting 
of  'The  Return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba,'  ex- 
hibited in  1834.  He  was  director  of  the  mus- 
eum at  Rouen,  1837-53.  Among  his  many 
noted  battle  ineces  are  'Battle  of  Wagram' 
(1837) ;  'Kellerman's  Charge  at  Marengo' 
(1847);  'Battle  of  the  Alma'  (1855);  'As- 
sault on  Malakoff'  (1859);  'Cuirassiers  at 
Waterloo'    (1865);  'The  Guard  Dies'    (1866). 

BELLARMINO,  bet-lar-me'no,  or  BEL- 
LARHINE,  Roberto  Francesco  Romolo, 
Italian  cardinal  and  controversialist:  b.  Monte 
Pulciano  in  Tuscany,  4  Oct.  1542;  d.  Rome,  17 
Sept.  1621.  At  the  age  of  18  he  entered  the 
College  of  Jesuits,  where  he  soon  distinguished 
himself;  and  his  reputation  caused  him  to  be 
sent  into  the  Low  Countries  to  oppose  the  prog- 
ress of  the  reformers.  He  was  ordained  in 
1569  by  Jansenius,  bishop  of  Ghent,  and  placed 
in  the  theological  chair  of  the  University  of 
Louvain.  After  a  residence  of  seven  years  he 
returned  to  Italy,  and  was  sent  by  Sixtus  V  to 
France,  as  companion  to  the  legate.  He  was 
made  a  cardinal  on  account  of  his  teaming,  by 
Ocmcnt  VIII,  and  in  1602  created  archbishop 
of  Capua,  At  the  elections  of  Leo  XI  and 
Paul  V  he  was  thought  of  for  the  pontificate, 
and  might  have  been  chosen  had  he  not  been 
a  Jesuit,  Paul  V  recalled  him  to  Rome;  Bel- 
larmino  had  the  double  merit  with  the  court  of 
Rome  of  supporting  her  temporal  power  and 
spiritual  supremacy  to  the  utmost,  and  of 
strenuously  opposing  the  reformers.  The  talent 
he  displayed  in  the  latter  controversy  called 
forth  similar  ability  on  the  Protestant  side;  and 
for  a  number  of  years  no  eminent  divine  among 
the  reformers  failed  to  make  his  a^ruments  a 
particular  subject  of  refutation.  The  great 
work  which  he  composed  in  this  warfare  is 
(Titillcd  "A  Body  of  Controversy,'  written  in 
Latin,  the  style  of  which  is  perspicuous  and 
precise,  without  any  pretension  to  purity  or 
elpgance.  He  displays  a  vast  amount  of  Scrip- 
tural leaminn,  and  is  deeply  versed  in  the  doc- 
trine and  practice  of  the  Church  in  all  ages. 


-.J  the  right  of  pontiffs  to  depose 

princes  caused  his  work  on  the  temporal  power 
of  the  Popes  to  be  condemned  at  Paris.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  did  not  satisfy  the  court  of 
Rome,  because  it  asserted,  not  a  direct,  but  an 
indirect,  power  in  the  Popes  in  temporal  m«- 
tcri;  which  reservation  so  offended  Sixtus  V. 
that  he  placed  it  among  the  list  of  prohibited 
bo<^s.  His  controversial  works  were  pubhsbed 
at  Prague  in  1721,  and  again  at  Mayence  in 
1S42.  Of  his  other  works  the  most  important  L< 
his  'OiristianK  Doctriue  Applicatio'  (1603}  — 
a  work  ori^nally  composed  in  Italian,  but  since 
translated  into  all  European  langiuges.  He 
left  an  autobiography,  which  was  reissued  anij 
annotated  by  Dolfinger   and   Retisch    (18S7), 

BELLARY,  bil-la'r?,  or  BALLARI.  India, 
town  in  the  presidency  of  Madras,  capital  of  a 
district  of  the  same  name,  280  miles  northwest 
of  Madras.  It  is  the  headquarters  of  the  troops 
belonging  to  the  districts  of  Bellary  and  Kadi- 
pah,  IS  connected  by  good  roads  with  Belgaum, 
Bangalore,  Hyderabad  and  Madras,  and  pos- 
sesses two  forts,  one  built  on  the  summit,  and 
the  other  on  a  lower  eminence  of  a  huge  granite 
rock  about  two  miles  in  circumference,  and  ris- 
ing to  the  height  of  about  450  feet  from  the 
ground,  fiellary  is  the  terminus  of  a  brancb 
Hne  of  the  Madras  Railway,  and  carries  on  an 
active  trade  in  cotton.     Pop.   (1911)   58.247. 

BELLA  VITIS,  b«l-la-ve'tis,  Giusto,  Count, 
Italian  mathematician :  b.  Bassano,  22  Nov. 
1803;  d.  6  Nov.  1880.  In  1841  he  became  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  at  the  Institute  of 
Vicenza.  Four  years  later  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  geometry  at  Padua,  later  having 
algebra  added  to  diis  subject.  Hb  writings 
'  nclude  important  contriburions  to  modem 
-  , .     -        ■  ^,j^,j 

\  of 

JR5    Ull    gtuiiicLiy    \rduuii    lOJi/,   *    'ftOVt 

...  ___3lylical  geometry  (Padua  1870)  and  a 
work  on  algebra  (Padua  1875), 

BELLA Y,  bf-!&,  Joachim  do,  French  poet, 
known  as  the  French  Ovid;  b.  about  1524;  d. 
1560,  He  joined  Ronsard,  Da'urat,  Jodelle. 
Belleau,  Baif  and  De  Tisard  in  forming  the 
'Pliiade,'  a  society  the  object  of  which  wa5 
to  bring  the  Frencn  languase  on  a  level  unth 
the  classical  tongues.  Bellay  s  first  contribution 
was  'La  defense  et  I'iltustration  de  la  langiit 
francaise.'  His  chief  publications  in  verse  are 
'Rtcudl  de  poisie';  a  collection  of  love-son- 
nets called  'H'OIive';  'LesantiquitisdeRome,' 
a  series  of  sonnets;  'Les  regrets';  and  'L« 
jenx  rustiques,'  His  poems  arc  strongh'  per- 
sonal in  lone,  and  they  are  suffused  with  plain- 
tive melancholy.  In  1S55  he  became  canon  of 
Notre  Dame,  and  a  short  time  before  his  death 
he  was  nominated  archbishop  of  Bordwnx- 
A  statue  of  Bellay  was  unveiled  in  Anccni^  in 
1894.  Spencer  translated  some  of  his  Roman 
sonnets  into  English ;  and  there  are  transla- 
tions of  poems  by  him  in  Andrew  Lang's  'Bal- 
lads and  Lyrics  of  Old  France.'  Consult  'Life' 
by  Seche  (Paris  1880)  ;  Pater,  'Studies  in  the 
History  of  the  Renaissance'  (London  1888). 
His  letters,  edited  by  NolbSe,  appeared  in  ISSJ. 

BELLE-ALLIANCE,  b^l-a-lc-ans,  U,  a 
farm  13  miles  south  of  BrutseK  famous  >^ 
position  occupied  by  the  centre  of  the  Frencn 
army  in  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  18  June  181^ 


Google 


BELLE   CHOCOLATIARB— BBLLBOARDE 


By  the  Prmsiatis  the  battle  was  called  that  of 
Belle- Alliance. 

BELLB  CHOCOLATIARB,  bei-sho-ka^ 
U-tyit.  Lb,  a  noted  portrait  by  the  artist 
Liotarcl  o£  ihc  Princess  Dietricnstein,  who, 
prior  to  her  marriage,  was  a  waitress  in  a  ,caf4 
in  Vienna.  The  painting  is  now  in  the  Dresden 
Gallery. 

BELLB  ISLE,  Va^  an  island  in  the  James 
River,  opposite  Richmond,  where  nearly  12,000 
Federal  prisoners  were  confined  in  1863. 

BBLLB-I8LE,  bfl-el,  or  BBLLB-ISLB- 
EN-HBR    (anciently  Vindius),  an  island  hi 


Quibcron  Piunt,  about  11  miles  long;,  and  6 
miles  across  at  the  widest  point  The  soil  is 
diverse,  consisting  of  rock,  salt  marsh  and 
fertile  grounds.  Palais  is  the  capital.  The 
island  is  of  much  interest  historically.  In  1747 
the  French  fleet  was  defeated  bjf  Admiral 
Hawke  off  the  island,  and  it  was  captured  by 
the  English  in  1761.  Pilchard  and  sardine  fish- 
ing is  the  important  industry.     Pop.  10,000. 

BELLE  ISLE.  North,  or  BELLB  ISLE, 
an  island,  15  miles  north  ai  Newfoundland  and 
northeast  of  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence,  about 
21  miles  in  circuit.  On  the  northwest  side  it 
has  a  small  harbor,  called  Lark  Harbor,  within 
a  little  island  close  to  the  shore.  At  the  eastern 
point  it  has  another  small  harbor  or  cove  that 
will  admit  only  fishing  shallops.  A  rescue 
station  has  been  established  for  persons  who 
may  be  shipwrecked.  Its  area  is  about  15 
square  miles.  At  its  southern  end  is  a  light- 
house whose  light  is  470  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
visible  for  28  miles.  The  narrow  channel  be- 
tween Newfoundland  and  the  coast  of  Labrador 
L<i  called  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle.  Steamers 
from  Glasgow  and  Liverpool  to  the  Saint  Law- 
rence commonly  go  by  this  channel  in  summer 
as  bcinp  the  shortest  route;  in  winter  and 
spring  It  is  choked  with  ice.  Jacques  Carrier 
passed  through  it  in  1534. 

BBLLE  PLAINE,  Iowa,  town  in  Benton 
County,  on  the  Iowa  River  and  the  Chicago 
and  Northwestern  Railroad,  90  miles  northeast 
of  Des  Moines,  and  257  miles  west  of  Chicago. 
It  has. 'flouring  mills,  furniture  factories,  cream-  ' 
eries,  machine  shops,  broom  factories,  a  brick 
and  tile  factory,  a  brass  foundry,  a  cannery 
and  numerous  artesian  wells.  It  was  founded 
in  1862  and  was  first  incotporated  in  1879.  Pop. 
3,121. 

BBLLE  SAVAGE  (Fr.  BdU  Sauvage, 
beautiful  savage),  an  old  inn,  on  Ludgate  Hill, 
London,   celebrated  in  coaching  days,  and  fre- 

rntly  mentioned  by  Dickens  and  other  writers 
ling  with  that  period.  Il  was  bnilt  around 
a  court,  and  was  admirably  suited  for  an  ex- 
temporized siage.  it  being  possible  to  view  the 
performance   from  the  gallery  above. 

BELLBAU,  biAo,  RCmy,  French  poel :  b. 
Nogent-le-Rotrou  1528;  d.  Paris,  16  March 
1577.  He  made  an  elegant  and  spirited  trans- 
lation of  'The  Odes  of  Anacreon*  (1576).  His 
'Bcrgerie'  (1572),  a  compound  of  prose  and 
verse,  is  of  unequal  merit ;  hut  it  contains  some 
passages, —  for  example,  the  "April,*— which 
are  of  Breat  beauty.  His  collected  works  are 
published  (3  vols..  1867;  2d  ed.,  2  vols..  1879>. 

voi_  3—31 


4B1 

BELLEBK  CHINA,  a  porcelab  of  very 
high  quality  distinguished  -  by  its  iridescence, 
obtained  by  means  of  metallic  washes,  which  are 
subsequently  fired.  It  was  invented  by  Brian- 
chon,  a  Frenchman,  in  1857.  It  was  at  first 
manufactured  in  England  and  France,  but  it 
became  famous  after  a  manufactory  had  been 
established  in  Bellcek,  Ireland,  whence  it  de- 
rived its  name. 

BELLBPONTAINE,  Ohio,  city  and 
coimty-^eat  of  Logan  County,  on  the  Cleveland, 
C,  C.  &  St,  L.,  the  Toledo  &  O.  C.  and  the 
Ohio  Electric  railroads,  four  miles  northwest 
of  Columbus  and  57  miles  northeast  of  E>ayton. 
It  occupies  the  highest  elevation  in  the 'State; 
and  is  surrounded  by  an  agricultural  region.  It 
has  extensive  car  shops  and  other  railroad 
works;  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel  bridges, 
carriage  and  automobile  bodies,  tools,  mat- 
tresses, harness,  shoe  blacking,  flour  and  cem- 
ent; two  national  banks;  daily  and  weekly 
newspapers;  an  assessed  property  valuation  of 
$2,250,000.  The  Lewiston  reservoir,  with  an 
area  of  13,400  acres  and  a  holding  capacity  of 
4,500,000,000  cubic  feet,  is  situated  about 
eight  miles  from  Bellefontaine.  The  city 
was  settled  in  1818.  The  government  is  vested 
in  a  mayor,  elected  biennially,  two  directors,  ap- 
pointed  by  him,  and  a  city  council.  An  ad- 
ministrative board  of  education  is  elected  1^ 
the  peoi^e.  The  waterworks,  gas  and  electric- 
light  woilcs  and  sewage  system  are  owned  awl 
operated  by  the  city.    Pop.  8,238. 

BELLBFONTE,  Pa.,  borough  and  county- 
seal  of  Centre  County,  87  miles  northwest  of 
Harrisburg,  on  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad.  It 
has  important  lime  quarries,  iron  furnaces, 
glass  woriis,  manufactories  and  machine  shops, 
and  was  incori>orated  in  1800.  There  is  a 
soldiers  and  sailors'  monument  and  a  statne 
has  been  erected  to  Gov.  A.  G.  Curtin.  The 
borough  is  governed  by  a  chief  burgess,  elected 
for  three  years,  and  nine  cooncilmen.  The  State 
penitentiary  is  located  at  four  miles  distance 
from  Bellefonte.  fiellefoate  is  a  summer  resort 
much  visited  for  its  scenery  and  noted  for  its 
spring,  whose  waters  have  supplied  the  borcitu^ 
since  1807.    Pop.  4,750.- 

BELLBGARDE,  bergard',  Henri  (Coiera 
de),  Austrian  general  and  statesman :  b.  Dres- 
den, 28  Aug.  1756;  A  Viennai  22  July  1845. 
After  spending  some  time  in  the  army  of 
Saxony  he  entered  that  of  Austria  and  look  part 
in  the  campaign  of  178S  against  the  Turks.  He 
became  maior-genenil  in  1792,  served  against 
France  under  wurmser  and  was  sent  on  a 
mission  to  the  Congress  of  Rastadt.  He  be- 
came chief  of  staff  in  Italy  in  1800,  member  of 
the  aulic  council  and  president  of  the  council 
after  the  retreat  of  Archduke  Charles  in  180S. 
He  commanded  the  Austrian  right  at  Caldiero 
and  was  afterward  successively  governor-gen- 
eral of  Venice  and  of  Galicia.  In  1809  he 
commanded  the  1st  and  2d  Austrian  corps 
and  took  part  in  the  battles  of  Essling  and 
Wagnim.  After  this  campai^  he  was  made 
fiela  marshal  and  was  a  (pun  governor  of 
Galicia.  He  was  again  president  of  the  Aulic 
council  of  war  in  1812  and  afterward  com- 
manded the  Austrian  farces  in  Italy,  After  the 
first  treaty  of  Paris  he  became  governor  of 
Austria's    Italian    provinces    and    m    161 S    he 


.Google 


BBLLBQARDB  —  BBLLBS-LEmtSS 


destroyed  the  army  of  Murat.  After  1815  he 
resided  several  years  in  Paris.  In  1820  for  the 
third  time  he  wss  president  of  the  council  and 
became  also  Minister  of  Stite.  He  retired  in 
1825.  Consult  Von  Smola.  'Das  Leben  des 
Feldmarscballs  H.  von  Bellegarde'  (Vienna 
1847).  _ 

BBLLEGARDE,  Jean-Bai>ttate  Morran 
de,  French  ecclesiastic  and  writer:  b.  Piriac, 
Hautes.  30  Aug.  1648;  d.  Paris,  26  April  1734. 
He  entered  the  Jesuit  order  and  was  a  pupil 
of  Bonhours.  After  18  years  he  left  the  order 
because  of  hts  leanings  toward  Cartesianism. 
He  became  a  member  of  the  community  of 
Priests  of  Saint  Francis  of  Sales.  He  was  a 
prolific  writer,  being  the  author  of  a  great 
number  of  works  and  of  translations  often 
inexact.  He  is  best  remembered  as  the  trans- 
lator of  the  works  of  eminent  ecclesiastics, 
as  'Lettrcs  de  S.  Basile  le  grand'  (Paris  1693, 
.  1701);  'Sermons  de  S.  Gregoire  de  Naziance' 
(Paris  1698);  'Discours  et  homelies  de  S. 
Jean-Chrysostome' ;  'Sermons  de  S.  LAm  le 
orand>  (Paris  1701)  ;  'Imitation  de  Jisus- 
Christ>    (Paris  1698). 

BELLEGARDE.  France,  a  tortress  sit- 
uated on  an  isolated  summit,  1,380  feet  above 
sea-level,  in  the  department  of  Pyrinfcs-Orien- 
tales,  and  commanding  the  highway  from 
Figueras  to  Perpignan,  It  has  been  the  scene 
of  several  armed  conflicts,  Peter  III  of  Aragon 
defeated  Philip  III  of  France  here  in  1285.  In 
1674  it  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  and  again  by 
the  French  under  Schomberg  in  1675.  Louis 
XIV  erected  the  height  into  a  regular  fortress 
with  bastions  in  1678-79.  The  Spaniards 
blockaded  and  captured  it  in  1793,  but  it  was 
retaken  by  the  French  in  the  following  year. 

BBLLEISLB,  bfl-el,  Charles  Lools  An- 

rite  Fouquet  (Cohtede),  marshalof  France: 
Villefranchc,  22  Sept.  1684;  d  Versailles,  26 
Jan.  1761.  He  distinguished  himself  during  the 
famous  siege  of  Lille.  After  the  conclusion 
of  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession  the  cession 
of  Lorraine  to  France  at  the  Peace  of  Rastadt 
was  principally  his  work  (1735);  Louis  XV 
made  him  governor  of  Meti  and  the  three 
bishoprics  of  Lorraiiie.  After  a  diplomatic 
mission  to  the  courts  of  Germany  in  1741  he 
was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  French  forces 
sent  to  oppose  those  of  Maria  Theresa.  He 
took  Prague  by  assault ;  but  the  King  of  Prussia 
having  made  a  separate  peace,  he  was  compelled 
to  a  retreat,  which  he  performed  with  admirable 
skill.  In  December  1/44,  when  on  a  diplomatic 
journey  to  Berlin,  he  was  arrested  in  Germany 
and  sent  to  England,  but  he  was  exchanged  in 
1746.  In  the  following  year  he  forced  General 
Browne,  who  had  entered  the  south  of  France 
from  Italy,  to  raise  the  siege  of  Antibes  and  to 
retreat  over  the  Var.  In  1748  the  King  made 
him  a  peer  of  France,  and  the  Department  of 
War  was  committed  to  his  charge.  He  re- 
formed the  armjF  by  abolishing  many  abuses, 
enlarged  the  military  academy,  and  caused  an 
order  of  merit  to  be  established. 

BELLENDEN,  William,  Scottish  author: 
b.  Lasswade,  Midlothian,  about  1555;  d.  about 
1633,  He  was  educated  at  Paris,  where  he 
was  professor  of  belies-letlrei  in  1602;  and 
though  he  was  made  master  of  requests  by 
James   1   he   still  continued  to    reside   in   the 


French  metropolis.  He  was  distit^uished  for 
the  elegance  of  his  Latin  style,  and  in  1606  he 
published  a  work  entitled  'Ciceronis  Princeps,' 
containing  a  selection  from  the  works  of  Cicero, 
consisting  of  passages  relating  to  the  duties  oi 
a  prince,  etc.  He  afterward  published  'G- 
ccronis  Consul,  Senator,'  etc.  (1612),  with  two 
other  treatises,  from  one  of  whidi  Conjeri 
Middleton's  'Life  of  Cicero'  was  largely  com- 
piled—  a  plagiarism  first  denounced  by  \Vhanon 
and  clearly  proved  by  Dr,  Parr  in  a  L.alin 
preface  prefixed  to  a  reissue  of  Bellenden's 
writings  (1787).  His  'De  Tribus  Lumioibus 
Romanonim,*  published,  ^sthiunously,  was  de- 
signed to  illustrate  the  history  of  Rome  from 
the  writings  of  Cicero,  Seneca  and  Pliny;  but 
it  is  incomplete,  and  only  contains  matter  drawn 
from  the  first  named  author, 

BBLLERMANN,  Ferditund,  German 
painter:  b.  Erfurt,  14  March  1814;  d.  Berlin.  11 
Aug.  1889.  He  was  educated  at  the  academy 
at  Weimar,  and  studied  later  at  BerKn  under 
Karl  Blechen  and  Wilhelm  Schrimer.  He 
traveled  in  Norway,  the  Netherlands,  Vene- 
zuela and  Italy,  and  in  1866  became  professor 
of  landscape  painting  at  the  Berlin  Academy. 
He  utilized  the  results  of  his  travels  in  tbe 
production    of    many    magnificent    landscapes, 


Venezuela';   'Sierra  Nevada,' 

BELLEROPMON.    b«1-ie'rfi-f8n^    son  of 

Glaucus,  king  of  Ephyre,  by  Eurymeoe,  at  first 
called  Hipponous.  The  murder  of  his  brother. 
whom  some  call  Alcimenus  and  Bellerus,  pro- 
cured him  the  name  of  Bellerophon,  or  mur- 
derer of  Bellerus.  After  this  murder  Belle- 
rophon fled  to  the  court  of  Prcetus,  king  of 
Argos,  whose  wife  became  enamored  of  him; 
and  because  he  slighted  her  passion  she  sought 
to  destroy  him.  He  escaped  her  machinations, 
was  introduced  to  the  court  of  Jobates,  king 
of  Lycia,  and,  after  a  number  of  adventures, 
in  one  of  which  he  conquered  the  Chimera,  he 
married  the  daughter  of  Jobates  and  succeeded 
to  the  throne  of  Lycia.  According  to  the  fabled 
accounts,  on  Bellerophon  attempting  to  soar  to 
heaven  on  the  back  of  Pegasus,  Zeus  sent  a 
hornet  which  so  stung  his  winged  steed  that 
he  cast  his  rider  to  the  earth,  wtiere  lame  and 
bhnd  he  wandered  lonely  in  the  Aleian  fields,  a 
prey  to  corroding  grief  and  melancholy,  shun- 
ning men,  and  hated  by  the  gods.  At  Corinth 
and  in  Lycia  Bellerophon  was  worshipped  as  a 
sun-god.  His  adventures  were  a  favorite  sub- 
ject m  ancient  art. 

BELLEROPHON,  a  genus  of  giUa- 
opodous  mollusks,  typical  of  the  family  Bel- 
Wropkontidit.  The  species  are  all  fossil  shells 
found  in  the  limestones  of  the  Silurian,  Devo- 
nian and  Carboniferous  periods.  The  best- 
known  American  snecies  are  found  in  tbe  coal 
measures  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  die 
Southwest  The  so-called  B.  ciiohatui.  a  fossil 
characteristic  of  the  Trenton  formation,  is  iww 
assigned  to  the  genus  Proiotvarlhia. 

BELLES-LETTRES,  bfl-lftr,  the  French 
term,  for  which  the  English  equivalent  is  polite 
literature.  It  is  impossible  to  give  a  sadsfac- 
tory  explanation  of  what  is  or  has  been  caH™ 
belUs-leltres;  in  fact,  the  vaguest  definitimt 
would  l>e  the  best,  as  almost  eveiy  bnncfa  m 


.Google 


BBLLBTAL  —  BSLXBW 


tcnowledgc  has  at  one  time  been  included  in,  at 
mother  exclndett  from,  this  denomination.  The 
most  correct  definition,  therefore,  would  be, 
perhaps,  such  as  embraced  atl  knawlcdgc  and 
every  science  not  merely  abstract  or  simply 
useful.  In  the  division  of  the  departments  at 
the  Lyceum  of  Arts,  established  at  Paris  in 
1792,  die  bellef-trtires    comprehended    general 


latics,  etc.,  were  called,  in  contra- 


BBLLBVAL,  b(l-val,  Kerrc  Richer  de, 
French  botanist;  b.  Chalons-sur-Mame  c.  1S64; 
d.  1623.  He  was  the  first  person  in  Prance  who 
taught  botany  as  a  science  distinct  from  medi- 
cine. Henry  IV  established  a  botanical  garden 
at  Montpellier,  and  created  a  chair  of  botany. 
Belleval  obtained  the  first  appointment  in  1593, 
and  immediately  began  a  collection  of  all  the 
plants  in  Languedoc,  in  order  to  the  production 
of  an  illustrated  flora,  for  which  about  500 
quarto  plates  had  been  engraved,  when  he  died. 
Throu)^  the  carelessness  of  his  representatives, 
almost  all  of  these  were  lost. 

BELLEVILLE,  Canada,  town,  port  af 
entry  and  county-seat  of  Hastings  County,  On- 
tario, on  the  Bay  of  Quinte,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Moira  River.  It  is  on  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railway  60  miles  west  of  Kingston.  It  has  an 
excellent  harbor,  and  the  Moira  affords  abun- 
dant water-power  for  manufacturing.  Belleville 
is  in  the  heart  of  the  finest  dairying  region  of 
Canada ;  is  in  direct  steamboat  communication 
with  many  Canadian  and  United  States  points, 
and  enjoys  an  extensive  trade,  especially  In 
lumber.  It  is  the  seat  of  Albert  College,  and 
has  other  excellent  educational  institutions,  a 
deaf  and  dumb  institute  and  public  library. 
The  chief  manufactories  are  lumber,  pottery, 
cigars,  sash  and  blinds,  woolens,  shirts,  mining 
tools,  machinery,  lanterns  and  tinware.  A  short 
distance  east  of  Belleville  are  large  cement 
works  for  the  utilization  of  a  limestone  which 
exists  in  great  abundance  in  the  vicinity.  The 
ciiy  has  agencies  for  the  principal  banks  of 
Canada,  daily  and  weekly  newspapers,  and  is 
the  seat  of  a  United  States  consulate.  Pop. 
9a?6. 

BELLEVILLE,  III.,  city  and  counhr-seat 
of  Saint  Qair  County,  situated  on  several  rail- 
roads, 14  milei  cut  of  Saint  Louis  Uo.  It  is 
in  the  midst  of  veiy  productive  coal  mines;  has 
a  large  trade  in  flour,  and  general  prodtice; 
and  is  chiefly  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
glass,  stoves.^  floor,  nails  asd  machinery ;  there 
are  also  a  aistillety,  breweries,  shoe  factories, 
ice  plant,  etc ;  it  has  one  of  the  largest  rolling 
mills  in  the  west.  The  city  has  trolley  lines  to 
Saint  Louis,  a  public  Hbrnry,  Saint  Peter's 
Cathedral  (Roman  Catholic),  convent,  four 
national  banks  and  an  assessed  property  valua- 
tion of  over  $Z,25OJX)0.  Settled  io  1814,  it  was 
incorporated  in  1846.  The  government  is 
vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  biennially,  who  ap- 
points all  the  important  administrative  officers. 
Pop.  25,000. 

BELLEVILLE,  Kan.,  town,  county-seat  of 
Republic  County.  219  miles  northwest  of  Kan- 
sas City  on  the  Union  Pacific,  the  Chicago, 
Rock  Island  and  the  Pacific  railroads.  It  is  in 
the  centre  of  a  stock  raising  and  grain  produc-  ■ 


BELLEVUE,  Iowa,  city  of  Jackson 
County,  20  miles  east  of  Uaquokeia,  the  county- 
seat,  on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul 
Railroad.  The  city's  industries  include  button- 
making,  piano  factories,  flower  pots  and  hollow 
block  works  and  gasoline  marine  engines.  It 
has  three  banks  with  combined  resources 
amounting  to  $1,012,000,  public,  parochial  and 
Lutheran  schools.  The  electric-lighting  plant 
and  the  waterworks  are  the  property  of  the 
municipality.  In  1917  the  city's  receipts  from 
-"   totaled  $22,461.67  and  the  expendl- 


BELLEVUE,  Ky.,  city  in  Campbell  County, 
on  _  the  Ohio  River,  opposite  Cincinnati,  of 
which   it  is  practically  a  suburb.     Jt  is   almost 


ing  are  the  principal.  Bellevue  was  first  set- 
tled in  1866  and  received  its  cit^  charter  in 
1871.  The  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor, 
elected  for  lour  years,  and  a  cotmcil  of  eight 
members  chosen  every  two  years.  Pop. 
6.683. 

BELLEVUE,  Ohio,  city  in  Sandusky 
County,  on  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan 
Southern,  the  New  York,  Chicago  and  Saiut 
Louis,  the  Lake  Shore  Electric  and  other  rail- 
roads, about  16  miles  south  of  Sandusky.  It 
contains  a  Carnegie  library  and  a  hospital  and 
has  railroad  repair  shops,  canning  factories, 
lumber  yards,  manufactories  of  agricultural 
and  drainage  machinery,  fixtures  and  stoves. 
It  is  the  trade  centre  for  a  thriving  agricul- 
tural region.  The  most  unique  feature  of  the 
city  is  its  sewerage  system.  An  underground 
stream  flows  beneath  the  city  into  Lake  Erie 
and  on  each  block  a  hole  is  drilled  to  this 
stream  which  thus  serves  to  dispose  of  all  sew- 
age and  surface  water  as  well.    Pop.  5,^. 

BELLEVUE,  bil-vH  (French  'fine  pros- 
pect*), a  beautiful  country  palace  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Paris,  sittiated  on  a  ridge  of 
hills  stretching  from  Saint  Cloud  toward 
Meudon.  It  was  built  by  Mme,  de  Pompadour, 
between  1748  and  1750,  The  first  French 
artists  of  the  time  had  exerted  all  their  talents 
in  embellishing  it;  so  that  at  the  period  when 
it  wa-s  built,  it  was  considered  the  most  dnrm- 
all  Europe.  After  the  Revolution  it  was 
and  the  purchaser  had  it  demolished  . 
There  is  a  pretty  village  on  its  site,  which, 
during  the  siege  of  Paris  (1870-71),  was  an 
important  strategic  point. 

BELLEW  (Harold),  Kyrle,  English 
actor,  the  son  of  the  Rev.  J.  M.  Bellew, 
Calcutta,  a  well-known  elocutionist;  b.  1857;  d. 
Salt  Lake  City,  1  Nov.  1911.  After  serving 
for  some  years  in  the  British  navy,  he  went  to 
Australia,  where  he  was  successively  engaged 
a^  gold  prospector,  actor,  newspaper  man  and 
lecturer.  Returning  to  England,  he  made  his 
first  appearance  as  an  actor  in  that  country  at 
Brighton  in  1875,  and  joined  Henry  Irving's 
Company  in  1878,  He  made  Ms  dfhut  in  New 
York  in  1885  as  Hubert  in  die  play  <In  Hts 


a" 


(Google 


BBLLEY  —  BBLLIQBRBHCY 


Power.'  He  was  associated  with  Mrs.  James 
Brown  Potter  from  1888-98,  and  accompanied 
her  (1888-911  on  a  world  tour  in  which 
Australia  ana  India  were  included.  He  re- 
turned to  Australia  in  1899,  and  there  engaged 
in  mining  ventures.  His  later  years  were  spent 
in  the  United  States,  where  he  achieved  notable 


BELLEY,  Ul-li,  France  (ancient  Bellica), 
a  town  in  the  department  Atn,  39  miles  south- 
east of  Bourg,  and  38  miles  southwest  of 
Gtneva;  situated  in  a  fertile  valley  watered  by 
the  Furan.  It  is  very  ancient,  having  been  a 
place  of  note  in  the  time  of  Julius  Cxsar.  and 
is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  founded  in  412.  It 
contains  a  communal  college,  has  an  agricul- 
tural sodely  and  a  court  ot  primary  resort 
The  episcopal  palace,  the  belfry  of  the  cathe- 
dral, tne  college  and  the  rich  cabinet  of  medals 
and  antiquities,  are  worth  notice.  Silk  worms 
are  reared)  and  lithographic  stones,  reckoned 
the  best  in  France,  are  obtained  from  quarries 
in  the  neighborhood,  and  it  has  silk  and  cotton 
industries.    Pop.  6,182. 

BELLI,  biri§,  GioKppc  Gioachino.  Ro- 
man humorist  and  satirical  poet:  b.  1791;  d. 
1863.  He  wrote  in  the  popular  dialect  of  the 
Trastevere-  and  in  early  life  scourged  the 
papacy  and  the  clergy  witD  stinging^  irreverent 
and  often  vulgar  satire.  Becoming  afterward 
a  zealous  convert  to  Ihe  Roman  faith,  he  en- 
deavored to  call  in  and  destroy  the  indiscretions 
of  his  youth.  In  his  last  years  he  published  a 
beautiful  translation  of  the  Roman  Breviary. 
His   published   sonnets   amount   to   more   than 


literary  remains  have  never  been  gathered  and 
edited.  Of  this  last,  much  is  clothed  in  lan- 
guage too  coarse  to  bear  the  li^t  ot  modem 
culture. 

BBLLIARD,  bfl-yar.  AoKiutin  Dudel, 
(CoMTE  de),  French  soldier  and  diplomatist: 
b.  Fontenay-Ie-Comte,  La  Vendie,  1769;  d.  27 
Ian.  1832.  Under  Napoleon  he  served  in 
Egypt,  Germany,  Spain  and  Russia  and  rose 
to  great  military  distinction,  and  was  wounded 
at  the  battle  of  Leipzig.  He  supported  the 
Emperor  on  his  return  from  Elba,  and  on  the 
,  restoration  of  the  monarchy  was  made  a  peer 
and  became,  in  1832,  ambassador  to  Belgium. 
His  autobiography  was  published  in  1842. 

BELLIGERENCY.  In  international  law, 
a  state  of  armed  hostility  which.has  been  legally 
recognized.  This  condition  may  exist  between 
nations,  between  a  nation  and  a  community  not 
within  the  family  of  nations,  or  between  an 
established  and  recognized  nation  and  one  of 
its  sections  which  may  be  attempting  to  throw 
off  the  jurisdiction  of  the  parent  state  with 
the  object  of  becoming  independent  or  attain- 
ing some  other  political  et^d.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary that  a  community  be  independent  in  order 
to  have  the  status  of  a  belligerent,  but  it  is 
necessary  that  such  community  conduct  hos- 
tilities according  to  customs  pursued  by  reg- 
ularly established  states  or  otherwise  be  under 
a  de  facto  government.  When  the  fact  of 
belligerency  between  two  nations  is  established, 
their  legal  relations  are  changed  at  once,  the 


laws  of  j>cace  bein^  superseded  by  the  laws  of 
war,  while  oeutrality  laws  govern  the  conduct 
of  states  not  participating  in  the  conflict    Set 

NEtnXALlTY. 

When  a  revolted  party  of  great  numerical 
strength  forms  a  regular  government  and  rules 
over  the  whole  or  part  of  the  territory  claimed, 
humanity  dictates  that  the  members  of  such 
party  should  not  be  treated  as  rebels  guilty  of 
treason  but,  if  captured,  should  be  regarded  at 
prisoners  of  war.  Hence  those  who  have  rises 
m  arms  against  the  parent  government  eiert 
every  effort  to  obtain  for  theraselrea  the  statu 
of  belligercn^,  since  the  recognition  of  iht 
belligerency  oi  a  party,  not  a  stal&  bestows  all 
the  rights  of  war  of  an  established  state.  The 
usual  maimer  of  notifying  neutrals  of  ihe 
existence  of  a  state  of  war  is  by  public  procb' 
mation  and  the  most  common  method  emplojted 
by  outside  states  to  recognize  belligerency  ii 
the  issuance  of  a  proclamation  of  neutnlily 
which  states  the  attitude  of  the  maker  thereof 
toward  the  belligerents.  (See  Declaration  or 
War).  Under  the  rules  of  modern  warfare, 
belligerents  must  respect  the  hvea  and  prop- 
erty of  non-combalanls,  must  refrain  from  in- 
flicting any  more  damage  than  is  abMilulely 
necessary  to  accomplish  victotv,  and  must  not 
eniplcy  cruel  methods  of  warfare  or  use  bar- 
barous weapons.  Upon  occupying  conquered 
territory  the  dominant  belligerent  may  require 
the  submission  of  the  inhabitants ;  in  ibc 
European  War  Germany  imposed  numeron.' 
lines  not  only  on  private  atizens  but  alu 
on  established  communities  for. real  or  alleged 
disobedience  of  commands  or  for  hostility  ais- 
ptayed  by  the  inhabitants.  (See  Conquest, 
RiGKr  of).  Under  intematioual  law,  ncutraU 
and  their  goods,  ships,  commerce,  «c,  are  sup- 
posed to  be  exempt  from  the  dangers  and  in- 
juries wrought  by  the  war,  provided  they 
adhere  strictly  to  a  policy  ot  neutrality  » 
regards  the  belligerents.     See  Neutralitv, 

When  one  community  is  in  rebellion  against 
the  parent  state  (as  in  tlie  Revolulionaiy  War) 
or  a  revolutionary  party  or  section  wages  war 
against  the  general  government  (as  in  the  Gtil 
War)  a  more  difficult  question  arises.  H  a 
nation  or  stale  recognize  the  belbgercncy  of  a 
community  outside  tne  family  of  nations,  that 
community,  so  far  as  the  rights  of  war  arc 
concerned,   has   an   international   status  as  it- 

Srds  the  nation  or  state  which  r«cogniie!  it 
foreign  nations  recognize  the  belligerency  of 
a  community  within  the  territorial  area  of  ;iii 
established  state,  then  such  community  hu 
ational   standing,   but,  if   not   its  acts  of 


npelled  to  recognize  its  blockades  or  recfin 
Its  vessels  in  their  ports.  (See  Blockahe). 
If  the  parent  government  reco^ize  the  belHB- 
erency  ot  the  revolted  community,  then  a  slatt 
of  belligerency  exists  for  all  nations,  but  if  ihf 
government  refuse  to  recognize  the  revolution- 
ary section  and  another  nation  do  so,  (hen  foj 
the  latter  a  state  of  belligerency  exists  and 
other  nations  must  take  cogniiance  of  the  ef- 
istence  of  such  a  status  between  the  recogiuKd 
and  the  recogniang  parties.  It  is  not  neecssar)' 
that  the  parent  government  recognize  a  rei-dl- 
ing  community  by  a  formal  declantioB,  M 
the  existence  qf  war  tnay  be  made  known  V 


.Google 


BBLLIOKRKNCT 


an  act  of  less  formal  character  (such  b3  a 
blockade  proclamation  or  a  call  for  volunteers 
lo  suppress  rebellion)  as  was  the  case  in  the 
Gvil  War,  The  conferring  of  belligerent  rights 
on  a  revolting  community  by  a  neutral  state 
does  not  carry  with  it  the  recognition  by  that 
state  of  the  independence  of  the  insurgent  gov- 
ernment; such  recognition  would  imply  that  the 
parent  government  cannot  subdue  the  rebellion 
and  hence,  being  premature,  might  be  regarded 
hy  the  parent  government  as  a  cause  for  war 
against  the  state  making  such  recognition.  _  No 
insurgent  may  claim  as  a  right  the  recognition 
of  a  status  of  belligerency ;  it  is  merely  a 
question  of  expediency  wfaidi  the  neutral  slate 
must  decide  for  itself ;  such  recognition  may  be 
granted  for  any  reasou  or  reasons  deemed  sufii- 
cient  by  the  grantor,  whether  thn-  be  wholly 
seliish  or  humanitarian  or  dictated  by  a  fixed 
international  policy.  But  there  are  two  con- 
ditions that  a  neutral  must  find  escistent  before 
granting  belligerent  rights,  viz.,  a  civil  govern- 
meot  in  the  rebelKous  community  exercising 
de  facto  authority  in  a  definite  territory  and  a 
state  of  hostilities  between  such  de  facto  govern- 
ment and  the  parent  government  These  mil- 
itary operations  need  not  be  of  great  extent, 
but  if  the  rebellion  should  have  assumed  euor- 
mous  proportions  and  be  of  such  a  formidable 
character  as  to  afCect  outside  interests,  neutral 
states  may  consider  that  the  demand  for  a 
recognition  of  belligerency  has  become  con- 
clusive. 

Some  have  contended  that  the  British  procla- 
mation of  neutrality'  of  13  May  1861  was  a 
premature  recognition  of  the  Confederate 
States  and  that  by  Belling  munitions  of  war 
and  other  merchandise  to  the  South  and  buying 
her  cotton  Great  Britain  was  aiding  rcbelUous 
citizens  against  the  ^rent  government,  and,  in 
fact,  filibustering.  They  have  compared  the 
protest  of  the  United  States  against  the  recog- 
nition of  Confederate  belligerency  and  the  ship- 
ment of  arms  to  her  by  Great  Britain  with 
Germany's  protest  gainst  shipments  of  muni~ 
tioas  to  the  Allies  from  the  United  States  in 
the  war  of  1914.  The  fact  often  overlooked, 
in  die  case  of  the  Gvil  War,  is  that  England, 
France,  The  Netherlands  and  other  nations,  by 
tbctr  proclamations  of  neutrality,  recognized  the 
Mtigerency  of  the  Confederacy;  this  did  not 
mean  that  these  powers  recognized  the  Con- 
federate States  as  an  independent,  sovereign 
government  but  meidy  Uiat  theie  foreign  States 
considered  the  conditions  to  warrant  the  con- 
ferring of  belligerent  rights  so  that  both  sec- 
tions would  be  treated  alike  and  impartially. 


Government  cannot  hesitate  to  admit  that  such 
confederacy  is  entitled  to  be  considered  as  a 
belligerenl,  and,  as  such,  invested  with  all  the 
rights  and  prerogatives  of  a  belligerent.'  { 'The 
Case  of  the  United  SUtes  before  the  Tribunal 
of  Arl»tration  at  Geneva,'  Senate  Ex.  Doc.  31. 
42d  Congress,  2d  session,  pp.  24-27).  If  a  civil 
war  aHect  the  relations  ot  the  community  with 
foreign  countries,  if  sktch  countries  find  a  new 
gnvemment  de  facto  applying  belligerent  rights 
on  ihe  seas,  if  the  rules  of  blockade,  contra- 
band and  search  hamper  their  commerce,  and 
iE  they  be  called  upon  to  decide  whether  ships 
carrying  a  new  Bag  may  enter  their  ports,  then 


such  countries  are  warranted  by  international 
law  and  a  due  regard  for  the  commorcial  inter- 
ests of  ihcir  subjects  in  recogniaing  the  bellig> 
erency  of  the  insurgent  and  declaring  their  town 
neutrality.  Hence,  England's  course  in  ac- 
knowledging the  belligerent  rights  ot  the  Con- 
federacy was  justifiable.  (Dana,  R.  H,,  ed., 
Wheaton's  "Elements  of  Inlemattonal  Law,' 
G  23,  Boston  1866;  Woolsey,  T.  D.,  'Inter- 
national Law.*  §  180,  New  York  1875).  The 
British  believed  their  commerce  needed  pro- 
tection on  the  high  seas  and  that  by  issuing  a 
Eroclamation  of  neutrality  they  would  not  only 
ring  the  management  of  the  conflict  within 
the  rules  of  civilized  warfare  but  would  pre- 
vent inroads  on  their  commerce  by  pirates, 
since,  in  the  eyes  of  the  world,  the  neutrahty 
proclamations  placed  all  vessels  that  accepted 
letters  of  raarriue  from  the  Confederacy  on  the 
level  of  privateers  instead  of  considering  tfccm 
pirates  and  their  crews  amenable  for  pin»,  as 
Lincoln's  proclsiaatian  of  19  April  had  decbired 
them  to  be.  (See  PaiVATEtss;  Piracy).  On 
15  May  1861  the  London  Timet  said: 

"  Bang  no  lonaer  kble  to  dear  the  oiiteoce  of  ■  dnadfnl 

civil  irsr,  n  lire  compelled  to  take  offioal  oolice  of  it. 

bold  la  the  eomtnercs  i^  the  irorld  ii  too  VBit.  and,  we  miy 
add,  our  attitude  ■  a  matter  of  loo  nmcit  importftnoi  for  Bt 
to  oUoiv  ounelvea  the  oratification  of  aayiug  '  Peac^  when 
there  b  no  peace,"  lo  largely  indulged  in  up  to  the  very 
UteM  oiameiit  by  the  lUtomen  of  America  herKlf.  Yei. 
tbKa   ia    war,     .     .    .    Btaodo    and   Polmicf*   m   ooo- 

^~»~ b  other  with  hoitile  weaponi,  and  EiiBUnd,  lika 

le  queen  ot  Thebea.  aUndi  by  to  behold  the 
imbat  of  her  children.  From  acfaiowledffing  the 
the  aut  Map  it  to  •okncwIadBinv  tha  Iwugartat 

_  ,! ..__  _    ^  b^igpanta 

Tyrian.waa  m  tb< 

.  ^ , ,  _.^ES 

>nditiDni  of  the  moat  imiwitul  and  un- 

_      .  Ltrality."      (Connlt   alu    Earl    Ruiaell'i 

Aduua,  30  Aug..  IS6S;  Bernard.  Itfonta^ue.  '  An 


they  are  ai  equal  in  our  eyes  «*  TVowD  ...  ., 

eyei  of  Queen   Dido.     We  are  bonod  eqaally 
toatr  bloi^adfw  and  equally  to  abataio  fnmi  an) 


The  confecring  of  belligerent  ri^ts  gave  the 
Confederacy  the  powerful  moral  support  which 
insurgent  movements  gain  from  international 
recognition,  and  among  these  rights  were 
respect  for  the  lives  and  property  of  non- 
combatants,  the  regarding  or  captives  as 
prisoners  of  war,  the  privile^  of  ne^iiating 
foreign  loans,  the  recognition  of  its  flag 
and  the  right  to  purchase  arms  and  am- 
munition in  the  open  market.  Hence  foreign 
countries  could  sell  munitions  of  war  lo  both 
sides  without  fear  "of  violating  neutrality,  and 
the  Northern  government  had  no  more  justifi- 
cation than  Germany  in  protesting.  But  when 
these  nations  conferred  belliRecent  rights  upon 
the  Confederal^'  they  could  not  hold  the 
Northern  govemmnil  liable  for  injuries  in- 
flicted on  their  subjects  by  die  Confederates  in 
the  territory  occupied  by  the  latter,  whereas 
Turkey,  not  havinK  issued  a  proclamation  of 
neutrality,  was  able  to  claim  indemnity  for 
losses  sustained  at  the  hands  of  rebellious  sub- 
jects of  the  United  States.  Some  state  that 
the  European  nations  were  unduly  hasty  in 
placing  the  Confederate  States  on  an  equality 
with  the  Union  as  to  belligerent  rights,  as  is 
witnessed  by  the  speeches  of  John  Bright  and 
other  promment  men,  since  such  action  seemed 
to  presage  the  recognition  of  their  independ- 
ence at  an  opportune  moment.  (Consult  Curtis, 
G.  W„  ed,  'Correspondence  of  J.  L.  Motley,' 
Vol  I,  p.  380:  Rogers'  ed,  of  'John  Brigfat'B 


,  Google 


BBLLIQUtBHT 


Seward  wrote  to  Adams 

"The  ixodainatuni  of  neutrility  WBa  -   

beUigs-eal  righU  to  tlia  inBorHerrt*  aod  wm  d™anid_^J' 


5>9). 


n   dTect  as  unfrierxdly. 


ujion  ■  footioff  o[  equality  with  domalic  insnTgeiita  who  h»™ 
CoiTBpoodtnce,'  1863.  Pt.  I,  p.  M3). 

John  Jay  said  also :  'The  Proclamation  .  ,  . 
in  a  moral  view  lowered  the  American  Gov- 
ernment to  the  level  of  the  rebel  Confederacy, 
and  in  the  next  place,  it  proceeded,  in  an  inter- 
national view,  to  place  the  rebel  Confederacy  on 
a  par  with  the  American  Government.*  _  ('The 
Grsat  Conspiracy:  Address  at  Mount  Kisco,'  4 
Jiil](  1861).  Seward  claimed  that  war  did  not 
exist  in  an  international  sense  and  that  foreign 
powers  should  not  take  coffnizance  of  the  in- 
surgents in  territory  over  which  the  United 
States  had  not  relinquished  its  sovereignly. 
He  claimed  for  the  North  the  rights  of  a 
belligerent  to  blockade  and  search  which  im- 
plied a  legal  war  btit  denied  the  existence  of  a 
war,  in  which  case  there  could  not  be  a  body 
of  neutrals.  But  Seward's  opinion  was  not 
binfhng  on  European  nations  then  any  more 
than  Gennany's  wishes  in  1914  could  be  con- 
strued into  law  for  the  United  States  to  fol- 
low. Moreover,  at  its  December  term  of  1862, 
the  Supreme  Court  decided  that  Lincoln's 
blockade  proclamation  ot  19  April  1861  (Con- 
sult Richardson,  J.  D.,  'Messages  and  Papers  of 
the  Presidents,'  Vol.  VI,  p.  14)  was  in  itself 
"official  and  conclusive  evidence  to  the  court 
that  a  state  of  war  existed."  (Consult  also 
Snow,  Freeman,  'Cases  and  Opinions  on  In- 
ternational Law,'  pp.  xvi,  254,  Boston  189J). 
Judge  Chase  also  stated  from  the  bench  that 
•the  rights  and  obligations  of  a  belligerent  were 
conceded  to  it  [the  (^onlederacy]  in  its  military 
character  very  soon  after  the  war  began  from 
motives  of  humanity  and  expediency  by  the 
United  States.'  (Wallace,  "Supreme  Coun 
Reports,'  1868,  p.  10).  Hence,  when  Adams 
complained  to  Lord  Russell  of  the  dispatch  of 
"numbers  of  steam  vessels  laden  with  arms, 
and  munitions  of  war  of  every  description, 
together  with  other  supplies,  well  adapted  to 
procrastinate  the  stru^le  with  a  purpose  of 
breaking  a  blockade  legitimately  established  and 
fully  recognized  by  her  majesty'  ('Diplomatic 
Correspondence,'  1863,  Pt.  I,  p.  314),  Lord 
Russell  was  fully. justiiied  in  replying  as  fol- 

"  With  nmid  to  the  gnenl  dntin  nl  a  neutral,  wxardins 
to  international  law.  the  true  doctrinfl  has  been  laid  down 
repeatedly  by  m-cflidenti  and  judga  of  eminence  of  tha 
United  States,  and  that  doclrtne  'a  that  a  neutrsl  may  sell 
to  eitber  or  both  of  inn  belligerent  purtiei.  any  implemenu 
ot  munitumi  ol  war  whicb  such  belligerent  may  wiah  to 
purctiMc  from  tha  subjcctfi  of  toe  neutral.  .  -  . 
Admitting  aho.  that  which  it  beliwed  to  be  ■  (art,  that  the 
Coofaderatta  have  derived  a  limited  lupply  of  annt  and 
ammunition  ftom  the  United  Kingdom,  notwithtiandma  the 
Pedetal  blotiade  of  their  porU;  ytt.  on  (he  nther  hand,  it  u 
perfectly  notorioui  that  the  Pedin-al  government  have 
puirhaMd  in  and  obtained  from  the  United  Kingdom  a  far 
BrealH-  quantity  "I  arms  and  warlilie  hloiei."  V  Diplomatic 
Correapondence'.  MM,  Pt.  1.  p.  313). 

John  Bright  wrote  to  Sumner  as  follows : 

"  The  people  .  .  .  know  that  great  quantitiei  of 
arma  have  b«n  void  to  thv  North  and  aT^ue  thai  it  must 
bE  equally  lawful  to  wll  armi  or  Ibipt  to  the  South.  And 
Mi.  Sewatd  and  Mr.  Adiimi  have  lent  lomc  mpport  to  tU* 


Since  the  South  were  admittted  ai  bellignTTiti. 

_  .  _.._.,  the  equipping  in  England  of 
privateers  for  the  ConleQcracy  was  a  breach  of 
neutrality  for  which  England  paid  a  consider- 
able sum  of  money  under  the  decision  of  the 
Geneva  Tribunal  and  Lord  Russell  admitted  in 
a  speech  of  26  Sept.  1863  that  such  acts  or 
similar  ones  would  constiiuie  such  breach: 

"  If  you  are  aaked  to  aell  mutketa,  you  may  s^  mcaluu 
to  one  party  or  the  other,  and  bo  with  gunpowder.  nhcUi  or 
cannon;  and  yoa  may  aall  a  il^  in  nicb  a  manner.  But 
if  Tou  will  on  the  ottier  kand,  tram  and  drill  a  rcxiiDeiil  with 
armi  in  their  handa  to  take  part  with  out  of  the  tn  bet 
ligerenti.  you  violate  your  neutrality  and  commit  an  oSenK 
against  the  other  bcUueient.  So  in  the  same  way  in  fcgud 
to  ahips,  if  you  will  allow  a  ship  to  b«  artoed  sBd  go  at  aax 
to  make  an  attack  on  a  foreign  belligereat,  you  are  yoursdf. 
according  to  ynur  law,  taking  fart  m  the  war,  and  it  is  u 
oflense.  which  ts  punished  by  the  law."  (Speeui  in  niercnct 
to  the  Pomign  Eolislmiat  Act  quoted  in  London  Ti»a  M 
September). 

See  CoNPEDEeATX  Siatm;  United  Statcs, 
DiPLOUAcr  OF  the;  NnmALTiY;  Bukeaik; 
Declaratiok  of  Was;  Conquest,  Right  or; 
iNTERNAnONAL  Law;  Wae;  ItiSURKEcrtoN; 
Pkivateiss;  Piracy;  Rzbellion;  Treason. 

Bibliograidiy. —  Bentwich,  Norman,  'Bellig- 
erents and  Neutrals  at  Sea'  (in  Laui  Qttarterlj 
Revinu,  VoL  XXXII,  pp.  14^,  London  1916); 
Callahan,  J.  U.,  'Diplomatic  History  of  the 
Southern  Confederacy'  (190n  ;  Halleck,  H.  W„ 
'International  Law'  (4th  ed.,  London  1908): 
Laughton,  L.  G.,  'Belligerents  and  Neutrals' 
(in  UHited  Service  Magazine,  N.  S.  Vol.  XXIX. 
Vol.  CL,  pp.  226^33,  London  1904) ;  Metcalfe, 


^  .«..  CLXXI,  pp.  243-54,  London  19 H) ; 
MacDonnell,  J.,  'Recent  Changes  in  the  Rights 
and  Duties  of  Belligerents  and  Neutrals  ac- 
cording to  International  Law'  {in  Jonrnai  of 
the  Royal  United  Service  Intiitute,  VoL  XLII. 
pp.  7^-811,  London  1890);  Moore,  J  B, 
'Digest  of  International  Law'  (New  York 
1906)  ;  Oppenheim,  L.  F.  L.,  'International 
Law'  (London  1912);  Snow,  Freeman,  'Man- 
ual of  International  Law'  (2d  ed.,  Wasbii^ion 
1898):  Spaight,  J.  M.,  'War  Ri^ts  on  Land' 
(London  1911):  Wcstlake,  J.,  ' IntematioDal 
Law'  (Cambridge  190?);  Whcaton,  HenO'. 
Elements  of  International  Law*  (London 
1916). 

BELLIGERENT,  a  naikm  or  a  large  sec- 
tion of  a  nation  engaged  in  carrying  on  war. 
On  the  outbreak  of  war  between  sovereign 
powers  the  ri^ls  and  duties  of  the  warrinK 
nations  in  regard  to  each  other  and  in  regard  lo 
neutral  powers  are  clearly  defined  tnf  inter- 
national law.  The  first  gilneral  stipulation  ii 
that  neutral  powers  be  formally  notified  of  the 
existence  of  a  state  of  war.  In  regard  to  ihc 
rights  and  duties  of  belligerents  one  to  another, 
international  law  and  custom  in  modem  timrs 
demand  that  non-combatants  be  protected  in 
their  persons  and  property,  and  that  barbarom 
weapons  or  methods  be  avoided.  When  hostile 
territory  is  occupied,  the  invading  array  may 
require  the  submission  of  the  inhabitants  and 
may  exercise  in  such  territory  all  tw 
powers  previously  exercised  by  the  ousted 
government.  The  trade  of  neutrals, is  to  be 
relieved  as   far  as  possible  of  all  inconvHi- 


(Google 


BELLINCI-ONI  — BBLLINGHAM 


487 


iences.  An  insurgent  state  cannot  claim  the 
recc^nition  of  belligerency  from  a  neutral 
slate  as  a  matter  of  right  and  for  the  latter 
-  such  recognition  is  merely  a  matter  of  ex- 
pediwicy.  In  the  contest  between  the  Federals 
and  Confederates  in  1861-65  the  latter  section 
of  the  American  people,  at  the  very  cchnmence- 
ment  of  the  struggle,  claimed  the  privileges  oi 
belligerents.  Their  demand  was  promptly 
acceded  to  by  the  British  and  French  govern- 
ments, at  wnich  the  Federal  authorities  took 
umbrage,  contending  that  the  recognition  had 
bten  premature,  while  the  British  maintained 
that  it  could  not  have  been  refused  or  delayed. 
The  grant  of  belligerent  rights  to  insurgents 
imposes  certain  obligations  on  the  latter,  such 
as  the  observance  of  the  rules  of  international 
law  both  in  regard  to  their  opponents  and  to 
neutrals.  Such  a  grant  also  shifts  the  re- 
sponsibility for  damages  to  neutrals  from  the 
;.overcign  state  to  the  insurgent  party.  Its  ad- 
\-antages  to  the  latter  lie  in  the  moral  support 
gained  from  recognition  by  neutrals,  giving  it 
the  right  to  negotiate  loans  and  placing  its 
commanders  ana  their  troops  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  laws  of  war.  See  Bellicebewcy  ; 
Blockade;  International  Law;  Neutbality; 
and  consult  Snow,  'Manual  of  International 
Law'  (2d  ed.,  Washington  1898).  and  Wheaton^ 
'Elements  of  International  Law'  (8th  ed.,  Bos- 
ton 1866). 

BBLLINCIONI,  bel-ien-chQ'nC,  Gemma. 
Italian  singer:  b,  Como,  18  Aug.  1866.  Showing 
herself  possessed  oE  a  remarKable  voice  at  an 
early  age,  her  father  began  cultivating  it.       Later 


chera*  at  Naples,  in  1881,  when  she  was  only 
15  years  of  age.  Among  the  audience  was  the 
famous  tenor,  Tamberlilc.  who  was  so  keenly 
impressed  by  her  voice  ftat  he  forthwith  en-' 
gaged  her  as  his  prima  donna  for  an  extended 
tour  of  Spain  ana  Portugal.  She  soon  became 
recognized  as  one  of  the  best,  if  not  the  besL 
singer  of  her  time.  In  1890  Maseagni  created 
for  her  the  part  of  Sanluzza  in  'Cavalleria 
Rusticana,'  and  it  is  g«ierally  admitted  that 
she  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  Immediate 
success  oi  that  famous  opera. 

BELLING.  Wilhelm  Sebastian  von,  Ger- 
man cavalry  officer  and  one  of  the  generals  of 
Frederick  the  Great:  b.  Paulsdorf,  Prussia,  15 
Feb  1719;  d,  Stolp,  28  Nov,  1779.  He  entered 
the  Pmssian  army  in  1737  and  rose  rapidly  in 
rank,  being  an  officer  in  the  Black  Hossars. 
He  especially  distingished  himself  in  the  cam- 
paign against  the  Swedes  in  Pom  crania  and 
Mecklenburg  during  the  period  from  1759  to 
1761.  In  1762  he  was  made  a  major-general  and 
four  years  later  a  lieutenant-general.  It  was 
during  the  operations  against  the  Swedes  diat 
he  took  prisoner  the  famous  Bliicher.  then  a 
young  subaltern,  and  persuaded  him  to  enter 
the  Prussian  service. 

BELLINGHAM.  Richard,  royal  governor 
of  Massachusetts:  b.  about  1592;  d.  7  Dec.  1672. 
He  emigrated  to  the  colony,  of  which  he  was 
one  of  the  original  patentees,  in  1634;  in  163S 
was  made  deput};-govemor ;  and  in  1641  was 
elected  governor  in  opposition  to  Winthrop  by 
1  majority  of  six  votes.  He  was  re-elected  in 
1654  and  after  the    death    of    Endicoti    was 


chosen  again  in  May  1665,  and  continued  in  the 
executive  chair  of  the  colony  as  long  as  be  lived, 
having  been  deputy- governor  13  and  governor 
10  years.  He  was  appointed  assistant  major- 
general  in  1664.  in  which  year  the  King 
sent  commissioners  to  inquire  into  the  state  of 
the  colony,  when,  according  to  Hutchinson, 
Bellin^am  and  oOiers  obnoxious  to  James  II 
wc^  required  to  go  to  England  to  account  for 
tfaetr  conduct.  The  General  Court,  however,  re- 
fused obedience  and  maintained  the  authority 
of  the  charter.  His  wife  having  died,  in  1641 
he  married  a  second  time,  of  which  a  con- 
temporary speaks  thus :  *A  young  gentleman 
was  about  to  be  contracted  to  a  friend  of  his, 
when  on  a  sudden  the  governor  treated  with 
her,  and  obtained  her  for  himself.*  The  banns 
were  not  properly  pubUshed.  and  be  performed 
the  marriage  ceremony  himself.  He  was  prose- 
cuted for  a  violation  of  the  law,  but  at  the 
irial'  he  refused  to  leave  the  bench,  sat  and 
tried  himself,  and  tbus  escaped  all  punishment 
In  his  last  will  he  provided  that  after  the  de- 
cease of  his  wife  and  of  his  son  by  a  former 
wife,  and  bis  granddaughter,  the  bulk  of  bis 
estate  should  be  spent  for  tbe  yearly  main- 
tenance "of  godly  ministers  and  preachers* 
of  tbe  true  Churcn,  which  he  considered  to  be 
that  of  tbe  Congregationalists.  This  will  the 
General  Court  set  aside  on  the  ground  that  it 
isuriercd  with  the  rights  of  his  family.  He  was 
a  clean  and  just  administrator,  but  intolerant 
in  his  attitude  to  tbe  Quakers.  A  sister  of  his, 
Anne  Hibbens,  was  executed  at  Salem  in  June 
L656,   during  tbe  witchcraft  persecution. 

BELLINGHAM,  Wash.,  city  and  county 
seat  of  Whatcom  County,  on  tbe  eastern  shore 
of  Bellingbam  Bay,  and  on  the  Great  Northern, 
Northern  Pacific,  Canadian  Pacifii::  and  Bell- 
inriizm  Bay  and  British  Columbia  railroads,  97 
miles  north  of  SeaKle.  Tbe  first  settlement  was 
made  in  October  1852  by  Capt.  Henry  Roeder, 
who  bnilt  a  saw-mill  on  what  is  now  Whatcom 
Creek.  The  Lummi  tribe  of  Indians  maintained 
their  chief  camp  on  the  beach  near  the  mouth 
and  falls  of  Whatcom  Creek,  and  called  tbe 
camp  or  rather  the  locality  "Whrap  cop,'  mean- 
ing *tbe  noisy  water"  or  *tbe  place  of  the  noisy 
water.*  The  white  men  retained  the  Indian 
name  for  their  town,  modified  as  indicated  by 
the  spelling  to  Whatcom.  This  remained  the 
name  of  the  town  until  tbe  consolidation  of 
Whatcom  and  New  Whatcom  in  1891  under  the 
name  of  New  Whatcom,  from  which  the  prefix 
■New'  was  dropped  by  action  of  the  State 
legislature  19  Feb.  1901.  Fairhaven  is  the  Eng- 
li^  interpretation  of  an  Indian  word  or  phrase, 
^Set-sefleeckel,'"  meaning  "a  safe  harbor'  or 
"the  sheltered  beach;*  this  town  was  plotted 
and  named  in  1883  by  Daniel  J.  Harris,  the 
original  donation  claimant.  In  1890  Fairhaven 
and  the  adjoining  town  of  Bellingbam  were 
incorporated  as  one  city  under  the  name  of 
Fairhaven.  On  27  Oct  1903,  the  electors  of 
Fairhaven  and  Whatcom  voted  to  consolidate 
the  two  cities  under  the  name  of  Bellingbam 
and  tbe  consolidation  was  duly  consuiimiated. 
The  new  name  went  into  effect  28  Dec.  1903, 
and  the  post-office  became  BcUingham  1  April 
1904.  Bellinrfiam  Bay  was  named  by  Van- 
couver in  1792,  and  the  consolidated  city  takes 
its  name  from  that  bay.  The  city  is  the  com- 
mercial  centre   al   a  large  lumber  and  agri- 


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488 


BBLLINGSHAUSKN  —  BBLLINI 


cuhural  re^on ;  salmon  fishing  is  &l$o  an  in- 
dustry of  great  importance.  Largest  salmon 
cannery  in  the  world,  and  mining  and  quarry- 
ine  are  carried  on  in  the  vicinity.  The  princi- 
pal manufacturing  establishments  include  lum- 
ber and  shingle  mills,  salmon  canneries,  wood 
working  and  iron  worldng  plants  ana  brick 
kilns.  Salmon  canning  ana  brewing,  nulk  con- 
densing and  the  manufacture  of  cement  and 
cans  are  also  important  industries.  The  United 
States  census  of  manufactures  for  1914  reported 
86  industrial  establishments  of  factory  grade, 
employing  2,182  persons,  of  whom  1,922  are 
wage  earners  who  receive  $1,318,000  annually 
in  wages.  The  capital  invested  totaled  $6,- 
912,000,  and  the  value  of  the  year's  output  was 
$6,264,000:  of  this,  $2,898,000  was  the  value 
added  by  manufacture.  There  are  four 
banks  with  a  combined  capital  of  $600,000. 
There  are  49  established  churches  in  BelUng- 
ham  representing  practically  all  denominations. 
There  are  11  city  schools,  two  libraries,  the 
Bellingham  Bay  Library  and  the  Carnegie 
Libranr.  The  aty  also  contains  the  State  Nor- 
mal School,  and  three  business  colleges,  a 
parochial  and  two  high  schools.  The  govern- 
ment is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  biennially, 
and  a  council  of  seven  members,  elected  alter- 
nately every  two  years.  Fop.  (1910)  24;296; 
(1916)  36,890. 

BELLINOSHAUSBN,  Pabkn  Oottlkb 
von,  Russian  naval  officer  and  Antarctic  ex- 
plorer; b,  island  of  Osel,  9  Sept.  1778;  d.  Kron- 
stadt,  13  Jan.  1852.  Graduating  from  the  Naval 
Academy  at  Kronstadt,  he  became  an  officer  in 
the  Russian  navy.  In  1809  he  distinguished 
himself  in  his  operations  as  captain  of  a  cor- 
vette against  the  Swedish  fleet.  In  1819  he  was 
assigned  by  the  Emperor  Alexander  to  the 
command  of  two  ships  for  the  pui^se  of 
conducting  an  exploring  expedition  mto  the 
south  Polar  regions.  He  succeeded  in  pene- 
trating the  Antarctic  Orcle  to  laL  70°  S.  dis- 
covenng  and  naming  Alexander  Land,  Peter 
Island  and  Traversay  Island.  The  expedition 
returned  to  Kronstadt,  arriving  5  Aug.  1821. 
Seven  years  later  Bellingshansen  so  distinguished 
himself  in  the  naval  operations  against  the 
Black  Sea  port  of  the  Turks,  Varna,  that  he 
was  made  a  vice-admiral  and  was  given  com- 
mand of  the  Russian  Baltic  fleet.  Later  he 
became  militaiy  governor  of  Kronstadt  A 
narrative  of  his  Polar  explorations  was  pub- 
lished in  Saint  Petersburg  in  1831. 

BELLINI,  bel-I«'ne,  Gentile,  elder  son  of 
Jacopo  (q.v.):  b.  1429;  d.  1507.  He  became 
more  distinguished  than  his  father,  but  did  not 
rival  his  younger  brother,  Qovanni.  In  ]4tt>, 
in  reward  for  nis  work,  he  was  made  a  count 
palatine  of  the  empire  and  in  1474  official 
painter  to  the  Venetian  state.  In  conjunction 
with  his  brother  Giovanni,  he  painted  a  series 
of  frescoes  for  the  ducal  palace  at  Venice, 
depicting  the  conflict  between  the  Papacy  and 
Barharossa,  but  these  were  dcstroved  by  fire 
in  1577.  His  fame  attracted  the  notice  of  Mo- 
hammed II,  conqueror  of  Constantinople,  and 
Bellini  visited  the  grand  seignor  in  1480,  being 
sent  by  Ihc  Senate.  He  painted  a  ntmiber  of 
pictures  for  Mohammed,  .  and  also  struck  a 
medal  for  htm.  with  all  of  which  he  was  greatly 

t leased,  and  rewarded  the  painter  by  presenting 
im  with  B  gold  chain  and  3,000  ducats.    There 


in  the  British  Museum,  representing  h 
and  the  Sultana  mother,  in  whoie-lenglb  figures 
in  a  sitting  position.  *The  Adoration  of  the 
Magi'  is  in  the  Layard  collection,  Venice;  and 
'Saint  Mark  Preaching  in  Alexandr^,'  b  in 
the  Brera  at  Milan.  A  small  painting  in  water- 
color  of  a  scribe,  discovered  in  1905  vo  a  bazaar 
in  Constantinople,  is  in  the  possession  of  Mrs. 
Gardner,  Boston. 

BELLINI,  Qlorami,  Venetian  painter : 
b.  about  1430;  d.  1516.  He  was  the  younger 
son  of  Jacopo  Bellini,  an  original  artist  of 
great  vigor  and  attainments,  who  went  to  vari- 
ous cities  of  northern  and  central  Italy  and 
came  in  contact  with  the  Renaissance  influences, 
new  in  his  time,  which  were  to  vivify  the  de- 
clining mediasval  art  of  Italy.  It  was  particu- 
larly in  Padua  where  Sauarcione  had  his  famous 
collection  of  classical  antiquities,  that  the 
new  attitude  toward  art  was  taking  shape, 
and  the  closeness  of  relation  between  the 
Bellini  and  Squarcione  groups  may  be 
Judged  from  the  fact  that  Jacopo  Bellini 
gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Mantegna, 
the  adopted  son  of  Squarcione.  Giovanni 
Bellini  and  his  older  and  only  less  gifted 
brother  Gentile  carried  on  their  father's  work 
and  the  two  sons  lived  to  sec  their  art  triumph 
over  that  of  the  previous  school  of  the  Vi- 
variui  of  Murano.  This  is  the  true  point  of 
departure  of  the  Venetian  school  Beginning 
wttH  works  in  which  the  Squarcionesque  ideas 
joined  to  his  father's  teachin^^  forms  the 
dominating  influence  (this  period  is  well  repre- 
sented at  the  Correr  Museum  in  Venice  by  the 
'Pieti,'  the  'Transfiguration'  and  the  'Croci* 
fixion'),  we  find  Giovanni  Bellini  in  1459 
painting  the  'Agony  in  the  Garden,'  the  master- 

S'ece  of  his  early  manner.  /From  this  time  on 
:  is  more  independent  and/ of  the  character  we 
associate  with  Venetian  art.  Ilie  great  *Con>- 
nation  of  the  Virgin'  at  San  Francesco,  Pesaro, 
shows  Bellini  in  almost  full  possession  of  Us 
personal  style  as  does  the  'Madonna'  of  the 
National  (jalleiy,  London.  The  change  was 
accentuated  in  decade  1470-80,  when  Bellini 
learned  from  Antonello  da  Messina  the 
process  of  oil-painting,  his  work  up  to  this 
time  having  been  done  in  tempera.  The  dis- 
covery was  one  peculiarly  suited  to  the  nature 
of  Bellini  and  nis  iKopIe.  For  while  fresco 
and  tempera  with  their  tendency  toward  sever- 
itv  were  weir  adapted  to  the  drau^tsmen  of 
Florence,  the  warmth  and  modulation  of  oil- 
cotor  were  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  sumptu- 
ous art  of  Venice.  It  was  probably  as  much 
Giovanni  Bellini's  national  character  as  his 
great  mastery  that  brought  to. him  his  great 
pupils  Giorgione  and  Titian,  beside  many  others 
who  attained  fame.  The  Venetian  spirit  and 
iense  of  beauty  are  evidenced  in  the  celebrated 
'Conversaiione'  or,  'Allegory'  in  the  Ufliri, 
or  the  'Virgin  with  Four  Saints'  at  San  Zac- 
caria,  Venice.  Landscape  and  atihosphere  are 
brought,  in  the  Uffiii  picture,  to  one  of  the 
highest  points  they  had  yet  attained,  and  in- 
deed we  may  almost  say,  that  they  were  too 
attain  subsequently.  Another  fine  example  of 
the  qualities  is  afforded  by  the  'TransfiRura- 
tlon'  In  the  Naples  Museum.  To  the  artist's 
middle  period  belong  such  important  works  as 
the   altar-pieces  of   San   Giobbe  and  of  San 


Google 


BBLUHI  — BUJ<P 


X 


Francesco  ddia  Vicna,  Venice,  thai  of  SanU 
Corona  at  Vicenra  (the  'Baptism  of  Chnst'), 
ibe  'Madonna  and  Child'  of  the  Breia,  Utlan, 
the  famouc  pictuce  of  ihe  'Uadonna  with  the 
Doge  Barbenno*  at  Murano  and  the  'Madonna 
with  Saints'  it  the  Venice  Academy.  From 
14aB  to  1505  Bellini  waa  constantly  et^aged  on 
decorations  in.  the  ducal  tjalace,  winch  were 
later  destroyed  by  fire.  Chosen  state,  painter, 
he  executed  Cabout  1500-05)  the  portrait  of  the 
Doge  Loredano  which  is  now  in  the  National 
Gallery,  London,  Two  pictures  in  American 
collections  may  be  safelv  attributed  to  him,  one 
being  in  the  metropolitan  Museum  of  New 
York.  The  last  picture  by  Bellini  to  which  we 
can  assign  a  date  with  certainty  is  the  altar- 
piece  of  the  church  of  San  Giovanni  Chrysos- 
tomo,  Venice  (1513).    It  shows  the  venerable 

r'nter  still  in  command  of  his  powers,  and  if 
had  at  this  time  left  innovation  to  his  pupils, 
he  was  vet  able  to  intensify  the  qualities  he 
possessed.  Beside  his  service  to  landscape  art, 
which  we  have  noted,  Bellini  gave  the  first 
great  eitample  of  the  color  for  which  Venice 
was  to  have  its  unsurpassed  renown.  His 
religious  feeling  is  serene  and  pure,  a  certain 
«veeiness  and  an  almost  pathetic  sincerity  malc- 
g  him  one  of  the  best-loved  of  painters.    Con- 

t  Fry,  Koger  E.,  'Giovanni  Bellini'  {London 
laW) ;  Berenson,  "Venetian  Painters  of  the 
Renaissance'  (New  York  1897)  ;  Venluri.  'Lc 
origini  della  pittura  veneiiana'  (Venice  1907), 
and  Meynell,  'Giovanni  Bellini'  (New  YoA 
1906). 

BELLINI,  Jicopo,  Italian  painter:  k 
Venice  about  1400;  d.  1470,  He  was  a  pupil 
of  (jcntile  da  Fabriano,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  taught  oil-paintinR^  which  was  then  a 
secret,  by  Andrea  dal  CastaKno,  and  in  turn 
taught  it  to  his  sons  Gentile  and  Giovanni 
(qq.v.)  He  accompli^ed  much  in  brining  the 
art  of  painting  to  maturity  in  his  native  city. 
The  first  works  by  which  he  acquired  fame 
were  portraits  of  Catharine  Comaro,  the  beauti- 
ful Queen  of  Cyprus,  and  one  of  her  brothers: 
a  picture  representing  the  passion  of  Christ,  in 
which  many  figures  were  introduced,  himself 
;imong  the  number;  and  a  historical  picture 
representing  a  Venetian  legend  of  the  miracle 
of  the  cross.  This  cross,  containing  a  ^icce  of 
the  true  one  on  which  the  Saviour  died,  was 
by  some  accident  thrown  into  the  Grand  Canal 
ai  Venice,  and  although  many  persons  plunged 
in  after  it,  it  was  the  will  of  God  that  only  the 
guardian  of  the  brotherhood  to  whom  the  cross 
belonged,  Andrea  Vindramino,  could  take  it 
out  again.  This  event  was  represented  in  the 
painting.  Almost  all  of  Jacopo's  vrorks  have 
perished;  only  three  signed  pictures  survive  — 
one  in  the  archiepiscopal  palace  at  Verona,  one 
in  the  Tadini  (tilery  at  Lovere,  and  one  in 
the  academy  at  Venice,  others  (unsigned)  are 
in  the  Uftizi  gallery  at  Florence,  the  Louvre, 
and  the  National  (Gallery,  London.  Two  sketch 
books  have  been  preserved,  and  those  of  price- 
less value,  the  one  in  the  British  Museum, 
Ixnidon,  and  the  other  in  the  Louvre. 

BELLINI,  Lorenzo,  Italian  surgeon:  b, 
Fiorenee,  3  Sept  1643 ;  d.  8  Jan.  17M,  In  1663 
he  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Pisa.  Later 
he  became  physician  to  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tus- 
cany and  senior  consulting  physician  to  Pope 
Clement  XI.    He  was  the  first  to  observe  and 


comment  on  the  action  of  the  nerves  on  the 
muscles.  The  uriniferous  ducts,  now  known 
as  Bellini's  tubes,  were  named  from  him.  His 
principi'  '    "~ 

(1662). 

BELLINI,  Vinccnao,  Italian  composer:  b. 
Catania,  Sidly.  1801 ;  d.  near  Paris,  1835,  He 
was  educated  at  Naples  under  Zingarelli,  com- 
menced writing  operas  before  he  was  20,  and 
composed  for  the  principal  musical  establish- 
ments in  Europe.  Hia  most  celebrated  works 
are  'Norma,'  'I  Puritani'  and  'La  Sonnam- 
bula.'  He  is  remarkable  chiefly  for  sweetness 
of  melody,  suitableness  of  harmony,  and  an 
adaptation  of  sound  to  sense,  and  stood  honor- 
ably distinguished  from  many  of  his  profession 
by  the  excellence  of  his  moral  character. 

BELLINZONA,  bSl-In-zo'na,  or  BEL- 
LBNZ,  bfl'  lents,  Switzerland,  the  capital  of  the 
canton  of  Hcino  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ticino, 
about  five  mites  from  its  embouchure  in  the 
northern  end  of  Lago  Uag^orc.  The  town  has 
a  very  picturesque  situation  about  760  feet 
above  sea-level  and  overlooking  the  Saint 
Gothard  Pass.  It  was  fortified  in  the  Middle 
Ages  and  modem  ports  have  been  constructed 
near  the  pass  to  protect  the  town.    Pop.  10,773. 

BELLI5.    See  Daisy. 

BELLMAN,  Karl  HikacI,  Swedish  poet: 
b.  Stockholm  1740;  d.  1795.  He  grew  im  in  the 
quietude  of  domestic  life,  and  the  first  proofs 
he -gave  of  his  poetical  talents  were  rehgious 
and  pious  eSuiions.  The  dissipated  life  of 
young  men  at  Stockhohn  devoted  to  pleasure 
was  afterward  the  subject  of  his  poems.  By 
these  his  name  was  spread  over  all  Sweden. 
Even  the  attention  of  Gustavus  III  was  at- 
tracted to  him,  and  he  received  from  the  King 
an  appointment  which  enabled  him  to  devote 
himself  almost  entirely  to  poetical  pursuits,  in 
an  «sy  independence,  until  his  d«th.  His 
son^E  are  tru^  national,  and  love  and  Uquor 


their  E 


BBLLO,  be^yo,  Andr£s,  Spanish- American 
diplomatist  and  author :  b.  Caracas,  Venezuela, 
29  Nov.  1781 ;  d.  Santiago.  Chile,  IS  Oct.  1865. 
He  became  undersecretary  of  the  government 
of  Venezuela  in  1802,  and  in  1807  the  King  of 
Spain  appointed  him  Venezuelan  Commissioner 
of  War,  then  an  unprecedented  honor.  !ii  1810, 
with  Bolivar  and  Lipez  Mindei,  he  went  to 
London  to  solicit  aid  for  the  South  American 
insurgents.  Until  1829  he  served  as  secretary 
of  the  Colombian,  Chilean  and  Venezuelan 
l^;ations  in  London,  when  he  returned  to 
Caracas.  Soon  after  he  removed  to  Quit, 
where,  in  1834,  he  became  Secretary  of  State. 
In  1842  he  was  appointed  the  first  rector  of 
Santiago  University.  In  1864  the  United  States 
submitted  to  his  arbitrage  a  question  pending 
with  Ecuador  and  in  the  following  year  he  was 
arbiter  in  a  matter  in  dispute  between  Colombia 
and  Peru,  He  was  the  author  of  'Principles 
of  International  Law'  (1832)  ;  'Gramatica  de 
la  leogua  caslellana,  dedicada  al  uso  de  los 
Americanos'  (1st  ed.,  1847;  latest  edition  re- 
vised and  annotated  by  R.  J.  Cuervo,  Paris 
1874);  'Silvas  Americanas,'  a  Poem  (1827). 
The  Cihilean  government  published  his  complete 
works  in  188r-93  ('Obras  de  Andres  Bello,*  15 
vols.,  Santiago  de  Chile;  reprinted  in  'Colec- 
ci6n  de  escntores  castellanos,'  Madrid).     (See 


Cioogle 


BBLLO   HORIZONIS  —  BBLLOT  STRAIT 


SiLvAs  Amesicanas).  Consult  Ihe  biography  by 
Migutl  Luis  Amunategui  (Santiago  de  Chile 
18K),  also  A  Balbin  de  Unqnera,  'Andres 
Bcllo,  s«  epoca  y  sus  obras*   (Madrid  1910). 

BBLLO  HORIZONTE.  or-e-zon'la,  the 
typically  modem  city  of  Brarit,  capital  of  the 
slate  of  Minas  Geraes,  united  by  rail  with  Rio 
de  Janeiro.  Its  special  distinction  dates  from 
1897.  Formerly  it  was  a  village  called  Curat 
del  Rey,  afterward  its  name  wag  Minas,  and 
before  it  was  made  the  capital  of  the  state  it 
had  only  3,500  inhabitants,  ft  possesses  the 
advantages  of  a-  climate  admirably  healthful 
and  pleasant,  and  the  surrounding  country  is 
attractive,  as  its  name  implies.  Pop.  (1916) 
50,000. 

BBLLOC,  b£I-tok',  Hilaire,  English  littera- 
teur: b.  La  Celle  Saint  Cloud,  France,  27  July 
1870.  He  is  the  son  of  M.  Louis  BcUoc,  a 
Fiench  barrister;  was  educated  at  Balliol  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  after  serving  for  a  time  in  the 
French  artillery  at  Toul,  and  was  Liberal  mem- 
ber for  Salford,  1906-10.  In  1911-13  he  lec- 
tured on  English  literature  at  East  London 
College  and  in  1911  founded  The  Eye-Witnesi. 
He  has  published  'The  Bad  Childs  Book  of 
Beasts'  (1896);  'More  Beasts  for  Worse  Chil- 
dren' (1897);  'The  Modem  Traveler'  (1898); 
'The  Moral  Alphabet'  (1899);  'Danton,'  a 
much-admired  biography  (1899)  ;  'Laml)kins 
Remains*  (1900);  'Paris'  (1900);  'Robes- 
pierre* (1901);  'The  Path  to  Rome'  (1902); 
<The  Old  Road'  (1905) ;  'The  Histcmc 
Thames*  (1907);  'The  Pyrenees'  (1908); 
'The  Partv  System'  (with  C.  Chesterton,  1911, 
in  which  the  British  political  system  is  strongly 
a  .ailed);  'The  Four  Men'  (1912);  'The 
River  of  London'  (1913);  'The  Book  of 
BayeuJt  Tapestry*  (1914);  'The  Girondin' 
(1914);  'General  Sketch  of  the  European  War* 
(1914).  During  the  European  War  he  took  a 
distinguished  place  as  a  military  commentator, 
his  articles  being  quoted  extensively  all  over 
the  world. 

BBLLOC,  Hario  Adelaide.  See  LowmDes, 
Mabie  Adelaide. 

BELLOMONT,  Barl  of.  See  Bellamont, 
Richard,  Earl  op. 

BELLONA,  ihe  goddess  of  war  among  the 
Romans,  daughter  of  Phorcys  and  Cclo.  She 
was  called  by  the  Greeks  Enyo,  and  is  often 
confounded  with  Minerva.  She  was  anciently 
called  Duellona,  and  was  the  sister  of  Mars, 
or,  according  to  some,  his  daughter  or  his  wife. 
She  prepared  his  chariot  when  he  was  going 
to  war,  and  drove  his  steeds  through  the  tumult 
of  the  battle  with  a  bloody  scourge,  her  hair 
dishevelled  and  a  torch  in  her  hand.  The 
Romans  paid  great  adoration  to  her;  but  she 
was  held  in  the  highest  veneration  by  the  Cap- 
padocians,  chiefly  at  Comana,  where  she  had 
above  3,000  priests  styled  BcUonarii.  In  the 
Samnitc  War  of  296  b.c,  the  consul,  Appius 
Claudius,  vowed  a  temple  to  Bellona,  which  was 
erected  on  the  Campus  Martius,  near  the  Porta 
Carmenlalis.  In  it  the  senators  gave  audience 
to  foreign  ambassadors  and  to  generals  re- 
turned from  war  who  claimed  a  triumph,  which 
claims  would  be  void  did  they  enter  the  city. 
At  the  gate  was  a  small  column,  called  the 
'column  of  war,"  against  which  they  threw  a 
spear  whenever  war  was  declared.  The  priests 
of  this  goddess  consecrated  themselves  by  mak- 


ing great  incisions  in  thar  bodies,  and  par- 
ticularly In  the  thigh,  from  which  they  received 
the  blood  in  their  hands  to  offer  as  a  sacrifice 
to  the  goddess.  In  ihcir  wild  enthusiasm  they 
often  predicted  bloodshed  and  wars,  die  defeat 
the  besieging  of  towns.  Consult 
-     ivalsf  (]       ■       


Fowlei 


'Roman  Festivals'   (Londcm  1899). 


BBLLOT,  bel-16,  Joseph  Reti£,  French 
naval  officer  and  Arctic  explorer:  b.  Paris  1826; 
d.  21  March  1853.  At  the  age  of  16. he  entered 
the  Naval  Academy  at  Brest,  and  two  years 
afterward  received  a  commission  as  tlcve  it 
marine  on  board  the  Bereeau.  He  was  pro- 
moted, for  bravery  in  the  French  expedition 
against  Tamatave  in  1845,  to  the  rank  of  ilne 
of  the  first  class,  and  also  created  a  chevalier 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  though  not  yet  20 
years  old.  On  his  return  to  France  in  1847  be 
was  made  a  sub-lieutenant,  and  shortly  after  a 
two-years'  voy^e  to  South  America  in  the 
Triomphcmte  he  volunteered  his  services  on  the 
Royal  Albert  schooner,  fitted  out  by  Lady 
Franklin,  in  June  1851,  to  search  for  her  bus- 
band.  Sir  John  Franklin.  During  this  expedi- 
tion be  reached  with  a  sledge  party  the  strait 
now  known  by  his  name.  The  expedition  failed 
in  its  main  object,  but  an  interesting  journal  of 
il,  kept  by  Bellot,  was  pubUshed  after  his  death. 
In  June  1853,  he  sailed  again  on  board  the 
Phcenix,  under  command  of  Captain  Inglefield, 
on  a  new  Arctic  expedition,  the  principal  object 
of  which  was  to  convey  dispatches  to  Sir  Ed- 
ward Belcher,  then  commanding  H.M.S.  Atsiit- 
ance  in  the  Polar  seas.  Arrived  in  Erebus  and 
Terror  Bay,  where  lay  the  North  Star, 
whose  commander.  Captain  Pullen,  was  absent 
on  a  journey  of  discovery,  Captain  Inglefield 
set  out  in  search  of  him ;  but  in  bis  absence  it 
became  desirable  to  get  the  despatches  conveyed 
to  Sir  Edward  Belcher  —  a  duty  which  Lieu- 
tenant Bellol  undertook  to  perform  by  crossing 
the  ice.  Having  set  out  with  four  sailors,  a 
canoe  and  a  sledge,  the  party  got  separated  in  a 
gale  of  wind  on  18  August,  and  Bellot.  with  two 
others,  drifted  away  on  a  piece  of  ice.  With 
the  view  of  ascertaining  the  direction  the  ice 
was  taking, .  he  crossed  over  to  the  opposite 
side  of  the  hummock  and  was  never  more  seen. 
A  handsome  granite  obeHsk  was  erected  to  his 
memory  in  front  of  Greenwich  Hospital,  and  a 
provision  was  made  for  his  sisters.  Consult 
his  'Journal  d'un  voyage  aux  mers  polaircs' 
edited  with  a  brief  biographical  notice  (Paris 
1854). 


North  Somerset  from  Boothia  Felix  and  con- 
nects Prince  Regent  Inlet  with  Franklin  Qan- 
nel.  Its  eastern  entrance  was  discovered  in 
18S2  hy  Lieutenant  Bellot  (q.v.),  who  lost  his 
life  there.  After  four  unsuccessful 'attempts 
it  was  exTjlored  for  the  first  time  by  McCHm- 
tock  on  his  crowning  voyage.  It  is  about  20  . 
miles  long,  and,  at  its  narrowest  part,  about  one 
mile  wide,  running  nearly  on  the  parallel  of  72°, 
between  granite  shores  which,  everywhere  high, 
rise  here  and  there  to  l.SOO  or  1,600  UeL 
Through  this  funnel  both  the  winds  and  the 


....  A  point  on  the  southern  shore,  71"  55' 
N.,  95°  W.,  is  the  most  northerly  point  of  toe 
North  American  continent. 


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BBL.LOTTO  — BBLLOW8  FALL$ 


«BI 


BBLLOTTO,  Bernardo,  Italian  painter 
and  enKra,ver:  b.  Venice  1724;  d.  Warsaw  17S0. 
He  stadied  under  hit  uncte,  Antonio  Canal,  and 
painted  perspective  and  architectural  views.   Ho 

essed  much  time  in'  Germany  and  was  a  mem- 
r  of  the  Academy  of  Dresden,  where  many 
of  bis  pictures  are  exhibited.  He  etched,  from 
Us  oitn  desi^s,  views  of  Vienna,  Dresden  and 
Warsaw.  Hu  pictures  are  called  W  the  name 
of  CAKALErra,  which  he  assumed.  Consult 
Mever,  'Die  beiden  Canalelti,*  and  'Les  deux 
Caualetti'   (Paris  1906). 

BELLOWS,  Albert  P,,  American  painter: 
b.  Miiford,  Mass.,  29  Nov.  1829;  4  Aubumdale, 
Mass..  24  Nov.  1883.  In  1845  he  obtained  a 
position  in  Ihe  office  of  a  Boston  architect  and 
at  19  became  a  partner  of  the  firm.  After  a 
.  lime  he  adopted  painting  for  a  profession  and 
was  for  some  years  principal  of  the  New  Eng- 
land School  of  Design.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
to  succeed  with  water-colors.  He  studied  in 
Antwerp,  Paris  and  England,  becoming  a 
Nation^  Academician  (1861),  and  an  honorary 
member  of  the  Royal  Belgian  Water  Color 
Society  (1868).  His  landscapes  arc  his  best 
work.  Of  these  the  best  arc  'Study  of  a  Head* 
(1876);  'Autumn  Woods'  (1876);  "New  Eng- 
land Homestead'  (1878);  'Sunday  in  Devon- 
shire*  and   'The  Village  Elm,' 

BELLOWS,  George  Wesley,  American 
painter;  b.  (jalumbus,  Ohio.  12  Aug.  1882.  He 
was  graduated  from  the  Ohio  State  Univcrsiw 
in  1905,  and  studied  painting  in  New  York 
imder  Robert  Henri  and  others.  Though 
known  chiefly  as  a  landscape  painter,  he  has 
interested  himself  also  in  portraiture  and  the 
painting  of  figure  subjects.  His  pictures  at 
various  American  exhibitions  rapidly  attracted 
notice  and  he  was  made  associate  to  ihc  Acad- 
emy of  Design  at  the  age  of  26^  receiving  the 
title  of  Academician  in  1913.  Meanwhile  one 
of  his  works,  entitled  'Up  the  Hudson*  had 
been  placed  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  in 
New  York  and  another,  the  'North  iiiver,' 


e: 


1  swimming  scene,  are  among  his  most 
ill  paintings.  Further  examples  of  his  art  in 
—  bUe  institutions  arc  'The  Snow-Capped 
ver'  at  the  Savannah  Gallery;  'Polo  at  L^ke- 
wood'  in  the  Columbus,  Ohio,  Museum: 
'Blackwell's  Bridge'  at  Toledo.  Ohio,  and 
•Skating'  at  the  Art  Institute  of  Chicago,  -He 
haS;  besides,  painted  portraits  and  figure  com- 
positions, the  latter  — some  of  which  he  has 
executed  in  lithograi^y  as  well  —  being  often 
in  a  spirit  of  social  satire  along  the  lines  laid 
down  by  John  Sloan  and  others.  The  popular 
nature  of  his  painting  with  its  employment  of 
die  dashing  technique  now  in  v<^e  among 
many  artists  has  won  him  prizes  at  the  National 
Academy,  (1908  and  1913).  at  the  Pittsbuxdi. 
Philadelphia,  Panama-Pacific  and  other  exhi- 
bitions. 

BELLOWS,  Henry  WhitiMr,  American 
Unitarian  clergyman  and  writer:  b.  Walpole, 
N.  H.,  II  June  1814;  d.  30  Jan.  1882,  He  was 
Kiaduated  at  Harvard  in  1832,  and  at  the  Divin- 
ity School  there  in  1S37.  He  became  pastor  of 
All  Souls  Church,  New  York,  1839;  became 
widely  known  as  a  pulpit  orator,  public  speaker 
taui  writer;  was  chief  founder  and  long  editor 
of  the  Chritlian  liuptirer  (1846);  chief  orig- 


inator of  the  United  States  Sanitary  Commis- 
sion and  its  president  during  the  Qvil  War 
(1861-65^.  His  services  in  this  connection 
were  of  mcatculable  value  to  the  country..  Dur- 
ing the  Civil  War  he  supervised  the  expendi- 
ture of  more  than  $5,000,000  and  the  distribu- 
tion of  supplies  valued  at  over  $15,000,000.  He 
assisted  Peter  Cooper  in  his  plans  for  Coc^»er 
Union.  He  wrote  'Public  Life  of  Washington* 
(1866);  'Relation  of  Public  Amusements  to 
Public  Morality* ;  'The  Old  World  in  Its  New 
Face;  Impressions  of  Europe  in  1667-68*  (2 
vols.,  1868-69)  ;  <The  Treatment  of  Social  Dis- 
eases* (1857);  'Restatements  of  Christian 
Doctrine'  (1860). 

BELLOWS,  machine  for  blowing  fire,  so 
formed  as,  by  being  dilated  and  contracted,  to 
inhale  air  by  an  orifice  which  is  opened  and 
closed  by  a  valve,  and  to  propel  it  through  a 
tube  upon  the  fire.  The  invention  of  bellows  ia 
ascribed  to  Anacharsis  the  Scythian,  though 
probably  it  took  place  in  different  countries. 
The  forms  of  bellows  at  present  are  very  vari- 
ous, as  many  attempts  have  been  made  for  the 
improvement  of  this  highly  important  machine. 
which  becomes  necessary  wherever  a  powerful 
flame  is  required  in  the  arts.  As  mining  was 
carried  on  at  an  early  dale  in  (ierraany,  and 
great  heat  is  required  in  smelting  the  ores  and 
working  the  metals,  various  new  kinds  of  bel- 
lows were  invented  in  that  country,  one  of 
which  consists  of  an  empty  box,  which  moves 
up  and  down  in  another,  partially  filled  with 
water.  Between  the  bottom  of  the  empty  box 
and  the  surface  of  the  water  is  a  space  filled 
with  air,  which  is  driven  out  by  the  descent  of 
the  enclosed  box.  Bellows  of  very  great  power 
are  generally  called  blowing-machines  (q.v.). 
The  common  Chinese  bellows  consist  of  a  box 
of  wood  about  two  feet  long  and  one  foot 
square,  in  which  a  thick,  square  piece  of  board, 
which  exactly  fits  the  internal  cavity  of  the  box, 
is  pushed  backward  and  forward.  In  the  bot- 
tom of  the  box,  at  each  end,  there  is  a  small 
conical  or  plug  valve  to  admit  the  air,  and 
valves  above  to  discharge  it.  The  common  bel- 
lows does  not  give  a  corjinuoos  blast  but  only, 
a  series  of  pufis.  To  remedy  this  two  bellows 
were  used,  one  filling  while  the  other  was  blow- 
ing. The  double  bellows  was  an  even  greater 
improvement.  This  machine  has  a  third  board 
placed  between  two  main  boards ;  this  third 
board  is  fixed  and  both  it  and  the  lower  board 
are  fitted  with  valves  opening  inward.  A 
weight  on  the  lower  board  keeps  the  lower 
chamber  filled  with  air  and  when  raised  the  air 
flows  into  the  upper  cliamber  in  which  the  noz- 
zle is  placed.  A  weight  on  the  upper  board 
tends  to  force  the  air  from  the  upper  cham- 
ber through  the  nozsle  in  a  continuous  stream. 
However,  the  blast  is  not  uniform  and  the  use 
of  the  bellows  is  limited  to  domestic  fireplaces 
and  ordinary  forges.  Consult  Wetsbach,  'Me- 
chanics of  Air  Machinery'    (New  York  19Ct5). 

BELLOWS  PALLS,  Vt.  village  in  the 
town  of  Rockingham  in  Windham  County,  on 
the  Connecticut  River,  so  called  from  several 
rapids  and  cataracts  occurring  there.  The  whole 
descent  is  about  44  feet.  It  was  formerly  a 
famous  place  far  spearing  salmon.  A  canal 
with  locks  has  been  cut  around  the  falls,, 
through  the  solid  rock.  The  scenery  is  roman- 
tic, and  various  interesting  minerals  are  found 


Google 


BELLO  We-FI8M  r-  BBU.WOOD 


in  the  vicinity.  Ample  power  is  furnished  by 
the  falls  and  is  uliliied  in  the  several  manufac- 
lories  which  turn  out  dairy  tools,  machinery, 
paper,  paper  boxes  and  shirts.  The  lumber 
trade  is  also  extensive,  and  fanning  is  carried 
on  in  all  the  surrounding  land  The  village 
contains  a  public  library,  hospital,  meeting 
house  and  is  the  seat  of  the  Vermont  Academy. 
'  It  was  settled  as  early  as  1753.  was  organized 
as  a  town  in  1761  uid  incorporated  in  1833.  It 
is  governed  by  a  president  and  four  trustees. 
The  waterworks  are  the  property  of  the  vil- 
lage.   Pop.  4,883. 

BELLOWS-PISH.    Sec  Globe-rsh. 

BBLLOY,  beMwa,  Pierre  Laurent  Buir- 
ette  de,  French  dramatist ;  b.  Saint  Flour, 
Auvcrgne,  17  Nov.  1727 ;  d.  5  March  1775.  The 
first  French  dramatist  who  successfully  intro- 
duced native  heroes  upon  the  French  stage. 
He  was  designed  by  his  uncle,  a  distinguished 
advocate  in  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  who  reared 
him  after  his  father's  death,  for  his  own  pro- 
fession, but  while  he  applied  himself  to  the  law 
with  reluctance,  he  snowed  much  genius  for 
the  drama.  His  uncle  opposed  this  taste,  and 
the  young  man  secretly  left  his  house.  He 
next  made  hts  appearance  as  an  actor  under  the 
name  of  'Dormont  de  Belloy,"  Belloy  had 
hoped  to  reconcile  his  family  to  him  by  the 
success  of  his  first  tragedy,  'Titus,'  but  this 
hope  was  disappointed  oy  the  failure  of  the 
piece;  and  the  author  went  to  Saint  Peters- 
burg. He  returned  to  France,  where  he  brought 
out  nis  tragedy  'Zelmire,'  which  met  with  com- 
plete success.  In  176S  followed  his  'Siege  of 
Calais,'  a  tragedy  which  produced  a  great  sen- 
salion,  and  is  still  esteemed,  though  it  owes  the 
applause  bestowed  on  it  rather  to  its  subject 
than  to  ils  poetical  merit.  He  received  the 
medal  promised  by  the  King  to  those  j>oets  who 
should  produce  three  successful  pieces,  and 
which  was  awarded  on  this  occasion  only,  the 
'Sic^c  of  Calais'  being  counted  as  two,  it  be- 
ing, in  fact,  only  the  second  successful  piece  of 
Bclioy.  The  city  of  Calais  sent  him  the  free- 
dom of  the  city  in  a  gold  box.  Belloy  wrote 
-sundrv  other  dramatic  pieces,  of  which  'Gaston 
and  Bayard'  procured  his  reception  into  the 
Academy. 

BELLS,  a  term  used  aboard  ship  to  signify 
the  time  of  day.  The  hours  arc  struck  by  the 
ship's  betl,  not  as  on  lend,  one  stroke  for  each 
hour,  but  by  a  system  which  limits  the  strokes 
to  eight,  each  stroke  represenling  half  an  hour 
of  a  four  hours'  watch.  The  day  is  divided  into 
six  watches,  of  four  hours  each,  beginning  with 
noon  or  midnight.  Thus  half-past  12  is  repre- 
sented by  one  bell;  one  o'clock  is  denotei  by 
two  bells,  struck  in  rapid  succession.  Half- 
past  one  is  struck  with  three  belts,  the  first  two 
strokes  in  quick  succession  and  the  third  after 
a  longer  interval.  Two  o'clock  is  struck  by  four 
bells,  the  first  two  and  the  second  two  strokes, 
in  rapid  succession,  being  separated  by  an  in- 
terval. At  four  o'clock  the  watch  is  ended  with 
ei^t  bells,  half-past  four  being  struck  again 
by  one  bell.  The  watch  from  4  p.m.  to  8  p.h. 
is  divided  into  two,  each  known  as  the  "dog 
watch,"  when  the  'watch  on  deck"  shifts  with 
.the  "watch  below,"  so  that  the  periods  on  duty 
may  be  varied  every  other  day,  bol  this  does 
DOl  affect  the  system  o£  time-keeping. 


BELLS,  Tbc,  the  title  of  one  of  Edgar 
Allan  Poe's  most  famous  poems.  It  is  also  the 
name  of  the  dramatic  sketch  in  which  Henry 
Irving  appeared  most  successfully,  adapted  from 
Erckmann-Cbatrian's  'Lc  Juif  polonais.'  It  is 
a  pq'chological  study  of  remorse;  an  innkeeper 
murders  a  merchant  who  stops  with  him  over 
night,  and  he  is  so  haunted  by  his  crime  that 


organized      the  jinglin 


constantly  ringing  i 


BELL'S  PALSY,  named  after  Sir  Charles 
Bell  (q.v.),  a  palsy  of  the  muscles  of  the  face 
supplied  by  the  seventh  or  facial  nerve,  and 
due  to  some  peripheral  lesion,  in  distinction  to 
facial  palsy  of  a  central,  or  of  a  nuclear  oripn. 
It  may  occur  on  both  sides  of  the  face.  The 
causes  are  many,  but  exposure  to  cold,  such  as  ■ 
sleeping  in  the  ojKn  with  the  wind  blowing  over 
the  face,  or  sitting  by  an  open  window  in  a 
railway  train  or  steamboat,  is  one  of  the  most 
frequent  causes.  It  may  also  occur  in  a  mul- 
tiple neuritis  that  is  due  to  poisonine  by  alco- 
hol, lead,  arsenic  or  the  pobon  of  aipntheria, 
etc.,  and  in  rare  instances  from  fractures  of  the 
skull.  It  comes  on  suddenly,  the  patient  often 
waking  in  the  morning  to  find  one  side  of  his 
face  stiff,  and  in  two  or  three  days  the  paUy 
has  developed.  There  is  a  sense  of  discomfort 
on  the  paralyzed  side.  The  patient  cannot 
close  one  eye  completely  and  cannot  manage  his 
food  on  the  affected  side.  He  cannot  whistle, 
and  his  speech  is  peculiar.  The  wrinkles  of  the 
paralysed  side  are  smoothed  out  and  every 
motion  of  the  facial  muscles  seems  to  be  an 
exaggerated  one,  so  that  many  patients  say 
their  face  is  drawn  to  one  side,  the  reality  be- 
ing that  it  is  the  opposite  side  that  is  affected 
and  immovable.  'Mie  paralysis  usually  gets 
well  in  from  three  to  five  months,  especially  if 
the  treatment  is  begun  early  and  perseveringly 
followed  out.  Some  patients  never  entirely  re- 
cover, although  much  improvement  takes  place 
in  practicativ  alt.  The  treatment  is  electrical, 
massage  ana  general  tonics,  the  administration 
of  iron  and  strychnine  and  treatment  and  re- 
moval of  the  cause.  Particular  attention  should 
be  paid  to  the  care  of  the  paralyzed  eyelid.  (See 
also  Facial  Pahalysis;  Paralysis).  Consult 
Starr,  'Text-book  of  Organic  Nerve  Diseases' 
(1903). 

BELLUKO,  bel-loo'no,    Italy,  a   nordiem 
'  the  s 
f  Venice.    It  tias 


on  ib'e 


handsome  theatre.  It  has  manufactures  oF  silk. 
straw-plait,  leather  and  wax;  the  principal  trade 
is  in  silk,  lumber,  wme  and  fruit.  Pop.  (1911) 
22,342. 

BBLLWOOD,  Pa.,  boroiigh  in  Blair 
County,  124  miles  west  of  Harrisburp  and  120 
miles  east  of  Pittsburgh,  on  the  main  line  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad.  It  was  iiKor- 
porated  in  1888.  Its  assessed  value  is  $650,000 
and  there  is  a  borough  debt  of  $55000.  It  has 
to  iniles  of  paved  streets,  two  public  schools, 
two  banks,  eight  churches,  hotels  and  a  weekly 
newspaper.  It  has  also  a  fine  Y.  U.  C.  A. 
building,  costing  S50,000.  Its  industrial  estab- 
lishments include  machine  shops,  iron 
foundries   and    railroad  repair  shops.    It  has 


.Google 


BBLBlAfi  —  BXLODON 


good  electric-liKht  service  and  a  good  wnter 
supply.  The  ^vemment  is  vestra  in  a  bur- 
gess and  elective  council.    Pop.  3,500. 

BBLMAR,  N.  J.,  borougji  in  Monmouth 
County,  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  SS  miles  south 
of  New  York  City,  on  the  Pennsylvania,  the 
New  i^oric  a.iid  Long  Branch  and  the  Central 
of  New  Jersey  railroads.  It  is  famed  as  a 
stmuner  resort,  has  a  splendid  balhinK  beach, 
clubhouse,  puiilic  library,  borough  Duilding, 
a  high  school  and  eight  graded  public  schools 
and  a  national  bank,  eight  churches  and  nn- 
merous  hotels  and  boarding-houses.  It  1ms 
manufactories  of  muslin  underwear  and  shirt 
waists.  The  value  of  its  taxable  property  is 
about  $3,000,000;  The  borough  expenses 
amount  to  about  $8)^000  annually.  The 
borough  owns  and  operates  the  waterworks  — 
an  artesian  system.     Pop.  2,500. 

BELMONT,  August,  American  banker:  b. 
Alzey,  Germany,  1816:  d.  24  Nov.  1890.  He 
was  educated  at  Frankfort,  and  was  apprenticed 
to  the  Rothschild's  banking  house  in  that  city 
when  14  years  old.  In  1837  he  went  to  Havana 
to  take  charge  of  the  firm's  loterests,  and  soon 
afterward  was  sent  to  New  York,  where  he 
established  himself  in  the  banking  business  and 
as  the  r^resentalive  of  the  Rothschilds.  Ue  was 
Consul-Gene ral  of  Austria  1844-50:  became 
chargi  d'aSaircE  at  The  Hague  in  1853;  and 
was  Minister- resident  there  in  1854-58.  He  was 
a  delegate  to  the  Democratic  National  Conven* 
tion  in  I860,  and  when  a  portion  of  the  dele- 
^tes  withdrew  and  organized  the  convention 
in  Baltimore  he  was  active  in  that  body,  and 
through  it  became  chairman  of  the  Democratic 
National  Committee,  an  office  he  held  till 
1872.  He  was  an  active  worker  in  the  par^ 
till  1876,  when  he  closed  his  political  career. 

BELMONT,  Angiut,  American  banker :  b. 
New  York,  18  Feb.  1853;  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  University  m 
1875;  at  once  entered  his  father's  banking  house, 
and  on  the  death  of  his  father  became  head  of 
tfae  firm  of  August  Belmont  &  Company,  also 
representing  the  European  banking  firm  of  the 
Rothschilds.  The  house,  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  son,  has  continued  to  exert  the 
large  influence  in  the  financial  and  railroad 
affairs  of  the  city  and  country  that  it  gained 
under  its  founder.  In  February  1900  he  organ- 
ized the  Rapid  Transit  Subway  Construction 
Company  to  back  John  B.  McDonald,  who  had 
been  awarded  the  $35,000,000  contract  for  the 
construction  of  a  rapid-transit  system  in  New 
York.  He  was  elected  president  of  the  National 
Ovic  Federation  in  1905,  and  was  re-elected  in 
1906.  In  1905  he  was  appointed  treasurer  of 
the  Democratic  National  Committee.  He  has 
also  served  as  chairman  of  the  board  of  di- 
rectors of  the  Interborough  Consolidated  Cor- 
poralion,  the  Interborough  Rapid  Transit  Com- 
[umy  and  the  Rapid  Transit  Subway  Construc- 
tion Company. 

BELMONT,  Ferry,  American  lawyer:  h 
New  York,  28  Dec.  1851  (son  of  August  Bel- 
mont 1816-90).  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
University  in  1872,  and  at  Columlna  College 
Law  School  in  1876;  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
and  practised  in  New  York  till  1881,  when  he 
was  elected  as  a  Democrat  to  Congress  and 
served  till  1887,  being  a  member  of  .the  com- 


mittee on  foreign  affairs,  and  in  diat  capacity, 
in  his  first  term  in  Coi^ress,  came  into  notice 
by  his  cross'CxaminatiDn  of  James  G.  Blaine, 
then  ex-Secretary  of  State,  as  to  his  relations 
with  a  syndicate  of  American  camtalisls  inter- 
ested in  Peruvian  guano.  In  1885  he  was  ap- 
pointed chairman  of  the  committee  on  foreign 
affairs,  and  in   1888  United  States  Min' 


In    1889   he  ^ 


>  the 


Universal  Exposition  in  Paris,  and  for  his 
services  received  from  the  President  of  France, 
in  1890,  the  decoration  of  commander  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor.  He  was  one  of  the  princi- 
pals in  the  rapid-transit  contract  in  New  York, 
m  which  his  brother  August  (q.v.)  was  inter- 
ested He  is  a  member  of  the  Navy  League  and 
of  the  New  York  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

BELMONT,  Cape  Colony,  town  midw^ 
between  Orange  River  Junction  and  Kimberiey. 
It  was  the  scene  of  one  of  the  earUeit  engage- 
ments in  the  war  of  1899-1900,  between  the 
Boers  and  the  British  under  Gen.  Lord  Meth- 
ueo.  The  town  was  attacked  by  the  Briti^ 
on  23  Nov.  1899,  while  on  the  march  to  the 
relief  of  Kimberiey,  and  the  battle  resulted  in 
a  victory  for  than.  Two  days  later  Lord 
Methuen  took  Graas  Pan,  10  miles  north  of 
Belmont,  after  again  defeating  the  Boers. 

BELMONT,  N.  Y.,  county-seat  of  Alle- 
ganv  Count)^  on  the  Erie  and  Buffalo  8t  Sus- 
quehanna railroads  and  the  Genesee  River,  93 
miles  west  of  Elmira.  The  surrounding  coun- 
try Is  a  prosperous  farming  and  dairying  com- 
munity. In  the  town  are  a  number  of  flour 
mills  and  condensed  milk  factories,  as  well  as 
a  public  library,  a  high  school  and  a  State  agri- 
cultural college.     Pop,  1,094. 

BBLMONTET,  bel-m&u-tA,  Louis,  French 
poet  and  publicist:  b.  Montauban,  26  March 
1799;  d.  Paris,  14  Oct  1879.  He  studied  and 
practised  law  in  Toulouse  until  involved  in 
difficulties  with  the  magistracy  on  account  of 
some  satirical  poems,  when  he  went  to  Parb 
and  there  produced  his  principal  works:  '"The 
Sad  Ones'  (1824).  a  cycle  of  elegies;  'The 
Supper  of  Augustus'  (1828)  ;  and  with  Sou- 
met.  'A  Festival  of  Nero'  (1829),  a  tragedy 
which  exceeded  100  performances.  In  1830  he 
edited  the  Tribune  newspaper,  opposed  the  ac- 
cession of  Louis  Philippe  and  predicted  his 
downfall  and  a  second   revolution  in   a  bold 

Kmphlet  addressed  to  Chateaubriand,  for  which 
was  arrested.  In  1839  he  established^  to- 
gether with  Messrs.  Laffitte  and  Maugum,  a 
manufactory,  in  which  die  men  were  to  share 
the  benefits  with  the  empkiyers.  In  1852  he 
became  a  member  of  the  legislative  assembly. 
Subsequently  he  became  an  ardent  partisan  of 
Bonapartism,  pleading  its  cause  as  a  journalist 
and  poetically  extolling  the  Napoleonic  dynasty 
in  many  enthusiastic  odes. 

BELODON,  an  extinct  reptile  (B. 
PHeniitperi)  of  tile  Triassic  period,  partly  in- 
termediate between  dinosaurs  and  crocodiles, 
bm  with  many  archaic  characters.  The  body 
was  protected  by  bony  plates,  those  on  the  back 
interlocking  by  a  peg-and-socket  joint.  The 
snout  was  long  and  narrow,  the  external  narn 
behind  in  contrast  to  their  position  in  modem 
crocodiles,  where  diey  are  at  the  tip  of  the 
snont  The  limbs  were  longer  than  those  of 
modem  crooodiles.  bnt  the  pn^oitions^were 


Lioogle 


BBLOIT — BBLSHAM 


odierwise  similar.  Its  remains  have  been  found 
in  the  Triassic  coal-beds  of  Nortli  Carolina'  and 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  red  beds  (cstuarine  sedi- 
ments) of  New  Mexico,  as  well  as  in  European 
strata  of  corresponding  age.  It  was  early  de- 
scribed by  Ja^er  under  the  name  phytosauniE, 
since  he  considered  it  herbivorous  because  of 
an  error  due  to  the  fossiliiation. 

BELOIT,  Kan.,  city  and  county-scat  of 
Mitchell  County,  on  the  Missouri  Pacific  and 
the  Union  Pacific  railroads  and  the  Solomon 
River,  184  miles  west  of  Atchison.  Besides 
being  the  seat  of  the  State  Industrial  School 
for  Girls,  it  has  an  opera  house,  a  targe  post- 
olBce  building  and  a  library.  Being  in  a  grain- 
producing  country,  the  ci^  contains  a  number 
of  grain  elevators  and  flour  mills.  A  rock 
quarry  gives  the  city  a  considerable  trade  in 
building  stones.    Pop.  3,082. 

BELOIT,  Wis.,  city  in  Rock  County,  on 
the  Rock  River,  and  the  Chicago  &  N.  W.  and 
Chicago,  M.  &  St.  P.  railroads,  85  miles  south- 
west of  Milwaukee  and  91  miles  west  of  Chi- 
cago. The  city  derives  fine  power  for  manu- 
facturing from  the  river,  and  has  the  second 
largest  wood-working  machinery  plant  in  the 
world,  besides  manufactories  of  gas-engines, 
windmills,  iron,  paper-mill  machinery,  paper, 
rye  flour  (the  oldest  mill  of  its  kind  in  the 
country),  gasoline  engines,  agricultural  imple- 
ments, tools,  scales  and  shoes.  The  United 
States  census  of  manufactures  for  1914  reported 
50  industrial  establishments  of  factory  grade, 
employing  3326  persons,  of  whom  3,527  were 
wage  earners  receiving  a  total  of  $2,546,000 
annually  in  waAes.  The  capital  invested  aggre- 
gated $9,647,000,  and  the  value  of  the  year's 
output  was  $6,928,000;  of  this  $3,915,000  was. 
the  value  added  by  manufacture.  The  city  is 
widely  known  as  the  seat  of  Betoit  College 
(q.v.).  it  was  first  settled  in  1836,  and  received 
its  city  charter  in  1S56l  It  is  governed  by  a 
mayor,  chosen  for  two  years,  and  a  council. 
Pop.   (1910)   15,125;   (1914)   17,100. 

BELOIT  COLLEGE,  a  coeducational 
(n  on- sectarian)  institution  in  Betoit,  Wis.: 
organized  in  1846  by  the  Congregational  ana 
Presbyterian  Churches.  Reported  at  the  end 
of  1916 :  Professors  and  instructors,  37 ; 
Students,  388;  volumes  in  the  library,  56,000; 
grounds  and  buildings  valued  at  $600,000;  pro- 
ductive funds,  $1^000;  income,  |94,000: 
number  of  graduates,  1,503. 

BBLOUANCY;  divination  by  arrows, 
practised  by  the  ancient  Scythians  and  other 
nations.  One  of  the  numerous  modes  was  as 
follows:  A  number  of  arrows,  bdng  markeid, 
were  put  into  a  bag  or  quiver,  and  drawn  ont 
at  random,  and  the  marks  or  words  on  the 
arrow  drawn  determined  what  was  to  happen. 
Consult  Ezekie),  xxi,  21.     (See  Superstitiow). 

BELON,  be-16n',  PiCTTC,  French  naturalist 
and  writer:  b.  Soulletiire,  1517;  d.  1564.  He 
was  first  a  medical  student,  then  traveled 
extensively  in  the  Orient,  devoting  him- 
self at  the  same  time  to  a  close  observation 
of  nature.-  His  works  form  the  distinct  be- 
ginnings of  the  sciences  of  omitholoKy  and 
comparative  anatomy.  His  books  include  <Les 
observations  de  ptusieurs  singutaritis  et  choses 
mimorables  trouvies  en  Gr^e'  (1551)  ;  <Jnd*e, 
Egypte,  Arabic,  et  autres  pays  granges,  r*di- 


g6es  en  trois  livres>  (1553-58)  ;  <Htstoire  na[- 
urelle  des  itranges  poissons  marini*  (1551); 
'Histoirc  de  la  nature  des  oiseaux,  avec  leurs 
pourtraics  gravfa  en  bois;  plus  la  vrai  pnnture 
et  description  du  Dauphin  et  de  ptusieurs  an- 
tres  raies  de  son  espece'   (1555). 

BELOOCHISTAN.    See  Baluchistan. 

BELOT,  be-16',  Adolphe,  French  novelist 
and  dramatist:  b.  Pointe-a-Patre,  6  Nov.  1829; 
d.  Paris,  17  Dec  1890.  He  traveled  extensively 
and  settled  at  Nancy  as  a  lawyer.  He  won 
reputation  with  a  witty  come^,  'The  Testa- 
ment of  Cesar  Girodot'  (1859.  with  Villetard) ; 
and,  being  less  successful  with  bis  following 
dramatic  efforts,  devoted  himself  to  fiction. 
Of  bis  novels  may  be  mentioned  <The  Venns 
of  (Jordes*  (1867,  with  Ernest  Daudet) ;  'The 
Drama  of  the  Rue  de  la  Paix>  (1868)  ;  'Arti- 
cle 47>   (1870);  all  of  which  were  dramatized. 

BBLOVBD  DISCIPLE,  The,  a  name  by 
which  Saint  John  is  sometimes  knovm,  from 
the  reference  to  him  in  John  xiii.  23,  wher^ 
he  is  described  as  "one  of  His  disciples,  whom 

BELOVED  .PHYSICIAN,  Ttte,  a  name 
sometimes  applied  (o  Saint  Luke.  Consult 
Colossians  iv,  14. 

BELFER,  England,  market  town  of  Der- 
byshire, on  the  left  bank  of  the  Derwent,  over 
which  there  is  a  handsome  stone  bridge  of 
diree  arches,  ei^hl  miles  north  of  Derby,  on 
the  Midland  Railway.  It  has  three  churches, 
besides  other  places  of  worship,  a  public  hafl, 
with  reading-rooms,  library,  etc.  There  are 
lar^c  cotton-mills,  first  established  in  1776i 
hosiery  works,  engineering  works,  foundries 
and  collieries.  It  is  a  thnving  towri  and  lias 
recently  been  much  improved.    Pop.  11,640. 

BELPHEGOR.  (1)  An  arch-demon  ap- 
pointed by  Pluto  and  his  council  to  undertake 
an  earthly  marriage,  who  fled  unable  to  endure 
female  companionship.  He  has  been  made  the 
subject  of  one  of  La  Fontaine's  'Contes*  and 
also  of  an  English  play  by  Wilson,  'Belpbegor, 
or  the  Marriage  of  the  Devil,'  ptiblished  tn 
1691. 

(2)  An  English  play  by  (Hiarles  Webb, 
translated  and  adapted  from  ibe  French 
'Paliasse,'  in  which  me  chief  character  is  Bel- 
phegor,  a  mountebank.  Another  play  of  ibis 
name  has  appeared  since. 

(3)  One  of  the  duties  of  the  Moahites, 
worshipped  with  peculiarly  (Usgnsting  rites. 

BELSHAM,  Thomas,  English  Unitarian 
clergyman:  b.  Bedford  1750;  d.  11  Nov.  1839. 
He  became  pastor  of  the  Dissenting  congrega- 
tion and  theological  tutor  of  an  academy  at 
Davcntry  in  1781.  At  this  time  he  was  a  CiX- 
vinisl,  but  a  change  of  views  unfitted  him  for 
this  situation  and  Tie  became  tutor  of  an  acad- 
emy which  had  been  recently  established  at 
Hackney.  This  institution  soon  failed  for  want 
of  funds  and  Betsham  removed  first  to  die 
Grave!  Pit  Chapel,  which  had  been  occupied  by 
Dr.  Priestly,  and  afterward  to  Essex  Streei 
Chapel,  where  he  officiated  for  some  time  as  the 
colleague  of  Lindsey,  and  latterly  as  sole  pastor 
til!  his  death  in  1829.  His  works  are  chiefly 
of  a  controversial  nature  and  probab^  attract- 
ed attention  as  mudl  from  the  celebrity  of  the 
works  which  they  attacked  as  from  their  own 
merits.     His  first  appearatice  in  the  poIenUnI 


.Google 


BELSHAZZAK  —  BBL  VIDBRE 


400 


vailing  Religious  Systetni'  he  published  a  re- 
view. His  doctrine  regarding  the  person  of 
Christ  represents  the  humanitarian  view.  He 
aUo  published  a  work  on  mental  and  moial 
phitosofdiy  and  'Memoirs  of  Mr.  Lindsey' 
(1812,  reprinted  Boston  1873),  which 


viewed   ^   the   celebrated   Robert   Hall.      Con- 

s'Met - 

don   1883).     His  brother, 


<b.  17S2;  d.  1827),  wrote  much  on  history  and 
was  the  author  of  numerous  political  pamphlets 
espousing  the  cause  of  the  Whi)^,  He  is  the 
aurhor  of  a  'History  of  Great  Britain  from 
1688  to   1820'    (14  vols.,   London   1805-24). 

BELSHAZZAR,  mentioned  in  the  book 
of  Daniel  as  the  son  of  Nebuchadnezzar  and 
the  last  of  the  (Thaldaan  dynasty  who  reigned 
at  Babylon,  who  was  slain  and  his  empire  sub- 
jueated  in  the  Median  conquest  under  Darius. 
The  last  king,  however,  according  to  history 
and  the  monumental  inscriptions,  was  Nabo ni- 
dus, who  had  a  son  named  Bel-surra-user.  who 
was  probablv  associated  with  him  in  the  gov- 
ernment ana  is  supposed  to  have  been  slain  at 
the  battle  ot  Akkad,  in  the  successful  campaign 
of  Gyrus  in  which  Babylon  tell  (b.c  539^. 
The  mtercstii^  circumstances  which  immedi- 
ately preceded  this  event,  and  are  recorded  at 
length  in  the  book  of  Daniel,  have  repeatedly 
Furnished  subjects  to  painters  and  poets. 

BELT,  The  Great  and  Little,  two  straits 
of  Denmark,  connecting  the  Baltic  with  the  Cat- 
tegat.  The  former  runs  between  the  islands  of 
Zealand  and  Funen,  and  is  about  15  miles  wide, 
where  it  is  crossed  from  Nyborg,  in  Funen,  to 
(Zorsoer,  in  Zealand.  The  greatest  breadth  of 
the  strait  is  20  miles.  The  navigation  is  very 
dangerous,    on    account    of    the    many    small 


of  Funen  and  the  coast  of  Jutland,  and  the 
narrowest  part  of  the  strait  is  not  more  than  a 
mile  wide.  At  this  place  stands  the  fortress 
Fredcrida,  where  tolls  were  formerly  paid. 
The  fortress  completd^  commands  the  entrance 
from  the  Cattcgat.  -The  Sound,  between  Zea- 
land and  the  Swedish  coast,  is  preferred  for  all 
large  vessels  entering  or  leaving  the  Baltic. 

BELT,  in  astronomy,  a  varying  number  of 
dusky,  belt-like  bands  or  zones  encircling  the 
pbnet  Jupiter  parallel  to  Jiis  equator,  as  tf  the 
clouds  of  his  atmosphere  had  been  forced  into 
a  scries  of  parallels  throuKh  the  rapidity  of  his 
rotation,  and  the  dark  body  of  the  planet  was 
seen  through  the  comparatively  clear  spaces 
between. 

BELTANE.    See  Baal. 

BELTOM,  Tex.,  city  and  county-seal  of 
Bell  County,  situated  on  the  Leon  River,  S6 
miles  northeast  of  Austin  City,  and  on  the 
Gulf  C.  &  S.  F.  and  the  Missouri,  Kansas  & 
Texas  railroads.  Baylor  Female  Collecre  (Bap- 
tist) is  located  here,  and  Ihete  is  a  county  court- 
house and  a  Carnegie  library.  It  is  in  a  cotton- 
growing  district,  near  some  good  building- stone 
quarries,  and  has  a  considerable  export  trade; 
its  chief  manufactories  are  cotton-mills,  a 
cottonseed  oil-mill,  flour-mills,  foundries,  lum- 
ber yards  and  marble  works.     Pop.  5,000. 


BKLTSAFFIO,  bCI-lrSf'yA.  or  BOI«- 
TRAFPIO,  Giovanni  Antonio,  Italian 
painter:  b.  Milan  1467;  d.  1S16.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  imitated  him  in  toe 
treatment  of  his  subject  and  in  the  use  of  color. 
Among  his  works,  the  best  of  which  are  in  his 
native  city  of  Milan,  are  several  portraits;  a 
''Virgin  and  Child,'  in  the  National  Gallery, 
London,  and  a  'Madonna  of  the  Casio  Family.* 

BELTRAMI,  b$l-tri'me,  Bngenio,  Italian 
mathematician ;  h.  Cremona,  16  Nov.  1835; 
d.  18  Feb.  1900.  He  studied  at  Pavia.  In  1862 
he  was  professor  at  Bologna,  then  professor  at 
Pisa,  Rome  and  Pavia,  and  in  1891  again  at 
,Rome.  He  was  president  of  the  Academy  of 
the  Lincei.  His  work  has  been  chiefly  in  non- 
Euclidian  goomUry,  in  which  he  did  valuable 
work;  also  in  electricity  tnd  magnetism.  His 
'Mathematical  Works'  (1902)  and  'Bibliog- 
raphy of  Mathematics'  (1901)  were  published 
by  the  University  of  Rome  after  his  death. 

BELTRAMI,  Oiovanni,  Italian  lapidary: 
b.  Cremona  1779;  d.  1854.  He  was  self-edu- 
cated and  at  the  time  of  French  rale  in  Italy 
found  a  patron  in  Eugene  Beauhamats  for 
whom  he  made  a  chain  of  16  cameos,  illustrating 
the  story  of  Psyche.  Among  his  other  notable 
works  is  a  reproduction  of  the  'Last  Supper' 
of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  on  a  tc^>az. 

BELUGA,  or  BIELAGA,  be-la'gq.  See 
Stobcbon. 

9ELUS,  the  Roman  name  of  ihe  Assyrian 
and   Babylonian  divinity  called  Bel  in   Isaiah 

BBLUS,  a  Phoenician  river  at  the  base  of 
Moimt    Cannel.      Its    fine    sand,    accord' 
tradition,  first  led  the  Phoenicians  to  the 

BBLUS,  Temple  of,  an  enormous  temple 
in  ancient  Babylon,  rebuilt  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
about  604  B.C.  Its  site  is  thought  by  some 
authorities  to  be  the  modern  Bers-Nimrud,  and 
by  others  Eabil,  both  situated  near  Hillah. 

BELVEDERE,  bel-ve-der'  (It.  «fine 
sighl*).  A  name  given  in  Italy  to  buildings 
destined  for  the  enjoyment  of  prospects. 
The  name  is  also  given  to  small  cupolas 
on  houses  built  for  the  advantage  of  fresh 
air,  or  of  the  view  which  tney  afford. 
Many  of  the  buildings  in  Rome  are  fur- 
nished with,  such  cupolas ;  yet  the  term 
•belvedere"  is  generally  applied  only  to  those 
on  the  palaces  of  the  rich.  This  is  the  name 
also  of  H  part  of  the  Vatican  where  the  famous 


ing5  so  named  arc  an  open  hall  in  the  itnperiat 
gardens  at  Schonhrunn,  the  palace  ot  Prince 
EugSne  in  Vienna,  and  a  summer-house  in  the 
royal  palace,  Prague. 

BELVIDBRE,  bcl-vi-der*.  IIL.  city  and 
county-seat  of  Boone  County,  on  the  Kishwau- 
kec  River,  and  the  (^icago  &  N.  W.  Railroad, 
78  miles  northwest  of  Chicago.  An  important 
fanning^  and  dairying  trade  centre,  and  con- 
tains railroad  shops,  one  ot  the  largest  sewing- 
machine  and  bicycle  works  in  the  'country, 
manufactory  of  sewing- mac  bine  supplies,  flour- 
mills,  i;reamery  and  other  industries;  and  has 
a  public  library,  opera  house,  a  courthouse, 
county-record  building,  two  national  banks,  sev- 


Cioogle 


406 


BBLVIDBRS— BBHA 


era)  daily  and  weekly  periodicals  and  a  property 
valuation  of  about  $2,000,000.     Settled  in   1836, 

it  was  incorporated  in  1857.  It  is  governed  by 
a  mayor,  elected  biennially,  and  a  city  cotincil. 
Pop.  7,253. 

BELVIDERE,  N.  J.,  town  and  county-seat 
of  Warren  County,  on  the  Pennsylvania  and ' 
Lehigh  St  Hudson  River  railroads  and  the 
Delaware  River,_  62  miles  northwest  of  Tren- 
ton. It  is  an  industrial  centre  of  some  im- 
portance, having  a  lar^  silk  mill,  furniture, 
felt  and  hosiery  factones  and  a  number  of 
flour  mills,  all  of  which  are  supplied  with  power 
from  Pequesl  Creek  where  it  empties  into  the 
Delaware.   -Pop.  1,764. 

BBLZONI,    b«l-zo;ne.    OloTaimi    Battista 


,  .  J  Dec.  1823.  Destined  for  : 
life  he  was  educated  at  Rome,  but  left  the  city 
when  it  was  occupied  by  the  French  and  in 
1803  went  to  England,  where  he  acted  in  Ast- 
ley's  amphitheatre.  Here  he  acquired,  besides 
an  acquaintance  with  the  English  langusjge, 
much  knowledge  of  the  science  of  hydraulics, 
the  study  of  which  had  been  his  chief  occupa- 
tion in  Rome  and  which  afterward  carried  him 
to  Egypt  He  left  England  after  a  residence 
of  nine  years  and  took  nis  way  throu^  Portu- 
gal, Spam  and  Malta  to  ^ypt  There  he  lived 
from  1815  to  1819,  at  first  as  a  dancer,  till  he 
won  the  favor  of  the  pasha.  Belioni  kept  the 
rude  inhabitants  of  'the  country  in  awe  by  his 
extraordinary  stature  and  strength.  The  ob- 
ject of  his  journey  to  Egypt  was  to  build  a 
hydraulic  engine  for  Mohammed  Ati,  to  raise 
the  waters  of  the  Nile.  Here  he  met  Biirck- 
hardt  and  Sail  and  by  them  was  advised  to 
take  up  the  exploration  of  Egyptian  znticiuities. 
He  opened  the  second  of  the  pyramids  of 
Ghizeh,  known  by  the  name  of  Cephrenes.  In 
the  year  1816  he  succeeded  in  transporting  the 
t/ust  of  Memnon  from  Thebes  to  Alexandria, 
whence  it  was  taken  to  the  British  Museum. 
In  1817  he  entered  several  catacombs  near 
Thebes,  especially  one  in  a  fine  state  of  preser- 
vation in  the  valley  of  Biban  el  Molook,  which 
is  considered  to  he  the  mausoleum  of  Psamme- 
lichus,  and  from  which  he  took  the  splendid 
alabaster  sarcophagus  which  is  now  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum.  On  1  August  in  the  same  year  he 
opened  the  temple  of  Ipsambul,  near  the  second 
cataract  of  the  Nile,  which  two  Frenchmen, 
Cailliaud  and  Drovetd,  had  discovered  the  year 
before,  but  bad  not  succeeded  in  opening.  Bel- 
zoni  discovered  a  subterranean  temple  in  its 
ruins,  which  until  that  time  had  been  unknown. 
He  then  visited  the  coasts  of  the  Red  Sea  and 
the  city  of  Berenice,  discovering  the  emerald 
mines  of  Zubara  and  made  an  expedition  into 
the  oasis  of  Jupiter  Ammon.  Belzoni  refuted 
Cailliaud's  assertion,  that  he  had  found  the 
famous  Berenice,  the  great  emporium  of  Europe 
and  India,  by  subsequent  investigations  on  tne 
spot,  and  by  the  actual  discovery  of  the  ruins 
of  that  great  city  four  days'  journey  from  the 
place  which  Cailliaud  had  taken  for  Berenice. 
Bclzonils  'Narrative  of  the  Operations  and  Re- 
cent Discoveries  within  the  Pyramids,  Temples, 
Tombs  and  Excavations  in  Egypt  and  Nubia; 
and  of  a  Journey  to  the  Coast  of  the  Red  Sea 
in  Search  of  Berenice ;  also  of  another  to  the 
Oasis  of  Jupiter  Ammon'   (London  1820),  ac- 


companied by  a  folio  volamc  of  44  copper-plale 
engravings,  was  received  with  general  approba- 
tion. Padua,  his  native  city,  requited  his  pres- 
ent of  two  Egyptian  statues  from  Thebes  with 
a  medal  by  Manfredini.  In  the  year  ISZ3  this 
enterprising  traveler  had  made  preparations  for 
passing  from  Benin  to  Hausa  and  Timbuktu, 
when  he  died  at  Gato,  on  hi:i  way  to  Benin,  3 
Dec.  18^.  His  knowledge  of  draughtsmanship 
was  of  great  service  to  him'in  his  archjeologiwl 
L:hes.     In    1829  his   widow   published  h' 


and  that  the  Niger  emptied  its  waters 
into  the  Atlantic  Ocean ;  opinions  which  have 
long  been  proved  to  be  correct. 

BEM,  Jowf,  a  distinguished  military  com- 
mander :  b.  Tamow,  in  Galicia,  179S ;  d.  Aleppo, 
Syria,  1850.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Cracow,  and  in  1810  was  admitted  into  tbe 
corps  of  cadets  founded  at  Warsaw  by  Na- 
poleon, afterward  entered  the  horse  artillerj', 
and  took  part  as  lientenant  in  the  expedition  of 
the  French  army  in  Russia.  For  the  braverj- 
here  displayed  by  him  he  received  the  decora- 
tion of  the  cro5S  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  On 
hearing  of  the  outbreak  ot  the  Polish  revoln- 
tion,  he  at  once  hurried  to  Warsaw*  and  dur- 
ing the  whole  of  the  Polish  struggle  he  dis- 
played great  gallantry  and  military  skill.  On 
the  night  of  7  Sept.  1831,  he  held  the  bridge  of 
Praga  with  his  artilleiy,  but  the  following 
morning,  on  hearing  oi  the  agreement  con- 
cluded with  the  Russians,  withdrew  to  Modlin. 
After  the  fall  of  Warsaw  he  went  to  Prussia, 
and  in  1832  to  Paris,  where  he  was  occupied 
partly  with  political  schemes,  partly  with  scien- 
tific pursuits.  Upon  the  commencement  of  the 
Austrian  insurrection  in  1848,  Bern  proceeded 
there  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  conducting 
the  defense  of  Vienna  against  the  imperial 
troops.  Toward  the  end  of  the  year  he  re- 
ceived a  ctMnmission  from  the  new  Hun^rian 
government  to  undertake  the  conquest  of  Tran- 
sylvania, and  crossed  over  into  that  tcrriloij 
at  the' head  of  a  large  army,  raised  by  bis  own 
exertions  in  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time. 
His  progress  here  was  marked  with  (treat  soc- 
ccss,  with  occasional  checks ;  and '  m  Marcb 
1849,  he  succeeded  in  driving  the  Austrian!, 
with  their  Russian  auxiliaries,  into  Wallachia. 
He  subset^uently  made  an  incursion  into  die 
Banat.  which  he  compelled  Puchner  to  eiacu- 
ate.  Kcturning  to  Transylvania,  he  found  him- 
self opposed  Dy  overwhelming  numbers,  and, 
after  several  reverses,  returned  to  Hungary. 
where  he  took  part  in  the  disastrous  battle  of 
Temesvar.  Shortly  after  he  went  to  Turkey, 
became  a  convert  to  Mohammedanism,  and  re- 
ceived an  appointment  in  the  Sultan's  army 
under  the. name  of  Amurath  Padia.  He  wrote 
a  work  on  mnemonics  entitled  <Expos{  geoini 
de  la  methode  mnimonique  polonaise.'  Con- 
sult Czetz,  <Bems  Fetdzug  ui  Siebehbiirgen' 
(Hamburg  1850);  and  Lajos,  N.,  'Le  genital 
Bern'   (Paris  1851). 

BEMA,   be'ma    (Gr.    btma.  a  stm  n>^ 

place),  tht  name  applied  in  the  Greek  Oiurch 
to  the  sanctuary  because  of  its  position  above 
the  rest  of  the  church.  The  inconostafisor 
choir  screen   divides  it  from  the  main  portion 


of  the  church. 


iizodsi  Google 


BBBdAN  —  BBHIS 


407 


B]^AN,  Woostet  Woodniff,  American 
maihematiciaa :  b.  Southington,  Conn.,  28  May 
18S0.  Graduating  from  the  University  of 
Michigan  in  1870,  he  was  appointed  instructor 
in  Greek  and  mathematics  at  Kalamazoo  Col- 
lege. A  year  later  he  was  appointed  to  the 
same  position  at  the  University  of  Midiigaii, 
where  he  became  professor  of  mathematics  in 
1887.  In  collaboration  with  David  Ei^ene 
Smith  he  wrote  'Plane  and  Solid  Geometry' 
(1895);  'Higher  Arithmetic'  (1897);  'Famous 
Problems  in  Elementary  Geometry'  (1897)  ; 
'New  Plane  and  Solid  Geometry'  (1899); 
'Elements  of  Algebra'  (1900);  <A  Brief  His- 
tory of  Mathematics'  (1900):  <Academic  Al- 
gebra' (1902). 

BEMBATOKA,  Bay  of.  a  sate  and  com- 
modious bay  on  the  northwest  coast  of  Mada- 
gascar, lying  in  lat  16°  S.  and  long.  46°  E.  The 
river  Betsiboka,  with  the  Ikiopa,  drain  into  the 
bay;  the  former,  about  300  miles  lopg,  is  navi- 

Sble  for  small  steamers  for  about  90  miles, 
ojanga,  on  the  north  side  of  the  bay,  is  the 
second  town  in  the  island,  with  about  14,000 
inhabitants,  Bembatoka  being  but  a  village. 

BEMBBRG,  ban-bar,  Henri,  French  com- 
poser: b.  Paris  1861.  He  studied  at  the  Paris 
Conservatory,  where  he  had  among  his  teachers 
Dubois,  Pranck,  and  Massenet.  His  principal 
works  are  'Lc  Baiser  de  Luzon,'  a  one-act 
opera  (1888);  and  'Elaine,'  a  four-act  opera 
successfully  produced  in  London  1892.  and  in 
New  York  1894.  He  is  popularly  kiiown  as 
the  author  of  many  songs  and  works  for  piano. 
In  his  native  land  he  is  regarded  principally  as 
a  dramatic  composer. 

BSHBICID.S,  bftn-bisl-d?,  a  family  of 
wasp-tike  hymenopterous  insects  with  stmgs, 
mostly  natives  of  warm  countries,  and  known 
also  as  sand'Wasps.  The  female  excavates  cells 
in  the  sand,  in  which  she  deposits,  together  with 
her  e^gs,  various  larvae  or  perfected  insects 
stimg  mto  insensibility,  as  support  for  her  prog- 
eny when  hatched.  The  insects  are  very  ac- 
tive, fond  of  the  nectar  of  flowers  and  delight 
in  sunshine.  Bembix  is  the  typical  genus  of 
the  family. 

BBMBO,  Pietro,  Italian  scholar  and  writ- 
er: b.  Venice.  29  May  1470;  d.  18  Jan.  1547.  At 
Ferrara  he  completed  his  philosophical  studies, 
and  after  visiting  Rome  went,  in  1506,  to  the 
court  of  Urbino,  at  that  time  one  of  those 
Italian  courts  where  the  sciences  stood  highest 
in  esteem.  In  1512  he  went  to  Rome,  where 
Pope  Leo  X  made  him  his  secretary.  His 
many  labors  arising  from  his  otlice,  as  well  as 
his  literary  pursuits,  and  perhaps  too  great  an 
indulgence  in  pleasure,  having  impaired  his 
health,  he  was  using  the  baths  of  Padua  when 
he  was  apprised  of  the  death  of  Leo  X.  Being 
by  this  time  possessed  of  several  church  bene- 
fices, he  resolved  on  withdrawing  entirely  from 
business,  and  on  passing  his  days  at  Padna,  oc- 
cupied onlv  with  literature  and  science,  and 
enjoying  the  society  of  his  friends.  Bemho 
collected  a  considerable  library;  had  a  cabinet 
of  medals  and  antiquities,  which  at  that  time 
passed  for  one  of  (he  richest  in  Italy,  and  a 
fine  botanical  ^rdcn.  In  the  year  1529  the 
office  of  histonographer  of  the  republic  of 
Venice  was  offered  to  him,  which  he  accepted, 
declining  the  salary  connected  with  it.    At  the 


same  time  he  was  nominated  librarian  of  the 
library  of  Saint  Mark.  Pope  Paul  III,  having 
resolved  upon  a  new  promotion  of  cardinals, 
(rota  the  most  distinguished  men  of  his  time. 
conferred  on  him,  in  1S39,  the  hat  o£  a  car- 
dinal. From  that  time  Bembo  renounced  the 
bellgs-lellret,  and  made  the  Fathers  and  the 
Holy  Scriptures  his  chief  study.  Of  his  former 
labors  he  continued  only  the  'History  of  Ven- 
ice.' Two  years  later  Paul  III  bestowed  the 
bishopric  of  Gubbio  on  him,  and  soon  after  the 
rich  bishopric  of  Bergamo.  Bemjto's  influmce 
on  the  literature  of  Italy  was  deep  and  lasting. 
By  his  works,  especially  the  'Prose  della  volgar 
lingua'  (1525)  he  helped  bring  about  the  tri- 
umph of  classic  tradition  in  Italian.  In  poetry 
he  aroused  an  increased  interest  in  Petrarch 
and  the  resulting  imitation  of  the  latter  by  the 
Italian  poets  for  a  long  period  is  known  as 
bembism.  A  collection  of  all  his  works  ap- 
peared in  1729.  at  Venice,  in  four  folio  volumes. 
Consult  Fletcher,  J.  B.,  'The  Rehgion  of 
Beauty  in  Woman'  (New  York  1911);  Spin- 
gam,  'History  of  Criticism  in  the  Renaissance* 
(2d  ed,  New  York  1906)  ;  Symonds,  "Renais- 
sance in  Italy'  (London  1881);  Trabaiea, 
'Storia  della  grammatica  italiana'  (Padova 
1908). 

BEMBRIDGB  BEDS,  in  geology,  a  fbssit- 
iferous  division  of  the  Oligocene  strata,  prin- 
cipally developed  at  Bembridge,  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  consisting  of  marts  and  clays  resting  on 
a  compact,  pa!c-yelIow  or  cream-colored  lime- 
stone, called  Bembridge  limestone.  TTiey  ex- 
hibit a  rich  molluscan  and  insect  fauna. 

BEMENTITE,  a  mineral  occurring  at 
Franklin  Furnace,  N.  J.,  in  radiated- stellate 
masses.  It  has  a  grayish-yellow  color  and 
pearly  lustre,  is  soft  and  has  a  specific  gravity 
of  about  3.0.  It  is  a  hydrous  silicate  of  manga- 
nese, having  the  formula  HiMnSiO^  It  was 
named  in  honor  of  C.  S.  Bcment,  whose  un- 
rivaled private  collection  of  minerals  is  now  in 
the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History  in 
New  York  city. 

eat  of 
n,  the 

Minneapolis,  Red  Lake  &  Manitoba  and  the 
Minneapolis,  Saint  Paul  &  Sault  Sainte  Marie 
railroads.  180  miles  west  of  Duluth.  It  has  a 
State  normal  school  and  several  Federal  build- 
ings. Lumbering  is  the  principal  industry  of 
the  ne^hborfaood.  Bemidji  is  also  a  popular 
summer  resort,  being  situated  on  the  shore  of 
a  picturesque  lake.     Pop.   (1910)   5,099. 

BEMIS,  Edward  Webster,  American  econ- 
omist and  public  utility  expert :  b.  Springfield, 
Mass.,  7  April  1860.  He  was  graduated  at 
Amherst  College  in  1880;  received  degree  of 
Ph.D.  in  1885  at  Johns  Hopkins  University 
after  over  three  years'  advanced  work  in  eco- 
nomics and  history;  was  a  pioneer  lecturer  in 
the  university  extension  system,  1887-88;  pro- 
fessor of  economics  and  history,  VanderUlt 
University,  1889-92;  and  associate  professor  of 
economics.  University  of  (^ca^o,  1892-95.  In 
1897  he  was  professor  of  economics  and  history 
in  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College.  He 
was  superintendent  of  the  city  water  department 
of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  1901-09;  deputy  commis- 
sioner of  water  supply,  gas  and  electricity  of 
New  York,  1910;  consulting  expert  for  cities  and 


Google 


BEHI8  HEIGHTS  — BSH-LEDI 


States  on  jniblic  utilities  since  1910.  He  is  now 
a  member  of  the  advisory  board,  valuation  di- 
vision, Interstate  Commerce  Commissioti,  ci^ 
representaiive  on  board  of  supervisini;  engi-' 
neers,  Cluc:wo  Traction,  and  director  of  valua- 
tions of  public  utilities  for  the  District  of 
Columbia,  the  cih'  of  Dallas  and  other  places. 
He  published  'Municipal  Monopolies'  (189Q) 
and  many  scientific  studies  of  co-operation, 
trades  unions,  immigration,  etc.,  but  since  190O 
has  chiefly  confined  his  writing  to  technical 
reports  for  various  public  bodies. 

BBMIS  HEIGHTS.  N.  Y..  village  in  Sara- 
toga County,  on  the  Hudson  River,  famous  as 
the  scene  of  the  first  battle  of  Stillwater,  19 
Sept.  1777.    See  also  Saratoga,  Battle  of. 

BKMISS,  Samuel  Uerrifield,  American 
surgeon  in  the  Confederate  army :  b.  Nelson 
County,  Ky.,  IS  Oct.  1821.  He  received  his 
early  traimng  and  education  from  his  father. 
Dr.  John  Bemiss,  and  from  private  tutors,  and 
was  graduated  at  the  medical  department  of 
New  York  University  in  1846.  He  practised  in 
Bloomfield,  Ky.,  until  1853,  when  he  removed 
to  Louisville,  and  in  1858  became  connected 
with  the  medical  department  of  the  University 
of  Louisville,  filling  various  chairs,  and  at  times 
was  secretary  and  vice-president.  From  1862 
to  1865  he  was  a  surgeon  in  the  Confederate 
army.  After  the  war  he  settled  in  New  Or- 
leans, and  in  1866  he  became  professor  of  the 
theory  and  practice  of  medicine  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Louisiana.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
State  board  of  health  and  of  the  American 
Medical  Association,  being  its  vice-president  in 
1868,  and  of  other  medical  societies.  He  con- 
tributed papers  to  the  literature  of  his  pro- 
fession, among  which  arc  'Essay  on  Croup' 
and  'Report  on  Consanguineous  Marriages.' 
He  was  also  editor  of  the  New  Orleans  Medical 
and  Surgical  JounuU. 

BEHHEL,  Peter  von,  German  painter:  b. 
Nnremberg  1685;  d.  1754.  He  was  educated 
by  his  father,  also  an  artist,  and  was  employed 
1^  the  Prince  Bamberg,  Franz  Konrad  von 
Stadion  in  adorning  the  walls  of  his  palaces. 
Many  of  his  paintings  are  preserved  at  Bam- 
berg and  Brunswick.  Of  the  Bemmel  family 
14  were  prominent  as  artists. 

BEN  (Hebrew,  son),  a  prepositive  syllable 
found  in  many  Jewish  names,  as  Bendavid, 
Benasser,  etc.,  which,  with  the  Jews  in  Germany, 
has  been  changed  into  the  German  sohn  (son), 
for  example,  Mendelssohn,  Jacobsaohn,  etc.  In 
Arabic  the  plural  form  Beni  occurs  in  the 
names  of  many  tribes,  as  Bcni  Omayyah  and  in 
those  of  places,  as  Beni  Hassan. 

BEN,  BEINN,  or  BHBIN,  a  Gaelic  word 
signifying  mountain  peak  or  head,  and  prefixed 
to  the  names  of  many  mountains  in  Scotland 
north  of  the  firths  of  Clyde  and  Forth,  as  Ben 
Nevis  and  Ben  MacDhui.  It  also  occurs  in 
Ireland,  as  Ben  Eadar,  Eadar's  mountain  (the 
modem  Hill  of  Howth),  and  Nephin  {Gaelic 
NfUmh-bhein,  white  mountain).  Pen.  which 
occurs  in  Welsh  and  Cornish  nomenclature,  is 
a  correnponding  term.  The  term  Pen  is  also 
found  in  the  Pennine  Alps  and  in  the  word 
"Aiwnnines,"  and  some  hold  that  it  occurs  in 
somewhat  disguised  form  in  the  Civennes  of 
France. 


BEN,  Oil  of,  tfte  «^rF9sed  oil  of  tfie 
bennut,  the  seed  of  Moringa  aptera,  the  ben  or 
horse-radish  tree  of  India,  northern  Africa  and 
Arabia.  The  oil  is  iaodorous,  does  not  become 
rancid  for  many  years,  and  is  used  by  per- 
fumers and  watehmakers.  In  perfumery  it  is 
used  in  extracting  the  fragrant  principles  of 
various  plants. 

BEN  BOLT,  a  noted  poem  by  Thomas 
Dunn  English  (1843)  set  to  an  old  German  air. 
It  had  been  partially  forgotten  when  it  was 
revived  by  its  effective  employment  in  Du 
Maurier's  'Trilby.> 

BEN  HUR:  A  Tale  of  the  Christ,  a  popt^ 
lar  novel,  by  Lew  Wallace,  published  1880.  The 
scene  of  the  story  is  laid  in  the  East,  principally 
in  Jerusalem,  just  after  the  Christian  era.  The 
first  part  is  introductory,  and  details  the  coming 
□f  the  three  wise  men,  Melchior,  Kaspar  and 
Balthasar,  to  worship  the  babe  bom  in  the 
manger  at  Bethlehem.  In  the  course  of  the 
narrative,  which  involves  many  exciting  adven- 
tures of  Ben  Hur,  hero.  John  the  Baptist  and' 
Jesus  of  Nazareth  are  introduced,  and  Ben  Hur 
IS  converted  to  the  Christian  faith  through  the 
miracles  of  our  Lord.     The  tale  has  been  sue- 


BEN  HUR,  The  Tribe  of.  A  fratenal' 
beneficial  society  founded  upon  Gen.  Lew  Wal- 
lace's book.  'Ben  Hur,'  a  tale  of  the  Christ, 
the  life  of  the  young  Hebrew,  Ben  Hur,  fur- 
nishing the  attributes  of  devotion  to  family  and 
people  and  faith  in  God.  The  society  was  or- 
ganized in  Crawfordsville,  Ind.  in  18M  by 
David  W.  Gerard,  Frank  L,  Snyder  and  others. 
Through  this  society  Gerard  found  opportunily 
to  express  and  put  in  operation  a  broad  and 
practical  system  of  mutual  philanthropy  an(^ 
though  defective  in  its  financial  plan,  yet  so  Ear 
was  the  plan  in  advance  of  fraternal  oper^ioa 
of  the  time  that  for  more  than  20  years  it  sat- 
cessfully  carried  out  the  purposes  of  it&  found- 
ers. In  1908  the  society  adtyted  the  National 
Fraternal  Confess  table  of  mortality  as  a 
basis  upon  which  to  determine  the  benefits  lo 
be  provided  and  contributions  to  be  collected 
therefor,  and  this  table  of  mortality  has  since 
become  the  legal  standard  of  this  (Indiana)  and 
many  other  States.     The  beneficial  department 


benevolent  purposes  of  the  Society  are  carried 
out  by  means  of  local  courts  or  lodges  char- 
tered by  the  supreme  or  governing  body.  At 
the  close  of  1915  the  Society  had  over  100.000 
members  in  1,356  local  organizations,  and  had 
paid  to  the  beneficiaries  of  its  members  over 
$14,000,000  in  benefits. 

BEN-LAWERS,  a  huge  pyramidal  moun- 
tain of  Scotland,  Perthshire,  on  the  north  bank 
of  Loch  Tay,  3,984  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  or  4^004  with  the  caim  at  the  top.  Many 
rare  Alpme  mosses  and  other  plants  i —  ' — ■* 


BEN-LEDI.  a  Scottish  mountain,  lying 
northwest  pf  Callander.  Perthshire,  reaching 
the  height  of  2,875  feet  above  sea-level.  It  b 
somewhat  difficult  of  ascent,  btit  ff\n  a  splen- 
did view.  High  up  on  it  there  is  a  small  loch. 
It  is  mentioned  in  Scott's  'Lady  of  the  Lake.' 


Google 


fiBH-U)MOND  -^  BENARBS 


Its  name,  Bm  le  Dia,  "God's  mountain,"  was 
bestowed  l^  the  Dmids,  who  were  wont  to 
celebrate  the  Bealtcine,  or  sun-festival,  on  its 
summit. 

BSH-LOMOND,  a  Scottish  mountain  at 
the  western  extremity  of  Stirlingshire,  on  the 
east  shore  of  Loch  Lomond.  The  ascent  is 
divided  into  three  great  stages,  and  the  top  has 
an  elevation  of  3,192  feet  above  sea-ievel.  On 
the  southeastern  side  it  presents  a  sheer  preci- 
pice of  about  2,000  feet.  From  the  hotel  at 
Rowardennan,  on  the  east  shore  of  the  loch,  to 
summit,  the  distance  is  four  miles.  The  lower 
part  is  wdl  wooded,  and  the  upper  affords  excel- 
lent healthful  pasture.  It  commands  a  most 
extensive  jjrospect  of  the  vale  of  Stirlingshire, 
the  Lothians,  the  Clyde,  Ayrshire,  Isle  of 
Uan,  Hills  of  Antrim,  and  all  the  surrounding 
hi^land  territory,  Like  Ben-Lawers  this  is 
one  of  the  txitanical  gardens  of  the  highlands. 

BBN-HORB  (the  great  mountain),  a  coni- 
cal hill  between  Loch  Dochart  and  Loch  Voll, 
western  part  of  Perthshire,  among  the  Braes 
of  Balqi&idder.  It  rises  to  an  elevation  of 
3343  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Several 
other  lulls  also  bear  this  name. 

BEH-MUICH-DHUI,  bfn-mak-doo'^  or 
BEN-HAG-DHUI  (Gael.  Ben-ni^^uke- 
dubh,  mount  of  the  black  pig},  the  second 
highest  mountain  in  Scotland  situated  in  the 
southwest  comer  of  Aberdeenshire,  on  the. 
borders  of  Banffshire.  It  is  a  gnuiite  mass, 
rising  to  the  heigbt  of  4,296  feet,  and  forms 
one  of  a  cluster  of  lofty  mountains,  among 
which  are  Brae-riach,  Cairn toul.  Cairngorm, 
Ben-a-bourd  and  Ben-A'an.  Its  UMier  parts  are 
bare  of  vegetation.  The  view  from  the  top 
includes  the  Moray  Firth,  the  hilU  of  Caithness 
and  Sntherlandi,  Ben  Nevis,  Benmor^  etc. 

BBN  NEVIS  (Gael,  ben,  mountun, 
-\-neamhis,  heavenly),  a  Scottish  mountain  now 
ascertained  to  be  the  moat  lofty  height  in  Great 
Britain,  is  situated  in  Hie  southwestern  extrem- 
ity of  Inverness'^re,  iimnediatelY  east  of  Fort 
William  and  the  opening  of  the  Caledonian 
Canal  into  Loch  Eil,  It  rises  from  the  brink 
of  the  latter  piece  of  water  to  die  height  of 
4,406  feet.  In  clear  weather  a  view  can  be 
obOined  from  its  summit  across  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  north  of  Scotland  from  sea  to 
sea.  It  consists  principally  of  a  fine  brown 
porphyry,  and  contains  red  granite  of  a  beau- 
tiful grain.  Its  base  has  a  circumference  of 
24  mues.  It  has  some  very  lofty  precipices, 
and  in  its  fissures  the  snow  remains  unmelted, 
even  in  the  warmest  weather.  An  observatory 
occu(»ed  by  a  resident  stsfiE  was  established  on 
the  top  of  the  mountain  by  the  Scottbh  Mete- 
orological Society  in  1883. 

BENADIR,  bin'^-der*  administrative 
district  in  Italian  Somaliland,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Jubn  River,  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa. 
In  \sf2  this  territory  was  leased  from  the  Sul- 
tan of  Zanribav  for  a  small  annual  sum,  but 
in  1905  it  was  pumhased  for  (700,000.  The 
Italian  administration  is  enforced  by  a  police 
force  and  a  garrison  of  about  3,(U0  men.  Cat- 
tle and  cotton  are  exported  in  considerable 
quantities.  Mogadlsho  Is  the  largest  town, 
-with  a  population  of  about  10,000,  bemg  also 
the  admutiitfatlve  centre. 


BSNAIAH,  bi-na'y^,  the  name  of  12 
different  persons  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  the 
most  important  being  a  son  of  Jehoiada,  a  chief 
priest.  He  figures  as  a  m^ty  and  valiant 
warrior  who  overcame  two  Moabite  champions, 
slew  an  Egyptian  giant  with  the  giant's  own 
spear,  went  down  into  a  dry  cistern  and  slew 
a  lion  that  had  fallen  in  while  it  was  covered 
with  snow,  and  killed  the  rebels  Adonijah  and 

Joab.    He   was    made    commander-in-<iiJef    in 
oab's  place  by  Solomon. 

BENALCAZAR,  bft-n^l-ka'thar,  Sebas- 
tian de,  Spanish  leader,  the  first  conqueror 
of  Popayan,  New  Granada:  li.  about  the  end  of 
the  15th  century,  at  Benalcaz,  in  Estremadura, 
Spain;  d.  15S0.  He  set  out  as  a  common  sailor 
in  the  train  of  Pedrarias,  the  newly  appointed 
governor  of  Darien,  1514.  The  ability  and 
oaring  of  young  Sebastian  gained  for  him  the 
confidence  of  Pizarro,  who  sent  him  against 
the  Indian  leader.  Ruminahui.  Sebastian  was 
favored  at  the  moment  of  ci^agement  by  a 
happy  accident;  the  volcano  of  Cochabamba 
suffered  an  eruption.  The  frightened  Peruvian 
army  fled  to  Quito  and  Sebastian  then  possessed 
himself  of  the  smoking  ruins  of  this  ciiy. 
From  here  he  passed  northward  and  conquered 
the  territory  possessed  by  a  chief  named 
Popayan,  wnose  name  he  preserved  to  desig- 
nate the  territory  over  which  the  former  had 
held  sway.  Inflamed  by  the  speeches  of  an 
Indian  captive,  who  spake  strange  words  about 
a  chief  farther  north,  anointed  with  ^old 
powder,  Benalcazar  and  his  band  determined 
to  visit  and  conquer  this  El  Dorado,  or  chief 
of  gold.  After  traversing  vas_t  forests,  in  1534, 
he  arrived  at  the  country  which  afterward  re- 
ceived the  name  of  New  Granada.  Arrived 
there,  he  found  himself  forestalled  by  two  other 
Spanish  adventurers  or  conquistadores.  He  re- 
turned to  Popayan,  and  was  made  governor  of 
this  province  by  a  decree  dated  1538.  When 
La  Gasca  succeeded  in  supplanting  Diego 
Pizarro,  he  deprived  Sebastian  of  his  governor- 

BBNARD.  Ul-nar',  Henri  Jean  EmDe, 
French  ardiitect;  b.  Goderville  1844.  As  a 
student  of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  in  Paris, 
he  competed  for  and  won  the  Prix  de  Rome  in 
1867.  In  1899  he  was  the  winner  out  of  a 
hundred  competitors  for  the  plans  tor  the 
University  of  California.  With  some  modifica- 
tions his  plans  have  been  followed  in  the  build- 
ing of  the  university  buildings,  at  a  cost  so 
far  of  J10,000,000. 

BENARES,  be-na'rez.  India,  a  division  In 
the  Northwestern  Provinces  with  an  area  of 
10,414  square  miles,  largely  made  up  of  rich 
cultivated  flats  on  each  side  of  the  (^nges. 
The  heat  in  summer  is  excessive,  but  in  winter 
fires  are  requisite.  About  50  per  cent  of  terri- 
tory b  irrigated  hy  wells  and  canals.  Garden 
stuffs,  grain  of  different  kinds,  flax  for  oil  and 
sugar,  are  the  principal  objects  of  cultivation. 
Rice,  fur  which  many  parts  of  the  soil  seem 
well  adapted,  is  seldom  grown.  Mushns,  eiUcs 
and  gauzes,  salt,  indigo  and  opium  are  made 
very  extensively.  The  principal  town  is 
Benares.  Pop.  about  5,368,600.  about  90  per 
cent  Hindu. 

S    fin  Sanskrit.    Vltranas(\ 

n  the 


.Google 


BENAVBNTV  Y  HARTINBZ-~BBNBOW 


division  of  Uie  same  name,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Ganges,  from  which  it  rises  like  an  amphi- 
theatre, presenting  a  splendid  panorama  of 
temples,  mosques,  palaces  and  other  buildings, 
with  their  domes,  minarets,  etc.  Fine  ghauts 
lead  down  to  the  river.  It  is  built  of  freestone 
and  contains  many  handsome  and  highly 
decorated  houses,  but  the  height  of  the  houses 
and  narrowness  of  the  streets  ^ve  it  all  the 
usual  inconveniences  of  an  Asiatic  town.  Kasi 
the  Splendid,  as  the  Hindus  commonly  call  it, 
is  one  of  the  most  sacred  places  of  pilgrimage 
in  all  India,  being  the  headquarters  of  the 
Hindu  religion.  To  die  at  Benares  is  the  great- 
est happiness  for  a  Hindu,  because  he  is  then 
sure  of  immediate  admission  into  heaven.  The 
number  of  pious  foundations  and  temples  is 
exceedingly  great  There  is  a  continual  influx 
of  wealthy  pilgrims  into  the  city,  and  many  of 
the  Hindu  princes  have  a  town  residence  here. 
The  principal  temple,  called  Bisheswar,'  is  dedi- 
cated to  Siva.  Aurungzebe  built  a  splendid 
mosque  on  the  highest  ground  in  the  city,  and 
it  is  the  most  prominent  object  from  the  river 
side.  At  the  end  of  the  1/th  century  an  ob- 
servatory was  erected  in  this  city  by  one  of  the 
rajahs,  which  still  exists."  One  of  the  temples 
has  a  great  number  of  sacred  monkeys  attached 
to  it.  Altogether  there  are  about  1,500  Hindu 
temples.  Among  the  municipal  structures  are 
the  government  college,  hospitals,  town-hall, 
asylums,  swimming  baths  and  waterworks. 
Benares  carries  on  a  large  trade  in  the  produce 
of  the  district  and  in  English  goods,  and  manu- 
factures silks,  shawls,  emoroidered  cloth, 
jewelry,  etc.  The  merchants  and  bankers  are 
numerous  and  wealthy.  There  are  few  English 
inhabitants,  except  the  ^vemment  office rs^  and 
the  members  of  the  vanous  missions.  Kasi  was 
ceded  to  (he  East  India  Company  by  the  Nabob 
of  Oude  in  1775.  During  the  mutiny  of  1857 
a  serious  outbreak  occurred  here.  The  Benares 
College  was  opened  in  1791.  It  is  maintained 
by  the  government  and  includes  the  Sanskrit 
College,  with  over  400  students,  and  the  Elnglish 
College,  with  about  100.  It  occupies  a  fine 
building,  completed  in  1852.  Pop.  about  204,000. 
Consult  Sherring,  'Sacred  Ciw  of  the  Hindus' 
(1869)  ;  HavelJ,  'Benares,  the  Sacred  City' 
(1910. 

EKNAVENTE,  be-nii-ven-te,  Y  MAHTf- 
NBZ,  Jacinto,  Spanish  dramatist:  b.-Madrid, 
12  Aug.  1866.  His  father,  Mariano  Benaveut& 
was  a  specialist  in  children's  diseases,  and 
enjoyed  hi^  repute  in  Madrid.  He  studied 
at  tat  University  of  Madrid,  at  first  intending 
to  follow  the  law,  but  failed  to  complete  the 
course.  For  a  time  he  traveled  with  a  circus 
and  subsequently  appeared  upon  the  stage, 
upon  which  he  has  ever  since  been  an  occasion- 
al performer.  His  first  publication  was  a  vol- 
ume of  poems  (1893),  which  was  followed  by 
•Vilanos'  (or  'Thistledown'),  'Figurines' 
and  'The  Ladies'  Letter  Writer,'  impression- 
istic sketches  of  great  subtlety  and  delicaCT 
of  workmanship,  which  display  strong  French 
influence.  These  works  have  the  same  sig- 
nificance in  the  renascence  of  Spanish  letters 
as  the  early  canvases  of  Sorolla,  exhibited 
at  Madrid  in  the  year  1893.  in  the  rebirth  of 
Spanish  painting.  In  this  year  also  Ignacio 
Zuloa^  tompleled  his  sojourn  of  awirwitiee- 
ship  m   Paris.     Benavente   produced  his  first 


House'^,    in    ISM.     Two  years    I 

ConocitKi'  C'In'Society')  establlthed  his  repu- 
tation. 'The  Banquet  of  Wild  Beasts'  (1898) 
placed  him  at  the  head  of  Spanish  play- 
wrights. It  was  succeeded  by  a  remarkable 
series  of  satirical  comedies,  as  also  by  a  num- 
ber of  plays  of  serious  import,  the  effect  of 
which  was  for  a  time  obscured  by  the  dazzling 
brilliance  of  his  satire.  As  editor  of  La  Vida 
Lileraria,  a  periodical  in  which  he  gathered 
about  him  the  writers  whose  names  were  to 
become  famous  in  the  new  Spain,  Benavente 
gave  form  and  substance  to  the  modem  move- 
ment, of  which  he  assumed  iniellectuat  lead- 
ership. In  'Autumnal  Boses'  and  'The  Evil 
Doers  of  Good'  (19(B),  he  reached  the  ma- 
turity of  his  powers,  and  'The  Bonds  of  In- 
terest' ('Los  intereses  creados')  (1907)  and 
'Princess  Beb^>  acted  m  1909,  established  his 
hegemony  among  the  writers  of  the'  Spanish- 
speaking  world.  His  plays  are  to-da^  the 
most  popular  and  frequently  performed  m  the 
Spanish  repertoir.  In  1913  he  was  admitted 
into  the  Spanish  Academjr  upon  the  occasion 
of  the  performance  of  his  mie  peasant  trag- 
edy 'La  Malquerida.'  He  is  a  lecturer  and 
contributor  to  the  periodical  press  on  a  wide 
variety  of  toi)ics  and  has  made  translations 
from  die  English,  Catalan  and  French.  In  bis 
'Nuevo  Coloquio  de  los  Perros'  (1916)  he 
deliberately  challenged  comparison  with  the 
dialogue  of  the  same  name  ly  Cervantes,  with 
whose  work  his  own  has  murfi  in  common. 
The  drama  of  Benavente  is  a  drama  of  char- 
acter, with  predominant  human  and  social  in- 
terest He  has  done  away  with  all  melo- 
dramattc.  artificiality^  in  which  respect  the 
Aeatre  as  it  exists  m  Spain  to-day  must  be 
regarded  as  his  creation.  Consult  Bonilla  y 
San  Martin,  'Jacinto  Benavente'  {Atento, 
Madrid,  I,  No.  1,  1906) ;  'Plays  ly  Jacinto 
Benavente,'  with  an  introduaion  by  John  Gar- 
rett Undethill  (New  Yorit  1917  et  ««.). 
John  (uuutnr  Umoerhiu. 
BENAVENTE  Y  ROCAMORA,  B 


__rty   I 

cided  inclination  for  the  study  of  languages 
and  for  many  years  tau^t  with  great  suc- 
cess in  Madrid.  He  was  professor  of  French 
for  several  years  at  the  Municipal  College  of 
Saint  Ildefonso  and  founded  the  well-known 
Benavente  Lyceum,  of  which  he  was  die 
director  from  its  institution.  At  an  edurational 
exhibition  held  in  Madrid  in  the  93%  Bena- 
vente was  awarded  a  medal  for  his  method  of 
teaching.  He  has  contributed  to  Gcvcral  edu- 
cadonal  periodicals,  and  has  also  written  novels 
both  in  Spanish  and  Frendi.  His  pubhshed 
works  include  'So1uci6n  prictka  dc  la  pditica 
espanola' ;  'El  idioma  franc^  al  akance  de  los 
espafioles;'  'La  mano  de  Providencia,'  a  novel 


1702.  After  serving  for  some  time  in  die  navy 
he  entered  the  merchant  service,  and  fouf^ 
so  desperately  against  a  pirate  frooi  Sallee,  to 
one  of  his  trips  to  the  Mediteiranean,  about 
the  year  1686,  as  to  beat  her  oS,  though  greadr 
his  superior  in  mot  and  metal  He  re-cnteicd 
the  nvfy  after  the  Rervolution,  and  was  em- 
ployed m  protecting  the  Englisb  trade  id  (he 


3le 


BBHCH— BBHD 


channel,  wfakh  be  cfid  wMi  great  effect.  His 
valor  aiid  activity  secured  ban  the  confidence 
of  the  nation,  ind  he  iras  soon  promoted  to  the 
lank  of  rear-admiral,  and  charged  with  opera- 
tioni  against  I>inkirk  and  the  French  coasts. 
In  1698  he  was  sent  to  put  down  the  pirates  hi 
the  West  Indies,  and  not  long  after  tetuniing. 
he  again  uiled  to  the  West  Indies  with  a  small 
fleet,  having  accepted  a  command  previously  de- 
ciiaed  by  several  of  his  seniors,  from  the  sup- 
posed superiority  of  the  enemy's  force  in  that 
quaner.  On  19  Aug.  1702,  he  fell  in  with  the 
French  fleet  tmder  Du  Caste,  and  for  five  d^s 
maintained  a  ruiming  fight  with  (hem,  wben  he 
at  length  succeeded  in  bringing  the  enemy's 
stemmost  ship  to  close  qimrters.  In  the  h^t  of 
the  action  a  chain-shot  carried  away  one  of  his 
leg5.  His  officers  offered  their  sympathy.  *I  had 
lather  have  lost  them  botb,^  he  replied,  'than 
have  seen  this  dishonor  brought  upon  the 
English  nation.  But,  harkye  — if  another  shot 
should  take  me  off,  behave  like  men,  and  figbt 
it  out.*  He  was  taken  below;  but  the  moment 
the  dressing  had  been  applied  to  the  wouno  he 
caused  himself  to  be  brought  a^ain  on  deck, 
and  continued  the  action.  At  this  critical  in- 
stant, being  most  disgracefully  abandoned  by 
several  of  the  captains  under  his  command,  who 
signed  a  paper  expreasinp  their  opinion  that 
■nothing  more  was  to  be  done,*  the  whole  fleet 
effectea  its  escape.  Benbow,  on  his  return  to 
Jamaica,  brought  the  delinquents  to  a  court- 
martial,  Iw  which  two  of  them  were  convicted 
of  cowardice  and  disobedience  of  orders,  and 
condemned  to  be  shot ;  which  sentence,  on  their 
arrival  in  England,  was  carried  into  execution 
at  Plymouth.  Consult  Clowes,  'Royal  Navy' 
(Vol.  II,  London  1897);  Fletcher,  'Admiral 
Benbow'  in  Macmillan's  Magazine  (VoL 
LXXXIV,  London  1901). 

BBNCH,  in  law,  the  seat  which  judges  or 
magistrates  occupy  officially  in  a  court  of  jus- 
tice; the  court  or  tribunal  itself,  also  the  judges 
or  magistrates  sitting  together  to  try  cases  in 
conlracQstinction  to  the  bar.  The  Court  of  Com- 
mon Pleas  in  EJigland  was  formerly  called  Ban- 
cut,  the  Bench,  as  distinguished  from  Banau 
Regis,  the  King's  Bench.  It  was  also  called 
CommuHtt  Bancuf,  the  Common  Bench,  and 
this  title  is  stiU  retained  W  the  reporters  of  ^e 
decisions  in  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas.  Men- 
tion is  made  in  the  Magna  Charta  'de  jus- 
liciariis  noitris  de  Banco,*  which  all  men  know 
to  be  tbe  justices  of  the  Court  of  Common 
Pleas,  commonly  called  the  Common  Bench,  or 
the  Bench.  Viner,  Abr.  Courts  (a  2).  The  King's 
Bench   (Queen's   Bench  during  the  reign  of  a 


in  the  High  Court  of  Justice. 

BBNCM'HARK,  a  mark  placed  upon 
some  permanent  object,  as  a  stone  or  wall,  for 
nse  in  tidal  observations  and  leveling  surveys. 
Its  poiirion  above  the  rero  of  the  tide-i^uf^  or 
other  datmn  level  is  made  a  matter  of  record 
and  anjr  level  once  established  may  be  readily 
ascertamed  at  a  future  period.  It  is  usually 
ma<Je  upon  some  durable  material  as  the  stone 
foundation  of  a  pier.  In  tidal  observations  a 
bench-mark  is  made  and  its  herRht  above  the 
zero  of  the  tide-gauge  is  recorded  immediately 
H>  that  in  case  the  latter  is  deEtroved.  it  may 
be  set  up  again  by  means  of  the  bench-mark. 


In  leveling  engineers  and  surveyors  make  ex- 
tensive use  of  bench-marks  and  to  them  refer 
all  levels  measured. 

BENCH  WARRANT,  a  warrant  issued 
by  the  court  before  which  an  indictment  has 
been  found  to  arrest  the  accused,  that  he  may 
appear  and  find  bail  for  his  appearance  at  the 
trial  Where  a  bench  warrant  is  directed  to  the 
sheriff  it  cannot  be  executed  by  one  having 
only  verbal  authority  from  the  sheriff,  and  such 
arrest  does  not  discharge  the  recognuance.  A 
bench  warrant  is  defective  whi<3i  does  not 
direct  that  the  party  shall  be  brought  before 
some  judge  or  justice. 

BENCHERS,  in  England,  senior  members 
of  the  Inns  of  Court,  who  have  the  entire  man- 
agement of  their  respective  inns,  the  power  of 
punishiog  barristers  guilty  of  misconduct,  and 
the  right  to  admit  or  reject  candidates  to  the 
bar.     See  also  Inns  of  Court. 

BENCOOLEN,  ben-kootin  (Ehitch,  Ben- 
koelen),  Sumatra,  a  seaport  on  the  southwest 
coast ;  long.  102'  19'  E. ;  lat.  3'  47'  36'  S.  The 
English  settled  here  in  1685,  and  in  1600  the 
East  India  Company  built  a  fori  here,  callinK  >t ' 
Fort  York.  It  rose  to  some  eminence  as  a 
centre  for  trade  and  coffee  growing.  In  1825 
Bencoolen  was  yielded  up  to  the  Dutch  in  ex- 
change tor  the  settlementson  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula. A  convenient  river  on  its  northwest  side 
conveys  pepper  out  of  the  inland  country;  but 
there  is  great  inconvenience  in  shipping  it,  bjr 
reason  of  a  dangerous  bar  at  the  river's  mouth. 
The  place,  which  is  almost  two  miles  in  compass, 
is  known  at  sea  by  a  hi^,  slender  mountain, 
which  rises  in  the  country  20  miles  beyond  i^ 
called  the  Su^r  Loaf.  It  is  inhabited  by  a 
mixed  populaUon.  The  medium  heat  through- 
out the  year  is  from  81°  to  82°.  Pepper  is  the 
chief  produce  of  the  adjacent  country,  whidi 
is  mountainous  and  woody.  The  place  is  un- 
healthy and  subject  to  earthquakes;  stonns-are 
frequent.     Pop.   about   12,000. 


studied  with  Hiltensperger,  Anschiitz  and 
Piloty.  He  was  made  professor  at  the  Acedemy 
of  Munich  in  1880  and  was  subsequently  director 
of  the  Academy  of  Pamldng  in  Budapest.  His 
distinction  was  recognized  by  his  nomination  as 
a  member  of  the  Hungarian  House  of  Mag- 
nates. His  paintinKS,  which  are  of  the  School 
of  Piloty,  are  noted  for  their  splendid  coloring. 
Among  the  most  celebrated  are  'Farewell  of 
Ladislas  Hunyady'  (1867);  'Arrest  erf 
Rak6czy  in  1701>  (1869;);  'Louis  XV  in  the 
Bondoir  of  Duharry'  (1870)  ;  'Family  of  Louis 
XVI  durinR  the  Assauh  on  Versailles'  (1872)  ; 
owned  by  T).  O.  Mills,  New  York;  'Baptism  of 
Saint  Stei*en>  (1875);  'Bacchanti'  (1881); 
'The  Reconquest  of  Buda  by  Charles  of  Lor- 
raine' (1888). 

BEND,  in  heraldiy,  one  of  the  nine  honor- 
able ordinaries,  containing  a  third  part  of  Ac 
field  when  charged,  and  a  fifth  when  plain, 
made  by  two  lines  drawn  diagonally  across  the 
shield  from  the  dexter  chief  to  the  sinister  base 
twint  The  bend  sinister  differs  only  by  cross- 
ing in  the  opiMsite  direction,  diagonally  from 
the  sinister  chief  to  the  dexter  base.  It  indi- 
cates illegitimacy.  ^-^  . 

;,i,z=d=,Cj00gle 


.«oa 


BBNDA  — BSNOIRE 


BEN  DA,  Franz,  German  violinist:  b. 
Juugbunzlau  Bohemia,  1709;  d.  Potsdam,  1786. 
He  exhibitea,  while  a  boy,  a  great  desire  to  learn 
the  violin  which  he  could  cratify  in  no  other 
way  than  by  joining  a  band  of  strolling  musi- 
cians. He  found  means,  however,  to  acquire  an 
extraordinary  mastery  of  the  instrument,  and 
in  1732  entered  the  service  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  then  prince-royal,  with  whom  he  re- 
mained the  rest  of  his  long  life.  He  founded 
a  school  of  violinists,  whose  method  of  playing 
was  entirely  original  and  quite  effective.  He 
also  published  some  excellent  solos  for  the  vio- 
lin. 

BBNDA,  OeorE,  German  musician,  the 
most  distinguished  of  a  notable  musical  family: 
b.  JuQgbunzlau,  Bohemia,  1721 ;  d.  Kostrii  1795. 
He  was  bandmaster  to  the  Duke  of  Gotha 
(1748-87),  and  in  this  period  produced  several 
opcTas  and  cantatas,  such  as  'Ariadne  atif 
Naxos'  and  'Medea.' 

b£NDALOU,  Psol,  a  soldier  of  the 
American  Kevolutionary  army :  b.  Montaubati, 
France,  15  Aug.  1755;  d.  Baltimore,  Md.,  10 
Dec.  1826.  In  October  1776  he  embarked  at 
Bordeaux  for  the  United  States  as  a  volunteer 
in  the  cause  of  liberty,  and,  on  reaching  the 
headquarters  of  Waslungton,  received  a  lieu- 
tenant's commission.  Transferred  to  the  com- 
mand of  Pulaski  he  was  captain  of  the  first 
company  in  his  famous  legion  at  the  sief^  of 
Savannah.  There  he  carried  off  the  field  the 
body  of  the  generous  Pole,  and  preserved,  also, 
the  standard  of  the  legion  which  had  been 
wrought  and  presented  by  the  wives  and 
daughters  of  Maryland.  He  was  nnartermas- 
ter-general  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  in  the 
Maryland  militia  daring  the  War  of  1812,  and 
for  many  years  United  States  marshal  for  the 
Circuit  and  District  Courts  of  Maryland,  his 
official  conduct,  from  first  to  last,  bdng  mariced 
with  exactness  and  integrity. 

6BNDAVID,  ben-da'-vtt,  Lawmw,  Gei- 
man-Jewish  mathematician  and  philosopher:  b. 
Berlm,  18  Oct.  1762;  d.  there  1832.  After  his 
graduation  from  the  University  of  Berlin  he 
lectured  for  some  ^ears  on  the  philosophy  of 
Kant  in  Vienna.  His  lectures  being  discouraged 
by  the  Austrian  government  he  returned  to  Ber- 
lin, where  he  found  employment  tmder  the  gov* 
ernment.  He  is  the  author  of  *Uber  die  Paral- 
lellinien>  (Beriin  1786)  ;  'Verauch  einer  logi- 
schen  Auseinanderselzung  des  malhcmatisch- 
unendlichen'  (Berlin  1796)  ;  'Versuch  iiber  das 
Vergniigen'  (2  vols,.  Vienna  1794)  ;  »Vor- 
lesungen  iiber  die  Kritik  der  reinen  Vemunft> 
(Vienna  1795) ;  'Vorlesungcn  uber  die  Kritik 


<Selbstbiographie'    (Berlin   1804). 

BENDKMANN.  ben'df-m»n,  Eduard, 
German  painter :  b.  Berlin,  3  Dec.  181 1 ;  d, 
Dusseldorf,  27  Dec.  1889.  As  early  as  1832 
his  great  picture  of  the  <Jcws  Mourning  in 
Exile'  was  exhibited  at  Berlin,  and  in  1837  he 
gained  the  gold  medal  at  Paris.  In  1838  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  the  Academy  of 
Art  at  Dresden,  Here  he  was  entrusted  with 
the  execution  of  the  larger  frescoes  in  the 
palace,  and  on  these  his  fame  chie£y  depends. 


In  1858  he  was  appointed  director  of  die  Dis- 
seJdorf  Academy,  a  post  which  he  held  until 
1867.  He  afterward  produced  several  ticge 
canvases  and  frescoes,  some  of  which  irc 
among  his  best  works.  Tytler,  'Modem 
Painters  and  their  Pointinga'  (1899). 

BENDER,  Russia,  a  dty  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Bessarabia.  It  is  situated  on  tbc 
Dniester,  55  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  36  miles 
from  Kishinev,  the  capital  of  the  govemment, 
and  is  a  stragi^g  place,  chiefly  connstinR  of 
low  houses  and  mere  bats.  It  contains  several 
churches,  ^nagogucs  a  mosqne  and  a  gyni- 
nasimn  for  women.  It  fonnerly  possessed  a 
Strang  fortress  but  this  was  dismantled  in  1897. 
Its  commerce  is  important.  It  has  a  trade  b 
grain,  timber,  cattle^  animal  products  and  wine. 
In  1770  the  Russians  captured  the  dty  and  put 
the  garrison  and  inhabitants,  about  30.000,  to  the 
sword.  After  being  several  times  taken  from 
the  Turks  by  the  Russiaa^  it  has  belonged  to 
Russia  since  the  Peace  of  Bucharest,  in  1812. 
Pop.  33.800.  mostly  Jewish  with  a  blend  of  Rus- 
sians. Armenians  and  Tartars. 

BENDER  ABBAS,  Persia,  seaport  in  the 
Strait  of  Ormuz.  It  was  once  of  consideraUc 
commercial  importance  but  its  tnde  has  di- 
minished within  recent  years.  The  chief  ex- 
ports passing  through  this  port  are  fruit, 
tobacco,  wooC  carpets  and  oiuum,  amotmtinK  to 
about  ^,300,000  a  year.  The  [rapulation,  about 
20,000,  is  composed  of  Armenians.  Arabs  and 
Kurds,  beside  the  native  Persians. 

BENDIGO.  formerly  Sandhumt,  Aus- 
tralia, citj  in  Bendigo  County,  Victoria,  on 
Bendigo  Creek,  fully  100  miles  north -northwest 
of  Melbourne  with  which  it  has  direct  railway 
communication.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  cities  in 
the  colony  and  an  important  railway  centre. 
Along  one  side  of  its  main  street  fPall  Mall) 
there  are  fine  buildings  of  bnck  and  stone,  and 
fadng  these,  in  Rosalind  Park,  are  the  elegant 
government  buildings  and  the  taw  courts,  which 
together  cost  neariy  £80,000.  Other  building 
worthy  of  mention  are  the  handsome  town-halt : 
mechanics'  institute,  with  library  and  school  a( 
mines;  free  library^  temperance,  masonic  and 
other  halls ;  hospital,  benevolent  asylum ;  soitie 
fine  banks;  AnglicaiL  Weslffvan,  Prcsbylerian 
and  other  churches;  Roman  Catholic  catnidral, 
art  gallery,  jail,  state  and  other  schools,  etc. 
The  public  parks  comprise,  besides  the  Rosalind 
Park,  the  fine  Botanic  Gardens  and  two  others 
largely  used  for  sports.  The  streets  are  lighted 
by  gas  and  electnclty,  and  there  is  an  excellent 
-    '      '  '-    -       '■         -r  the 


gold  mining,  which  gives  employment  to  5,000 
miners.  Other  important  industries  are  brew- 
ing^ iron- founding,  stone-cutting,  granite-pol- 
icing, tanning  and  the  manufacture  of  pottery. 
bridH,  tiles,  cordials,  etc  Agriculture  and  viti- 
culture are  carried  on  in  the  district  and  there 
is  a  trade  in  wine  and  fruits,  Bendigo  was 
founded  at  the  time  of  the  gold  discoveiv  id 
1851.  it  became  a  mHmctpality  in  1855,  a 
borough  in  1863  and  a  dty  in  1871.  Nearly 
£70,000,000  worth  of  gold  has  been  obtained 
here,  much  of  it  from  quarti  reefs.  Pop.  (1911) 
39.417,  including  about  300  Chinese.  Consult 
Mackay,  'History  of  Bendigo'    (1901). 

BENDIRB,  b«n-d6'rf.  CluriM  Btnll  Ger- 
man-American militaiT  officer  and  omithoMKist: 


BENDZXN  — BBNBDBTTO  DA  MAIANO 


b.  Dannstadt,  Gennany,  27  April  1S36;  d:  1897. 
He  came  to  the  United  States  in  1852,  and  en- 
tering the  army  in  18S4,  served  throusb  the 
'  Gvil  War,  becoming  a  captain  in  toe  1st 
Cavalry.  After  the  war  he  was  transferred  to 
the  West,  and  was  retired  24  April  1886.  Dur- 
ing his  slay  in  the  West  he  applied  himself  to 
the  study  of  ornithology,  and  collected  a  vast 
amount  of  material  in  various  branches  of 
natural  history.  In  1870  he  began  to  collect 
the  eggs  of  North  American  birds,  which  finally 
numbered  more  than  8,000  specimens,  and  this 
collection  he  presented  to  the  United  States 
b^ational  Museum.  He  is  the  author  of  'The 
Life  Histories  of  North  American  Birds,  with 
Special  Reference  to  their  Breeding  Habits  and 
Eggs.' 

BENDZIH,  ben'jcn,  Russian  Poland,  the 
capital  of  a  district  in  the  government  of  Piotr- 
kow,  situated  on  the  Black  Przemsia,  264  miles 
from  Warsaw,  on  a  branch  of  the  Warsaw  & 
Vienna  Railroad.  Its  chief  industry  is  the  zinc 
works,  under  government  control;  there  are 
also  coal  mines  in  the  vicinity,  and  a  consider- 
able manufacture  of  fireproof  bricks.  The  in- 
teresting ruins  of  an  ancient  castle  are  a  feature 
of  the  town.  Pop.  21,200,  more  then  one-half 
of  which  is  Jewish. 

BENE,  bin'f,  the  plant  that  furnishes  oil 
of  sesamum. 

BEHEDEK,  bi'nl-iik,  Lndwic  von, 
Austrian  military  officer :  b.  Odenburg,  Hun- 
gary, 14  July  1804;  d.  Gratz,  27  April  1881.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Academy  Wiener-Neustadt 
and  joined  the  army  as  ensign  in  1822.  By 
IS46  he  was  colonel  and  won  further  reco^i- 
tion  in  suppressing  the  insurrection  in  Galtcia. 
He  fought  against  the  Italians  in  1848,  and 
afterward  agamst  the  Hungarian  patriots.  He 
distinguished  himself  at  Solferino  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1859,  being  the  last  to  leave  the  field 
at  Solferino;  he  was  military  governor  of  Hun- 
gary in  1860  and  soon  after  was  madb  com- 
mander of  the  Austrian  army  in  Venetia;  and 
in  the  war  with  Prussia  in  1866  commanded  the 
Austrian  army  till  after  his  defeat  at  Sadowa, 
when  he  was  superseded. 

BBNBDETTI,  bi-na  dft'tf,  Vincent 
(CoMTE  de),  French  diplomatist  of  Italian  ex- 
traction: b.  Bastia,  Corsica,  29  April  1817;  d. 
Paris,  28  March  1900.  He  was  educated  for 
the  public  service,  held  consulates  in  Cairo, 
Palermo,  Malta  and  Tunis:  and  aa  secretary  of 
the  Congress  of  Paris  in  1856  drew  up  the  pro- 
tocols of  the  treaty  then  agreed  upon.  In  1861 
he  was  appointed  Ambassador  to  Italy,  and  in 
1864  to  Prussia.  Great  excitement  was  aroused 
throughout  Europe  fay  the  publication  in  the 
London  Times  on  13  July  1870  of  the  alleged 
draft  of  a  secret  treaty  between  France  and 
Prussia,  in  which  the  latter  agreed  to  a  French 
occupation  of  part  of  Belgium.  The  authentic- 
ity of  the  document  was  not  denied.  The 
French  government  declared  that  although 
Benedetti  had  written  the  document,  he  had 
done  so  at  the  dictation  of  Bismarck.  At  the 
same  time  Benedetti  was  under  orders  to  pro- 
test against  the  candidature  of  Prince  Leopold 
of  the  house  of  Hohenzollern  for  the  crown 
of  Spain.  He  became  so  importunate  in  trying 
to  carry  out  these  orders  that  he  was  forbidden 
lo  seek  further  interviews  with  King  William. 
The  refusal  of  the  Kin^  to  a^in  rec^ve  Bfioa- 


detti  gave  great  offense  in  France,  and  was 
made  a  pretext  for  declaring  war  within  a  few 
days.  After  the  fall  of  the  empire,  Benedetti 
withdrew   from   public   hfe.     In    1871   he   pub- 


which  the  latter  made  a  vigorous  reply.  Bene- 
detti was  author  of  'Ma  mission  en  Prusse' 
(1871);  and  'Essais  diplomatiques,'  an  English 
translation  of  which  appeared  in  1895. 

BENEDETTO  DA  MAIANO  (or 
Majano)  da  ma-ya-'no  (real  name  Benedetto 
m  l^EONAKDo),  Italian  sculptor  and  architect:  fa. 
Florence  1+42;  d.  there  27  May  1497.  He  was 
the  son  of  Leonardo  da  Maiano,  a  stone  mason 
and  builder,  in  whose  family  the  trades  and 
those  allied  to  them  seem  to  have  been  a  tradi- 
tion. Of  Benedetto's  two  brothers,  one  was  a 
carpenter  and  the  other,  Giuliano,  was  an  archi- 
tect, wood-carver  and  terra  cotta  worker.  Bene- 
detto, indeed,  seems  to  have  begun  his  career 
in  the  workshop  of  Giuliano  who  was  by  10 
years  his  senior.  The  tradition  of  the  family 
was  again  carried  on  when  one  of  Benedetto  s 
four  sous  became  a  wood-carver.  The  first  in- 
dependent work  of  Benedetto's  is  the  tomb  of 
Saint  Savinus  in  the  cathedral  of  Faenza, 
probably  dating  from  1471-72,  The  execution 
of  the  monument  is  already  so  masterly  that 
some  authorities  have  thought  it  should  be  as- 
signed to  a  later  date.  By  1474,  Benedetto  was 
established  ill  Florence,  at  least  for  some  time, 
and  we  have  reason  to  think  that  the  orders  he 
received  from  other  cities,  such  as  Arexzo, 
Siena  and  Naples,  were  executed  in  the  Floren- 
tine worluhop  and  sent  to  their  destinaticHi 
ready  fur  setting  up  in  place.  Shortly  after 
1474  Benedetto  produced  the  famous  pulpit  of 
the  Church  of  Santa  Croce  —  the  finest  example 
of  marble  pictorial  relief  in  Italian  sculpture. 
It  is  the  most  imposing  of  his  works  and  one 
which  must  be  referred  entirely  to  his  own 
genius.  About  the  same  time  he  was  at  work 
in  the  Palazzo  Vecchio  (Municipal  Palace)  of 
Florence,  which  he  enriched  with  architectural 
and  sculptural  decorations.  That  his  art  was 
remunerative  may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that 
in  1480  Benedetto  and  his  brother  founded  a 
family  chapel  in  Prato.  We  find  the  artist 
working  for  Lorcto  in  the  succeeding  years,  with 
another  great  patron  in  King  Ferdinand  of 
Naples.  But  the  work  which  has  probably  done 
most  for  his  fame  is  the  building  of  Palazzo 
Strozzi  in  Florence.  He  did  not  live  to  see  it 
finished  (it  was  begun  in  1489)  but  there  can 
be  little  doubt  that  tnc  conception  is  his,  that  he 
saw  the  gigantic  palace  rise  to  its  second  story, 
that  he  planned  its  structure  and  designed  its 
court.  His  sculptural  portrait  of  Filippo 
Strozzi  (the  marble  of  which  is  in  the  Louvre 
and  the  clay  model  in  Berlin)  shows  the  kin- 
ship between  the  conceptions  of  the  two  parts. 
as  practised  by  the  great  Florentine  —  it  alsck 
shows  bis  appreciation  of  die  character  of  the 
man  who  was  suited  by  the  warnor-patacc  he 
had  asked  for.  A  striking  contrast  witlt  this. 
construction  is  found  in  Benedetto's  Lo^a  of 
Santa  Uaria  delle  Grazie  at  Arezzo,  which  has 
all  the  fineness  and  charm  that  the  name  sug- 
gests. As  sculptor  and  architect  Benedetto 
will  stand  for  all  time  among  pure  and  nofale 
figures  of   Florentine  art 

We  may  note  further  the  following  import- 
ant wqrks  by  him :  the  aKar  of  $anta  Fijia  at. 


Google 


fiBNBDICITB  — BBNEDICT  X 


San  GimiKnano  the  ciborium  o£  San  Donienico 
in  Siena,  the  tabernacle  oE  the  Badia  at  Areuo, 
and  the  Madonna  of  the  Berhn  Museum.  Con- 
sult for  reproductions  and  comments  on  his 
sculpture  Bode's  'Denkmaler  der  Renaissance 
Skuiptut  Toskanas'  (Vol.  VII,  Munich  1892- 
190S)  ;  for  his  architecture,  Stegmann  and  Von 
Geym tiller,  'Architektur  dcr  Renaissance  in 
Toscana'    (Vol.   IV,   Munich   1885-1908). 


as  g^ven  in  the  Apocrypha  and  the  Septuagint 
version  of  Daniel,  which  is  a  part  of  the  Roman 
Breviary  in  the  office  of  lauds;  it  is  also  a  part 
of  the  Anglican  morning  prayer,  to  be  used 
when  the  Te  Deum  is  not  suna,  usually,  from 
Scptuagesima  to  Easter  and  during  Advent. 
It  was  sung  in  the  Church  as  early  as  the  time 
of  Saint  Chtysostom,  The  name  oriRinated 
in  the  opening;  sentence,  "Benedicite  omnia 
opera  Dei"  ("Praise  all  the  works  of  God'). 

BENEDICT,  Saint,  the  founder  of  the 
first  religious  order  in  the  west:  b.  Norcia, 
Italy.  480;  d.  21  March  543.  While  yet  a  youth 
he  retired  to  a  cavern  situated  in  the  desert  of 
Subtaco,  40  miles  from  Rome,  and  for  three 
years  dwelt  in  a  cavern  (afterward  called  the 
Holy  Grotto).  He  afterward  founded  12 
monasteries.  In  515  he  drew  up  a  rule  for  his 
monks,  which  was  first  introduced  into  the 
monastery  on  Monte  Cassino,  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Naples,  founded  by  him  (529)  in  a 
grove  of  Apollo  after  the  temple  had  been  de- 
molished. This  gradually  became  the  rule  of 
all  the  western  monks.  The  abbots  of  Monte 
Cassino  afterward  acquired  episcopal  juris- 
diction and  a  certain  patriarchal  authority  over 
the  whole  order.  Benedict,  with  the  intention 
of  banishing  idleness,  prescribed,  in  addition  to 
the  work  of  God  (as  he  called  prayer  and  the 
reading  of  religious  writings),  the  instruction 
of  youth  in  reading,  writing  and  ciphering,  in 
the  doctrines  of  Christianity,  in  manual  labors 
(including  mechanic  arts  of  every  kind),  and 
in  the  manaBement  of  the  monastery.  With 
regard  to  dresa  and  food,  the  rule  was  severe 
but  not  extravagant.  Benedict  caused  a  library 
to  be  founded,  for  which  the  aged  and  infirm 
brethren  (ordo  scriplomts)  were  obliged  to 
copy  manuscripts.  By  this  means  he  contri- 
buted to  preserve  the  literary  remains  of  an- 
tiquity from  ruins;  for  thou^  he  had 


/orks   of   every  kind;   and   the   world 
debted   for   the   preservation   of   great   literary 
treasures  to  the  order  of  Saint  Benedict. 

Bibliography.—  Doyle,  F.  C,  'Teachings  of 
Saint  Benedict*  (London  1887)  ;  Henderson,  G. 
R,  •Hi'itorical  Documents  of  the  Middle  Ages* 
(pp.  274-314,  ib.  1892);  Lechner.  'Life  and 
Times  of  Saint  Benedict*  (ib.  1900) ;  Speit- 
lenhofer,  S.,  'Die  historisehe  Voraussetzun^en 
der  Regel  des  heiligen  Benedict  von  Nursia* 
(Vienna  1895);  Wolffin,  <B.  von  Nursia  und 
seine  Monehsregel*  (Leipiig  1895).  See 
Benedictines, 


BENEDICT  II,  succeeded  Leo  II,  684;  d. 
685,  and  was  succeeded  by  John  V.  He  de- 
cided the  English  controversy  in  favor  of  Wil- 


frid'of  York  and  was  canonized  because  of  bis 

BENEDICT  III,  succeeded  Leo  IV,  855. 
The  Emperor  Lothair  opposed  his  election,  but 
he  was  acltnowlcdgcd  finally.  He  did  much  to 
improve  and  beautify  the  ecclesiastical  edifices 
of  Rome.  During  his  pontificate,  the  Saracens 
were  ravaging  Apulia  and  Campania;  d.  858. 
and  was  succeeded  by  Nicholas  I. 

BENEDICT.  IV,  succeeded  John  IX, 
about  900.  He  crowned  Louis,  son  of  Boson, 
King  of  Italy.  He  was  famed  for  his  charity 
to  the  poor;  d  903,  and  was  succeeded  by  Leo 


BBHBDICT  V.  succeeded  John  XII,  964, 

and  was  appointed  by  the  Romans  in  opposition 
to  Leo  Vin.  The  Emperor  Otho,  supporter  of 
Leo,  appeared  before  Rome  with  an  army,  re- 
duced oie  city  to  famine,  and  a  new  assembly 
of  the  clergy  declared  to  be  null  the  election 
of  Benedict,  who  was  exikd;  d.  in  prison  at 
Hamburg,  965. 

BENEDICT  VI,  succeeded  John  XIII. 
972.  After  the  death  of  the  Emperor  Otho  I. 
the  Romans  imprisoned  Benedict  who  was 
strangled  in  the  castle  of  Saint  Angelo,  in  974. 
Owing  to  the  mistake  of  later  chroniclers  in 
confusing  Dominus  Papa  with  a  supposed 
proper  name,  Donus  11  appears  in  many  lists  of 
the  Popes  between  Benedict  VI  and  Benedict 
VII.  (Jeisebrecht,  in  his  <Year-Book  of  the 
German  Kingdom  under  Otho  II'  has  dearly 
shown  that  no  such  Pope  as  Donus  II  ever 
existed. 

BENEDICT  VII,  of  the  family  of  Conti, 
elected  in  975.  He  promoted  ecclesiastical 
discipline  and  did  much  to  suppress  simony. 
During  his  pontificate,  the  Emperor' Otho  II 
came  repeatedly  to  Rome,  where  he  died  in  984. 
Benedict  died  about  the  same  time,  and  was 
succeeded  by  John  XIV. 

BENEDICT  VIII,  of  the  same  family, 
succeeded  Sergius  IV.  in  1012.  In  1016^  the 
Saracens  from  Sardinia  having  landed  on  the 
coast  of  Tuscany,  Benedict  attacked  and  de- 
feated them.  He  crowned  the  Emneror  Henty 
II,  and  his  wife,  in  the  Oiurch  of  Saint  Peter. 
At  the  synod  of  Pavia  he  interdicted  clerical 
marriage  and  concubinage;  d.  1024,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  John  XIX.  Consult 
his  'Life'  by  P.  G.  Wappfer  (Leiptig  1897). 

BENEDICT  IX,  a  relative  of  the  two 
preceding  Popes,  succeeded  John  XIX  in  1034. 
He  was  then  very  young,  some  say  only  18 
years  old.  He  was  deposed  by  the  Romans 
soon  after  election.  Conrad  II  reinstated  him 
in  1038.  In  1044  he  was  again  banished  by 
Consul  Ptolenucus,  but  was  reinstated  within 
three  months.  The  followirw  year  Gregory  VI 
was  declared  Pope,  and  in  1046  all  three  Popes, 
Gregory.  Benedict  and  Sylvester  were  deposed 
by  the  Emperor  Heniy  III,  who  set  up  as  Pope, 
Sui<^r,  bishop  of  Bamberg,  as  Clement  II. 
Clement  died  in  1047  and  Benedict  resumed 
the  papal  throne  for  eight  months,  when  he  was 
displaced  by  Leo  IX.  He  died  in  the  convent 
of  Grotta  Fcrrata  in  1056.  Consult  'Life*  by 
Gioragnoli  (Milan  1900). 

BBNEDICT  X  was  elected  W  a  faction 
after  the  death  of  Stephen  IX,  in  1058;  but  the 
Cotmcil  of  Sietia  nominated  Nicholas  II.  Bene- 


BENEDICT  XI  — BENEDICT  XV 


SOS 


diet  dW  not  submit  till  the  following  year,  when 
Nicholas  came  into  Rome ;  d.   1059. 

BENEDICT  XI,  a  Dominican,  succeeded 
BoniEace  VIII,  in  1303.  Contemporary  his- 
torians speak  highly  of  his  cha racier  and 
virtues.  He  died  1304,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Clement  V. 

BENEDICT  XII,  Jacques  Foumier,  a 
native  of  France,  succeeded  John  XXII.  in  1334, 
the  Popes  residing  then  at  Avignoa  He  put 
a  stop  to  many  abuses  in  the  distribution  of 
ecclesiastical  patronage,  enforced  discipline 
among  the  monastic  orders,  and  insisted  that 
temporal  rulers  should  observe  their  compacts 
with  the  Holy  See ;  d  1342,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Clement  VI. 

BENEDICT  XIII,  Cardinal  Orwni,  suc- 
ceeded Innocent  XIII,  in  1724,  but  it  was  with 
difficulty  that  he  could  be  made  to  accept  the 
pontificate.  Benedict  lived  with  the  greatest 
frugality,  and  has  been  called  more  a  monk 
than  a  Pope,  He  managed,  however,  to  trans- 
act an  extraordinary  number  of  affairs.  A 
large  number  of  saints  were  included  in  the 
calendar  during  his  pontificate.  Benedict  was 
moderate  in  politics  and  a  great  lover  of  peace^ 
was  instrumental  in  arranging  the  Treaty  of 
Seville  in  1729.  His  great  fach  was  his  im- 
plicit confidence  in  Cardinal  Cosrl^  who  much 
abused  it.  His  works  were  published  in  1728, 
in  three  volumes  folio.  He  died  in  February 
1731,  and  was  succeeded  by  Clement  XII. 

BENEDICT  XIV,  Prosperp  Lambertiiii! 
b.  Bologna  1675;  d.  3  May  17S8.  He  applied 
himself  with  success  to  the  canon  and  civil  taw, 
and  became  advocate  to  the  consistory  at  Rome. 
Afterward  he  was  appointed  bromotgr  fidei, 
and  wrote  a  valuable  work  on  the  'Ceremonies 
used  in  Beatifications'  (1734).  He  was  pas- 
sionately fond  of  learning,  of  historical  re- 
searches, and  monuments  of  art;  and  also  asso- 
ciated with  the  distinguished  men  of  his  time; 
among  others  with  Father  Montfaucon,  who 
said  of  him :  "Benedict  has  two  souls ;  one  for 
science  and  the  other  for  society."  He  also 
made  himself  familiar  with  the  best  poetical 
works,  whereby  his  mind  became  elevated  and 
his  style  animated.  Benedict  XIII  made  him, 
in  1727,  bishop  of  Ancona;  in  1728  cardinal, 
and  in  1732  archbishop  of  Bologna.  In  every 
station  he  displayed  great  talents,  and  fulfilled 
his  duties  widi  the  most  conscientious  zeal, 
He  opposed  fanaticism  even  at  the  risk  of  his 
owit  safety,  defended  the  oppressed  and  ex- 
pressed  himself  with  the  greatest  frankness  to 
Clement  XII  without  losing  his  favor.  When, 
after  the  death  of  Oement  XII  in  1740,  the 
election  of  a  new  Pope  in  the  conclave  was  re- 
tarded by  the  intrigues  of  Cardinal  Tencin,  and 
the  cardinals  coula  not  agree,  Lambertini,  with 
his  usual  ^Dod  nature,  said  to  them,  ''If  you 
want  a  saint  take  Gotti ;  if  a  politician,  Aldo- 
brandi;  if  a  good  old  man,  myself."  These 
words,  thrown  out  in  a  humorous  manner, 
operated  on  the  conclave  like  inspiration,  and 
Lambertini.  under  the  name  of  Benedict  XIV, 
ascended  tDe  papal  throne.  His  tiiotce  of  the 
ministers  and  friends  whom  he  assembled 
around  him  does  the  greatest  honor  to  his 
judgment  The  condition  of  the  Church  and 
of  the  Roman  court  had  not  escaped  his  pene- 
tration.      Since    the   Reformation    princes   no 


longer  trembled  at  the  thunders  of  the  Vatican. 
The  power  of  the  Popes  in  temporal  affairs 
had  notably  declined,  and  Lambertini  knew  that 
respect  for  the  papal  authority  could  be  main- 
tained only  by  a  wise  moderation.  He  con- 
stantly regulated  his  measures  by  this  prin- 
ciple, and  thus  succeeded,  even  in  difficult  cir- 
cumstances, in  satisfying  not  only  the  CathO' 
lic  but  even  the  Protestant  princes.  The 
sciences  were  a  special  object  of  his  care.  He 
established  academies  at  Rome ;  promoted  the 
prosperity  of  the  academy  at  Bologna;  caused 
a  degree  of  the  meridian  to  be  measured;  the 
obelisk  to  be  erected  in  the  Campus  Martins ; 
the  church  of  Saint  Marcellino  to  be  built  after 
a  plan  projected  by  himself ;  the  beautiful  pic- 
tures in  Saint  Peter's  to  be  executed  in  mosaic; 
the  best  English  and  French  works  to  be  trans- 
lated into  Italian;  and  commanded  a  catalogue 
of  the  manuscripts  contained  in  the  Vatican 
library  (the  number  of  which  he  had  enlarged 
to  3,300)  to  be  printed.  His  government  of  the  . 
papal  states  did  equal  honor  to.  his  wisdom. 
He  enacted  severe  laws  against  usury,  favored 
commercial  liberty,  and  diminished  the  number 
of  holidays.  His  piety  was  sincere,  yet  en- 
lightened and  forbearing.  He  strove  to  main- 
tain purity  of  doctrine  and  of  morals,  giving 
in  his  own  character  the  most  praiseworthy  ex- 
ample. The  sole  reproach  brought  against  him 
by  the  Romans  was  that  he  wrote  too  much 
and  governed  too  little.  His  works  compose, 
in  the  Venice  edition,  16  volumes  folio  (1767). 
The  most  important  of  his  works  is  that  on  the 
Synods,  in  which  we  recognise  the  great  canon- 
ist. Other  editions  of  his  works  are  those  issued 
under  the  editorship  of  Aievedo  (12  vols., 
1747-51)  ;  at  Prato  (17  vols..  1846).  His  letters 
were  edited  by  F,  X.  Kraus  (Freiburg  1884; 
2d  ed.  as  a  biography  by  F.  Scarselli,  with 
bibliography  1888).  Other  letters  edited  by  B. 
Manzone  (Bra  1890).  Consult  McHilliam,  <A 
Chronicle  of  the  Popes*  (London  1912)  and 
Pastor,  'The  History  of  the  Popes*  (London 
1906-12), 

BENEDICT  XV,  Glacotno  dells  Chiesa: 
b.  Pegli^  near  seaport  of  Genoa,  21  Nov.  1854. 
Made  his  early  studies  in  the  town  gymnasia  of 
Genoa  at  the  university  of  which  ne  received 
the  doctor's  degree  in  jurisprudence.  He 
studied  theology  at  Rome  in  the  Collegio 
Capranica  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1878.  He 
then  became  secretary  of  Cardinal  Mariano 
Rampolla  who  when  appointed  Secretary  of 
State  in  1887  chose  him  as  under  secretary. 
In  1907  Mgr.  della  Chiesa  was  created  arch- 
bishop of  Bologna  and  elevated  to  the  cardl- 
natate  25  May  191S  and  on  3  September  follow- 
ing, after  nine  ballots,  was  elected  the  succes- 
sor of  Pius  X.  The  tidings  from  the  conclave 
were  proclaimed  from  the  upper  portico  of  the 
Vatican  Basilica  by  Cardinal  della  Volpe.  He 
announced  in  Latin ;  'the  great  joy  that  we  have 
as  pope  most  eminent  and  most  reverend 
Giacomo  della  Chiesa  who  has  taken  the  name 
of  Benedict  XV.»  Points  of  resemblance  are 
easily  traced  between  Benedict  XV  and  Pros- 
pero  Lambertini,  Pope  Benedict  the  XIV  who 
was  archbishop  of  Bologna  when  elected  in 
1740  of  whom  Voltaire  wrote :  "This  is  Lamber- 
tini the  honor  of  Rome  and  the  father  of 
Christendom  who  has  fought  the  world  by  his 
writings  and  adorns  it  by  his  virtues,'     The 


,y  Google 


Boe 


BKNEDICT  — BENEDICT  BISCOP 


scholanhip  of  Benedict  XV  is  comprehensive 
and  finished.  He  is  a  palron  of  arts  and  litera- 
ture. His  is  a  lofty  and  penetrating  mind.  In 
disposition  he  is  strong  and  gentle.  Noble  and 
aristocratic  he  counts  in  his  ancestry  mea  dis- 
tinguished by  birth  and  deeds.  From  the  mo- 
ment of  his  succession  to  the  papacy  he  found 
himself  face  to  face  with  world  conditions 
which  for  the  difficulties  they  still  beget  and 
the  problems  they  will  surely  create  nave  no 
equal  in  all  history.  His  predecessor,  Pius  X, 
succumbed  to  the  terrible  prostration  forced 
upon  him  by  the  desolation  mto  which  all  the 
European  families  were  plun^d  by  the  Great 
War  which  at  the  present  wntin^,  that  is  two 
years  after  it  began,  is  still  agonuinf;  the  uni- 
verse. Benedict  XV  stands  firm  fronting  the 
terrible  scenes  with  which  hourly  he  is  pre- 
setited.  He  is  neutral  in  the  strictest  sense  of 
the  word.  His  cry  is  an  eloquent  appeal  for 
peace.  His  sympathy  is  with  evenr  fighting 
.  man  and  with  the  war  widows  and  orphans. 
In  'Ubi  Primtmi,'  his  declaration  to  tfae  Uni- 
versal Church,  8  Sept  1914,  he  gives  the  key- 
note of  his  policy  when  he  says ;  'Since  fal- 
lowing the  example  of  our  Lord,  we  must  be 
ready  even  to  lay  down  our  life  for  the  salva- 
tion of  the  Sock  of  Christ,  it  is  our  avowed 
tion  to  leave  nothing  undone,  in  as  far  as 
9   lies,  to  bring  the  present  calamity  to  a 


over  and  his  priests  are  on  every  battlefield  and 
engaged  in  all  kinds  of  tasks,  his  figure  is  the 
most  conspicuous  in  these  disastrous  times.  All 
nations  look  up  to  him,  approve  his  efforts  and 
are  grateful.  His  most  notable  pronouncement 
is  his  encyclical  'Ad  Beatissifni  Apostolorum 
Principis,'  1  Nov.  1914.  In  it  he  refers  to 
manv  matters  of  world-wide  importance.  He 
emphasizes  the  moral  disorders  that  are  ad- 
mitted to  be  the  true  source  of  the  present 
disturbance,  the  chief  of  which  arc:  Lack  of 
mutual  love  among  men;  disregard  for  author- 
ity; unjust  quarrels  between  the  various  classes; 
material  prosperity  becoming  the  prominent  ob- 
ject of  numan  endeavor,  as  it  there  were 
nothing  higher  and  better  to  be  gained.  His 
affection  for  America  is  very  strong.  The  bibli- 
ography of  Benedict  XV  is  very  fraf^entary. 
Outside  of  some  magazines  and  reviews  and 
addresses  there  is  very  little  information.  The 
best  material  is  to  be  found  in  the  newspapers 
of  his  own  and  other  countries  published  at  the 
time  of  his  accession.  Consult  also  'The  Offi- 
cial Catholic  Directory>  (New  York  1916). 
Patrick  S.  Half  in. 
Professor  of  Ethics.  New  Rochelte  College. 
BENEDICT,  Sir  Jatiai,  German-English 
pianist  and  composer:  b.  Stuttgart  1804;  d.  Lon- 
don 1885.  In  182t  he  went  to  Dresden  to 
studv  tinder  Weber,  and  two  years  later  became 
conductor  at  a  Vienna  theatre.  His  first  opera, 
'Giacinta  ed  Ernesto,'  was  produced  in  Naples 
in  1829  without  success.  He  took  up  his  resi- 
dence in  England  in  1835,  and  was  knighted 
in  1^1.  He  was  for  many  years  conductor  at 
the  Norwich  festival,  and  during  a  number  of 
seasons  acted  as  operatic  conductor  in  London, 
both  for  English  and  Italian  opera.  His  prin- 
cipal works  arc  die  operas  'The  Gipsy's  Warn- 
inc'  (1838);  'The  Bride  of  Venice'  (1843); 
'The  Crusaders'    (1846)  ;    'The  Lily  of    Kil- 


lam^'  (1862),  founded  on  Boucicault's  '(^ 
leen  Bawn' ;  and  'The  Bride  of  Song'  (1864) ; 
the  canutas  'Undine'  (1860)  and  'Saint  Ce- 
cilia' (1866);  the  fine  oratorio  'Saint  Peter' 
(1870)  ;  and  the  cantata  'Graziella'   (188Z), 


ing  from  the  University  o  .  . 
he  taught  school  for  several  years,  after  which 
he  entered  the  Rochester  Theological  Seniinao' 
to  train  as  a  teacher  of  theology.  He  then 
finished  bis  education  with  a  year  abroad  at  the 
University  of  Giessen.  In  187S  he  was  a^poinld 

Kofcssor  at  the  University  of  Cincinnati,  where 
remained  for  the  rest  of  his  active  life, 
filling  at  various  limes  the  chairs  of  histoiy, 
psjrchology,  logic  and  philosophy.  In  1907  he 
retired  as  professor  emeritus.'  Among  his 
works  are  'The  Nervous  System  and  Con- 
sciousness' (1885);  'Theism  and  Evolution' 
(1886);  'Outlines  of  the  History  of  Educa- 
tion' (1888);  'Ethics  and  Evolution'  (\m)\ 
'New  Studies  in  the  Beatitudes  (1890);  'Re- 
ligion as  an  Idea'  (1903) ;  'Greek  Thought 
Movements  and  their  Ethical  Implications' 
(1905). 

BENEDICT  BISCOP,  An  Anglo-Saxon 
ecclesiastic:  b.  of  a  noble  Northumbnan  iamily 
in  628  or  629;  d.  Wearmouth,  12  Jan.  WO.  He 
spent  the  first  years  of  his  life  at  court,  but 
at  the  age  of  25  he  relinquished  this  manner  of 
life  and  accompanied  Wilfrid  on  a  pilgriin^^ 
to  Rome  in  653.  Here  be  lived  for  more  than 
10  years,  when  he  returned  to  England;  bat 
not  very  long  after  again  went  to  Rome,  on  a 
mission  intrusted  to  him  by  Alchfrid,  King  of 
Northumbria.  On  his  way  back  he  stopped  at 
Lerins  in  Provence,  where  he  remained  for  the 
next  two  years,  making  himself  acquainted  with 
the  rules  of  monastic  life  in  the  monastery  of 
Lerins,  of  which  he  had  become  a  member.  In 
668  he  made  a  third  journey  to  Rom^  where  he 
arrived  just  at  the  time  when  the  Pope  w»! 
about  to  appoint  some  one  to  fill  the  sec  of 
Canterbury,  which  was  then  vacant.  Having 
fixed  upon  Theodore,  a  Citidan  monk,  he  re- 
quested Benedict  to  accompany  him  to  England 
to  assist  him  in  securing  the  favor  o£  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  which  as  a  foreigner  he  might 
have  difficulty  in  doing.  Benedict  agreed  to  do 
this,  and  was  presented  with  the  ab^cy  of  Saint 
Peter's  in  Canterbury;  but  at  the  end  of  two 
years  he  resigned  the  abbacy  and  again  went  to 
Rome.  On  this  occasion  be  returned  to  Eng- 
land with  a  valuable  collection  of  books  and  ■ 
large  number  of  relics,  which  he  had  accumu- 
lated during  his  previous  visits  to  Rome.  With 
these  he  proceeded  first  to  Wessex  with  the 
intention  of  remaining  there,  but  finding  that 
the  King  of  Wessex  was  dead  he  returned 
northward  to  his  native  Northumbria,  and  there 
he  was  fortunate  enough  to  secure  the  favor  of 
King  Egfrid.  From  him  he  received  a  donation 
of  land  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wear,  on  wbidi 
he  founded  the  monastery  of  Wearmouth. 
Workmen  were  brought  from  France  to  build 
the  church  and  monastery.  In  678  he  made  his 
fourth  journey  to  Rome,  and  brought  back 
additional  stores  of  books  for  his  library,  a: 
well  as  pictures,  images,  glass  for  windows,  etc. 
with  which  he  decorated  the  monastery  he  had 
founded.     Here  we  have  OOC  o(  the  hnt  in- 


,y  Google 


BBIfflDICT  COLLSeX  —  ffiUfEiDICTINXS 


tm 


stances  of  the  use  of  window  {fla&s  in  EnKhtnd 
He  was  now  presented  by  Egfrid  with  a  iurther 
grant  of  land  on -die  other  side  of  the  Wear, 
where  he  founded  another  monastery,  that  oi 
Jarrow,  dependent  on  the  monastery  at  Wear- 
mouth.  During  die  remainder  of  his  life  he 
continued  to  live  in  the  latter  mooasten',  ex- 
cept on  the  occasion  o(  a  fifth  vovage  to  Rome, 
made  in  685,  and  from  which  he  derived  ai 
before  valuable  additions  to  his  various  collec- 
tions. It  is  chie£/  by  these  collections  that  his 
services  to  learning  are  to  be  estimated,  and 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  his  great  pupil,  the 
'Venerable  Bede,*  who  was  a  monk  in  the 
monastery  of  Jarrow,  was  immensely  indebted 
to  them  for  the  learning  be  acmured.  The 
impulse  given  by  his  labors  to  AnKlo-Saxon 
civitization  arc  aiHicult  to  estimate.  It  is  cer- 
tain, however,  that  the  valuable  and  extensive 
library  be  founded  at  Wearmouth  imparted  to 
the  nation  a  taste  for  literature  and  learning, 
which  bore  excellent  fruit  for  many  centuries. 
His  famous  pupil,  Bede,  wrote  his  life. 

BENEDICT  COLLEGE,  a  co-educa- 
tional institution  for  negroes  at  Columbia, 
S.  C,  conducted  by  the  American  Baptist  Mis- 
sion Society.  It  was  founded  in  18?1  as  Bene- 
dict Institute  and  chartered  as  a  college  in  1894. 
It  has  elementary,  high  school,  collegiate  and 
theological  departments.  All  work  on  the  cam- 
pus is  done  by  students,  also  all  the  worV 
of  the  Idtchen  and  dining-room.  There  are  13 
buildings  and  the  college  has  a  permanent 
invested  and  productive  endowment  of  $140,000. 
In  1916  it  had  35  instructors  and  700  enrolled 
students.    The  library  conUins  7,900  volumes. 

BENEDICTINE,  a  liqueur  originally  pre- 
pared  t^  the  Benedictine  monks  of  the  abbey 
of  Fecamp,  in  Normandy,  consistiiijg  of  spint 
(fine  brandy)  containing  .an  infi^sion  of  the 
juices  of  plants,  and  said  lo  possess  digestive 
anti- spasmodic,  and  other  virtues,  and  to  have 
prophylactic  efficacy  in  epidemics.  It  some- 
what resembles  chartreuse  and  has  been  made 
in  the  same  way  since  1510.    See  Liqueur. 

BENEDICTINES.  From  the  6th  to  the 
lOth  century  almost  all  the  monks  in  the  West 
might  be  so  called,  because  they  followed  the 
rule  of  Saint  Benedict  of  Norcia.  The  r\iles 
wtiich  at  that  time  the  monasteries  in  Spain 
and  France  received  from  their  bishops,  as 
well  as  the  rule  of  the  Irish  Saint  Columba, 
were  essentially  the  same  as  those  of  Saint 
Benedict;  and  in  the  progress  of  his  order  the 
monasteries  in  Spain  and  France,  as  well  as 
diose  of  the  order  of  Cohiraba,  united  them- 
selves with  it,  Monte  Cassino,  the  magnificent 
primitive  monastery  of  the  Benedictines,  be- 
came the  model  of  all  others.  At  that  time  the 
monasteries,  having  no  common  superiors,  were 
under  the  immediate  control  of  the  bishops  in 
their  respective  dioceses,  and  difiered  from  one 
another  in  many  qualifications  of  the  primitive 
role.  Not  even  the  color  of  their  dress  was 
the  same.  The  disciples  of  &>lumba  wOre 
white  garments  like  the  first  Benedictine  nuns, 
who  originated  In  Prance  in  the  6th  century. 
After  the  unions  which  took  place  at  a  later 
period,  all  tbe  members  of  this  order  -wore 
black,  as  tbe  founder  is  said  to  have  done.  The 
decline  of  momstic  discipline  after  the  8th 
centuty  occasioned  the  reforms  of  Benedict  of 
Aniana  in  France,  the  renewed  inculcation  of 


tbe  old  rule,  and  tbe  adt^tion  of  new  ordi- 
nanoes  suited  to  the  times,  by  (be  Council  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  (817),  aa  well  as  the  particu- 
lar rules  and  fratersities  of  the  celebrated 
monasteries  in  France,  Germany  and  England, 
which  in  those  barbarous  times  became  seats 
of  civilization,  and  finally  the  institution  of  the 
Cluniacs,  a  new  branch  of  tbe  Benedictines, 
which  proceeded  from  the  convent  of  Clugnyia 
Burgundy,  founded  in  the  year  910.  The  Bene- 
dictine monasteries,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  were 
often  asylums  in  wtiich  science  took  refuge  and 
found  protection.  In  place  of  the  discordant 
and  uncertain  rules  which  had  hitherto  existed, 
the  Cluniacs  made  fixed  regulations  concern^ 
ing  the  hours  of  worship,  the  obedience,  dis- 
cipline and  common  government  of  all  the 
monasteries  belonging  to  their  order,  which 
were  soon  imitated  in  all  Europe.  In  the  12th 
ce&tnry  their  order  contained  2,000  monasteries, 
whose  luxury  frequently  called  for  reforms, 
and  finally  became  the  chief  cause  of  their 
decline.  The  remains  of  the  Cluniacs  united 
themselves  in  the  17th  century,  under  tbe  pat- 
rona^  of  Richelieu,  with  the  Benedictine  fra- 
ternities of  Saint  Vannes  and  Saint  Maurus, 
tbe  latter  of  which,  founded  in  1618^  had  in 
the  be^nnin^  of  the  18th  century  180  abbeys 
and  priories  m  France,  and  acquired  by  means 
of  its  learned  members,  such  as  Ma  billon, 
Montfaucon  and  Marlfaie.  merited  distinctiotL 
To  this  family  belong  those  new  orders  estab- 
lished on  the  foundation  and  observing  tbe  rule 
of  Saint  Bene(fict,  which  have  originated  since 
the  11th  century,  and  are  distinguished  from 
and  proper  Benedictines  by  their  dress,  names 
and  particular  regn^tations ;  for  example,  the 
Camaldulians,  the  monks  of  Vallombrosa,  the 
Sylvestrians,  the  Grandimontenses,  the  Car- 
thusians,   the   Ccelestines,   the  Gsb 


never  constituted  one  society,  constitutionally 
regulated  and  governed  under  an  aristocratic^ 
or  monarchicalform;  on  the  contrary,  a  great 
many  monasteries  which  descended  from  the 
old  Benedictines  were  compelled  by  the  Council 
of  Trent  to  unite  themselves  gradually  into  par- 
ticular fraternities.  Among  iluse  the  Benedic- 
tines of  Monte  Cassino,  of  Monte  Vcrgine  and 
Monte  Oliveto  (who  called  themselves  Olive- 
lans)  in  Italy  and  Sicily;  those  of  Valladolid 
and  Montserrat  in  Spain ;  those  of  Hirschau 
and  Fulda  in  (jermany,  and  that  of  Molk  in 
Austria,  deserve  particular  notice  on  account  of 
the  extent  of  their  possessions,  the  magnificence 
of  their  churches  and  tbe  mildness  of  thdr 
rules.  To  the  fraternity  of  Molk  (or  Melk), 
which  still  exists,  but  accommodated  lo  the 
.spirit  of  (he  timeSj  the  rest  of  the  Benedictine 
convents  in  Austria  are  joined.  Many  of  the 
nunneries  of  this  order  are  reserved  for  tbe 
nobility,  because  the  places  in  them  are  equal 
to  the  most  lucrative  benefices.  During  tbe 
first  French   revolution  the  monasteries  of  tbe 


later  partially  re-established  themselves  in 
France.  In  England  the  Benedictines  were  an 
important  body  at  the  dissolution  of  the  mon- 


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SOB 


BBHEDICTION— BSHEPIT    OF  CLBSGV 


at  Fort  Augustus  in  Scotland,  comprising  an 
abbey  and  collcKc,  In  the  United  Stales  there 
arc  13  abbots,  M5  priests,  133  clerics  and  345 
lay  brothers  in  the  order.  The  Benedictines 
have  charge  of  16  colleges  in  the  United  States. 

Bibliography. —  'Annates  Ordinis  S.  Bene- 
dict!* ;  'Acta  Sanctonnn  Ordinis  S.  Benedicti' ; 
'Bullariutn  Cassinense'  (2  vols.,  Venice  1650); 
Dantier,  <Etudes  sur  les  Bfai^diclins*  (Paris 
1664) ;  id.  'Les  monastires  b^nedictins  de 
ritalie*  (ib.  1866)  ;  Gasquot.  A.,  'English  Mo- 
nastic Life'  (London  1904);  Reyner,  'Apostol- 
atus  Benedictinoruin  in  AngUa*  (Dovai  1626); 
Tassin,  'Hisioirc  de  la  Congregation  de  Saint- 
Maur*  (Paris  1770)-  <Cronica  del  Ordcn  de 
San  Benito*  (7  vols.,  Salamanca  1609-15).  Con- 
sult also  the  'Diversarum  Artinm  Schedula* 
by  Theophilus  (11th  century);  Perti,  'Monu- 
menta  Germanic  Historica' ;  Carlyle,  'PaK  and 
Present*:  Monlalembert,  'Monks  of  the  West* 
(6  vols.,  English  translation  by  A.  Gasquet, 
London  1895) ;  Taunton,  'English  Black  Monks 
of  Saint  Benedict*  (ib.  189?);  Kgby,  'Ages 
of  Faith.* 

BENEDICTION,  the  act  of  blessing,  of 
wishing  to  a  person  or  thing  the  grace  of  God. 
It  has  always  existed  as  a  custom  among  Jews 
and  Christians.  The  Jewish  priests  bestowed 
benedictions  upon  the  people  when  they  re- 
mained obedient  to  (be  law.  and  maledictions 
when  they  neglected  it.  In  the  Catholic  Church 
the  term  is  generalljr  applied  to  the  reUgious 
public  service  at  which  the  priest  makes  the 
sign  of  the  cross  over  the  congregation  with 
die ,  ostensorium  containing  the  consecrated 
Host.  The  Anglo-Saxon  term  'blessing*  is 
now  commonly  used  to  express  the  benediction 
invoked  with  prayer,  sign  of  the  cross,  and  holy 
water  upon  religious  articles  such  as  prayer- 
books,  holy  pictures,  rosary-beads,  etc  In 
Protestant   churches  the  benediction  is  usually 

E'  iTcn  in  words  similar  to  those  prescribed  by 
oses  to  Aaron.  It  is  often  accompanied  with 
laving  on  of  hands,  especially  in  the  celebration 
of  marriages,  the  ordination  of  pastors,  the 
confirmation  of  converts  and  the  baptism  of 
children. 

BBNEDICTUS,  the  song  of  Zacharias 
(Luke  i,  68-79)  used  in  the  Roman  breviary 
at    lauds    and   also   in   the  Anglican   morning 

BENEFICE,  ben'e-fis  (Lat.  btneficium'). 
an  ecclesiastical  living,  originally  including 
every  species  of  preferment,  as  well  as  those 
to  which  dignities  and  offices  were  attached, 
namely,  bishoprics,  deaconries  and  prebends,  as 
the  lesser  sort,  namely,  rectories,  vicarages,  per- 
petual curacies  and  endowed  chaplaincies;  but 
in  its  popular  acceptation  it  includes  only  the 
latter  class,  and  the  distinction  is  recognized  in 
recent  acts  of  Parliament.  A  benefice  now  de- 
notes the  beneficial  property  right  or  usufruct 
enjoyed  by  the  clerical  incumbent  ex  of&cio,  but 
without  regard  to  his  dignity.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  beneficium  of  the  Romans,  a 

rnt  of  any  kind  to  a  subject  by  the  sovereign, 
was  afterward  the  dcsi^ation  of  a  grant 
of  land  by  any  large  proprietor  to  a  retainer 
or  follower  as  a  rewanl  of  services,  being  the 
same  that  later  was  denominated  a  fief  or  fee, 
Ae  essential  incident  of  which  was  perpetuity; 
that  is  to  say,  it  was  a  permanent  stipendiary 


estate  held  of  a  sujtctior  and  usually  subject 
to  some  condition  mdicating  vassak^.  The 
principle  of  the  feudal  tenure  was  applied,  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  to  ecclesiastical  benefices  to 
this  exten^  that  they  were  held  of  die  Pop^ 
as  a  supenor  lord,  tnou^  these  benefices  had 
not  the  hereditary  character  of  a  fee,  so  far 
as  respected  the  ofhce  or  dignity  connected 
therewith,  and  the  lands  or  emoluments  con- 
ferred by  a  grant  were  usually  attached  to  such 
office  or  dignity,  and  on  the  death  of  the  in- 
cumbent, reverted  to  the  ecclesiastical  superior 
who  was  entitled  to  apptnnt  a  successor.  This, 
at  all  events,  was  the  claim  of  the  Popes, 
though  it  was  the  subject  of  contest  between 
them  and  the  principal  Euro^an  sovereigns 
Consult  Phillimore.  'Ecclesiastical  Law  of  the 
Church  of  England'  (2d  ed.,  London  1895). 

BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY,  in  Ei^Usb 
criminal  law,  the  firivilegiitm  eltricaU,  exemp- 
tion of  the  clergy  from  penalties  imposed  by 
law  for  certain  crimes.  It  was  for  many  cen- 
turies an  important  element  in  the  administra- 
tion of  criminal  law  and  still  is  a  curious  and 
instructive  part  of  the  history  of  England  The 
origin  of  this  privilege  was  a  claim  made  by 
the  ecclesiastics  at  an  early  period  for  the  en- 
tire exemption  of  their  order  from  the  juris- 
diction of  the  common-law  courts.  The  only 
exception  was  the  cleric  being  held  in  custody 
by  uie  king  himself;  but,  even  in  that  case, 
he  could  only  remain  in  such  r^al  custody 
with  the  pleasure  and  consent  of  the  bishop, 
who  had  entire  control  over  his  person  and 
over  the  inquiry  into  Ids  offense.  If  a  priest 
or  'clerk'  happened  to  be  imprisoned  by  die 
secular  arm,  on  a  criminal  charge  or  Capital 
felony,  he  was,  on  the  bishop's  demand,  to  be 
instantly  delivered  up  without  any  further  in- 
vestigation, .to  be  detained  by  the  ordinary  till 
he  had  either  purged  himsdf  from  the  offens& 
or,  having  failed  to  do  so,  had  been  degraded. 
This  state  of  things  continued  till  the  Statute 
of  Westminster  the  Fir^t,  in  1275,  which  pro- 
vided that  die  prisoner  must  first  be  indicted 
before  he  could  be  claimed;  and  then,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VI,  it  was  settled  that  the  pris- 
oner must  first  be  convicted  and  mi^hi  either 
then  claim  his  clergy  by  plea  declining  the 
jurisdiction  or,  as  was  more  usual,  after  con- 
viction, by  way  of  arresdn^  judgment.  The 
test  of  admission  to  this  privil^e  was  the  cleri- 
cal dress  and  tonsure.  The  statute  Pro  CIcro 
(1350),  however,  extended  it  to  all  manner  of 
clerks,  and  by  later  practice  it  was  extended 
to  all  who  could  read,  whether  of  the  clergy 
or  laity.  Women,  however,  except  professed 
nuns,  were  until  the  Reformation  excluded. 
But  laymen  could  claim  it  only  once,  and  upon 
so  doing  were  burned  upon  the  hand  and  dis- 
charged, to  be  again  tried  by  the  bishop  and, 
if  acqiutted  by  the  latter,  restored  to  their 
liberty,  credit  and  property.  By  a  series 
of  statutes  most  of  the  serious  crimes  and  all 
capital  crimes  had  been  excluded  from  benefit 
of  clergy  before  the  end  of  the  17th  century, 
but  it  was  extended  to  all  persons  convicted 
of  clergyable  offenses,  whether  they  could  read 
or  not :  and  instead  of  burning  on  the  hand,  a 
discredonary  power  was  given  to  the  judge  to 
inflict  a  pecuniary  fine  or  imprisonment.  The 
privilwe  was  endrely  aboKshed  in  England  b 
1827  (f  and  8  George  IV,  a^  82).  It  had  imer 


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BSNSKX  —  BKHBZST 


any  legal  existence  in  Scollaod,  In  scattered 
in&taDces  the  ri^ht  was  reco^niced  in  the  col- 
onies of  Carolina  and  ViiKmia.  An  act  of 
Congress  passed  30  April  1790  prorided  that 
benefit  of  clergy  shall  not  be  allowed  for  an^ 
offenses  punishable  by  death.  It  is  now  uni' 
versally  obsolete  in  English  and  American  law. 
Consult    Chitty,    'Criminal    Law' ;    Desmond, 


Law*  {Cambridge  1899);  Flanagan,  'History 
of  the  Church  in  England,  a.d,  1076'  (London 
1857) ;  Stephen,  'History  of  Criminal  Law.' 

BENSKE,  U'n^-ki  Friedrich  Bdurd, 
German  philosopher  and  psydiotogist :  b.  Ber- 
Un,  17  Feb.  1798;  disappeared  1  March  1854; 
found  drowned  in  a  canal  at  Charlottenbur^, 
4  June  1856.  After  serving  as  a  volunteer  in 
die  campaign  of  1815,  he  studied  theology  and 
philosoiKiy  at  Halle  and  Berlin,  giving  s[teciat 
attention  to  the  English  philosophers.  In  1820 
he  lectured  in  the  University  of  Berlin  as  a 
private  teacher,  but  the  continuance  of  his  lec- 
tures was  forbidden  by  the  minister  Altenstein, 
in  1822,  on  account  of  his  departure  from  the 
I^losophical  principles  of  He^L  He  then 
taught  for  a  few  ^cars  in  GottURen,  but,  re- 
turning to  Berlin  m  1827,  received  permission 
to  lecture  in  the  university,  in  which  he  was 
elected  extraordinary  professor  of  philosophy 
after  Hegel's  death,  in  1832.  The  starting  point 
of  his  system  is  that  philosophy  must  be  founded 
upon  a  strict  and  careful  examination  of  the 
phenomena  of  consciousness.  He  thus  adopts, 
in  mental  philosophy  the  method  observed  by 
Bacon  in  die  natural  sciences,  and  his  system 
is  described  as  an  empirical  psychology.  He 
was  oppcMcd  to  the  speculative  system  of  Hegel 
and  held  that  a  tnie  psychology,  the  basis  of 
all  knowledge,  must  be  formulated  along  the 

thods  of  exact  physical  science,  and  he  be- 


among  Us  fiuei  works  'Erfahrungsseelenlehre, 
als  Gnmdlage  alles  Wissens,  in  ihren  Haupt- 
liigen  dargelegt'  (1820);  <Neue  Grundlegungen 
zur  Metaphysik*  (1822);  'Pragmatische  P^- 
cbologie,  Oder  Sedenlehre  in  der  Anwendung 
auf  das  Leben'  (1850) ;  'Psychologische  Skiz- 
tea^  (1827);  'Lehrbuch  der  Psychologic  als 
Naturwissenscbaft'  (1833;  4tl>  cd.,  1S77) ; 
'Eraiehungs  und  Uuterrichtslehre'  (2  vols., 
1835-36;  4th  ed..  1876) ;  'System  der  Logik 
als  Kunstlehre  des  Denkens>  (2  vols.,  \Bk). 
Consult  Brandt,  'Benelce,  the  Man  and  His 
Philosophy*  (New  York  1895)  ;  Kiihn,  C  H. 
T,  'Die  Sittenlehre  F.  E.  Benekes'  (1892) ; 
Renner,  H.,  'Benekes  Erkenntnistheorie' 
(Halle  1902) ;  Wandschneider,  A.,  'Die  Meta- 
physik  Benekes>   (Berlin  1903). 

BBNEVBNTO,  Italy,  a  prorince  with  an 
area  of  680  square  miles,  and  an  archiepiscopal 
city.  The  surface  of  the  province  is  hilly  but 
the  soil  fertile  in  com,  fruit  and  pasture.  Game 
is  very  abundant,  and  cattle,  grain  wine,  oranges 
and  dead  game  are  exported.  Benevento  was 
originally  called  Maleventum,  but  this  was 
changed  to  Beneventum  by  the  Romans  when 
they  founded  a  colony  here  after  the  defeat  of 
Pyrrhus.  Before  it  came  into  the  hands  of  the 
Iwmans  it  belonged  to  the  cotmtry  of  the 
Sanmitcs.  The  Lombards  in  571  made  it  a 
dukedom,  which,  long  after  the  extinction  of 


tke  Lombard  kingdom,  remained  independent. 
At  a  later  period  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Saracens  and  Normans.  The  city,  however, 
was  not  conquered  by  the  latter  because  Heniy 
III  had  given  it  to  the  Pope,  Leo  IX.'  In  1418 
Benevento  became  part  of  Naples,  but  was 
given  back  to  the  Pope  by  Ferdinand  1.  In 
1798  it  was  conquered  by  the  French  and  banded 
over  to  Naples,  and  then  in  1806  Napoleon 
made  a  present  of  it  to  his  minister,  Talley- 
rand,' who  recdved  thence  the  title  of  Prince 
of  Benevento.  In  1815  it  was  restored  to  the 
Pope,  and  finally  with  Naples  was  annexed  to 
the  kingdom  of  Italy,  in  1860.  The  city  of 
Benevento  is  situated  on  a  hill  between  the 
rivers  Sabato  and  Calore,  is  60  miles  by  rail 
from  Naples  but  only  32  miles  by  direct  route, 
is  surrounded  with  a  wall,  has  narrow  dirty 
streets  and  some  interesting  buildings.  Since 
969  if  has  been  the  see  of  an  archbishop.  Few 
cities  in  Italy  deserve  so  much  attention  on 
account  of  the  antiquities  which  they  contain 


ntablatures.  Among  other  things,  the  well- 
preserved,  magnificent  triumphal  arch  of  Tra- 
jan, built  in  114,  deserves  particular  mention. 
It  is  now  called  Porta  Avrea  (the  golden  gate), 
and  is  a  gate  of  the  city.  The  cathedral  is  a 
beautiful  building  in  the  Lombard- Saracenic 
style.  This  cathedral  has  a  famous  bronze 
door,  with  reliefs  of  New  Testament  scenes, 
said  to  have  been  executed  at  Constantinople 
in  the  12th  century.  There  are  also  several 
magnificent  paintings.  The  city  has  ako  sev- 
eral palaces,  a  castle  and  numerous  churclkes, 
including  the  circular  Santa  Sofia,  In  the  pub- 
lic squares  are  Egyptian  obelisks.  Gold  and 
silver  plattne;  leather  curing  and  parchment 
making  are  the  principal  industries.  Pop.  about 
25,00a 

BENEVOLENCE,  a  forced  loan  or  con- 
tribution, by  which  the  kings  of  England  were 
wont,  without  any  sanction  from  Parliament,  to 
levy  money  from  their  subjects.  Such  benevo- 
lences had  been  denounced  by  Magna  Cfaarta, 
and  even  Richard  111  had  allowed  the  only 
Parliament  of  his  reign  to  enact  a  statute  de- 
claring them  illegal,  but  they  stilt  continued 
under  some  shape  or  other  till  finally  abolished 
by  the  Bill  of  Rights  in  1689. 

BENEVOLENT  ORDERS.  This  term  is 
applied  in  the  statutes  of  many  of  the  states  to 
those  societies  whose  objects  are  mainly  good 
fellowsbin,  combined  with  charitable  relief  or 
stipulated  benefit  of  limited  amounts  in  case  of 
necessity,  sickness  or  death,  as  distinguished 
from  the  fraternal  orders  or  societies  which 
afford  a  substantial  death  benefit,  comlnned  in 
some  cases  with  sick  relief  and  funeral  bene- 
fit. Both  classes  of  these  orders  employ  the 
lodge  system  and  have  a  representative  form 
of  government.  The  benevolent  orders  in- 
clude the  various  bodies  of  Masons,  the  Odd 
Fellows,  Knights  of  Pythias,  Red  Men,  Elks, 
Foresters  of  America,  Hibernians,  Order  of 
Eagles,  United  American  Mechanics,  Good 
Templars,  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic  and 
many  others,  the  more  important  of  which  may 
be  consulted  under  their  individual  titles. 

BENEZET,  Anthony,  American  Quaker 
pfailantfaropist :  b.  Saint  Quentin,  France,  31 
Jan.  1713;  d.  Philadelphia,  3  Mi^  \7U.     Hit 


.Google 


HIO 


BKKTttT— BUIGAL 


family  came  to  Philadetphi&  from  London  in 
1731.  He  earnestly  opposed  the  slave  trade, 
advocated  the  emancipation  and  education  ot 
the  colored  population  of  the  colonies  and  him- 
self opened  an  evening  school  for  negroes.  Of 
his  numeroQS  tracts,  distributed  gratuitously, 
the  most  important  are  'A  Caution  to  Great 
Britain  and  Her  Colonies,  in  a  Short  Represen- 
tation of  the  Calamitous  State  of  the  Enslaved 
Negroes  in  the  British  Dominion'  (1767)  ; 
'Historical  Account  of  Guinea*  (1772)  ;  'A 
Short  Account  ot  the  Society  of  Friends' 
(1780);  'Dissertation  on  the  Christian  Reli- 
gion' (1782) ;  'Observations  on  tJie  Indian  Na- 
tives of  this  Continent'   (1784), 

BENFEY,  ben'fi,  Theodor,  German 
Orientalist  and  comparative  philologist;  b,  of 
Jewish  parents,  Norlen,  Hanover,  28  Jan.  1809; 
d.  26  June  1881.  He  studied  in  Gdttingen, 
Munich,  Frankfort  and  Heidelberg,  devoting 
himself  especially  to  classical  and  comparative 
philology.  In  1862  he  was .  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  Sanskrit  and  comparative  philology  in 
the  University  of  C^ttiDgen,  which  he  held  till 
his  death.  One  of  his  earliest  literary  efforts 
was  a  translation  of  'Terence'  ( Stuttgart 
1837);  after  this,  however,  he  turned  his  at- 
tention almost  exclusively  to  comparative  phi' 
lology.  Oriental  languages,  especially  Sanskrit, 
and  mythology. '  In  his  50  years  devoted,  with 
rare  enthusiasm  and  persistency,  to  linguistic 
studies,  he  did  more  than  am'  other  scholar  to 
enlarge  the  boundaries  of  Sanskrit  philology. 
In  comparative  philology,  though  an  adherent 
of  Bopp,  he  deviated  from  his  master  in  deriv- 
ing all  Indo-European  words  from  mono- 
syllabic primitive  verbs.  This  conception  de- 
pends on  hia  theory  of  the  origin  of  stem 
suffixes.  These,  he  holds,  arc  almost  all  de- 
rived from  a  fundamental  form,  ant,  which 
aM>ears  in  the  present  parttdpte  of  vabs.  To 
support  this  view  he  assumes  the  most  violent 

Krmutations  of  sounds,  which  set  all  phonetic 
NS  at  defiance.  For  his  theory  consult  his 
•Lexicon  of  Greek  Roots'  (1839)  ;  'Short  San- 
skrit Grammar'  (1868),  and  numerous  essays.  In 
Sanskrit  he  laid  a  foundation  for  the  true  study 
of  the  Veda  by  editing  the  'Sama  Veda'  (1848) 
with  gloasaty  and  translation;  and  this  work 
he  continued  by  a  scholarly  translation  of  the 
first  mandala  of  the  Rig  Veda  in  his  magatine. 
Orient  and  Occident  (1863-64).  His^edic 
grammar,  for  which  he  had  been  collecting  ma- 
terials for  many  years,  was  left  unfinisbedr  He 
also  published  a  'Complete  Sanskrit  Grammar, 
Crestomalhy  and  Glossary'  (1854),  and  a  'San- 
skrit-English Dictionary*  (1866),  In  compara- 
tive folk-lore  his  principal  work  is  a  translation 
of  the  'Panchatantra'  (1859).  It  is  accompa- 
nied with  elaborate  notes^  and  the  first  volume 
consists  entirely  of  an  introduction  in  which 
he  traces  the  course  of  these  Indian  stories  in 
their  wanderings  and  transformations  both  in 
eastern  and  western  literatures. 

BBNGA,  an  African  tribe,  living  on  the 
Spanish  island  Corisco,  off  the  western  coast, 
having  moved  from  the  interior  within  a  few 
generations.  The  American  Presbyterian  board 
of  missions  have  christianized  many  of  the 
Bengas  and  translated  books  into  Aeir  lan- 
guage, which  closely  resembles  the  Kameran 
and  Dualla. 


BENGAL,  b»n-gfif,  India  (Hind.  Bon- 
gSli,  Skt.  Van^alam,  from  yanga),  a  province 
of  India,  admmistered  by  a  governor  and  re- 
constituted in  1905  and  in  1912  from  the  for- 
mer Bengal  president  and  province,  which 
inchided  under  its  a^nirustration  the  native 
states  «f  Bihar,  Orissa  and  C^ota  Nagpur,  As 
reconstructed  the  province  of  Bengal  has  an 
area  of  78,700  square  miles  and  a  population 
(1911)  of  45,500,000,  mainly  Hindus  and  Mo- 
hammedans. The  native  states  were  also  re- 
constituted 1  April  1912  as  the  serrate  prov- 
ince of  Bihar  and  Orissa,  administered  by  a 
Iteutefian  t-govemo  r. 

Physical  Peatnraa.— The  general  idiysical 
character  of  Bengal,  which  occupies  the  norih- 


chains  of  mountains,  The  northern  part  i 
on  the  terraces  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains, 
the  east  is  bounded  t»[  the  (jaros  or  Garrows 
chain  and  the  west  is  ribbed  with  offsets  of  the 
Vindhya  Mountains.  It  is  intersected  in  all 
directions  by  rivers,  the  principal  of  which  are 
the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra,  whose  annual 
inundations  render  the  sml  which  they  reach 
extremely  fertile.  In  those  tracts  where  this 
advantage  is  not  enjoyed,  the  soil  is  thin,  sel- 
dom exceeding  a  few  inches  in  depth.  The 
most  inhospitable  part  of  Bengal  is  what  is 
called  the  Sunderbunds  (from  being  covered 
with  the  soondru  or  sunder  tree),  that  portion 
of  the  couotiT  through  which  the  numerous 
branches  of  the  Ganges  seek  the  sea,  or  the 
deltaic  space  lying  between  the  Hoogly  River 
and  Chiltagong,  about  150  miles  from  cast  to 
west  and  about  160  from  north  to  south.  This 
district  is  infested  with  tigers,  is  traversed  in 
all  directions  by  watercourses,  or  nullahs,  and 
iaterspersed  with  ntmieraus  sheets  of  stagnant 
water  called  jbccls,  which  abound  wtdi  fish  and 
waterfowl  and  are  much  resorted  to  by 
crocodiles. 

Qeology  and  ICinerilB. —  In  the  rtorthem 
part  of  Bengal,  at  the  foot  of  the  Himabyas, 
IS  a  band  of  Tertiary  formation;  south  frcnn 
which,  and  along  the  course  of  the  Ganges, 
more  especially  east  from  that  river  and  in- 
cluding the  greater  part  of  its  delta  and  that 
of  the  Brahmaputra,  the  country  is  wholly  com- 
posed of  alluvium  or  modem  detritus.  Cal- 
cutta stands  npon.  strata  of  the  transition  series, 
which  stretch  west  into  Bihar,  and  are  flantoed 
north  and  south  by  tracts  of  crystalline  forma- 
tion. In  the  Garo  Hills  coal,  iron  and  lime- 
stone are  found,  and  nitre  effloresces  on  the 
surface  around  Calcutta  and  elsewhere.  Min- 
eral springs  are  not  numerous. 

Rivers,— The  principal  rivers,  besides  the 
Ganges  and  Brahmaputra,  the  latter  of  which 
enters  the  province  at  its  northeast  extlCtBily 
and  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  near  the  prin- 
cipal'embouchure  of  the  Ganges,  are  the  Soo- 
buu^a,  which  falls  into  &e  Bay  of  Bengnl,  in 
laL  21°  35'  north,  sonth-southwest  ol  the 
Hoo^y;  the  Cosi  or  Coosee.  which  rises  near 
Khatamandn  in  Nepal  and  falls  into  the  Gan- 
ges near  Bha^lpur,  in  lat.  25°  20*  N. ;  and  the 
Dumooda,  which,  rising  in  Bihar,  falls  into  the 
Hoogly  about  22  miles  below  Cakutta.  There 
arc  numerous  other  streams  of  less  note,  mostly 
tributaries  of  the  Ganges  and  BrahmaputFa  or 
their  lai^r  afltuetitt. 


iizodsi  Google 


Climate.— There  is  more  regalarity  in  the 
changes  of  the  seasons  in  Bengal  than  perhaps 
in  any  other  part  of  India;  but  it  is  subject 
Co  great  extremes  of  heat,  which,  added  to  the 
humidity  of  its  surface  and  the  heavy  dews  that 
fall,  render  it  generally  unhealthy  to  Europeans. 
The  prevalence  of  hoi  winds,  which  are  some- 
times loaded  with  sandy  particles,  is  another 
source  of  disease.  The  seasons  are  distin- 
guished by  the  terms  hot,  cold  and  rainy.  The 
hot  season  continues  from  the  beginning  of 
March  to  the  end  of  May,  within  wmch  period 
the  thermometer  frequently  rises  to  100°,  some- 
times to  110'.  The  month  of  September  is  also 
often  intensely  hoi,  and  when  so  is  the  most 
unhealthy  period  of  the  year  to  natives  as  well 
as  Europeans,  owing  to  the  profuse  exhalations 
from  stagnant  waters  left  by  the  inundations 
and  from  a  rank  decaying  vegetation.  The 
rainy  season  commences  in  June  and  lasts  till 
October.  During  the  first  two  months  of  this 
period  the  rain  is  frequently  so  heavy  that  five 
inches  of  water  have  fallen  in  one  day,  the 
annual  average  being  from  70  to  80  inches.  It 
is  in  tills  season  that  the  inundations  take  place 
and  that  the  Ganges  overflows  its  delta,  cover- 
ing the  land  with  its  waters  for  more  than  100 
miles.  The  cold  season,  the  most  grateful  and 
healthy  of  any  to  Europeans,  continues  from 
November  to  February,  during  which  period 
north  winds  prevail,  with  a  clear  sky. 

Foreata.—  In  Bengal,  as  in  India  generally, 
great  attention  has  been  paid  to  the_  manage- 
ment of  forests.  Great  destruction  is  caused 
among  forests  by  fires,  which  are  sometimes 
the  result  of  accident  but  more  frequently  made 
purposely  l^-  the  natives  in  pursuance  of  a 
system  of  jungle  cultivation  that  appears  to 
prevail  throughout  India.  This  consists  in  cut- 
ting down  and  burning  a  patch  of  forest  and 
raising  a  crop  in  the  open  space,  no  plowing 
or  digging  being  necessary.  The  next  year  this 
patch  IS  abandoned  and  another  treated  in  the 
same  way.  Another  cause  of  destruction  is  the 
wastefulness  of  those  who  use  the  timber.  The 
sunder-trees,  for  example,  which  furnish  the 
best  wood  for  the  boats  which  arc  built  in  Rrcat 
numbers  throughout  eastern  Bengal,  have  heen 
cut  down  in  so  reckless  a  manner  that  the  west* 
em  parts  of  the  Sunderbunda  have  already  been 
to  a  large  extent  exhausted.  In  order  to  limit 
the  destruction  that  goes  on  by  such  proceed- 
ings certain  portions  of  the  Indian  forests  are 
reserved  and  placed  under  the  entire  control  of 
the  government  and  additions  are  made  to 
these  reserves  every  year.  Of  the  total  10,612 
square  miles  of  forest  in  Bengal  in  1913,  4,871 
were  reserved,  1,711  protected  and  4,030 
unclassed. 

Aiumals. —  Among  the  tvild  animals  are 
tigers,   elephants,    boars,    bears,   wolves,    foxes, 

t'  ackals,  hyenas,  leopards,  panthers,  lynxes, 
:ares,  deer,  buffaloes,  antelopes  and  monkeys. 
The  most  formidable  of  all  these  animals  (and 
moie  so  even  than  the  lion)  is  the  tiger,  which 
here  attains  its  utmost  size  and  perhaps  also  its 
greatest  ferodty.  The  domestic  animals  include 
native  horses,  thin,  ill-shaped  animals,  and  not 
well  adapted  for  any  kind  of  labor;  cattle,  of  a 
very  inferior  breed,  being  extremely  small  and 
miserable  looking;  sheep,  likewise  oi  diminutive 
size,  with  veiy  coarse,  hairy  wool,  but  when 
well  fed  their  flesh  is  excellent.    Hogs  and  goats 


GAL  »11 

are  also  plentiful,  and  buffaloes  are  domesti- 
cated for  the  sake  of  their  milk.  Reptiles  are 
numerous  and  formidable,  including  gavials,  a 
kind  of  crocodile,  with  which  the  larger  rivers 
are  infested;  and  among  the  serpent  tribe,  many 
of  whieh  are  highlv  poisonous,  the  deadly  cohra- 
de-capello.  Turtles,  frogs  and  liiards  also 
abound,  with  swarms  of  mosquitoes.  The  turtles 
are  chiefly  procured  from  the  island  of  Che- 
duba,  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Fish  are  so  ex-  ■ 
cecdingly  plentiful  as  to  be  within  the  reach  of 
almost  every  class  of  inhabitants.  Game,  poul- 
try and  water-fowl  of  all  descriptions  abound 
in  Bengal,  particularly  ducks,  of  which  there_  is 
a  great  vanety  and  most  of  them  of  a  superior 
kind.  The  gigantic  crane,  commonly  called  the 
adjutant,  from  the  stately  air  with  which  he 
struts  about,  frequents  the  towns  in  consider- 
able numbers,  performing  the  office  of  scaven- 
ger t^  clearing  the  streets  of  garbage,  in  con- 
sideration of  which  duty  he  enjovs  an  entire 
immunity  from  all  disturbance;  his  principal 
food  is  ofTal,  toads,  lizards,  serpents  and  in- 
sects.    Crows,  kites,  sparrows  and  other  small 

Agriculture. —  The  staple  crop  of  Bengal 
is  rice,  which  is  cultivated  so  as  to  produce 
three  harvests  in  the  year  — spring  rice,  autumn 
rice  and  vrinter  rice.  The  last  of  these  har- 
vests is  by  far  the  most  important.  Besides 
sufficing  for  the  wants  of  the  population,  the 
rice  crop  leaves  a  large  surplus  for  exportation. 
Oil  seeds  are  also  largely  cultivated,  chiefly 
mustard,  sesamum  and  Unseed.  The  jute  plant 
(/at)  has  long  been  cultivated,  and  in  recent 
times  the  cultivation  of  it  has  greatly  extended. 
It  will  grow  on  almost  any  description  of  land 
Part  of  this  crop  is  cultivated  by  those  who 
use  or  manufacture  it  almost  all  the  Hindu 
farmers  weaving  cloth  tram  it.  It  is  ni*W  man- 
ufactured also  in  large  mills  under  European 
management,  and  jute  goods  are  now  an  export 
of  some  importance,  though  not  nearly  so  much 
so  as  jute  in  the  raw  state  for  manufacture  in 
Europe.  The  sunn  plant,  somewhat  resembling 
the  Spanish  broom,  is  now  quite  extensively 
cultivated  and  exported  to  Great  Britain,  afford- 
ing excellent  material  for  both  sails  and  cord- 
age and  being  made  into  fishing  nets  by  the 
natives.  Cotton  is  grown  over  all  India,  but 
the  best  of  the  herbaceous  kind  is  raised  in 
Bengal  and  on  the  Coromandel  coast;  the  finest 
grows  on  light,  rocky  soil.  The  cotton  of  India 
IS  generally  inferior  to  that  of  the  United 
States,  but  this  is  believed  to  be  wholly  owing 
to  careless  cultivation  and  to  the  slovenly  man- 
ner in  which  it  is  prepared  for  the  market. 
The  cultivation  of  the  date-palm  and  the  manu- 
facture of  date  sugar  are  carried  on  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  forming  a  profitable  business 
for  the  cultivator.  This  kind  of  sugar  forms 
an  article  of  export.  The  sugar-cane  is  culti- 
vated, but  not  nearly  to  such  an  extent  as 
mi^t  be  expected.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
sugar-cane,  a  yellow  hard  cane,  about  the  thick- 
ness of  a  finger;  the  other  much  thicker  and 
deeply  stained  with  purple.  The  latter  is  the 
most  productive  but  the  most  troublesome  to 
cultivate  and  therefore  avoided  by  the  more 
indolent  farmers.  Tobacco,  which  requires  a 
light  soil,  is  grown  in  three  different  situations 
—  in  rich  spots  of  land  contiguous  to  the 
farmer's  house,  in  high  land  suitable  for  the 


Google 


B13 


BENGAL  —  BENGALI 


growth  of  sugar-cane  &iid  on  the  banks  of 
rivers.  The  betel  leaf,  famous  for  its  intoxi- 
cating quality  and  largely  used  over  all  India 
on  that  account,  is  cultivated  in  what  is  called 
a  voroj,  or  fort,  and  is  carefully  protected  from 
the  sun  and  wind.  Indigo  being  one  .of  the 
principal  articles  of  foreign  commerce  with 
Bengal,  is  extensively  cultivated  in  that  prov- 
ince. The  opium  production  of  Bengal  was  a 
.  government  monopoly  under  Mohammedan 
rule  and  has  been  retained  as  such  by  the  Brit- 
ish. All  the  juice  of  the  opium  poppy  must  be 
sold  to  the  government  at  a  fixed  price.  This 
cultivation  is  carried  on  in  the  west  of  Bengal 
Orchards  of  mango  trees  are  to  be  found  in 
every  part  of  Bengal,  the  fruit  being  id  general 
demand  during  the  hot  months.  The  cinchona 
tree  and  the  tea  plant  have  also  been  added  to 
the  agricultural  products  of  Bengal. 

Manufactures.— The  principal  manufacture 
of  Ben^l  is  that  of  cotton  goods,  including 
cotton  pece-goods  of  various  descriptions,  cali- 
coes, thread,  and  sail-cloth.  Muslins  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  delicate  texture  were  for- 
merly made  at  Dacca,  a  city  in  this  province, 
but  the  manufacture  is  almost  extinct. 

The  modern  decay  of  the  muslin  manufac- 
ture of  India  has  been  owing  in  a  great  measure 
to  the  successful  competition  of  Great  Britain 
and  to  the  circumstance  of  English  fabrics  be- 
ing subject  to  no  duty  in  Bengal,  while  high 
duties  were  levied  on  the  fabrics  of  Bengal  in 
Great  Britain.  These  duties  are  now  abolished. 
Large  quantities  of  coarse  cloth,  manufactured 
from  jule  are  made  in  various  districts  of 
Bengal.  Sericulture  is  carried  on  more  largely 
in  Bengal  than  in  any  other  part  of  India,  and 
silk-weaving  is  still  a  leading  industry  in  many 
of  the  districts,  but  of  late  years  there  has  been 
a  serious  decline.  One  branch  of  this  industry, 
however,  seems  more  flourisbing  than  some 
others  namely,  the  cultivation  of  tasar  or  wild 
silk,  the  worm  that  produces  it  feeding  upon 
the  leaves  of  the  sal  and  other  forest  trees. 
On  the  other  hand,  various  new  manufactures, 
carried  on  by  machinery,  are  increasing.  The 
most  important  of  these  are  the  industries 
connected  with  jute,  cotton  and  sugar.  These 
are  already  affording  employment  to  many 
thousands  and  the  natives  show  great  aptitude 
for  factory  work. 

Commftrce.— The  commerce  of  Bengal, 
both  internal  and  external,  is  very  large.  Mul- 
titudes of  native  boats  and  other  craft  navigate 
the  rivers.  The  imports  to  Calcutta  from  the 
interior  have  been  valued  at  over  $13,000,000, 
consisting  of  rice,  tea,  jute,  indi^.  Unseed, 
mustard  seed,  wheat,  etc.  The  foreign  trade  is 
large  and  increasing.  Almost  the  whole  of  it 
passes  through  Calcutta,  and  the  value  of  it 
annually  is  over  $275,000,000,  over  $170,000,000 
being  exports.  The  most  important  exports 
are  opium,  jute,  indigo,  oil  seeds,  tea,  hides  and 
skins  and  rice ;  the  chief  import  is  cotton  piece- 
goods.  The  foreign  trade  is  chiefly  with  Great 
Britain,  China,  the  Straits  Settlements,  France, 
the  United  SUIes  and  Ceylon. 

History,—  The  English  ■  first  got  a  firm 
footing  in  Bengal  about  1644  when,  through 
the  influence  of  an  English  medical  man  named 
Boughton,  a  favorite  of  the  Emperor  of  Delhi, 
the  East  India  Company  obtained  permission  to 
locate  themselves  at  HngU  or  Hoogly,  some  28 


miles  above  Calcutta.  In  1686  the  company's 
factors,  having  had  a  rupture  with  the  Uoskm 
commander  at  the  nlace  where  they  were  lo- 
cated, removed  to  Calcutta,  then  the  village  of 
Chuttanutty,  where  they  continued  to  carry  on 
their  trade.  In  1700  the  viceroy  of  Bengal, 
being  in  want  of  money  to  dispute  the  succes- 
sion to  the  Mogul  throne,  obtained  a  large  sum 
from  the  company  for  the  township  on  which 
their  factory  stood  at  Calcutta  and  some  adja- 
cent lands.  Seven  years  afterward,  namely,  in 
1707,  Calcutta  vras  erected  into  a  presidency 
arid  the  foundation  of  British  power  in  India 
laid.  For  nearly  halt  a  century  the  company 
pursued  a  peaceful  and  profitable  commerce, 
but  at  the  expiration  of  that  period,  1756,  Cal- 
cutta was  attacked  and  taken  by  the  Soubabdar 
of  Bengal,  who  threw  the  147  Englishmen  be 
found  there  in  the  notorious  'black-hole*  of 
Calcutta,  where  123  of  them  perished  in  II 
hours.  In  the  ensuing  year  Calcutta  was  re- 
taken by  Lord  Clive  — an  event  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  series  of  victories  on  the  part  of  the 
British  that  terminated  in  the  entire  conquest 
of  India.  In  consequence  of  unprecedented 
drought  great  scarcity  of  food  prevailed  in  187J 
and  1874,  but  the  prompt  measures  of  ihc  gov- 
ernment were  sufficient  to  prevent  any  wide- 
spread mortality.  A  bill  conferring  upon  agri- 
cultural tenants  a  transferable  interest  in  their 
holdings  and  protecting  them  against  eviction 
was  passed  in  1885.  For  the  purpose  of  more 
efficient  administration,  a  preliminary  partition 
and  reconstitution  of  the  presidency  wa< 
effected  in  October  1905,  not  without  consider- 
able agitation  and  opposition  on  the  part  of 
the  population.  The  present  reconstitution  into 
a  province  took  effect  in  April  1912.  For  fur- 
ther general  history  and  bibliography  see  lunrA. 

BENGAL,  Bftjr  oi,  that  portion  of  the 
Indian  Ocean  between  Hindustan  and  Farther 
India,  or  Burma,  Siam  and  Malacca  and  ex- 
tending south  to  Ceylon  and  Sumatra.  It 
receives  the  waters  of  the  Ganges,  Brahma- 
putra, Irrawadi,  Uahanadi,  Godavari,  Krishna 
and  Kaveri.  Calcutta,  Rangoon  and  Madras 
are  the  most  important  towns  on  or  near  its 
coasts.  On  the  west  coast  there  are  no  good 
harbors,  but  the  east  coast  has  a  considetable 
number,  among  them  being  Akj^b,  Qieduba, 
Negrais,  Mata&n  and  Syriam.  On  account  oi 
the  extreme  heat  the  rate  of  evaporation  is 
very  high,  sometimes  amounting  to  an  inch  per 
day.  The  tide  sometimes  rises  to  the  height 
of  70  feet.  In  summer'the  northeast  monsoon 
prevails,  and  in  winter  the  ^nithwesl  monsoon. 
The  Andaman  and  Nicobar  islands  are  situated 
in  the  essteni  part  of  the  bay. 

BENGAL,  or  BENGOLA,  Light,  a  fire- 
work, Riving  a  vivid  and  substained  variant 
light,  it  is  used  for  sisals  at  sea.  It  is  com- 
posed of  six  parts  of  nitre,  two  of  sulphur  and 
one  of  antimony^  tersulphide.  These  are  finely 
pulverized  and  incorporated  together  and  the 
composition  pressed  into  earthen  bowls  or  sim- 
ilar shallow  vessels.  It  is  also  used  in  ordinaiy 
pyrotechny  to  illuminate  a  district  or  section 
of  country.  Because  of  a  poisonous  oxide  of 
antimony  given  off  during  combustion  the  light 
cannot  be  used  without  danger  indoors. 


Google 


BSHQALI  EBA  —  BBNOBL 


818 


any  o£  several  o(  the  beautiful  little  African 
uaxbills,  bred  and  sold  as  cage-birds ; 
especially  the  *blue -bellied  Such*  XEttrilda 
bengala),  which  is  ashy-brown  above,  with  the 
wing  quills  brown,  and  the  sides  of  the  bead, 
(he  throat  and  whole  lower  surface  azure  blue, 
spotted  under  and  near  the  wings.  They  add 
to  this  charming  dress  lively  manners  and  an 
agreeable  song.  Their  requirements  in  the  cage 
are  like  those  of  a  canary.  They  are  common 
also  in  Australia  and  Occanica. 

BBNGALI  BRA,  The,  one  of  the  chrono- 
logical eras  of  the  Hindus,  supposed  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  He^ra.  The  Hindus, 
however,  use  the  sidereal  year  and  the  Moham- 
medans the  lunar,  hence,  the  Mohammedan 
epoch  is  ai  present  some  nine  years  in  advance 
o[  the  Bengali. 

BENGALI,  or  GAURA,  LANGUAGX, 
one  of  the  five  modem  languages  of  Hindu- 
stan, which  are  derived  from  the  ancient  San- 
skrit. Its  name  i.s  derived  from  Banga,  the 
Sanskrit  name  of  the  countiy,  with  the  Arabic 
article  al  suffixed;  the  whole  being  corrupted 
into  the  present  form.  Gaura  is  derived  from 
Gaur,  the  name  of  the  ancient  tnetrapoUs;  it 
is  spoken  ty  44,624.048  Britbh  subjects,  of 
whom  about  one-fourth  speak  also  some  other 
dialect.  It  extends  over  the  regions  on  the 
lower  Ganges,  from  Patna  down  to  its  delta, 
being  purest  in  the  province  of  Bengal  and  in 
the  eastern  regions.  This  languase  consists 
of  an  aboriginal  basis,  with  lyhioi  a  mudi 
greater  portion  of  Sanskrit  and  Pracrit  has 
been  admixed  than  with  any  one  of  its  cog- 
nates; with  a  considerable  addition  of  Afghan, 
Persian,  Arabic,  Portuguese,  Malay  and  Einglish 
words.  Although  the  Sanskrit  element  pre- 
dominates as  regards  the  words,  the  grammati- 
cal forms  of  the  language  differ  more  from  the 
Sanskrit  than  the  forms  of  the  Greelc  Latin, 
Gothic  and  Persian ;  most  of  the  flexions  of 
nouns  and  verbs  having  been  lost,  and  their 
places  being  su^pplicd  by  auxiliary  words  and 
by  circumlocution.  Notwithstanding  thia,  it 
admits  in  the  higher  style  many  of  those  forms 
which   are   inlelfigible   only   to  more   cultivated 

Ecrsons.  There  are  no  forms  of  gender,  sex 
eing  denoted  by  the  use  of  qualifying  terms  or 
b>'  different  words.  There  are  seven  cases  made 
by  suffixes  —  nominative,  accusative,  instru- 
mental, dative,  ablative,  genitive  and  vocative. 
The  plural  of  nouns  is  made  by  suffixing  dig  to 
the  genitive  singular,  it  delists  in  compound 
words,  formed  especially  by  means  of  a  sort  of 
past  participle;  elegant  Sanskrit  compounds 
being  unidiomatic  There  is  but  one  conjuga- 
tion, whose  radical  is  the  imperative.  Com- 
pound lenses  are  made  by  the  auxiliaries,  mean- 
ing to  do,  to  be,  to  become.  The  singular  and 
plural  of  verbs  are  often  confounded;  the 
plural  with  a  singular  noun  denoting  respect, 
the  singular  with  the  plural  noun  bang  nsea 
in  speaking  to  inferiors.  There  are  three  siinple 
moods,  infinitive,  indicative,  impervtive;  four 
others  being  periphrastic,  the  potential,  optative, 
inchoative  and  frequentative.  Any  verb  is  con- 
jugable  negatively  by  the  suffix  tifl.  The  sys- 
tem of  writing  is  that  of  the  devanHgari  of  the 
Sanskrit  language  but  the  forms  of  letters  are 
more  broken  and  twisted.  B  and  v.  however, 
are  written  by  one  character,  and  the  charac- 
ters of  the  sounds,  s,  z,  sh,  are  interchangeable. 


No  book  written  in  Bengali  appeared  before 
1500  A.D.  After  the  settlement  of  Moslems  in 
Gaur,  the  Voisyas  and  Soodras  (^ricultural 
and  servile  castes)  began  to  study  Persian,  to 
gain  a  livelihood,  and  were  well  rewarded  by 
the  conquerors.  Except  the  stories  of  Krishna's 
study,  the  rules  of  arithmetic  in  verse  and  a  . 
few  other  elementary  books,  the  vernacular  lit- 
erature was  very  poor,  until  Rajah  Krishna- 
chandra  Roy  Bahaaoor  restored  Hindoo  litera- 
ture in  India,  by  bringing  in  puniits  and  en- 
dowing schools.  Owing  to  the  abundance  of 
Sanskrit  books,  and  toe  prejudice  of  most 
Brahmins  a^nst  the  Bengali,  this  was 
neglected  unUl  1800,  when  the  college  of  Fort 
William  was  founded,  and  the  slui^  of  Bengal 
was  made  imperative  and  collateral  to  the  San- 
skrit. Many  Bengali  works  have  since  been 
printed  at  Calcutta  and  Serampore.  The  firtt 
uaiive  newspai>er  was  published  at  Serampore 
in  1818.  Considerable  change  has  been  made 
since  in  the  diction  and  composition  of  this 
language,  which  continues  to  be  enlarged  anid 
ennobled,  by  being  capable  of  borrowing  in- 
definitely from  the  venerable  Sanskrit  mother. 
In  1913  the  Bengali  poet  Sir  Rabindra  Nath 
Tagore  received  the  Nobel  prize  in  literature. 
Gilchrist,  H.  P.  Forster,  Carey,  W.  Morton, 
Hunter,  Mohun  Persaud,  Tahur,  Taracband 
Chukruburli  and  Sir  G,  C.  Hai^hton  have  pub- 
lished Bengali  English  dictionanes  and  vocabu- 
laries, and  Ram  Comul  Sen  has  translated 
Todds  edition  of  Johnson's  English  dictionaiy 
into  P " 


mar  of  the  Modern  Aryan  Languages  of  India' ; 
■Grammar  of  the  Bengali  Language'  (Oxford 
1894)  ;  Cust,  'The  Modem  Langu^es  of  the 
East  Indies' ;  Dutt,  "The  Literature  of  Bengal' 
(Calcutta  1895) ;  Ganguli,  'Students*  Bengali- 
English  Dictionary'  (Kiawanipur  1903) ;  Gricr- 
son,  'Specimens  of  the  Bengali  and  Assamese 
Languages'  (Calcutta  1903);  Haughton,  G.  C, 
'BengaTi,  Sanskrit  and  English  Dictionary* 
(London  1833) ;  Nicolls,  'Mamial  of  the  Ben- 
gali Language'  (London  1894);  Seti,  D.  C. 
'History  of  the  Bengali  Language  and  Lit- 
erature' (Calcutta  1911). 

BKNGAZI,  bSn-gS'i?,  or  BENGHAZI, 
north  Africa  town,  capital  o£  the  vilayet  Barca. 
on  the  east  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Sidrah.  Next 
to  Tripoli  it  is  the  most  important  seaport  on 
this  coast.  The  harbor  is  fast  silting  up,  and 
admits  onty  small  vessels;  but  there  is  still  a 
considerable  trade,  cattle,  com,  barl^,  sponges, 
ivory;  ostrich  feathers,  etc.,  being  exported, 
especially  to  Malta  It  is  the  centre  of  a  fer- 
tile region  and  has  a  large  trade  .with  the  in- 
terior by  means  of  caravans.  The  population, 
between  25,000  and  35,000.  is  composed  of 
Maltese,  Greeks  and  Italians.  It  is  sonietinMS 
identified  as  ihc  ancient  Kesperides,  which  was 
named   Berenice   by  Ptolemy  III.     It   was   oc- 

■    ■  '      "-■         •        s  the 


BEHGEL,  b«ng'el.  Totuiw  Albrvcht,  Ger- 
man theologian  and  philologist  b  Wmnenden, 
Wurtemberg,  24  June  1687;  d  Alpirsbach,  2 
Nov.  1?S2.  He  studied  at  Stuttgart  and  Tubin- 
gen, and  became  curate  of  Mctzmgen  In  1706 
he  was  appointed  tutor  in  theology  at  Tiibin- 
gen.     Among   other   high  offices   filled   by  him 


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914 


BSNCKZNDORFP — BBNH  AH 


later  In  life  were  those  of  consistorial  coun- 
cillor and  prelate  of  Alpirsbach.  He  especially 
applied  himself  to  the  crilical  study  of  the 
Greek  Testament,  of  which  he  published  an 
edition  in  1723.  Among  his  other  works  are 
•Apparatus  Criticus  Novi  Testamenti,'  a  work 
of  great  value  for  its  suggestive  condensed 
comments,  which  first  appeared  in  1742,  and 
has  been  several  times  reprinted,  etc.  An  at- 
tempt has  been  made  to  adapt  his  'Gnomon' 
to  English  readers  in  the  'Critical  English 
Testament,'  by  Blackley  and  Hawes  (lfe6). 
Benget  was  the  first  Protestant  author  to  treat 
New  Testament  exegesis  in  thoroughly  criti- 
cal style.  He  also  rendered  invaluable  service 
in  amending  the  text  of  the  Bible  and  in  point- 
ing the  way  to  the  classification  of  the  biblical 
codices  into  families.  The  notes  appended  to 
his  <Gnomon  N.  Testamenti'  (Tiihingen.1742) 
have  been  highly  regarded  and  translated  into 
nearly  alt  modem  tongues  (English  ed.,  Phila- 
delphia 1862).  They  were  used  by  John  Wes- 
ley in  his  'Notes  on  the  New  Testament.' 
Other  works  of  Bengel  arc  'Erklarte  Offen- 
harung  Johannis'  (Stuttgart  1740)  and  'Ordo 
Temporum  a  Principio  per  Periodos  CEconomiae 
EHvinie  Historicus  atque  Propheticus'  (Tubin- 
gen 1741).  Consult  the  biography  by  H.  P, 
Burke  (Stuttgart  1831,  English  trans..  Lon- 
don 1837)  and  Oscar  von  Wachter.  'Bengel, 
Lebensabnss'    (Stuttgart   1865), 

BENCKENDORFF,  Alexander,  Count, 
Russian  diplomat :  b,  1849 ;  d.  London,  Jan, 
1917.  The  son  of  Consiantin  Count  Bencken- 
dorff  and  Louise  Princess  dc  Croy-Diilmen ; 
he  was  reared  in  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  and 
educated  in  France  and  Germany.  Entering 
the  diplomatic  service  in  1869  he  acted  as 
attache  to  the  Russian  embassies  at  Rome  and 
Vienna,  and-  minister  to  Denmark  from  1897 
to  1903.  In  the  latter  year  he  became  ambas- 
sador to  Great  Britain,  and  occupied  that  post 
till  his  death.  He  married  Sophie  Countess 
Shuvaloff  in  1879;  his  only  daughter  was  mar- 
ried in  1911  to  the  Hon.  Jasper  Ridley,  second 
son  of  the  first  Viscount  Ridley.  Count 
Benckendorff  may  be  held  in  a  very  large 
measure  responsible  for  the  reconcitiation  be- 
tween Russia  and  Great  Britain  after  matw 
years  of  mutually  suspicious  animosity.  It 
was  he  who  negotiated  the  Anpio- Russian 
Agreement  of  1907,  which,  following  on  the 
Anglo-French  Agreement  of  1904,  finally  re- 
sulted in  the  Triple  Entente. 

BENGBR,  Elizabeth  OaiUvy,  English  his- 
torical writer:  b.  Wells,  Somersetshire,  1778; 
d,  London,  9  Jan.  1827.  She  earty  displayed  a 
turn  for  literature,  but  her  straitened  means 
preventing  her  from  gratifying  this  taste  by 
the  purchase  of  books,  she  was  in  the  habtt 
of  perusing  the  opened  hooks  In  a  bookseller's 
window,  and  would  return  day  after  day  to  see 
if  the  page  had  been  turned  over.  In  \SffZ  she 
removed  with  her  mother  to  London.  Her  first 
literary  attempts,  including  a  poem  on  the  abo- 
lition of  the  slave  trade  and  two  novels,  at- 
tracted tittle  attention,  but  she  was  more  suc- 
cessful with  her  'Memoirs  of  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots,'  and  of  'Eliiabeth  Queen  of  Bohemia.* 
She  also  wrote  the  Lives  of  Anne  Boleyn,  Mrs. 
Elizabeth  Hamilton  and  John  Tobin,  the  dra- 
matist.    Her  chief  merits  are  a  clear  style  and 


he  established  the  Grip,  a  humorous  weekly,  iii 
Toronto,  His  political  cartoons  in  this  paper 
were  highly  artistic.    He  is  also  widely  tmown 


song)  ;  'Grip's  Cartoons'  (1875)  ;  'Popular 
Readings,  Original  and  Selectted'  (18S2}i'ari- 
catore  History  of  Canadian  Politics'  (1885); 
'Motley :  Verses  Grave  and  Gay'  (1895) ;  'Tht 
Up  to  Date  Primer:  A  First  BocAi  of  Lessons 


(poems  19Ce), 

BENGUELA,  biin-^l*,  or  BENGUEL-  . 
1.A,  a  distrkt  belotigmg  to  the  Portuguesr 
on  the  western  coast  of  south  Africa,  forming 
one  of  the  three  jjrovinccs  of  Angob;  bounded 
north  by  the  province  of  Loanda,  south  ^'  th»t 
of  Mossamedes  and  west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
The  interior  of  the  countrv  is  mountainous 
the  direction  of  the  elevated  lands  being  frotn 
northeast  to  southwest.  It  is  well  watered, 
beii%  intersected  by  numerous  rivers  and 
streams.  Its  vegetation  is  luxuriant  and  it 
possesses  extensive  forests.  Its  products  are 
those  of  tropical  Africa  generally.  Tobacco. 
fruit  and  vegetables  are  grown.  Coffee  growt 
wild.  The  soil  in  parts  is  well  adapted 
for  the  production  of  grain,  hut  little  is 
grown.  The  larger  animals  of  Africa  arc 
numerous,  such  as  hons,  elcfdiants  and 
hippopotami.  The  minerals  include  copper, 
sulphur,  lead,  gold  and  silver.  The  only 
town  worth  mention  is  the  seaport,  Bcnguela. 
founded  in  1617  as  San  Felipe  dc  Bengutia, 
which  is  pleasantly  situated  and  fairly  healthy. 
In  slave-trading  days  Benguela's  population 
was  greater  than  it  is  to-day  and  it  was  an 
important  centre  of  the  trade.  It  has  rail  con- 
nection with  Lobito  which  has  a  good  harbor 
with  improved  docldng  facilities.  It  exports 
rubber,  coffee,  skins,  ivory,  etc.  A  short  rail- 
way starts  from  the  town,  the  population  of 
which  is  about  3,600,  of  which  between  I.OOO 
and  1,500  are  whiles.  The  population  of  the 
province  may  amount  to  several  millions. 

BENHADAD,  the  name  of  three  kings  of 
SJTia^  all  mentioned  in  Scripture.  The  most 
conspicuous  is  the  second,  who  was  equally  re- 
markable for  his  arrogance  in  prosperity  and 
his  craven  spirit  in  adversity.  He_  fint  sent  an 
insolent  message  to  Ahab,  claiming  him  and 
all  his  subjects  as  his  slaves;  and  after  Ahab 
encountered  and  defeated  him,  Benfaadad  sent 
a  message  abjectly  begging  his  life.  Ahab  <rai 
impolitic  enough  to  grant  it,  and  Benhadad,  dis- 
regarding  all  his  promises,  proved  a  bitter 
enemy  to  his  successor.  He  was  murdered 
about  890  B,c. 

BENHAH,  Andrew  BUlcott  Kenned;. 
American  naval  officer :  b.  New  York,  10  .-Vpnl 
1832;  d,  at  Lake  Mahopac,  N.  Y,.  11  -*L"fr 
1905,  He  entered  the  navy  in  1847;  sened  in 
the  East  India  and  the  home  squadron'  id 
1847-52;  attended  the  United  Stales  Na'^' 
Academy  I8.')2-53 ;  was  commissioned  lieulensnl 
in  1855,  I ieiitoi ant-commander  in  1862,  r"J" 
mander    1866,   captain    1875,   commodore  1»5 


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BSNHAH  —  BICHI-SUEF 


ns 


in  1890,  and  retired  in  ISM. 

During  the  Gvit  War  he  served  in  the  Sonth 
Atlantic  and  West  Golf  blockading  squadrons, 
takinK  part  in  the  capture  of  Port  Royal,  S.  C. 
In  lw&-69  he  served  at  the  Brooklyn  navy 
yard;  was  Ughthousc  inspector  1870-71  and 
18S4~88.  In  April  1893  he  commanded  one  of 
the  divisions  in  the  great  naval  display  at  New 
York;  in  1894,  as  commander  of  a  squadron  at 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  be  foiled  the  com- 
mander of  the  intnrgents'  squadroti  to  raise 
dK  blockade  of  the  d^  and  to  discontinue 
firing  on  Ameiican  merchant  vessels;  and  in 
189S    was    naval    prize  '      " 

vannah,  Ga. 


.  ■  1884.  He  was  graduated  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  in  1837  and  became 
brevet  major-general.  United  Slates  army.  He 
commanded  file  engineer  brigade  and  laid  sev' 
eral  pontooti  bridges  under  fire  during  the 
Cbanccllorsville  battles;  constructed  and  com- 
manded the  defenses  at  Gty  Point,  devised  the 
picket  shovel  and  made  many  improvements  in 
the  construction  of  pontoon  bridge's,  in  which 
he  was  a  recognized  eiipert.  After  the  war  he 
was  in  charge  of  the  Boston  harbor  sea  wall 
and  later  of  the  New  York  harbor  defenses; 
retired  from'  active  service  1882. 

BENHAH,  William,  EngUsh  clergyman 
and  author:  b.  West  Meon,  Hampshire,  15  Jan. 
1831;  d.  30  July  1910.  He  was  vicar  of  Ad- 
dington,  1867-73;  of  Marsatfc  1872-«0:  of  Mar- 
den,  1880-82;  and  rector  ol  Saint  Edmund's, 
Lombard  street,  London,  from  the  year  last 
named.  He  was  canon  of  Canterbury  from 
1885.  He  published  among  other  works  'The 
Church  of  the  Patriarchs'  (1867) ;  'Catherine 
and  Craufurd  Tait;  'Annals  of  the  Diocese 
of  Winchester)  (1S84)  ;  <A  Short  History  of 
tile  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States' 
(1884);  •'rtie  Dictionary  of  Refigion'  (1887); 
•Life  of  Archbishop  Tait,*  with  Davidson 
(1891),  and  histories  of  the  cathedrals  of  Win- 
chester, Rochester  and  old  Saint  Paul's,  Lon- 
don. He  edited  the  'Ancient  and  Modem  Li- 
brary of  TheoloRica!  Literature.' 

BENI,  ba'ne,  Bolivia,  one  of  the  nine  de- 
partments of  Bolivia,  South  America.  It  is 
m  the  northeastern  part  and  bounded  on  the 
north  and  east  by  Brazil,  by  the  departments 
of  Cochamba..La  Paz  and  Santa  Cruz  on  the 
south  and  La  Paz  on  the  west,  with  an  area 
of  107,744  sf^uane  mites.  It  is  a  level,  fertile 
rcsion,'  growing  cocoa,  cofFet^  sugar-cane  and 
tobacco,  tropical  fruits  and  containing  vast 
forests  of  rubber-.trees  and  rich  deposits  of 
gold.  The  climate  is  hot  and  moist,  but  is 
healthful,  neverlheless.  Pop.  37,300,  mostly 
Indians.  Trinidad  (4,810)  is  the  chief  town 
of  the  department 

BVHI,  a  river  of  South  America,  formed 
by  the  junction  of  several  streams  flowing 
eastward  from  the  Andes  in  about  18°  south. 
Its  course  is  north  and  northeast  through  Bo- 
livia; and  on  the  border  of  Brazil  it  unites 
with  the  Uamort  to  form  the  Madeira,  Iry 
which  its  waters  are  carried  to  the  Amazon,  It 
receives  several  tributaries  of  importance,  the 
chief  being  the  Uadre  de  Dios  from  Peru,  and 


it  is  navigable  througjiout  a  great  part  of  its 
cour»e,_  Its  length  is  about  8S0  miles. 

BBNI-HASSAN,  bi'nc-has's^n  £^t, 
village  on  the  cast  bank  of  the  Nile  below 
Assiut,  remarkable  for  the  rock-hewn  tombs 
in  the.  neighborhood,  39  in  number,  cut  in  the 
calcareous  stone  of  the  mountain.  They  are 
sepulchres  of  the  ancient  monarchs  who  ruled 
the  district  about  2000  b.c.  They  cxhiUt  inter- 
esting paintings  and  hieroglyphics.  The  paint- 
ings portray  incidents  in  the  ancient  life  of 
Egypt  and  the  inscriptions  are  of  great  value 
for  the  light  they  throw  upon  the  history  of 
the  12th  dynasty.  In  recent  years  the  mural 
decorations  have  suffered  at  the  bands  of  reKc- 
bunters.  The  remainder  have  been  carefully 
copied  at  the  direction  of  the  Egypt  Eicplora- 
tion  FuntL  Consult  'Publications  of  the  Ar- 
chteoloeical  Survey. of  Egypt'    (Vols.  I,  II,  V, 

8BNI-ISRAEL,  ba'n^-Iz'rS-ei,  a  race  in 
the  west  of  India  (the  Konkan  sea  board, 
Bombay,  etc.),  who  keep  a  tradition  of  Jewish 
origin  and  whose  religim  is  a  modified  Juda- 
ism. By  some  persons  they  are  supposed  to 
be  a  remnant  of  the  10  tribes.  Their  number 
is  estimated  at  5,000  and  iit  feature  they  re- 
semUe  the  Jews  of  Arabia.  They  abstain  from 
the  flesh  of  unclean  animals  and  observe  the 
Sabbath  strictly.  Some  of  their  learned  doc- 
tors are  acquainted  with  Hebrew,  bat  to  the 
vast  majority  the  Scriptures  are  unknown. 
They  observe  several  of  the  religious  customs 
common  among  their  nei^ibors  the  Hindus. 
Little  is  known  as  to  the  time  of  their  settle- 
ment in  India,  but  it  is  certain  that  they  had 
been  there  for  many  centuries  when,  in  1000 
A.D.,  the  reformer  David  Rahabi  came  among 
them.  Benjamin  Tudela  knew  them  in  the  12th 
century  and  Marco  Polo  in  the  13th.  Their 
communities  are  governed  by  tbe  Mukadani, 
or  head  man,  and  thdr  rel^ous  chiefs  are 
called  cadi,  _  The  latter  perform  circumcision 
and  other  rites.  Consult  EzckicI,  Joseph,  in 
'The  Jewish  EncyclMMcdia'  (1902)  and  Sam- 
uel, IL,  'Sketch  of  Beni-Israel>  (I8S9). 

BBNI-ISRABL,  a  small  antelope  (Neo- 
tragus  saltianus)  closely  allied  to  the  duvker- 
boks,  common  in  Ahyssinia  and  on  the  shores 
of  the  Red  Sea.  It  is  known  by  the  names 
omdigdig,  raadoqua,  hegoleh  and  Salt's  ante- 
lope. It  is  a  related  species  of  the  Neolragus 
Kirki,  or  Kirk's  antelope,  of  souUiem  Abys- 
sinia, which  is  veij-  numerous.  They  utter  shrill 
cries  and  travel  by  long  bounds.  Their  flesh 
has  a  heavy,  unpleasant  flavor. 

BENI-KHAIBIR,  ba-ni-ka-i'b£r  (sons  of 
Keber),  an  Arabic  tribe  supposed  to  be  a  rem- 
nant of  the  ascetic  tribe  of^Rechabites. 

BENI-HZAB,  a  race  or  tribe  of  Berbers 
that  dwell  in  the  Sahara,  near  its  northern 
border,  under  the  suprema^  of  the  French. 
They  number  some  30.000.  "niey  are  peacefully 
disposed,  and  numbers  of  them  are  employed 
in  Algiers  In  various  occupations.  In  1882  thdr 
territory  was  finally  annexed  to  the  department 
of  Algiers  and  a  specif  bureau  was  established 
at  Ghardaia.  Consult  Coyne,  A_  'Le  Mzab> 
(Algiers  1879). 

BBNI-8UEP,  b5'n?-swaf',  Egypt,  the  eapi- 
la)  of  a  province  of  the  same  name;  is  pMv  j 

\j00gle 


B16 


BBNICARLO  —  BBNIOW8KY 


antly  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  65 
miles  south  from  Cairo,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected  by  railway.  It  is  the  entrepot  for  the 
produce  of  the  fertile  valley  of  Fayoum,  and 
contains  cotton  mills,  controlled  by  the  state, 
and  alabaster  quarries.  Pop.  (1907)  23,357. 
The  province  has  an  area  of  400  square  miles 
and  a  population  estimated  at  370,000. 

BENICARLO,  ba-nc-kar-lo',  Spain,  sea- 
port in  Valencia,  in  the  province  of  Castellon 
de  la  Plana,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bemcarl6 
River,  on  the  Mediterranean,  42  miles  northeast 
of  Castellon  de  la  Plana.  It  is  surrounded  with 
waJl&,  having  an  old  castle,  a  fine  church,  with 
an  octae^onal  tower,  and  some  manufactures, 
etc  It  IS  chiefly  noted  as  being  the  place  of 
export  of  the  red  wines  called  b^  its  name 
which  are  produced  in  the  surroundmg  country. 
These  are  chiefly  sent  to  Bordeaux  to  be  mixed 
with  clarets,  or  to  England  to  be  manufactured 
into  port.  Grain,  oil,  vegetables  and  oranges 
are  produced,  and  spirits  are  manufactured. 
Pop.  (1910)  7,200. 

BENICIA,  b£n-ishl-ft,  Cal.,  dty  in  Solano 
Coun&,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  rivers,  and  on  the  Southern  Pa- 
cific Railroad,  24  miles  northeast  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. The  harbor  is  ^ood  and  there  is  steam- 
ship communication  with  San  Francisco.  The 
city  has  among  its  principal  industries  cream- 
eries, tanneries,  farm  implement  works,  ship- 
yards and  fruit  packing  establishments.  It  re- 
ceived its  charter  as  a  city  in  1861.  Its  gov- 
ernment is  vested  in  five  trustees  elected  for  a 
term  of  four  years.  It  contains  a  United  States 
arsenal  and  barracks ;  Saint  Augustine  College 
(Roman  Catholic)  ;  Saint  Catherine's  Convent 
(Roman  Catholic).  Benicia  was  foimded  in 
1848  and  in  its  early  years  rivalled  San  Fran- 
cisco. In  1853  it  was  the  capital,  but  ihe  gov- 
ernment seat  was  transferred  to  Sacramento  in 
1854.    Pop,  3.100. 

BENIGNI,  ben-In'y^  Umberto,  Italian  cler- 
^man  and  educator:  b.  Perugja^  30  March 
\8()Z.  He  was  educated  at  the  seminary  of  his 
native  city,  the  School  of  PalxuKraphy  and 
Di[^<nnacy  and  Slate  Archives,  Rome.  In 
1880-93  he  was  successively  secretary  to  the 
archbishop  of  Perugia,  professor  of  Church 
history  a>t  the  seminary  ttiere  and  founder  of 
the  Rtusegtia  sociaU,  the  first  Italian  period- 
ical devoted  to  Catholic  sociology.  After  189S 
he  resided  in  Rome,  where  he  edited  the  Bei- 
sarione  and  Voce  delta  Verita.     He  was  also 

6rofessor  of  Church  history  at  Saint  Apol- 
naris,  the  Propaganda  and  the  Vatican  Sem- 
inary, He  wfas  assistant  at  the  Vatican  Li- 
brary and  member  of  the  Historico-Iiturgical 
Commission  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites. 
He  is  at  present  professor  of  Church  history 
and  diplomatic  forms  at  the  Pontifical  College 
for  noble  ecclesiastics.  He  has  written  *Pro- 
pEedeutica  historic  ecclesiastics'  (2  vols.)  and 
'Storia  sociale  della  Chiesa'  (2  vols.).  He 
contributed  upwards  of  400  articles  to  the 
'Catholic  Encyclopedia.' 

BENIN,  bi-nln',  Africa,  a  negro  country  or 
kingdom,  on  the  Bight  of  Benin,  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  extending  along  the  coast  on  both  sides 
of  the  Benin  River,  and  to  some  distance  in- 
land, but  the  limits  are  not  accurately  known. 
Th«  capital  is  Benin,  a  town  which  at  one  time 


had  some  15,000  inhabitwts,  but  is  now  said  to 
have  greatly  decreased  in  population.  It  i; 
situated  about  50  miles  from  the  coast,  and  con- 
sists of  day-built  houses  neatly  thatched  with 
reeds,  straw  or  leave*.    The  coast,  which  now 


and  studded  with  islands.  The  country  is  flat 
for  some  distance  inland,  when  it  begins  gradu- 
ally to  rise  till  it  attains  a  hei^t  of  over  2^10 
feet.  It  is  very  well  wooded,  and  bong  like- 
wise well  watered,  it  is  rich  in  all  the  vegetable 
productions  of  the  tropics.  Cotton  is  indige- 
nous and  is  woven  into  cloth  for  the  womeoL 
Si%ar-cane  of  good  quality  is  grown;  and  yams, 
plantains,  maize,  rice,  etc^  are  cultivated.  The 
religion  is  Fetishism.  Tlie  climate,  especially 
at  uie  mouth  of  the  rivers,  is  very  unhealthy. 
Palm  oil  is  now  the  principal  article  of  com- 
meroe.  The  inhabitants  are  still  in  almost  Ac 
savage  state,  human  sacrifices  being  offered  in 
recent  times.  It  is  believed  that  the  Portliest, 
Diogo  <^m,  discovered  Benin  in  1484.  It  was 
long  the  centre  of  the  slave  trade,  which  the 
British  suppressed  when  thdr  influence  became 
paramount  there.  A  massacre  of  British  official; 
and  other  Europeans  took  place  in  1897  and  i 
punitive  expedition  was  sent  to  take  the  city, 
which  with  the  surrounding  district  now  forms 
part  of  the  southern  Nigena.  C^vcmment  au- 
thority is  vested  in  a  British  resident  assisted 
br  a  coundl  of  native  dticfs.  Consuh  Rodi. 
(Notes  on  Benin  Customs'  (1898)  and  'Great 
Benin'    (1903). 


of  Guinea,  and  extending  from  the  Niger  delli 
westward  to  C^pe  Saint  Paul,  a  distance  along 
the  coasit  of  500  miles.  The  Forcadas  River 
flowing  into  the  bight,  forms  the  prini^ 
water  route  between  the  ocean  and  the  Niger 
above  the  Delta. 

BENIOWSKY,  hS-n8-6fI'sH,  Monti  A* 
goat  von,  Hungarian  adventurer:  K  Verbova, 
Hungary,  1741 ;  d.  23  May  1786.  The  son  of  an 
Austrian  general,  he  served  as  lieutenant  in  the 
Seven  Years'  War  and  in  the  Polidi  war  against 
Russia.  In  1769  be  fell  into  the  hands  of  ibc 
Russians,  who  exiled  him  to  Kamchadca.  Avail- 
ing himself  of  a  knowledge  of  navigation,  ht 
succeeded  in  saving  from  wreck  the  ve^sd 
which  was  to  convey  him  to  Siberia.  This  fral 
won  for  him  the  sympathy  of  the  governor  of 
Kamchatka  which  was  still  mora  strengthentd 
by  his  profidency  in  chess,  and  he  appointed 
him  tutor  of  his  children.  One  of  his  pdimIs 
fell  in  love  with  him,  and  with  her  father's 
consent  they  were  married.  In  1771  he  effeclcd 
his  escape  from  Kamchatka-  with  die  assistanrt 
of  his  wife,  who,  although  she  had  since  leamcd 
that  he  had  another  wife  in  Hungary,  foUowM 
him  to  Formosa  and  Moscow,  at  which  latt« 
place  she  died.  On  his  return  to  Paris  he  un- 
dertook to  found  a  French  coloiw  at  MadaRis- 
car,  vrfiere  he  arrived  in  June  1774,  founded  h« 
colony,  and  in  177S'  was  proclaimed  king  by 
some  of  the  native  tribes  while  his  wift  wis 
proclaimed  queen.  The  governor  of  the  I;k  ot 
France  refusing  to  snppiv  him  with  men  Id 
support  lus  stale,  Beniowsky  applied  directly  to 
the  French  government,  hot  without  succms. 
C^sgusted  with  the  Frciich  and  their  cdonw, 


BBHUH  DATS  — BENJAMIN 


he  DOW  entered  the  Abstrian  service,  and  was 
commander  in  the  battle  of  Habelschwerdt,  in 
1778  against  the  Prussians.  His  subsequent 
efforts  lo  interest  the  English  government  for 
Uadagascar  were  fruitless  but  with  the  sm>- 
port  of  a  wealthy  firm  of  Baltimore,  Ud.,  nc 
effected  a  landing  in  Madagascar,  but  was 
lolled  soon  after  in  a  conflict  with  troops  from 
the  Isle  of  France.  He  wrote  his  aulobiog' 
raphy  in  French;  it  was  translated  into  German 
by  George  Forster,  into  English  by  William 
Ntchobon  and  into  various  other  languages. 
iCotzebue  dramatized  his  character  and  career 
in  his  play  entitled  'The  Gjnspiracy  in  Kam- 
chatka.' The  'Memoirs  and  Travels,'  edited 
by  Nicholson  and  Magelhan,  were  published  in 
London  in  1790l  Another  edition  was  prepared 
by  Kubalski  (Paris  1863). 


Egyptians  don  the  benisli  (whence  the  name), 
or  ordinary  garment,  relax  their  religious 
duties  and  engage  in  plm^ures. 

BENJAMIN,  the  youngest  son  of  Jacob 
and  Rachel  (Gen.  xxxv,  16-16).  Rachel  died 
immediately  after  he  was  bom  and  with  her 
last  breath  named  him  Ben-oni,  *son  of  my 
sorrow";  but  Jacob  called  him  fienjatnin,  'son 
of  my  right  hand'  He  was  a  great  comfort 
to  his  father,  who  saw  in  him  the  image  of 
the  wife  he  had  buried,  and  of  Joseph,  whose 
loss  be  also  mourned.  He  could  hardly  be 
persuaded  to  let  lum  go  with  his  brethren  to 
Egypt.  When  Jacob  misrated  to  E^pt  Ben- 
jamin appears  at  the  head  (if  the  family  of  10. 
The  territory  of  the  tribe  In  Palestine  was  be- 
tween those  of  Ei^raim  and  Judah  and  in- 
cluded the  cities  of  Bethel,  Jericho,  Gibeon, 
Ophrafa  and  Ramah.  The  tribe  was  one  of  the 
most  warlike  and  holds  an  important  place  in 
Hebrew  history.  The  tribe  of  Benjamin,  small 
at  first,  was  almost  ejcterminated  in  the  days 
of  the  Judges,  but  later  it  greatly  increased. 
On  the  revolt  of  the  10  tribes  Benjamin  ad- 
hered to  the  camp  of  Judah:  and  the  two  tribes 
afterward  closely  united.  King  Saul  and  Saul 
of  Tarsus  were  Benjamites;  also  Esther  and 
Mordecat.  Some  scholars  regard  the  tribe  as . 
being  formerly  a  constituent  part  of  the  tribe 
of  Joseph.    See  Jews  and  Judaisu. 


known  of  his  life  except  that  he  followed  lus 
profession  as  architect  and  builder  in  Massa- 
chusetts. He  was  the  author  of  'The  Elements 
of  Architecture,  Town  and  Country  Builder's 
Assistant'  (1797)  and  'The  Practical  House 
Can>ent<;r-' 

BKNJAHIN,  Charlea  Henr7,  engineer  and 
educator:  b.  Patten,  Me.,  29  Aug.  1856.  Ha 
was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Maine  in 
1K%.  Degrees,  M.E.,  University  of  Maine; 
D.Eng.,  Case  School  of  Applied  Science.  From 
1880  to  I8S6,  pnfeMor  of  mechanical  engi- 
neering at  the  University  of  Maine;  1889-1W7, 
professor  of  mechanical  ennineering.  Case 
School  of  Applied  Science;  since  1907,  dean  of 
die  Schools  of  Engineering,  Purdue  University. 
Principal  nublications,  'American  Machine 
Tools'  ( 1906) ;  'Steam  En^ne'  (1909) ; 
'Machine  Design'  in  collaboration  with  J.  H. 


Hoffman  (1906)  also  papers  and 
on  engineering  subjects  in  various  technical 
journals  and  proceedings  of  engineering  socie- 
ties; member.  Tan  Beta  Pi  and  Sigma  Xi; 
honorary  member  of  the  Cleveland  EnKineerin" 
Society;  member  of  the  American  Socidy  of 
Mechanical  Engineers,  Master  Mechanics'  As- 
sociation, Master  Car  Builders'  Association, 
Western  Railway  Club,  Society  for  the  Promo- 
tion  of   Engineering  Educaition. 

BENJAMIN,  Jndah  FhiUp,  American 
lawyer  and  statesman:  b.  Saint  Croix,  West 
Indies,  11  Aug.  1811;  d.  Paris,  7  May  1884; 
of  English  parentage  and  of  Jewish  faith.  He 
was  educated  at  Vale  College  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  New  Orleans  in  1832.  He  had 
an  extensive  practice  in  New  Orleans,  was 
engaged  as  counsel  in  several  cases  of  nation- 
wide interest  and  published  a  valuable  'Digest 
of  Reported  Decisions  of  (he  Supreme  Court 
of  the  Late  Territory  of  Orleans  EUid  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Louisiana.'  In  1848  he  was 
admitted  to  practice  before  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court  and  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate  in  1852  and  1858.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Civi!  War  he  resigned  from  the 
Senate  and  declared  his  adhesion  to  the  State 
of  Louisiana.  In  1861  he  accepted  the  office 
of  Attorney- General  in  the  Cabinet  of  Jefferson 
Davis,  and  afterward  became  successively  Con- 
federate Secretary  of  War  and  Secretary  of 
State.  He  served  with  great  ener^  and  ability 
in  the  latter  capacity  until  the  close  of  the  war. 
After  Lee's  surrender,  Benjamin  fled  from 
Richmond  and  after  many  hardships  succeeded 
in  reaching  London,  England,  where  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1866.  He  gained  a 
successful  practice,  and  in  1872  was  formally 
prestnted  with  a  silk  gown.  He  wrote  a 
^Treatise   on    the    Law    of    Sale    of    Personal 


Butler,  Pierce,  'Judah  P.  Benjamin'  (Phila- 
delphia 1907). 

BENJAMIN,  Lewis  S.  (Lewis  Melvuxe), 
English  writer:  b.  London,  30  March  1874.  He 
was  on  the  stage  from  1896-1901,  afterward 
taking  up  litarature  as  his  profession,  and 
specializing  in  the  (jeorgian  and  Early  Victor- 
ian periods.  He  has  written  a  'Life  of 
Thackeray'  (1909),  and  edited  an  edition  of 
his  works  (1901-07).  His  other  works  in- 
clude 'Victorian  Novelists'  (1906) ;  'The 
First  Gentleman  in  Europe'  (1906);  'The' 
Beaux  of  the  Regency'  (1908);  'Life  and 
Letters  of  Lawrence  Sterne'  (1911);  'William 
Cobbett'  (1913);  'Memoirs  of  Lady  Craven' 
(1913);   'The  Berry  Papers'    (1914). 

BENJAMIN  Marcus,  American  editor;  b. 
San  Francisco,  Cal.,  17  Jan.  I8S7.  He  studied 
at  the  School  of  Mines,  Columbia  University, 
in  1878;  received  the  A.M.  degree  from  Lafay- 
ette College  in  1888;  Ph.D.  University  of  Nash- 
ville, 1889;  Sc.D.  University  of  Pittsburgh, 
1905;  LL.D.  Saint  John's  College,  Maryland, 
1910.  He  became  editor  of  the  Atnerican  Phar- 
macist in  1882,  and  later  of  its  successor,  the 
Weekly  Drug  Nevjs.  He  has  edited  more  than 
100  volumes  in  connection  with  his  special 
duties  as  editor  of  the  Unite^  States  National 
Museum  since  1  April  1896,  and  as  member  of 
the  United  States  Assay  Commission  1896, 
l9oa  1904,  1906  and  1Q12.    He  contributed  v    ' 


Google 


BENJAMIN  —  BBHNDOKP 


'Cyi^lopedia  of  American  Biography';  was  ed- 
itor of  various  Appleton's  euides  and  hand- 
books, etc.,  aUo  of  'Standard  Dictionary,' 
'Universal  ■Cyclopedia,*  ' Encyelop«dic  Ehc- 
tionary,'  •American  Educator,*  'Inlornational 
Year  Boole,'  'New  International  Cyclopedia'; 
was  editor-in-chief  of  Appleton's  'New  Practi- 
cal Cyclopedia'  (6  voU.,  1910)  ;  was  translator  of 
Bcrtholet's  'Explosive  Materials'  (1883).  He 
was  secretary  (1904-07)  and  registrar  (1914- 
15)  of  the  society  of  the  Sons  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, and  president  of  the  Alumni  Association 
of  Columbia  University  in  the  District  of 
Columbia,  1909-15.  He  has  contributed  various 
articles  to  the  principal  magazines. 

BENJAMIN,  Park,  American  journalist, 
po«t  and  lecturer :  b.  Demerara,  British  Guiana, 
14  Aup.  1809;  d.  New  York,  12  Sept.  1864. 
Early  in  life  he  was  sent  to  New  England  and 
wat  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Hart  Ford. 
He  studied  law,  but  later  took  up  literary  work, 
helping  to  found  The  Nrra  Worid  in  New  York 
in  1840.  His  poems,  of  a  high  order  of  merit, 
have  never  beer  collected.  'The  Contempla- 
tion of  Nature,'  read  on  taking  his  degree  at 
Hartford,  1829;  the  satires,  *Poetrv'  (1843); 
'Infatuation'  (1849);  'The  Nautilus';  'To 
One  Beloved';  and  'The  Old  Sexton*  are 
among  his  works.  He  was  associated  editori- 
ally with  Epes  Sargent  and  Rufus  W,  Gris- 
wold.  'The  Old  Sexton'  has  found  its  way 
into  several  anthologies. 

BENJAMIN,  Park,  American  lawyer,  edt- 
Itor  and  miscellaneous  writer:  b.  New  York, 
11  May  l&t9.  A  graduate  of  the  United  Sutes 
Naval  Academy  {\^7),  he  served  on  Admiral 
Farragut's  flagship,  but  resigned  in  ISCd,  arid 
was  graduated  at  the  Albany  Law  School  in 
the  following  year.  As  a  lawyer  he  has  been  a 
patent  expert.     He  edited  the  Scientific  At 


(1872-78),  and  Appleton's  Cychtsdia  of 
Applied  Mechanics  and  Cyclopedia  of  Modem 
Mechanism.     He  has  written   'Shakings:  Etch- 


New  York'  (1881);  'The  Voltaic  Cell'  (1892): 
'Modern  Mechamsm'  (1905);  'The  Age  of 
Electricity'  (1886);  'The  Intellectual  Rise  in 
Electricity,  a  History'  ;  "The  United  States 
Naval  Academy'    (1900). 

-  BENJAMIN,  Samnel  Green  Wheeler, 
American  traveler,  artist  and  miscellaneous 
writer:  b.  Argo*.  Greece,  13  Feb.  1837;  d.  Bur- 
KuKton,  Vt.,  19  July  1914.  He  was  educated 
at  Williams  College  and  at  the  English  CoUese 
in  Smyrna;  was  assistant  librarian  in  the  New 
York  State  Library,  1861-64;  and  was  United 
States  Minister  to  Persia,  1883-SS.  He  was 
also  editor  of  the  American  Magazine  of  Art 
and  was  a  frequerU  contributor  to  magazines 
and  periodicals.  He  was  also  favorably  known 
as  a  marine  painter  and  illustrator.  Among  his 
numerous  works,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  are 
'Art  in  America'    (1879)  ;   'Contemporary  Art 


(1881)  ;  'A  Group  of  Etchers'  (1883) ;  'Persia 

and  the  Persians'-  (1886);   'Sea  Spray'   (1888). 

BENJAMIN-CONSTANT,    boA-zh^-m^n- 

I^B-£^a,.  JSU    J9*cph>.   French    painter :    b. 


He  studied  under  Cabane],  and  exhitnted  in 
the  Salon  of  \9fS  a  scene  from  'Hamlet'  His 
taste  inclined  him  to  Oriental  subjects  and  tbe 
nude,  and  his  vivid  coloring  and  dramatic 
treatment  made  his  work  fashionable  in  Paris, 
London  and  the  United  States.  His  work  dis- 
plays much  finished  and  minute  detail,  but  be 
paid  chief  attention  to  harmony  of  enect  and 
deooralive  value.  The  most  celebrated  of  his 
pictures  are  'The  Last  Rebel*  (1870);  'Mo- 
fiammed  II's  Entry  into  COTStantinople' 
(1876)  ;  and  'Thirst  in  the  Desert'  (1878),  In 
his  later  years  he  devoted  himself  to  portrait- 
ure and  mural  decoration.  Two  striking  ex- 
amples of  the  last  named  are  the  ceiling  of 
the  Op^  Comique,  Paris,  and  'Justinian  in 
Council'  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  New 
York.  In  1893  he  carried  off  the  medal  ol 
hotKir  of  the  Salon  by  his  portrait  of  his  soti 
Andr6,  now  in  the  Luxembourg  Museum,  Paris. 
Among  other  successful  portraits  are  those  of 
Queen  Victoria  and  Queen  Alexandra,  U.  de 
Blowiti,  Anthony  Drexel  of  Philadelphia  and 
Frederick  Ayer.  He  visited  tbe  United  States 
several  times.  He  was  elected  a  member  of 
tbe  ]nAtitute  in  1S93  and  was  an  officer  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor. 

BENJAMIN  OF  TUDELA.  Jewish  trav- 
eler: b.  Tudela,  Navarre,  Spain,  in  the  12tll 
century.  In  1160-73  he  traveled  from  Sara- 
gossa,  through  France,  Italy,  Greece,  Palestine, 
Persia  to  China,  returning  by  Khuzistan,  the 
Indian  Ocean,  Arabia,  Egypt,  Sicily  and  Spain. 
As  the  first  European  traveler  who  penetrated 
far  into  the  East,  he  furnishes  a  great  amount 
of  interesting  information,  and  thou^  not 
free  from  error  or  fable,  proves  himself 
worthy  of  the  high  estimation  in  which  he  has 
always  been  held  among  his  Jewish  country- 
men for  soundness  of  judgment  and  extent  of 
learning.  His  'Itinerary,'  first  printed  in  He- 
brow  at  Constantinople  in  1543,  has  been  often 
reprinted,  the  latest  being  the  edition  of 
Grunhut  (Jerusalem  1903).  It  was  transbted 
into  Latin  by  Arias  Montanus  in  1575.  and 
afterward  into  Dutch,  German  and  French.  A 
part  of  the  text  was  published  by  M.  N.  Adltr 
-in  "Quarterly  Statement  of  the  Palestine  Ex- 
ploration Fund'  (October  1894),  from  a  manu- 
script in  the  British  Museum.  Consult  C^rmoly. 
E.,  and  Lckwet,  L.,  'Notice  histortque  sur  Ben- 
jamin de  Tudele'  (18521.  The  edition  of 
Asher  (London  and  Borhn  1840-41)  comamJ 
an  English  translatiotL 

BENKULEN.    See  Bencoolen. 

BENNDORF,  Otto,  Grrman  archawl- 
ogist:  b.  13  Sept.  1838;  d.  2  Jan.  1907.  He 
studied  at  Eriangen  and  Bont%  went  to  liab 
and  Greece,  1864-68,  and  was  professor  of 
archzolon'  at  the  umvarsilies  of  (I^lti|]8e^ 
Zurich,  Munich,  Prague  and  Vienna.  In  1875 
he  made  a  second  archaet^oe^cai  tonr  to  Samo- 
thrace;  in  1881  and  1833  he  made  two  expedi- 
tions, at  state  cost,  to  southwestern  Asia  Minor; 
in  1898  he  was  made  director  of  the  Austrian 
Archzological  Institute.  He  wrote  'The  An- 
cient Sculptures  in  the  Lateran  Museum'  (ia 
conjunction  with  Schone)  (Leipzig  1867)  ;  'An- 
cient Historical  HelmetB  and  Sepulchral  Uasks' 
(1878);  'Travels  in  Southwest  Asia  Uimt' 
( 1884)  ;  <Reisen  in  LyUen  lud  Karien>  (188t). 
etc 


Digitized  =y  Google 


BENNB  OIL— BENNETT 


B19 


BBHHE  OIL,  a  valuable  oil  expressed 
from  the  seeds  of  Stiamum  orienlOlt  and  S. 
imticHm,  tnucli  cultivated  in  India.  Egypt,  etc., 
and  lued  for  purposes  similar  to  tuom:  of  olive 
oil  '  Also  called  sesamum  ofl  and  gingeUy  oiL 
See  Sesame. 

BBNNBT,  Elirabeth,  the  heroine  of  Jane 
Austen's  novel,  'Pride  and  Prejudice.*  Con- 
sult Howells,  'Heroines  of  Fiction'   (1901). 

BENNET,  Henry  (Earl  or  Abukcton), 
English  sialcsman:  b.  Arlington,  Middlesex, 
1618;  d  28  July  1685.  He  was  devoted  to  the 
cause  of  Charles  I,  and  was  appointed  Under- 
Secretary  of  State;  he  fought  in  several  battles, 
and  was  wounded  at  Andover,  but  after  the 
battle  of  Worcestef  he  retired  to  Spaitu  Upon 
the  restoration  he  returned  to  England,  and  wal 
appointed  keeper  of  the  privy  seal,  and  shortly 
afterward  Secretary  of  State.  In  1664  he  was 
created  Baron  Arlin^on ;  in  1670  became  noted 
>s  one  of  the  famous  Cabal,  but  is  not  accused 
of  entertaining  their  extreme  seotimentB;  he 
was  created  Earl  of  Arlington  in  1672.  He  was 
one  of  the  plenipotentiaries  sent  to  Utrecht  to 
negotiate  a  peace  between  Austria  and  France, 
but  the  mission  not  being  successful,  an  en- 
deavor was  made  by  his  colleagues  to  cast  the 
odium  of  the  failure  upon  him.  He  defended 
himself,  however,  before  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, and  was  ^uined. .  The  war  with  Hol- 
land which  is  said  to  have  been  caused  by  the 
inacninations  of  the  Cabal,  lost  to  Arlington  the 
favor  of  the  King  and  people;  but  in  spite  of 
this  he  received  the  oRice  of  chamberlain.  In 
1679  he  became  a  member  of  the  new  council, 
and  retained  his  office  of  chamberlain  on  the 
accession  of  James  11. 

BENNETT,  Alfred  Allen,  American  chon- 
ist:  b.  Milford,  N.  H.,  30  Nov.  1850.  He  was 
graduated  at  the  Univeraty  of  Uichigan  1877; 
became  professor  of  chemistry  and  physics  in 
Iowa  Wesleyan  University;  and  since  18S5  has 
been  professor  of  chemistry  in  Iowa  State 
College.  Publications;  'Tejct  Book  of  Inor- 
^nic  Chemistry'  (2  vols.,  1895)  and  articles 
m  the  American  Chemical  Society  Jotinuil. 

BENNETT,  Alfred  William.  EngUsb  bot- 
anist: b.  ClaphanL  24  June  1833;  d  23  Jan. 
1902.  He  engaged  in  business  as  a  bookseller 
and  publisher  in  London,  which  he  abandoned 
in  favor  of  botanical  research.  He  was  the 
author  of  'The  Flora  of  the  Alps'  (1876-77), 
and  of  some  admirable  translations  from  the 
German :  Sachs'  'Lehrbueh  der  Botanik' 
(1875);  Seboih's  < Alpine  Plants'  (187St*t) ; 
and  von  Dalla  Torre's  'Tourists'  Guide  to  the 
Flora  of  the  Austrian  Alps'    (1882). 

BENNETT,  Charles  Edwin,  American 
educator:  b.  Providence,  R,  I., 6  April  1858.  He 
was  graduated  at  Brown  University  1878;  pur- 
sued graduate  studies  at  Harvard  and  in  Ger- 
many I881-M;  was  professor  of  Latin  at  the 
Univcrshy  of  Wisconsin  188?-91 ;  of  classical 
philology  at  Brown  1691-92;  and  in  the  latter 
>'ear  was  elected  professor  of  Latin  at  Cornell. 
He  has  been  a  frequent  contributor  to  classical 
journals  and  editor  of  classical  texts.  Publi- 
cations :  *A  Latm  Grammar*  (1895) ;  'The 
Foundations  of  Latin'  (1898);  'Critique  of 
Some  Recent  Subjunctive  Theories'  (1898); 
'The  Qnantitative  Reading  of  Latin  Poetry' 
(1899)  ;   <Tbe  Teactung  of  Greek  and  Latin  in 


Secondary  Schools'  (with  (^rge  P.  Bristol) 
(1900);  'The  Latin  Language'  (I'M?);  'Syn- 
tax of  Earfy  Latin'  {Vol.  1,  1910;  Vol.  II, 
1914).  He  has  edited  'Xenophon's  Helleni<3, 
Books  V-VIII'  (1892);  'TaJtns.  Dialofus  de 
Oratoribus'  (1894);  'Cicero,  Dc  Serectute' 
(1897);  and  'acero,  Dc  Amicitia'  (1897); 
'Horace,  Odes  and  £podes>  (1901);  'Oesar, 
Gallic  War.  Books  I-IV  (1903);  'Cicero, 
Selected    Orations'    (1904);    -     .. 


frequent  contributor  to  philological  journals. 

BENNETT,  Edmund  Hatch,  American 
lawyer:  b.  Manchester  Vt,  6  April  1S24;  d 
Boston,  2  Jan.  1898.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
University  of  Vermont  in  1843,  and  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1847.  He  practised  for  many  years 
in  Taunton,  Mass.,  ana  was  mayor  of  that  dty 
1865-67,  and  judge  of  probate  and  insolvency 
of  Bristol  CounW  1858-83.  He  was  lecturer  at 
Harvard  Law  School  1865-71,  and  afterward 
professor  and  dean  at  the  Law  School  of  Bos- 
ton University.  In  1S96  he  was  chairman  of 
the  Massachusetts  commission  on  "Uniformity 
o£  Legislation"  throu^iout  the  United  States 
and  chairman  of  the  commission  to  revise  the 
Massachusetts  statutes.  His  works  include  30 
volumes  of  'English  Law  and  Equity  Reports' ; 
'9-12  Cushing's  (Mass.)  Reports^;  'Massa- 
chusetts Digest'  (3  vols.) ;  'Bingham  on  In- 
fancj;' ;  'Blackwell  on  Tax  Titles';  'Leading 
Criminal  Cases'  (2  vols.)  ;  'Goddard  on  Ease- 
ments' ;  'Benjamin  on  Sales' ;  'Pomerov's 
(^stitutional  Law';  'Indermaur's  Principles 
of  Common  Law'  ;  and  'Fire  Insurance  Cases' 
(5  vols.).  He  made  contributions  to  profes- 
sional journals,  and  was  co-editor  of  the  Amtri- 
can  Law  Register. 

BBNNBTT  <Enoch).  Arnold,  English 
author:  b.  HanW,  Staffordshire  27  May  1867. 
He  was  educated  at  Newcastle  Middle  School, 
first  took  up  law  as  his  profession,  which  he 
abandoned  to  take  up  journalism,  becoming- 
assistant  editor  of  H'oman  in  1893,  and  editor 
in  1896.  He  gave  up  journalism  in  1900  to 
devote  himself  exclusively  to  literature.  Ha 
had  published  two  novels — 'A  Man  from  the 
North'  (1898),  and  'The  Great  Babyton  Hotel' 
(1902t,  before  his  'Anna  of  the  Five  Towns,' 
issued  in  the  same  year,  revealed  the  fact  that 
a  new  master  had  risen  in  English  fiction,  and 
his  succeeding  books  dealing  with  the  Five 
Towns  —  the  pottery  district  of  North  Staf- 
fordshire in  which  the  author  was  reared — 
have,  in  the  opinion  of  H.  G.  Wells,  given  him 
Ae  foremost  [dace  in  contempoiaiy  English 
fiction.  These  are  'The  Grim  Smile  of  the 
Five  Towns'  (1907)  ;  'The  Old  Wives'  Tale» 
(1906);  fClayhanger'  (1910);  'The  Card' 
(1911);  'Hilda  Ussways'  (1912)  and  'The 
Matador  of  the  Five  Towns'  (1912).  A  reaHst 
of  great  power,  these  tales  deal  with  common- 
place people  in  drab  and  unimpressive  surround* 
ings,  and  reveal  in  the  most  arrestive  fashion 
how  the  seemingly  outward  monotony  of  their 
existence  pulsates  inwardly  with  moving  drama. 
A  writer  of  amazing  fecundity,  Mr.  Bennett 
has  already  published  over  30  volumes^  the 
majority  of  which  reach  a  high  level  as  htera- 
ture:    Others  of  these  are  'Leonon'  <l«ia)i 

Coogic 


Adventure'  (1913)  and  (with  Edward  Knpb- 
lauch)  the  brilliant,  satisEyinft  and  enormously 
iiuccessful  'Milestones'  (1912),  the  motif  of 
which,  youth  rebellious  against  the  pctrefaction 
and  tyranny  of  age,  and  youth  becoming  old  in 
its  turn  and  bewildered  before  the  onslaught 
of  the  next  generatioR,  is  a  favorite  with  the 
author. 

BENNETT,  James  Gordon,  American 
journalist :  b.  New  Mill,  Keith,  Scotland,  1 
Sept.  mS;  d.  New  York,  1  June  1872.  He  was 
of  French  extraction.  He  entered  a  Catholic 
seminary  at  Aberdeen  with  a  view  to  entering 
the  priesthood  and  after  a  three  years'  course 
emigrated  to  America,  arriving  at  Halifax,  N. 
S.,  in  1819  where  be  taught  bookkeeping. 
Meeting  with  little  success  he  removed  to  Bos- 
ton and  for  three  years  was  there  employed 
as  proofreader.  We  next  find  him  in  ^few 
YoA  writing  for  various  newspapers  after 
which  he  was  engaged  on  the  Charleston,  S.  C, 
Courier  as  translator  of  articles  from_  Latin- 
American  journals.  He  was  soon  back  in  New 
York,  there  established  a  commercial  school 
and  also  did  some  work  for  the  newspapers. 
In  182?  be  became  Washington  correspondent 
of  the  New  York  Enquirer  in  which  capacity 
he  made  a  reputation  for  himself  by  his  reports 
of  the  proceedings  in  Congress.  In  1829  the 
Courier  and  Enquirer  were  consolidated  and 
Bennett  became  associate  editor  and  a  recog- 
nized leader  in  politics.  He  withdrew  from 
his  editorial  position  in  1832,  went  to  Phila- 
delphia, and  uere  acquired  an  inttrest  in  the 
Pennsylvonian,  of  which  he  became  editor.  Be- 
ing of  an  independent  nature  and  refusing  to 
be  the  tool  of  the  politicians  his  position  made 
him  many  enemies  and  finalbr  led  to  his  with- 
drawal from  Philadelphia.  He  now  embarked 
on  his  real  life  work,  investing  his  savinn 
(about  $500)  and  his  experience  in  estabUsh- 
'  ing  a  small  four-page  journal,  which  he  sold 
for  a  cent  a  copy  and  called  it  the  N«w  York 
Herald.  He  was  its  sok  editor,  reporter  and 
contributor.  The  office  was  in  a  cellar  in  Wall 
street  and  two  printers  shared  in  the  profits 
of  the  enterprise,  Mr,  Bennett  brought  new 
views  into  the  journalistic  field,  his  new  P^per 
was  free  of  all  party  control,  the  acquisition 
of  news  from  every  quarter  of  the  globe  be^ 
came  its  chief  aim ;  it  exposed  fraud  in  every 

Eiise,  it  disseminated  facts,  not  opinions,  and 
itded  everything  calculated  to  benefit  and  ele- 


market,  which  gained  wide  attention  and  which, 
despite  considerable  opposition,  became  a  per- 
manent feature  of  the  Herald  and  of  every 
other  newspaper.  Toward  the  end  of  the  same 
year  Mr.  Bennett  originated  the  reporting  in 
detail  of  pubUc  occurrences.  He  reported  ser- 
mons and  the  proceedings  of  public  meetings 
and  introduced  the  practice  of  interviewing  the 
chief  actors  in  any  great  occurrence.  He  first 
used  the  telegraph  for  reporting  and  originated 
the  system  of  distribution  I^  carriers.  By 
means  of  these  and  other  novel  features  the 
Herald  increased  its  circulation  rapidly  and 
within  a  f«w  years  was  the  most  valuable  news- 


paper property  in  the  country.  Mr.  Benneti'i 
strong  personality  was  impressed  upon  ibc 
paper  by  his  directing  every  detail  of  manage- 
ment and  examining  every  item  of  news  u 
well  as  the  general  moulding  of  public  opinion. 
In  1867  James  Parton  wrote  that  <his  paper  is 
generally  read  and  its  proprietor  imtverulty  di^ 
approved."  Bennett  was  often  accused  of  utier 
lack  of  conviction,  chiefly,  perhaps,  l>ecause  of 
his  reiterated  remark  "Wc  nave  never  been  in 
a  minority,  and  we  never  shall  be.'  Consult 
Hudson',  Frederic,  'Journalism  in  the  United 
Stales  from  1690  to  1872'  (New  York  1873) 
and  Parton,  'Famous  Americans  of  Recent 
Times'    (Boston  1867), 

BENNETT,  Jamet  Gordon,  American 
journalist  (son  of  the  preceding)  :  b.  New  Yodt, 
10  May  1841 ;  d.  Beaulieu,  France,  14  May  1918 
He  was  educated  abroad  and  returned  to  Amer- 
ica in  1866.  He  became  managing  editor  of 
the  New  Yorit  Herald  in  1866,  proprietor 
on  the  death  of  his  father  in  1872.  In  1S70 
he  sent  Henry  M.  Stanley  on  the  exploring 
expedition  which  resulted  in  the  findinK  of  Dr. 
Livingstone,  and,  in  conjunction  with  the  Lon- 
don Daily  Telegraph,  supplied  the  means  for 
his  joumw  across  Africa  by  way  of  the  Kongo 
in   1874-79.     He  organized  a  system  of  slorai 

Srognostications  of  value  to  stuppitrg-masters; 
tted  out  the  Jeannette  Polar  en)e<£tion;  and 
in  1883  was  associated  with  John  W.  Mackayin 
organizing  the  new  Commercial  Cable  Company. 
He  founded  the  Evenirig  Telegram  in  Xcw 
York,  and  estab^shed  daily  editions  of  tbe 
Herald  in  Paris  and  London.  He  early  gave 
much  attention  to  yachting,  in  1866  taking  part 
in  an  ocean  yacht  race  from  Sandy  Hook  to 
the  Needles,  Isle  of  Wight,  which  was  won  by 
his  schooner  Henrietta  against  two  competing 
yachts  in  13  days,  21  hours,  55  minutes.  In 
1870  he  raced  in   his   yacht  Dauntless  from 

aneenstown  to  Sandy  Hook,  but  was  beaten  br 
e  Cambria  by  two  hours.  He  resides  main^r 
in  Paris,  collecting  foreign  news,  and  directing 
by  telcgraidi  the  management  and  policy  of  his 
newspapers. 

BENNETT,  Richard  Bedford,  C^adian 
lawyer  and  Ic^slalor:  b.  Hopewell,  New  Bruns- 
wick, 3  ^uly  1870.  He  was  graduated  LL.B.  at 
Dalhousie  University,  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  in 
1893,  and  admitted  to  the  bar  of  New  Bruns- 
wick in  1894.  After  his  removal  to  Calpi;. 
Alberta,  in  1897,  he  became  a  member  of  the 
local  legislature  (1898-1905,  1909-11).  and  ws 
in  1911  elected  to  the  House  of  Commons  from 
Calgary,  and  soon  made  his  mark  in  tbe  House 
as  an  effective  and  ready  debater.  He  accom- 
panied Sir  Robert  Borden  to  England  in  1915, 
and  on  his  return  was  appointed  director-gen- 
eral of  national  service. 

BENNETT,  Samoel  Crocker,  American 
lawyer:  b.  Taunton.  Mass.  19  Apnl  18Sa  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  m  1879.  He  is  a  soa 
of  Edmund  Hatch  Bennett  (q.v.),  and  in 
1898  succeeded  his  father  as  dean  of  tbe  la* 
school  of  Boston  University.  He  is  a  member 
of  the  American  Bar  Associatian,  and  of  tbe 
Massachusetts  and  Boston  Bar  Associations. 
He  is  one  of  the  editors  of  'Federal  Decisions' ; 
'Smith's  Leading  Cases' ;  'Benjunin  on  Sales'; 
'Cyclopedia  of  Law  and  Procedare.* 


Google 


BENNETT— BENHINQTON 


BSl 


BENNETT,  Saoiord  FUlmoK,  American 
hymnologist :  L  Eden,  N.  Y..  1836;  d  12  June 
1896.  He  settled  in  Hkhom,  Wis.,  in  I860, 
and  became  editor  of  the  .Independent.  Re- 
signing this  place,  he  entered  the'  40th  Wis- 
consin Volunteers  and  served  with  them 
throu^out  the  Civil  War.  In  1867  he  aided  J. 
P.  Webster,  the  composer,  in  preparing  'The 
Signet  Ring,*  a  Sunday-school  hymnbook,  to 
which  he  contributed  about  100  hymns.  'The 
Sweet  Bye  and  Bye>  was  one  of  the  first  o£ 
these.  Many  of  Mr.  Bcmictt's  hymns  aud  songs 
have  been  published  in  sheets. 

BENNETT,  WUliam  Coi^  EngUsh  toos- 
writer:  b.  Greenwich,  14  Oct.  1820;  d.  Bladt- 
heath,  4  March  1395.  He  suggested  that  the 
bust  of  Longfellow  be  placed  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  and  formed  a  committee  of  500,  with 
the  Prince  of  Wales  at  its  head,  to  effect  it.  He 
was  the  author  of  'Poems'  (1850)  ;  'The  Trial 
for  Salamis*  (1850)  ;  'Endowed  Parish  Schools 
and  High  Church  Vicars'  (1853);  'Queen 
Eleanor's  Vengeance,  and  Other  Poems' 
(1856);  'Wat  Bongs'  (1857);  'Songs  by  a 
Song-Writer'  (1858);  'Baby  May,  and  Other 
Poems'  (1859)  ;  'Our  Glory  Roll,  and  Other 
National  Poems'  (1867);  'Contributions  to  a 
Ballad  History  of  England,  etc.'  (1869); 
'School-Book  of  Poetiy'  (1870);  'Songs  for 
Sailors'  (1872);  'Narrative  Poems  and  Bal- 
lads' (1879);  'Songs  of  a  Song-Writer' 
(1876)  ;  and  'Sea  Songs'  (1878)  ;  'Prometheus 
the  Fire-Giver'  (1877);  'The  Lark;  Songs, 
Ballads,  and  Recitations  for  the  People'  (1885). 

BENNETT,  Sir  William  Stemdale,  Eng- 
lish composer:  b.  Sheffield,  13  April  1816;  d. 
London,  1  Feb.  1875.  He  became  a  pupil  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music  in  1826,  studying 
under  Cipriani  Potter,  Crotch  and  Lucas,  and 
afterward  Moscheles.  By  the  advice  of  Men- 
delssohn, whose  friendship  he  had  gained,  he 
studied  m  Leipzig  from  1836  to  1838,  and  his 
performances  and  compositions  were  held  in 
high  esteem  by  the  younger  German  musicians, 
and  especially  by  Sdiumann.  In  1842  he  again 
visited  Germany.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Bach  Society  in  1849;  in  1855  he  became 
conductor  of  the  Philharmonic  Society,  in  suc- 
cession to  Richard  Wagner,  After  a  period 
Spent  in  teaching,  conducting  and  composing, 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  music  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1856,  and  was  knighted  in  1871.  In 
1868  he  became  principal  of  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy of  Music.  He  was  too  entirely  dominated 
by  Mendelssohn's  influence  to  do  great  original 
work  He  was  a  first  rate  pianist,  and  was 
highly  rated  as  a  composer,  and  was  esteemed 
the  greatest  of  contemporary  English  musicians. 
He  is  best  known  by  his  overtures,  'The 
Naiads'  and  'Parisina' ;  his  cantatas,  'The  May 
Queen*  and  'Woman  of  Samaria*  |  and  his 
little  musical  sketches,  'Lake,*  'MiUstream,' 
and  'Fountain.'  Consult  Bennett,  V.  J.,  'The 
Life  of  William  Stemdale  Bennett*  (London 
1907). 

BENNETTSVILLE,  S.  C,  town  and 
count);-seat  of  Marlboro  (bounty,  on  the  Ben- 
Bettsville  and  Cheraw  railroad  and  the  Atlantic 
coast,  106  miles  northeast  of  Columbia.  Being 
in  the  center  of  an  extensive  cotton  and  com 
raising  district  it  has  a  number  of  textile  mills 
and  fertiliier  manufactories.  There  is  a  large 
B  the  town.    Pop.  (1910)  2,646. 


BSNNIGSSN,  Levin  Augiutiu  (Bason 
von),  Russian  soldier:  b.  Brunswick  1745;  d. 
3  Oct.  1826.  He  entered  the  Russian  service  at 
an  early  age.  and  distin^ished  himself  by  hb 
bravery  in  the  war  against  Poland,  under  [h« 
Empress  Catherine  II,  In  1806  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  command  the  Russian  army  which 
went  to  the  assistance  of  the  Prussians.  He 
afterward  fought  the  battles  of  Eylau  and 
Friedland  After  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  he  retired 
to  his  estates.  He  commanded  the  Russian 
centre  at  Borodino  and  voted  for  a  second  bat- 
tle in  front  of  Moscow.  Before  the  French  re- 
treat began  he  defeated  Murat  at  Taratino  on 
18  October.  He  retired  from  the  army  be- 
cause of  dilTerences  with  Kutusoff,  but  after 
the  latter's  death  he  became  commander  of  the 
Russian  army  of  reserve,  which  in  1813  he  led 
into  Saxony,  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Leipzig, 
and  was  created  a  count  by  Emperor  Alexander 
on  the  field.  He  aided  in  the  pursuit  of  the 
French  army  and  blockaded  Hamburg.  Because 
of  ill  health  he  retired  from  the  Russian  serv- 
ice in  1818,  and  settled  on  his  paternal  estate 
in  his  native  country. 

BBNNIG5BN,  Rudolph  von,  German 
statesman:  b.  Liincbcrg,  Hanover,  1824;  d.  Bcn- 
nigsen,  7  Aug.  1902.  After  Hanover  became  a 
part  of  Prussia  be  was  elected  lo  the  North 
German  Diet  and  the  Prussian  Assembly,  be- 
coming vice-president  of  both.  Entering  the 
German  Reichstag  in  1871,  he  became  promi- 
nent as  leader  of  the  National  Liberals,  warmly 
supporting  Bismarck  for  years,  but  later  oi^- 
posing  his  policy  toward  the  Socialists.  After 
some  years  spent  in  retirement,  Benningsen  re- 

until   18w,  when  he  rested  his  position  as 

E resident  of  the  province  of  Hanover,  which 
e  had  held  from  1888. 
BENNINGTON,  Vt.,  town  and  county- 
seat  of  Bennington  County,  on  the  Rutland 
railroad,  36  miles  east  of  Troy,  N.  Y.,  and  52 
miles  southwest  of  Rutland.  It  contains  the 
villages  of  Bennington,  North  Bennington,  and 
Bennington  Centre ;  and  has  large  woolen  and 
knit-goods,  hosiery,  machinety,  needles,  paper, 
shirt  and  collar  factories ;  a  Soldiers'  Home,  a 
memorial  battle  monument  over  300  feet  hi^ 
dedicated  on  the  centennial  of  the  admission 
of  the  State  into  the  Union,  19  Aug.  1891 ;  two 
national  banks,  public  library,  numerous 
churches  and  graded  public  schools.  There  are 
valuable  deposits  of  brown  hematite  ore  in  the 
town.  The  government  consists  of  a  town  presi- 
dent and  a  board  of  trustees  elected  annually  at 
town  meetings  under  the  charter  of  1885  but 
each  village  manages  its  own  local  affairs.  The 
town,  which  was  named  after  Governor  Benning 
Wentworth  o£  New  Hampshire,  was  settled  in 
1761,  and  for  many  years  before  Vermont  be- 
came a  State  was  claimed  by  both  New  York 
and  New  Hampshire.  Bennington  was  the  home 
of  Seth  Warner  and  Ethan  Allen  and  on  16 
Aug.  1777,  the  battle  of  Bennington  was  fought 
here.  Pop.  (1910)  8,980.  Consult  Merrill  and 
Merrill,  'Sketches  of  Historic  Bennington' 
(Cambridge  1898). 

BENNINGTON,  BatUe  of,  one  of  the 
early  battles  of  Ihe  Revolution,  fought  at 
Bennington,  Vt,  16  Aug.  1777.  The  army  of 
General  Burgoyne,  marching  to  the  soiUfa  from 
Canada,  and  causing  the  abandoiunent  of  Ticon- 

Google 


BBNHO  —  BBNSLEY 


deroga  by  General  St.  Clair,  created  the  greatest 
commotion  throughout  New  England,  since  Bos- 
ton was  supposed  to  be  its  point  of  destination. 
Genera!  Starlc  chanced  to  be  at  the  time  at 
Bennington,  having  under  his  command  a  corps 
of  New  Hampshire  militia,  and  he  determined 
to  confront  a  strong  detachment  of  the  enemy 
sent  out  tmder  Colonel  Baum  to  procure  sup- 

Slies.  He  hastily  collected  the  Continental 
arces  in  the  nei^borhood,  and  on  16  Augiist 
approached  the  British,  whom,  after  a  hot  action 
of  two  hours,  he  forced  to  a  disorderly  retreat. 
The  engagement  was  hardly  over  when  a 
rdnforcement  arrived,  sent  by  General  Bur- 
goyne,  and  the  battle  was  renewed,  and  kept 
up  several  hours  till  dark,  when  the  British 
forces  retreated,  leaving  their  baggage  and  am- 
munition. The  loss  of  the  enemy  was  207 
killed,  600  taken  prisoners,  and  1,000  stand  of 
arms.  The  Americans  lost  only  14  killed  and 
42  wonnded. 

BBNNO,  Saint,  bishop  of  Meissen  (son 
of  the  Count  of  Bultcnburg)  and  Apostle  of  the 
Slavs:  b.  Hildeshcim,  1010;  d.  1106.  At  26 
years  of  age  he  became  a  monk  in  the  Bene- 
dictine convent  of  Saint  Michael  in  his  native 


but  this  ■  dignity  and  office  he  resigned  three 
months  later.  During  the  minority  of  Henry 
IV,  he  was  appointed  to  the  see  of  Meissen, 
and  during  his  episcopate  of  40  ycar»  he  led 
the  life  of  an  ascetic.  In  the  quarrel  between 
Henry  and  the  Saxon  nobles  he  stood  by  the 
latter,  and  in  consequence  was  led  away  pris- 
oner when  Henry  passed  through  Meissen  in 
107S  after  his  victory  on  the  Unstrut,  He  sup- 
ported Pope  Gregory  VII  in  the  long  dispute 
between  the  Emperor  and  the  Pope.  In  108S 
he  was  deposed  at  the  Synod  of  Mainz,  and 
two  years  afterward  was  reinstated.  He  died 
at  the  advahced  age  of  96  years  and  his  tomb 
in  the  Cathedral  of  Meissen  was  venerated  as  a 
shrine,  until  the  remains  were  transferred  to 
the  cathedral  in  Munich.  The  Bavarians  chose 
him  as  their  patron  saint  after  he  was  canonized 
W  Hadrian  VI  in  1523.  Consuh  his  <Life>  b/ 
Emser  in  the  BoUandists  for  June  3d,  also  fats 
•Life'   by  Seyilort. 


of  Saint  feustache :  b,  1521 ;  d  7  March'  1608. 
He  published  a  French  translation  of  the  Bible 
in  1566,  for  which  he  was  censured  by  the 
Sorbonne  and,  later,  by  Pope  Gregory  XIll, 
leading  to  his  expulsion  from  the  Faculty  of 
Theology.  He  was  driven  out  of  Paris  in  1591, 
when  he  bad  associated  with  a  political  faction 
supporting  the  claims  of  King  of  Navarre  to 
the  throne  of  France.  Henri  IV  nominated 
him  Bishop  of  Troyes,  but  the  Pope  refused 
bis  sanction.  He  wrote  about  150  works  and 
pamphlets,  mostly  dealing  with  the  history  of 

BENOIT,  bf-nwa,  Pierre  Leopold  Leon- 
ard, Flemish  musician  and  composer:  b.  Harel- 
beke,  Belgium,  17  Aug.  1834;  d.  1901.  He 
studied  under  Fetis.  He  held  the  posititm  of 
director  of  the  Flemish  School  of  Music  in 
Antwerp  from  1867  until  his  death.  He 
in  his  time  the  foremost  advocate  of  a  nati 


include  <Het  Dorp  in't  Gcbergtc,'  a  comic  opera 
(1856);  the  operas  'Isa'  (1867);  'Pompeja' 
(1896)  ;  the  oratorios  'The  Scheldt' ;  <Lucifer' ; 
'Children's  Oratorio';  'Drama  Christi*;  'The 
Rhine';  incidental  music  to  Vander  Ven's 
"Charlotte  Corday '  and  Goethem's  '.Willem 
de  Zwijer' ;  'De  Oorlog' ;  and  'Vlaanderen's 
Knnstrocm',  cantatas;  a  'Missa  Soiemnis' ;  a 
'Tc  Deum';  and  a  'Requiem';  dioral  sym- 
phony, 'De  Maaiers* ;  several  choral  works 
with  orchestra  pieces,  and  songs.  He  also 
wrote  much  on  musical  subjects.  Consult  L. 
Mortclmans  'Pierre  Bcnoit'  (Antwerp  1911), 
BENOIT  DB  SAINTE-MAURB,  de  sant- 
m6r,  French  troubadour  and  chronicler :  h, 
Touraine;  fi.  in  the  ]2th  century.  From  1154 
to  1189  he  was  attached  to  the  court  of  Henry 
II  of  England.  He  wrote  in  about  42,300 
octosyllabic  verses  a  'Chronicle  of  the  Dukes  of 
Normandy'  to  the  year  1135.  To  him  is  usually 
ascribed  the    'Romance  of  Troy,'  founded  on 


ito  the  langu^es  of  western  Europe.  Boc- 
caccio, Chaucer,  and  Shakespeare  would  seem 
to  he  indebted  to  Benoit  for  the  story  of  the 
loves  of  Troilus  and  Briseis  (Ctyseyde  or 
Cressida  being  originally  called  Briseida).  An- 
other work  from  his  hand  is  'Le  Roman 
d'Eneas',  a  continuation  of  the  'Romance  of 
Troy.' 

BENRATH,  ben'-rat,  Karl,  German  Prot- 
estant theologian  and  historian :  b.  Diireo,  10 
Aug.  1845.  Having  studied  at  and  graduated 
spccessively  front  the  universities  of  Bonn, 
Berlin  and  Heidelberg,  he  went  to  Italy,  in  1871, 
where  he  spent  some  years  in  research.  In  1879 
he  was  appointed  professor  at  Bonn  and  II 
years  later  accepted  a  similar  appointment  at 
Konigsberg.  He  was  also  the  founder  of  the 
RcviJta  Cristiana.  Much  of  his  writing  refers 
lo  the  history  of  the  Reformation  in  Italy, 
on  which  subject  he  is  a  leading  authority. 
Among  his  chief  works  are  '(^schichtc  dcr 
Reformation  in  Venedig'  (1887)  r  'Bernardino 
Ochino  von  Siena'  (1892);  'Geschichtc  des 
Hauptvereins  der  Gustav- Adolf  Stiftung  fiir 
Ostpreussen'  (1894);  'Julia  (ioniaga'  (1900); 
'Luther  jm  Kloster'  (1905). 

BENSERADB.  bin-s'rid,  Isaac  de,  French 
poet :  b.  Paris  1613 ;  A  Gentilly  1691.  He  wrote 
for  the  stage,  composed  a  great  number  of 
ingenious  verses  for  the  King  and  many  dis- 
tinguished persons  at  court  and  published  a 
translation  of  the  'Metamorphoses'  of  Ovid. 
In  the  first  half  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV  the 
court  and  its  followers  patronized  songs  of 
gallaniry,  rondeaux,  triolets,  madrigals,  and 
sonnets,  containing  sallies  of  wit,  conceits  and 
effusions  of  gallantry  in  the  affected  style  then 
prevalent.  No  one  succeeded  so  well  in  this  art 
as  Benserade,  who  was  therefore,  by  way  of 
eminence,  called  le  poite  de  la  cour.  His  col' 
lected  works  appeared  in  1697,  and  an  edition 
was  published  in  1875. 

BENSLEY,  Thotnas,  English  printer;  d. 
1833.  He  is  much  known  for  an  edition  of 
'Lavater,'  printed  by  him  in  1789,  in  S  volumes 
quarto,  and  for  an  edition  of  the  English  Bible 
between  1800  and  1815,  in  7  volumes  quarto.  He 
also  printed  Shakespeare  in  1803,  in  /  vohinies 
octavo,  and  in  1806  Hinne'i  'England'  m  10 


.Google 


volumes  {olio,  which  is  adorned  with  elaborste 
portraits  and  engravings  on  copper.  He  was 
prominent  also  in  the  constrtiction  of  the 
machine  press  invented  by  Koenig  and  aj^Ked 
to  printing  the  Times  newspaper  in  1814. 

BENSON,  Arthur  Chriatopher,  English 
man  of  letters  (son  of  Edward  White  Benson 
and  brother  of  Edward  Frederic,  qq.v.) :  b.  24 
April  1862.  He  was  educated  al  Eton  and 
King's  College,  Cambridge,  was  a  master  at 
Elon  1885-1903,  and  is  now  president,  fellow 
and  lecturer  of  Magdalene  Cofiegc,  Cambridge. 
He  has  achieved  distinction  in  nearly  all  de- 
pttrtfnents  of  literature,  as  novelist,  poet,  biogra- 
pher, and  essayist.  His  first  book,  'Memoirs 
of  Arthur  Hamilton>  (1886)  was  published 
under  the  nom-de-plunie  of  'ChriEtOlAer  Carr.* 
His  novels  are  lacking  in.,  movement,  but  are 
written  in  the  fine  English  characteristic  of  the 
author.  He  published  volimiea  of  poems, 
marked  t^  great  refinement  and  sympathy,  in 
189J,  189^  18%,  1900,  1905.  and  publ^hed  his 
^Collected  Poems'  in  1909.  His  biographies 
include  'Lives'  of  Archbishop  Laud,  and  of 
his  father  Archbishop  Benson,  Tennyson,  Kos- 
suth, Edward  Fitzgerald,  Walter  Pater,  Ruskin, 
and  'Hu^:  Memoirs  of  a  Brother^  (Robert 
Hugh  Benson,  the  distinguidied  C)atholic  priest 
ana  author,  q.v.).  But  ii  is  as  an  essavisl 
that  a  discriminating  public  thirsts'  for  Mr. 
Benson.  These  are  the  fruit  of  ripe  scholar- 
ship, broad  and  tolerant  in  its  outlook,  and  are 
written  with  a  gracious,  winning  chartn,  and  in 
the  reverential  spirit  typical  of  Anglican  teach- 
ing at  its  best.  Their  titles  are  suggestive  of 
their  contents,  and  include:  'The  House  of 
Quest*  (1903)  ;  'The  Hill  of  Trouble*  (1903) ; 
•The  Isles  of  Sunset'  (1904)  ;  'From  a  College 
Window'  (1906);  'The  Gate  of  Death'  (1906); 
<Tie  Altar  Fire'  (1907);  'The  Silent  Isle' 
(1910);  'The  Leaves  of  the  Tree'  (1911); 
'Thy  Rod  and  Thy  SlafT'  (1912);  'Water- 
springs'  (1913)  ;  'Where  No  Fear  Was' 
(1914);  'Life  and  Letters  of  Maggie  Benson' 
(1917).  Mr.  Benson  collaboratecf  with  Vis- 
count Esher  in  editing  'Selections  from  the 
Correspondence  of  Queen  Victoria'    (1907). 

BENSON,  Carl,  pseudonym  of  Charles 
Aator  Bri8ted  (q.v.). 

BENSON,  Edward  Frederic,  English 
author:  (son  of  Edward  White  Benson  and 
brother  of  Arthur  Christopher)  (qqv.)  b.  Well- 
inpon  College,  24  July  1867.  He  was  educated 
at  King's  C^Uegc,  (Cambridge ;  worked  at  Athens 
for  the  British  Archsological  School  (1892-95), 
and  in  Egypt  for  the  Hdlenic  Society  (1895). 
His  writings  include  'Dodo'  (1893),  a  novel  of 
London  society  which  was  very  succeasftU ) 
'Six  Corrmion  Things'  (1893)  ;  'Rubicon' 
(1894);  'Judgment  &»ks'  (1895);  'Limita- 
tions* (1896);  'The  Babe'  (1897);  'Vintage' 
(189B);  'The  Capsina'  (1899);  'An  Act  in  a 
Backwater'  (19M);  'The  Angel  of  Pain^ 
(1906);  'The  Blotting  Book'  (1908);  'The 
Osbomes*  (1910);  'Mrs.  Ames'  (1912);  'The 
Weaker  Vessel'  (1913);  'Dodo  the  Second' 
(1914);  'Dinner  for  Eight'  (comedy  1915); 
'The  Tortoise'   (1917). 

BENSON,  Edward  White,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury:  b.  near  Birmingham.  14  July  1829; 
d.  Hawarden,  11  Oct.  1896.  He  was  graduated 
at  Cambridge  hi  1852  as  a  ^st-ckiss  and  senktr 


optbne,  and  was  for  sotoe  time  a  ntastj^  at 
Rugfay.  He  held  the  htad  matte  rship  of  Wdl- 
ington  College  fron  its  opedn^  in  1858  to  187^ 
when  he  was  made  a  canon  and  chancellor  of 
Lincoln  C^thedraL  In  1875  he  was  anointed 
chaplain  in  ordinary  to  the  queen,  and  in  De- 
cember  1876  was  nominated  to  the  newly  erected 
bishopric  of  Truro.  Here  he  began  the  buildr 
ing  of  a  cathedral  (1880-^).  most  of  the  first 
cost,  illO.OOO,  having  been  gathered  by  his  own 
energy.  In  1882  he  was  transbted  to  Canter- 
bury to  succeed  Dr.  Tait  as  primate  of  all 
England.  A  high- churchman.  Dr.  Benson  was 
frequently  select  preacher  at  both  tmiversities, 
and  published  several  volumes  of  sermons,  a 
small  work  on  'Cathedrals,'  and  a  valuable 
article  on  ^St.  Cyprian'  (London  1897).  A 
distinguished  ecclesiastical  lawyer  and  diplo- 
matist, he  gave  the  important  judgment  in  the 
Lincoln  case  on  ritual.  Consult  his  'Life'  by 
his  son,  Arthur  Christopher  Benson  (Londim 
1899;  abridged  edition  1901). 

BENSON,  EEbert,  American  jurist  and 
politician:  b.  New  York,  21  June  1746;  d. 
Jamaica,  N.  V.,  24  Aug.  1833.  He  was  grad- 
uated at  Columbia  College  1765;  was  member 
of  the  New  York  Legislature  in  1777,  and  of 
Congress  1784-88,  1789-93,  and  1813-15;  judge 
of  the  supreme  court  of  New  York  17?4-1801 ; 
and  became  a  judge  of  the  United  States  circuit 
court.  He  was  a  regent  of  the  University  of 
New  York  1789-92,  first  president  of  the  New 
York  Historical  Society  in  1817-20,  and  wrote 
a  'Vindication  of  the  Captors  of  Major  Andr£,> 
(1817)  and  'Memoir  on  Dutch  Names  of 
Places'    (1835). 

BENSON,  Frank  Weaton,  American 
painter;  b.  Salem,  Mass^  24  March  1862.  H« 
was  educated  at  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts, 
Boston,  and  in  Paris;  became  a  member  of  the 
Society  of  American  Artists  in  1888.  He  has 
won  many  honors  from  art  institutes  and 
academies,  including  the  Hallganen  and  the 
Clarke  prizes  at  the  National  Academy  of 
Design  in  1899  and  1891 ;  has  done  much  in 
figure  work  with  outdoor  effects,  but  is  best 
known   for  his  portraits. 

BENSON,  Sir  Frederick  William,  Can»^ 
dian  soldier;  b.  Saint  Catherines,  Out.,  2  Aug. 
1849.  He  was  educated  at  Upper  Canada  Col- 
lege and  the  Rovat  Military  College,  Sandhurst; 
served  as  a  volunteer  during  the  Fenian  ratda 
on  Canada  in  1866;  joined  t£c  21st  Hussars  in 
1869;  rose  to  be  colonel  of  the  21st  Lancers; 
served  in  the  South  African  War  1900-01 ;  was 
inspector-general  of  remounts,  1903-W;  director 
of  transport  and  remounts,  1904-07 ;  and  major- 
general  in  charge  of  administration,  1907-09. 
He  was  created  C  B.  in  1901.  and  K.  C.  B.  iu 
1910,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Great  War  tn 
1914  was  appointed  chief  of  the  Remount  Com- 

BENSON,  Robert  Hugh,  English  Roman 
Catholic  clergyman  and  writer :  b.  Wellington 
College,  1871;  d.  Salford,  19  Oct.  1914.  He  was 
son  of  Edward  W.  Benson,  former  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  and  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at 
Trinity  College^  (Cambridge.  After  leaving 
Cambridge  he  prepared  to  enter  the  ministry, 
and  joined  the  Commimity  of  the  Resurrection 
at  Mirfield.  In  1903  he  was  received  into  the 
Roman  Catholic  chnrdi  and  was  ordaiticd  to 

,1,  .1  .Google 


BENSON  — BBNT 


the  priesthood  in  1904.  After  3  year  spent  at 
Cambridge,  he  was  af^KiintEd  assistant  priest 
at  the  Catholic  chuicb  of  that  city  and  became 
a  sort  of  unofficial  Roman  Catholic  chaplain  to 
the  students  of  Cambridge  University.  In  1911 
he  received  the  appointment  of  private  cham- 
berlain to  Pope  Pius  X.  He  pubUshed  several 
novels  and  contributed  many  articles  on  re- 
ligious subjects  to  magazines  and  newspapers. 
His  writings  include  'Richard  Raynal' ; 
'Solitary';  'The  King's  Achievement';  'The 
Queen's  Tragedy';  'The  Light  Invisible';  'St. 
Thomas  of  Canterbury'  ;  'Non-Calholic  De- 
nominations';  'Christ  in  the  Church';  'The 
Dawn  of  All';  'The  Coward';  'The  Friend- 
ship of  Christ';  'Come  Back';  'Come  Rope'; 
'By  What  Authority?';  'Loneliness';  'Con- 
fessions of  a  Convert' ;  'Paradoxes  of  Cathol- 
icism' ;  and  'An  Average  Man'.  Consult  Mar- 
tindalc,  C.  C,  'The  Life  of  Monsignor  Robert 
Hugh  Benson'   (1916). 

BENSON.  William  Shepherd,  American 
admiral :  b.  Macon,  Ga.,  25  Sept.  185S.  He  was 
graduated  from  the  United  Stales  Naval 
Academy  in  1877;  rose  to  lieutenant  in  1893; 
lieut.-commander  in  1909;  captain,  1909,  and 
rear-admiral  It  May  1915.  On  the  last-men- 
tioned date  he  was  named  by  Secretary  Daniels 
as  Chief  of  Naval  Operations;  in  1916  he  was 
granted  'the  title  of  admiral,  and  in  January 
1917  was  designated  as  president  ex-ofRcio  of 
the  Navy  General  Board.  During  his  long 
service  of  over  40  years  Admiral  Benson  has 
performed  numerous  duties  afloat  and  ashor^ 
as  squadron  commander  and  in  the  Naval 
Academy.  During  the  Naval  War  game  held 
off  the  North  Atlantic  coast  in  August  1916, 
the  admiral  announced  that  beginning  in  the 
spring  of  1917  all  reserve  battleships  would  be 
sent  regularly  to  participate  in  target  practice 
in  order  to  maintain  the  personnel  and  lotteries 
in  fating  trim.  A  sensational  development  of 
that  war  game  was  the  "defeat*  of  the  de- 
fending "Blue*  fleet  under  Admiral  Helm  by 
the  attacking  "Red*  fleet  under  Admiral  Mayo, 
who  succeeded  —  theoretically  —  in  lajiding 
•attacking*  troojffi  at  Far  Rockaway  Beach, 
Long  Island,  Admiral  Benson  stated  that  when 
the  Navy  Departmeni's  plans  for  establishing 
submarine  bases  along  both  coasts  were  carried 
into  effect,  such  a  teat  as  the  landing  of  a 
hostile  force  on  these  shores  would  be  quittf" 
impossible.  In  March  1917  Admiral  Benson 
was  selected  by  the  University  of  Notre  Dame, 
Indiana,  as  the  recipient  of  the  Laetare  medal 
for  the  year  1917,  in  reco^ilion  of  his  public 
services.  This  honor,  which  he  was  the  first 
nava!  officer  to  receive,  is  regarded  as  one  of 
the  highest  honors  conferred  upon  laymen  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  the  United 
States.  Shortly  after  the  entry  of  the  United 
States  into  the  European  War.  Admiral  Ben- 
son acted  as  principal  representative  of  the 
Navy  at  the  important  conference  held  at  the 
Navy  Department  with  Admirals  Browning 
and  Grasset,  of  the  British  and  French  navies. 
In  November  1917  Admiral  Benson  accompanied 
the  American  mission  headed  by  Colonel  Ed- 
ward M.  House  to  represent  the  United  States 
at  the  inter-Allied  war  conference  in  Paris. 

BENSON,  Neb.,  cily  m  Douglas  County, 
five  miles  northwest  of  Omaha,  on  the  Missouri 
River.      Com,    flax,    fruit,    oats,    wheat    and 


vegetables  are  cultivated  in  the  district,  wbicb 
b  remarkably  fertile.  The  city  has  a  couotry 
dub  and  is  the  seat  of  Saint  James  Oiphanage. 
It  owns  the  waterworks.    Pop.  3,387. 

BENT.  Charles,  American  fur  trader  and 
territorial  governor:  b.  Marietta.  Ohio.  1799; 
assassinated,  19  Jan.  1847.  After  having  been 
engaged  in  trapping  and  trading  in  the  re^on 
of  the  Upper  Missouri,  Charles  Bent,  with  hii 
brothers.  Robert,  Georse  and  William  and 
Ceran  St.  Vrain.  under  Uic  firm  name  of  Bent, 
St  Vrain  &  Company,  established  themselves 
in  the  Indian  trade  in  the  valley  of  the  Upper 
Arkansas.  At  first  they  built  a  rude  stockade 
between  the  present  towns  of  Pueblo  and 
CaAon  City  but,  two  years  later,  they  be^ 
the  erection  of  a  permanent  structure  whuh 
was  known  as  Bent's  Fort,  which  was  cotn- 
I^eted  in  1832.  Charles  Bent  married  a  bdy 
who  was  a  member  of  a  prominent  Spanish- 
Mexican  family  at  Taos,  N,  M.,  where  he  set- 
tled, though  still  retaining  his  interest  in' the 
trading,  firm  at  Bent's  Fort  After  the  oc- 
cupation of  Santa  F*  by  the  American  forces 
under  the  command  of  Gen.  Steirfien  W. 
Kearny,  in  1846,  and  upon  the  organization  of 
the  civd  government  for  New  Mexico,  Charles 
Bent  was  aj^iated  as  the  provisional  governor 
of  the  Territory.  Governor  Bent  was  assassi- 
nated during  an  insurrection  of  the  nauve 
people. 

BENT,  Jamea  Theodore,  English  traveler; 
b.  near  Leeds.  30  March  1852;  d  London,  6 
May  1897.  He  was  graduated  at  Oxford  Uni- 
versity in  1875,  and  managed  excavations  in 
Greece.  Asia  Minor,  AWssinia,  Arabia  ind 
South  Africa,  for  the  British  Museiun,  the 
Hellenic  Society  and  the  Royal  Gec^rapliical 
Society.  He  went  to  Mashonaland  in  1891  to 
explore  and  excavate  the  ruins  of  the  Great 
Zimbabwe,  discovered  in  1871  by  Mauch.  In 
his  report  he  assigns  to  the  ruins  an  Asiatic 
origin.  In  1894  he  was  engaged  on  a  tour  of 
exploration  in  southeast  Arabia.  His  publica- 
tions include;  'A  Freak  of  Freedom,  or  the 
Republicof  San  Marino'  (1879);  '(^oa:How 
the  Republic  Rose  and  Fell'  (1880)  ;  'Lite  of 
Giuseppe  Garibaldi'  (1881) ;  ''llie  Cyclades.  or 
Life  Among  the  Insular  Greeks'  (1885);  'The 
Ruined  Cities  of  Mashonaland'  (1892);  'The 
Sacred  Cift-  of  the  -Ethiopians'  (1893).  For 
the  Hakluyt  Society  he  edited  a  volume  on 
'Early  Travels  in  the  Levant. > 

BENT,  Silas.  American  naval  ofiiceT;  h 
Saint  Louis,  10  Oct.  1820;  d.  1889.  He  entered 
the  navy  in  1836;  served  in  the  Seminole  war. 
and  was  with  Commodore  Glynn  and  Com- 
modore Perry  on  several  cruises  to  Japan.  He 
was  always  especially  active  in  sunr^  work; 
on  Perry's  Jaran  expedition  be  had  charge  of 
the  hydrographic  survey,  and  his  excellent  work 
became  the  basis  of  the  surveys  undertaken 
later  by  the  Japanese  government.  His  mojl 
important  work  was  to  delineate  and  describe 
scientifically  the  Kuro  Shlwo,  or  Black  Tide, 
the  great  northward-flowing  stream  of  the 
Pacific,  corresponding  to  the  Atlantic  Gulf 
Stream.  He  was  on  the  brig,  Prtbte,  under 
Glyun,  when  the  latter  in  1849.  at  Nagasaki, 
procured  the  release  of  18  American  seamen, 
who  had  been  held  as  prisoners.  He  piloted  the 
fleet  into  Napha,  in  the  Liu-KIu  Islands,  and 


.Google 


BBHT — BBHTHAM 


KTved  as  United  States  comnissioner  in  the 
negotiations  for  a  treaty  with  the  R«gclit 

BENT,  WUUam  W.,  American  fur  trader 
and  pioneer;  b.  Marietta,  Ohio,  1809;  d.  near 
Las  Animas,  Colo.,  19  May  1869.  He  became 
a  trader  and  trapper  on  the  t^per  Missouri 
and,  in  1826,  with  his  brothers,  Charles,  Robert 
and  George,  helped  to  organue  and  establish 
the  business  of  Bent,  St.  Vrain  &  Company 
in  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Arkansas,  near  the 
foothills     of     the     Rocky     Mountains.        The 

Krmancnt  trading  post  of  this  firm,  known  as 
mt's  Fort,  was  built  lower  down,  where  the 
valley  of  the  Arkansas  emerges  upon  the  Great 
Plains,  1828-32,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
noted  places  in  'the  history  of  the  surrounding 
region  during  the  ensuing  quarter  century.  In 
1833,  William  Bent  married  Owl  Woman,  a 
daughter  of  White  Thunder,  the  venerated 
keeper  of  the  sacred  bundle  of  'medicine 
arrows,*  the  national  talisman  of  the  Cheyenne 
tribe.  He  gained  great  influence  among  the 
Indians,  continutna;  to  operate  the  trading  busi- 
ness at  Bent's  Fort  after  the  death  of  his 
brothers.  He  served  a  brief  term  as  govern- 
ment agent  for  the  Cheyenne,  Arapaho, 
Comanche  and  KJowa  tribes,  in  1859-60.  and,  at 
various  times  he  acted  as  a  mediator  in  the 
settlement  of  troubles  with  the  people  of  those 
tribes.  In  October,  1865,  he  served  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  government  ^ace  commission 
which  negotiated  new  treaties  with  the  chiefs 
and  head  men  of  the  tribes  of  the  Southern 
Plains  in  the  council  which  was  held  at  flie 
mouth  of  the  Little  Arkansas  River.  Bent 
Cotinty,  Colo.,  was  named  in  his  honor.  Con- 
sult 'Basin's  History  of  Arkansas  Valley, 
Colorado' ;    also    Kansas    Historical    Socie^ 


XI,  p.  311). 

BENT-GRASS  (Agroslis),  a  genus  of 
grasses  usually  regarded  as  weeds  except  in 
soils  which  cannot  produce  better.  Common 
bent-Rtass  or  red'top  (A.  vulgaris)  is  a  narrow- 
leaved  species  with  trailing  stems  rootiiw  at  the 
joints,  and  small  ihin  panicles  of  purplish  satiny 
flowers.  It  is  sometimes  sown  for  lawns  or 
for  hay.  March  bent,  white  bent,  or  fiorin  grass 
(A.  stolonijeTo),  has  broader  leaves  than  com- 
mon bent,  a  much  closer  and  larger  panicle^  aod 
green  or  pale  flowers.  It  is  very  common  in 
low,  damp  places,  which  It  overruns  with  its 
compact,  trailing,  rooting  stems,  ard  is  a  useful 
^rass  in  newly  reclaimed  bogs  or  land  liable  to 
inundation.  Brown  bent-grass  (A.  canina)  is 
known  in  the  United  States  as  Rhode  Island 
bent-grass,  and  is  highly  prized  as  a  lawn  grass. 

BENTANG.    See  ERiODCNEttON. 

BBNTEEN,  Frederick  Williun,  American 
soldier:  b.  Petersburg  Va.,  24  Aug.  1834;  d.  22 
June  1898.  He  was  edurated  in  his  native  stale ; 
and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  went  to 
Missouri  and  organized  a  company  of  Union 
volunteers.  He  Became  first  lieutenant  of  the 
10th  Missouri  Cavalry,  1  Sept.  1861 ;  promoted 
captain.  1  Oct.  1861;  major,  18  Dec.  1862;  lieu- 
tenant-colonel, 27  Feb.  1864;  and  colonel  of  the 
138th  United  States  Colored  Infanlrj;,  15  July 
1865 ;  mustered  out  of  volunteer  service  6  Jan. 
1866.     On  28  July  1866  he  was  commissioned 


captain  in  the  7th  cavalry;  promoted  major  of 
the  9th  cavalry,  17  Dec.  1882;  and  retired  7 
July  188&  His  most  brilliant  service  after  the 
war  was  in  his  campaigns  against  the  Indians. 

BENTHAL  FAUNA,  the  abyssal  or  deep- 
sea  fauna;  the  great  assemblage  of  animals  ' 
living  at  all  depths  below  150  fathoms  in  the 
Nortti  Allantic,  to  500  fathoms  in  the  tropics. 
See  also  Deep-sea  LtFE. 

BBNTHAM,  George,  EngUsh  botanist; 
nephew  of  Teremy  Bentham  (q.v.) :  b.  near 
Plymouth,  22  Smt  1800;  d.  10  Sept.  1884.  He 
was.  privately  educated,  earlj^  attached  himself 
to  botany,  and  having  resided  in  southern 
France  (where  his  father  had  an  estate),  1814- 
2t,  he  published  in  French  (1826)  a  work  on 
'The  Plants  of  the  Pyr£n£es  and  lower  Lan- 
guedoc*  Having  returned  to  England  he 
studied  law,  and  on  this  sutiject,  as  well  as 
logic,  he  devdoped  original  views.  Finally, 
however,  he  devoted  himself  almost  entirely  to 
botany-  was  long  connected  with  the  Horticul- 
tural Society  and  the  Linnxan  Society ;  and 
from  1861  onward  was  in  almost  daily  attend- 
ance at  Kew  (except  for  a  few  weeks  occa- 
sionally), working  at  descriptive  botany  from 
10  to  4  o'clock  as  a  labor  of  love.  Along  with 
Sir  J.  D.  Hooker  he  produced  the  great  woric 
of  descriptive  botany.  'Genera  Plantarum' ;  an- 
other great  work  of  nis  was  the  'Flora  Auslra- 
liensls*  (in  seven  volumes).  His  'Handbook 
of  the  British  Flora'  is  well  known. 

BENTHAU,  Jeremy,  Etwlish  jurist  and 
publicist:  b.  London,  15  Feb.  1748;  d.  London, 
6  /une  1&32.  After  an  early  education  at  West- 
minster School  he  went  to  Oxford  in  his  13th 
year,  taking  his  bachelor's  degree  at  15,  and  his 
master's  degree  at  18.  He  studied  English  law, 
but  n  ....        .    .  .... 

easy  circumstances  i 
literan 
publish 

arranged  and  translated  into  French  by  his 
friend,  Etienne  Dumont,  and  printed  partly  in 
Paris  and  partly  in  London.  Among  them  arc 
'Treatises  on  Dvil  and  Penal  L^slation^ 
(Paris  1802,  3  vols.),  and  'Theory  of  Punish- 
ments and  Rewards'  (London  1801,  2  vols.). 
Bentham  advocated  a  thorough  correction  of 
civil  and  criminal  legislation.  His  'Fr^ments 
on  Government,'  in  opposition  to  Blackslone, 
appeared  anonymously  in  1776,  and  with  his 
name,  London  1823.  In  France  his  literary 
labors  found  a  better  reception  than  in  Elngland 
or  Germany.  A  small  pam[Jilet  on  the  liberty 
of  the  press  (London  1821)  was  addressed  by 
him  to  the  Spanish  Cortes  during  their  discus- 
sion of  this  subject;  and  in  another  ('Three 
Tracts  Relative  to  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
Affairs,'  London  1821)  ne  refuted  the  idea  of 
the  necessity  of  a  house  of  peers  in  Spain,  as 
well  as  Montesquieu's  proposition  that  judicial 
forms  are  the  defense  of  innocence.  One  of 
his  latest  works  was  the  'Art  of  Packing' 
(London  1831),  that  is,  of  arranging  juries  so 
as  to  obtain  any  verdict  desired.  His  previous 
work,  'Essay  on  Parliamentary  Practice.'  ed- 
ited from  the  author's  papers  by  Dumont 
((Geneva  1815),  and  translated  into  German, 
contains  many  useful  observations.  His  'In- 
troduction to  the  Principles  of  Morals  and  Leg- 
blation'    (London  1823,  2  vols.)  treats  of  the 


Google 


BEMTHOS  ~  BBNTIVOCLIO 


prmcipal  objects  of  Kovemment  in  a  profound 
and  comprehensive  manner.  Zano belli  has 
translated  Bentham's  'Theory  of  Legal  Evi- 
dence,' into  Italian  (Bergfanio  I^  2  vols.). 
Among  the  earlier  works  of  Bentham  was  his 
'Defense  of  Usury,'  showing  the  'Impolicy 
of  the  Present  Legal  Restraints  on  the  Terijjs 
of  Pecuniary  Bargains'  (1787),  At  his  death 
Mr.  Bentham  bequeathed  his  I>ody  to  be  dis- 
sected  for  the  benefit  of  science.  A  coitmlete 
edition  of  his  works,  with  a  biography  by  Bow- 
ring,  was  published  in  London  (II  vols.,  1843). 
He  was  a  man  of  primitive  manners,  unUem- 
isbed  character  and  undoubted  earnestness  in 
the  cause  of  the  people  at  large.  He  is  consid- 
ered the  father  of  the  Utihtarians,  or  those 
moral  political  economists  who  view  everything 
as  it  is  affected  by  the  principle  of  'the  greatest 
happiness  of  the  greatest  number.*  Consult 
Albee,  'History  of  English  Utilitarianism' 
(London  1902) ;  Atkinson,  C.  M,,  'Jeremy  Ben- 
tham :  His  Life  and  Work'  (London  1905 ;  2d 
ed.,  1909);  Graham,  W.,  'English  Political 
Philosophy  from  Hobbes  to  Maine*  (ib.,  1899)  ; 
Kent,  C.  B.  R..  'The  English  Radicals'  (ib., 
1899)  ;  Mill,  J.  S..  'Bentham.'  in  London  and 
Wfstminster  Review  (August  1838)  ;  Stephen, 
L,,  'English  Utilitarians*  (London  and  New 
York  l«0). 

BENTHOS,  the  fauna  of  de^r  water,  as 
distinguished  from  that  of  tne  surface 
(plankton).  The  benthal  animals  live  per- 
petually at  depths  below  a  hundred  fathoms,  a 
few  making  nocturnal  eTcursions  to  the  sur- 
face, but  as  a  whole  constituting  a  deep-sea 
fauna.  Consult  Uurray,  'Depths  of  the  Ocean* 
(London  1912). 

BENTINCK,  Lord  William  Charles  Cav- 
endish, English  soldier  and  statesman  (second 
son  of  the  3d  duke  of  PortUnd)  ;  b  14 
Sept.  1774;  d.  Paris,  17  June  1839.     He  en'ered 


also  in  Italy  with  the  Russian  anny  under 
Suwaroff,  1799-1801.  In  1803  he  proceeded  to 
India  as  governor  of  Madras,  returned  thence 
in  1805,  and  subsequently  went  to  Spain,  where 
he  commanded  a  brigade  under  Sir  John  Moore 
at  Corunna.  In  1810  he  visited  Sicily  as  British 
plenipotentiary,  and  commander-in-chief  of  the 
English  troops.  The  most  noticeable  feature  of 
this  expedition  is  his  bestowment  on  the  Sicili- 
ans of  a  constitution,  which,  however,  was  over- 
turned on  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  He 
conducted  in  1813  the  Expedition  from  Sicily  to 
(^talonia,  and  in  1814  look  possession  of  Genoa 
on  the  revolt  of  ihe  inhabitants  from  French 
rule.  The  same  year  he  returned  to  Ejigland, 
and  subsequently  enttred  Parliament  as  member 
for  Nottingham.  In  1827,  under  Mr.  Canning's 
administration,  he  was  sent  to  India  as  govern- 
or-general, and  held  that  office  till  1835,  when 
he  returned  to  England.  Among  the  principal 
events  of  his  administration  are  the  abolition  of 
the  practice  of  suttee,  the  repeal  of  the  restric- . 
tions  which  prohibited  all  Europeans,  except 
servants  of  the  company,  from  settling  in 
India,  the  opening  up  of  internal  communica- 
tions, the  cstahlishmeni  of  the  overland  route, 
and  the  recognition  of  the  liberty  of  the  press. 
In  1R36  he  again  entered  Parliament  as  mem- 
ber for  the  city  of  Glasgow,  but  was  now  unable 
from  ill  health  to  take  any  active  share  in  potiti- 


cil  matters.  Consult  Botilger,  'Lord  Wilfiain 
Cavendish  Beotinck'   (Oxford  1892). 

BENTINCiC  Lord  WUUam  George 
Frederick  Cavendiah,  generally  known  as 
Lord  George  Bentincx,  English  statesman  (son 
of  William  Henry  Cavendish,  4th  duke  of  Port- 
land) ;  b.  27  Feb.  1802;  d.  21  Sept.  1848.  He 
entered  the  army,  but  miitted  it  early  to  become 
private  secretaiy  to  Mr.  Canning,  who  had 
married  his  mother's  sister.  In  1827  he  entered 
Parliament  as  member  for  King's  Lynn,  and 
continued  to  represent  that  borov^  for  the 
rest  of  his  life.  He  was  attached  to  no  party 
at  first,  voted  for  Catholic  Emancipation,  and 
the  Reform  Bill  Up  to  1846  he  was  a  warm 
adherent  of  Sir  Robut  Peel  and  his  measures; 
iMit  on  the  latter  announcing  himself  in  that 
year  a  convert  to  free-trade  piinciples.  Lord 
George  abandoned  his  old  ally  and  came  for- 
ward as  the  lealous  and  indefatigable  leader  of 
the  Protectionists  in  the  House  of  Commons. 
With  the  assistance  of  Disraeli  he  maintained 
diis  position  ftn-  two  years,  and  thoi^i  often 
illogical,  and  sometimes  unscrupulous  in  his 
statements,  he  nevertheless  commanded  much 
attention  by  the  vigor  and  earnestness  of  hb 
oratory  and  deportment  He  was  an  ardent 
champion  of  religious  liberty,  and  supported  the 
measure  for  the  removal  of  the  disaln lilies 
of  the  Jews.  He  was  famed  for  hit  skill  in 
many  siwrts,  and  helped  put  a  stop  to  many 
abuses  in  connection  witn  racing.  Consult 
Disraeli,  B,  'Lord  George  Bentinck:  A  Politi- 
cal Biography'    (London  1851). 

BENTIVOGLIO,  bin-ti-volVfi,  Comelio, 
Italian  ecclesiastic  ahd  poet:  b.  Ferrara.  I66B; 
d.  Rome,  1732.  He  earU  distinguished  himself 
by  his  progress  in  the  fine  arts,  lileratvr^  phir 
losophy,  theology  and  jurisprudence,  and  was 
a  patron  of  the  literary  institutions  at  Ferrara. 
Pope  Clement  XI  made  him  his  domestic 
prelate  and  secretary  to  the  apostolic  chamber, 
and  «ent  him,  in  1712,  as  nuncio  to  Paris, 
where,  during  the  last  years  of  the  reign  of 
Louis  XIV,  he  acted  an  important  part  in  the 
affair  of  the  bull  Uniaenitus.  The  Duke  of 
Orleans,  regent  after  the  death  of  Louis,  was 
not  favorably  disposed  toward  him ;  the  Pope 
therefore  transferred  him  to  Ferrara,  and  m 
1719  bestowed  on  him  the  hat  of  a  cardinal, 
and  employed  him  at  first  in  Rome  near  his  own 

Krson,  then  as  legate  a  latere  in  Romagna,  etc 
letry  had  occupied  his  Idsure  hours.  Sonnets 
composed  by  him  may  be  found  in  GoMn's  Col- 
lection, Vol.  Ill,  and  in  other  collections  of  his 
time.  Under  the  name  of  Selvacci.\  Portofa 
he  translated  the  'Thebais  of  Statius'  into 
Ttalian.  He  was  a  great  protector  and  patron 
of  literature. 

BENTIVOGLIO,  Guy  or  Qoldo,  Italian 
historian  and  ecclesiastic:  b.  Ferrara,  1579;  d. 
Rome,  1644.  He  studied  at  Padua  with  great 
reputation,  and  afterward,  fixing  his  residence 
at  Rome,  acquired  general  esteem  by_  his  pru- 
dence and  integrity,  He  was  an  important 
figure  at  the  courts  of  Clement  VIII  and  Paul 
V;  He  was  made  archbishop  and  received  the 
appointment  of  Apostolic  nunrio  in  Flanders 
1607.  and  nuncio  in  France  in  1617,  In  1621  he 
became  cardinal  He  had  confidential  rela- 
tions with  Urban  VIII  and  died  during  the 
conclave  which  elected  Urban's  successor,  and 
just  when  his  own  candidacy  for  the  Pontifi- 


:,  Google 


taet 


cate  was  being:  generally  advanced.  He  was  an 
able  politician,  and  his  historical  memoirs  are 
valuable,  especially  his  'History  of  the  Civil 
Wars  in  Flanders,'  written  in  Italian,  and  Arst 
published  at  Cologne  (1630),  a  translation  of 
which,  by  Henry,  Earl  of  Monmouth,  appeared 
in  1654  (London,  folio).  His  own  'Memoirs' 
and  a  collection  of  letters  are  reckoned  among 
the  best  specimens  of  epistolary  writing  in  the 
Italian  language  (an  edition  of  which  was  pub- 
lished at  Cambridge  in  1727).  His  complete 
works  were  published  in  Venice  in  1668. 

BBNTLBY,  John  Prands,  English  archi- 
tect :  b.  Doneaster,  England,  1839 ;  d.  Clapham 
London,  2  March  1902.  Upon  the  rebuilding  of 
the  great  parish  church  in  Doneaster,  about 
1856,  Bentley  was  placed  in  the  office  of  the 
clerk  of  the  works,  his  architectural  education 
practically  beginning  at  this  lime.  In  1862  he 
began  practice  as  an  architect  on  his  oWn  ac- 
count, and  his  patrons  from  that  date  onward 
were  mainly  Roman  Catholics.  Among  his 
lesser  works  are  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
and  convent  at  Bocldng,  Essex;  and  the  new 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral  in  Brooklyn,  N,  Y, ; 
but  the  building  with  which  his  name  will  be 
inseparably  associated  is  the  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral  at  Westminster,  a  structure  of  vast 
proportions  with  a  nave  wider  than  that  of  any 
church  in  England.  Bentiey  left  nothing  in  the 
way  of  design  to  subordinates,  but  designed  and 
directed  everything  from  the  foundation  to  the 
minutest  decorative  feature.  Bentley' s  death 
took  place  just  as  the  Royal  Institute  of  British 
Architects  had  voted  to  award  him  the  royal 
gold  medal. 

BENTLEY,  Richard,  English  divine,  clas- 
sical scholar,  and  polemicist :  b,  Oulton,  near 
Wakefield,  Yorkshire,  27  Jan.  1662;  d.  Cam- 
bridge, 14  July  1742.  His  father  is  said  to  have 
been  a  blacksmith.  To  his  mother,  a  woman  of 
strong  natural  abilities,  he  was  indebted  for  the 
rudiments  of  his  education,  and  in  1676  he 
entered  Saint  John's  College,  Cambridge.  In 
1682  he  left  the  university,  and  became  usher 
of  a  school  at  Spalding:  a  year  later  he  took 
the  position  of  tutor  to  the  son  of  Dr.  Stilling- 
fleet,  dean  of  Saint  Paul's.  He  accompanied 
his  pupil  to  Oxford,  where  he  availed  himself 
of  the  literary  treasures  of  the  Bodleian  Library 
in  the  prosecution  of  his  studies.  In  1684  he 
took  the  degree  of  A.M.  at  Cambridge,  and  in 
1689  obtained  the  same  honor  at  the  sister  uni- 
versity. His  first  published  work  was  a  Latin 
epistle  to  I>r.  John  Mill  on  an  edition  of  the 
'Chronicle  of  John  Malela,'  which  appeared  in 
1691.  It  displayed  so  much  profound  learning 
aitd  critical  acumen  as  to  excite  the  sanguine 
anticipations  of  classical  scholars  from  the 
future  labors  of  the  author  Dr.  StilUngfleet. 
having  been  raised  to  the  bishopric  of  Worces- 
ter, made  Bentley  his  chaplain,  and  in  1692 
collated  him  to  a  prebend  in  bis  cathedral.  He 
was  chosen  the  first  preacher  of  the  lecture 
instituted  by  the  celebrated  Robert  Boyle  for 
the  defense  of  Christianity.  The  discourses 
against  atheism  which  he  delivered  on  this  oc- 
casion were  published  in  1694;  they  have  since 
been  often  reprinted,  and  translated  into  several 
foreign  languages. 

In  1693  be  was  appointed  keeper  of  the 
Royal  Library  at  Saint  James'— a  circumstance 
whicfa  incidentally  led  to  his  famous  controversy 


with  the  Hon.  Charles  Boyle,  afterward  Earl  of 
Orrery,  relative  to  the  genuineness  of  the 
'Greek  Epistles  of  Phalans.'  In  this  dispute 
Bentley  was  victorious,  though  opposed  by  the 
greatest  wits  and  critics  of  the-  age,  includins 
Pope,  Swift,  Garth,  Atterbury,  Aldrich,  Do(F 
well  and  Conyers  Middlelon,  who  advocated  the 
opinion  of  Boyle  with  an  extraordinary  degree 
of  warmth  and  illiberality.  In  1699  Bentley, 
who  had  three  years  before  been  created  D.D., 
published  his  'Dissertation  on  the  Epistles  of 
Phalaris,'  in  which  he  proved  that  they  were  not 
the  compositions  of  the  tyrant  of  Agrigentum, 
who  lived  more  than  five  centuries  before  the 
Christian  era,  but  were  written  by  some  sophist 
under  the  borrowed  name  of  Phalaris,  in  the 
declining  a^e  of  Greek  literature. 

Soon  after  this  publication  Dr.  Bentley  was 
presented  by  the  Crown  to  the  mastership  of 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  worth  nearly  il,(KX) 
a  year.  He  now  resigned  the  prebend  of  Wor- 
cester, and  in  1701  was  collated  to  the  arch- 
deaconry of  Ely.  His  conduct  as  head  of  the 
college  gave  rise  to  accusations  of  various  of- 
fenses, including  embezzlement  of  college 
money.  The  contest,  lasting  more  than  20 
years,  was  decided  against  him,  a  sentence,  de- 
priving him  of  his  mastership,  being  passed ;  but 
Bentley's  superior  sldll  and  mastery  of  legal 
forms  constantly  bafHed  all  attempts  to  oust 
him.  In  1711  he  published  a  quarto  edition  of 
Horace  at  Cambndge,  which  was  reprinted  at 
Amsterdam;  and  in  1713  appeared  his  remarks 
on  'Collins'  Discourse  on  Free-Thinking,*  un- 
der the  form  of  a  'Letter  to  F.  H.  (Francis 
Hare),  D.D.,  by  Phileleutherus  Lipsiensis.'  He 
was  appointed  Regius  professor  of  divinity  in 
1716,  and  in  the  same  year  issued  proposals  for 
a  new  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  an  under- 
taking for  which  he  was  admirably  qualified, 
but  which  he  was  prevented  from  executing  in 
consequence  of  the  animadversions  of  his  de- 
termined adversary,  Middleton.  In  1726  he 
published  an  edition  of  Terence  and  Phxdrus; 
and  bis  notes  on  the  comedies  of  the  former  in- 
volved him  in  a  dispute  with  Bishop  Hare  on 
the  metres  of  Terence.  The  last  work  of  Dr. 
Bentley  was  an  edition  of  Milton's  'Paradise 
Lost,'  with  conjectural  emendations,  which 
appeared  in  1732,  but  this  proved  a  failure.  He 
died  at  the  master's  lodge  at  Trinity,  and  was 
interred  in  the  college  chapel.  His  learning 
was  early  recognized  on  the  continent.  Dutch 
classical  scholarship  followed  his  lead  and 
modem  German  classical  scholars  owe  much 
to  Bentley.  He  is  justly  regarded  as  the 
founder  in  England  of  the  science  of  text 
criticism,  and  much  of  his  work  has  served  as 
foundation  for  the  modem  science  of  compara- 
tive philology.  The  German  scholar,  J.  A. 
Wolf,  wrote  an  excellent  biography  of  Bentley; 
and  an  English  biography  of  him  was  written 
by  Monk  (London,  2  vols.,  1833).  Consult 
Professor  Jebb's  monograph  in  the  'English 
Men  of  Letters  Series'  (New  York  1882)  ; 
Bartholomew  and  Qark,  'Bibliography  of  Bent- 


BBNTLEY,  Robert,  English  botanist:  b. 
1821 ;  d.  1893.  He  qualified  as  a  member  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in  1847.  He  be- 
came professor  of  botany  at  the  London  Insti- 
tution and  King's  College,  and  editor  of  the 


Google 


Pkarmaceulical  Journal.  His  works  mclude 
'Manual  of  Bouny'  (1861) ;  'Character,  Prc^ 
erties,  and  Uses  at  Eucalyptus'  ^1874);  and 
'Medicinal  Plants,'  with  Henry  Tnmen  (1875- 
80). 

BENTON,  Anselo  Amea,  American  clet^- 
tnan :  b.  Canea,  Crete,  1837.  He  was  graduated 
at  Trinity  College  Hartford,  Conn.,  1856,  and 
at  the  Genera!  Theological  Seminary,  New 
Yoric,  He  was  ordained  in  the  Episcopal  min- 
istry in  1860.  He  was  professor  of  Latin  and 
Greek  in  Delaware  College,  Newark,  Del..  1883- 
87,  and  professor  of  dogmatic  theologj'  in  the 
University  of  the  South,  1887-94,  and  rector  at 
Albion,  Til.,  in  1905.  His  chief  publications  are 
'The  Church  Cyclowedia :  A  Dictionary  of 
Church  Doctrine'  (Philadelphia  1884) ;  and 
'Tome  of  Sainl  Leo'   (1890), 

BENTON,  Guy  Potter,  American  edu- 
cator: b.  Kenton,  Ohio,  26  May  1865.  After 
studying  at  Ohio,  Wesleyan  and  Baker  univer- 
sities he  took  up  a  post-graduate  course  at  Ber- 
lin. He  was  liicn  appointed  superintendent  of 
schools  at  Fort  Scott,  Kan.,  and  later,  state 
assistant  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
In  1896  he  was  appointed  professor  of  history 
and  sociology  at  Baker  University;  three  years 
later  he  became  president  of  Utjper  Iowa  Uni' 
versity.  In  1902  he  became  president  of  Miatni 
University  and  in  1911  president  of  Vermont 
University.  He  is  the  author  of  'The  Real 
College'    (1909). 

BENTON,  Janm  GUchriat,  American 
soldier  and  inventor:  b.  Lebanon,  N.  H.,  15 
Sept.  1820;  d.  Springfield,  Mass.,  23  Aug.  1881. 
He  frraduated  at  West  Point  in  1842,  and  served 
in  the  ordnance  department  throughout  his  life. 
He  was  in  command  of  the  Washington 
Arsenal  and  principal  assistant  to  (he  chief  of 
ordnance  during  the  Civil  War,  at  the  close  of 
which  he  was  transferred  to  the  Springfield 
(Mass.)  Arsenal.  For  single  bravery  m  rescu- 
ing exposed  ammunition  from  fire,  he  was  twice 
brevetted.  The  various  models  of  the  Spring- 
field rifle,  known  as  the  models  of  1866,  1S68, 
1873  and  1879,  were  made  under  his  direction. 
He  devoted  himself  especially  to  the  improve- 
ment of  firearms,  and  acquired  distinction  for 
his  valuable  inventions  in  this  and  other  tines 
of  his  work.  He  refused  to  patent  any  of  them, 
as  he  held  that  since  the  government  had  edu- 
cated him  it  had  every  right  to  benefit  from  his 
time  and  talents.  He  published  'Course  of  In- 
struction in  Ordnance  and  (junnery  for  the 
United  States  Military  Academy'  (1861;  4th 
ed.  1875). 

BENTON,  Thomas  Hart,  American  stales- 
man;  b.  Orange  County,  N.  C.,  14  March  1782; 
d.  10  April  1S58.    He  was  the  greatest  of  thai 


with  the  South,  and  who  had  no  feeling 
against  slavery,  vet  at  the  cost  of  their  in- 
fluence and  mucB  personal  peril  opposed  Ihc 
political  aggressions  of  slavery  and  the  doc- 
trines of  disimion.  Early  orphaned,  the  eldest 
of  a  larp;e  family,  after  part  of  a  course  in  ihc 
University  of  Pennsylvania  he  went  with  his 
mother  to  Tennessee  as  a  pioneer,  settling  at 
the  present  Bentontown.  A  few  years  later  he 
took  up  the  study  of  law,  and  was  admitted  to 
the   bar   in    1811    under   the   patronage   of   his 


friend  Andrew  Jackson,  then  a  judee  of  the 
Supreme  Court.  Elected  to  the  LegisUture,  lie 
pushed  through  a  judiciary  reform  bill,  and  one 
to  give  slaves  the  right  of  jury  trial.  In  the 
War  of  1812  he  was  aide-de-camp  to  Jackson, 
raised  a  volunteer  regiment,  was  made  licutcu- 
ant-coloael  in  the  regular  army,  but  saw  no 
active  service;  meanwhile,  4  Sept.  1813,  a  mis- 
understanding over  a  dud  of  his  brother's  led 
to  an  afiray  in  which  the  brother  was  stabbed, 
Jackson  shot  and  Thomas  H.  thrown  down- 
stairs, and  the  former  friends  were  at  bittet 
feud  for  many  years.  In  1815  he  removed  to 
Saint  Louis,  practised  law  and  established  a 
newspaper,  which  involved  him  in  duels  (one 
of  wnich  cost  his  opponent's  life,  to  Benton's 
lasting  regret)  ;  but  which  he  used  so  vigor- 
ously to  advocate  Missouri's  admission  to  the 
Union  as  a  slave  State  that  she  elected  him  one 
of  her  senators  on  her  entrance  in  IS2Q,  and 
re-elected  him  every  term  for  30  years.  Dur- 
ing this  time  he  stood  as  one  of  the  foremost 
public  men  of  his  generation — a  speaker  of 
great  ability  and  mastery  of  facts,  a  hard- 
headed  logician  and  tremendous  .debater,  of 
astonishing  tnemor:^,  unwearying  industir,  an 
iron  will  and  physi<iue,  and  a  power  o(  wit, 
sarcasm  and  denunciation  that  made  most  men 
shrink  from  a  contest  with  him.  Being  the 
spokesman  of  the  Western  Democrats,  his 
policy  and  political  feelings  were  coincident 
with  Jackson's,  their  personal  quarrel  was  at 
last  arranged  and  Benton  berame  Jadcson's 
first  lieutenant  and  admiring  champion.  In 
every  regard  he  supported  Western  interests: 
he  secured  the  passage  of  laws  for  pre-emption, 
donation  and  graded  prices  of-  lands,  for  throw- 
ing open  the  govemmenl  mineral  and  saline 
lands  to  occupancy  and  for  repeal  of  the  sail 
tax;  advocated  transcontinental  exploration  aiid 
post-roads,  a  Pacific  railroad,  occupation  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia,  trade  with  New  Mex- 
ico, military  stations  through  the  Southwest, 
amicable  relations  with  Indian  tribes  and  ever>'- 
thing  conducive  to  opemn£[  up  the  West  and 
makins  it  prosperous.  This  made  him  invin- 
cible there  till  the  slavery  question  drove  him 
into  opposition.  He  supported  Jackson  in  his 
refusal  to  recharter  the  United  States  Bank, 
and  made  a  series  of  speeches  urging  the  adop- 
tion of  a  metallic  currency  only,  which  < 


if  the  sub- treasury  scheme.  When 
Jackson  removed  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
Duane,  for  refusing  to- check  out  the  deports 
in  the  bank,  the  5ei>atc  adopted  a  resolution 
censuring  him  for  it ;  Benton  set  about  having 
the  resolution  expunged  from  the  records,  and 
alter  a  protracted  struggle  succeeded,  despite 
the  logical  absurdity  of  nis  tnotton,  in  accom- 
plishing his  purpose  by  a  series  of  fervid  pane- 
^rics  on  Jackson.  In  the  Nullification  contest, 
Benton  was  Calhoun's  chief  opponent,  not  only 
as  Jackson's  supporter,  but  by  conviction ;  and 
the  two  men  of  might  —  the  chiefs  of  the  State- 
Rights  and  Nationalist  wings  of  the  Democ- 
racy —  remained  deadly  foes  until  Calhoun's 
death.  In  (he  Oregon  boundary  dispute  Benton 
opposed  the  'fifty-four  forty  or  Rght*  war-cry; 
it  was  dropped,  but  the  Polk  administration  was 
glad  of  an  excuse  to  drop  it  in  order  to  push 
the  Mexican  war,  and  had  no  notion  of  difnin- 


Google 


THOHAS  HART  BBHTOH 


tizcdbyGooi^Ie 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


fiENTOH  — BXHUB 


ishinff  the  area  of  slaver^  to  enlarge  thnt  of 

freedotn.  He  favored  the  vigorous  prosecution 
of  the  war,  and  came  near  being  made  com- 
mander-in-chief, from  his  close  acquaintance 
with  the  territory.  But  from  this  time  on,  the 
slavery  problem  swallowed  up  every  other. 
Benton  fouKht  Calhoun's  State-Rights  resolu- 
tions in  retort'to  the  Wilmot  Proviso  (qv), 
and  they  never  came  to  a  vote;  but  Calhoun 
sent  them  to  various  State  legislatures  to  adopt 
and  utilize  for  instructing  their  senators,  and 
they  were  pushed  through  the  Missouri  legisla- 
ture without  Benton's  knowledge.  He  de- 
nounced them  as  misrepresenting  the  people, 
canvassed  his  State  for  re-election  in  a  long- 
famous  series  of  powerful  and  caustic  speeches 
was  supported  by  his  party,  but  defeated  by  a 
fusion  fit  Whip;s  and  anti-Benton  Democrats, 
and  his  scnatonal  service  ended  with  1850.  He 
opposed  the  Clay  compromise  resolutions  of 
that  year,  however  (see  Compromise  of  1850), 
with  sarcasm  still  quoted.  In  1852  be  canvassed 
Missouri  for  election  to  the  lower  House  and 
was  triumphantly  returned.  He  supported 
Pierce  for  election  and  in  Congress  till  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  bill  came  up.  Against  that 
he  made  one  of  his  greatest  speeches,  and  the 
administration  thereupon  ousted  all  his  Mis- 
souri supporters,  and  he  was  defeated  for  re- 
election b>|  the  now  dominant  ultra- Southern 
sentiment  in  the  Democratic  party.  The  time 
of  mediators  and  middle  courses  had  gone  by. 
He  now  set  about  writing  his  remarkable 
•Thirty  Years"  View'  (1854-56),  a  most  valu- 
able account  of  his  senatorial  experiences  and 
the  secret  political  Wstory  of  the  years  1820- 
50.  In  18S6  he  ran  for  governor,  but  a  third 
ticket  in  the  field  defeated  him.  In  the  cam- 
paign of  1856  he  supported  Buchanan  against 
nis  own  son-in-law,  Fremont,_  as  representing 
the  parly  of  union;  but  materially  changed  his 
mind  before  his  death.  In  these  last  two  years, 
though  in  extreme  old  age,  he  carried  throu^ 
the  imjncnse  and  useful  lalxir  of  compiling  an 
abridgment  of  the  debates  in  Congress  from  the 
foundation  of  the  government  to  1850,  pub- 
lished later  in  15  volumes.  He  also  published 
an  'Examination  of  the  Dred  Scot  Case* 
(1857).  ConsuU  Meigs.  W.  M.,  'Life  of  T.  H. 
Benton*  (Philadelphia  1904)  ;  Rogers,  J.  M., 
'Thomas  H.  Benton"  (ib.  1905);  Roosevelt, 
<Thomas  Hart  Benton'    (Boston  188?). 

BENTON,  111,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Franklin  County,  on  the  Illinois  Central,  the  St. 
L.ouis,  Iron  Mountain  and  Southern  and  the 
Chicago  and  Eastern  Illinois  railroads,  125 
miles  southwest  of  Springfield.  It  is  the 
centre  of  an  extensive  coal  mining  region.  A 
large  stove  foundry  is  located  in  the  city  and  it 
also  contains  the  old  homestead  of  Gen.  John 
A.  Logan.  In  1913  the  commission  form  of 
mumcipal    government     was    adopted.      Pop. 

BENTON  HARBOR,  Micb..  city  in  Ber- 
rien County,  situated  cm  the  Saint  Joseph's 
Kiver,  one  and  a  half  miles  from  Lake  Mirhi- 
gm;  on  the  Cleveland,  C.  &  C,  and  Pere  Mar- 
quette railroads.  It  is  also  connected  with  the 
lake  by  a  ship  canal  and  thus  by  steamboat  lines 
with  Chicago  and  Milwaukee.  It  has  a  large 
trade  in  lumber,  grain  and  fruits,  especially  the 
■latter,  and  has  also  considerable  manufacturing 

voL,3  — 34 


interests,  including  manufactories  of  fruit  pack- 
ages, furniture,  machinery,  Hour,  vinegar  and 
canned  fruit.  In  the  ci^  and  vicinity  are  min- 
eral springs  with  medicinal  properties.  The 
waterworks  are  owned  by  the  city.    Pop.  9,185. 

BENTONVILLE,  Ark,  town  and  county- 
seat  of  Benton  County,  situated  northwest  of 
Little  Rock;  on  the  Saint  Louis  and  San  Fran- 
cisco Railroad.  It  is  the  seat  of  Bentonville 
College  and  a  Baptist  academy.  It  contains 
several  springs,  three  of  which  have  medicinal 
properties.  The  town  is  the  centre  of  one  of 
the  most  productive  apple-growing  regions  in 
the  United  States;  it  also  carries  on  a  consider- 
able trade  in  fruit,  timber,  grain  and  live  stock, 
and  has  extensive  fruit-evaporating  works  and 
fruit-brandy  distilleries,  various  factories,  mills, 
etc  The  waterworks  and  electric  plant  arc 
owned  by  the  town.    Pop.  2,000. 

BENTONVILLE.  N.  C,  a  village  in  lohn- 
ston  County,  noted  as  the  place  where  a  stubborn 
battle  was  fought  during  the  Civil  War.  Here, 
during  his  march  from  Savannah  through  the 
Carolinas,  Sherman,  at  the  head  of  65,000 
National  troops,  encountered  24,000  Confeder- 
ates under  Johnston.  A  battle  took  place  18 
March  1865,  Johnston  having  come  up  in  great 
haste  from  Smithfield,  intending  to  surprise 
Sherman.  The  latter,  however,  was  ready  for 
him,  and  Johnston  was  thrown  on  the  defen- 
sive near  Mill  Creek.  Johnston  was  partially 
defeated  and  retreated  to  Smithfield.  The  Fed- 
eral loss  was  about  1,600.  the  Confederate  about 
2,700,  Consult  Johnson  and  Buel,  'The  Battles 
and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War'  (1887). 

BENTZKL-STERNAU,  b6nt'rfl-star'now. 
Count  Karl  Christian  Emit  von,  German 
novelist:  b.  Mainz.  9  April  1757;  d.  Mariahal- 
den,  Swilierland,  13  Aug.  1849.  In  1808  he  was 
Minister  of  the  Interior  of  the  Grand  Duchy 
of  Baden,  in  1810  president  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Mannheim  and  in  1812  Minister  of 
State  and  Finance  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Frankfort.  He  is  esteemed  as  a  humorist  after 
the  manner  of  Jean  Paul;  and  his  satirical 
romance?,  "The  Golden  Calf  (1802-^);  'The 
Stone  Guest'  (1808);  'Old  Adam'  (1819- 
20)  ;  'The  Master  of  the  Chair,'  together  form 
a  series.  His  dramatic  ventures  had  less  suc- 
cess.  He  translated  Young's  'Night  Thoughts.' 

BENTZON,  Th..  the  pseudonym  of  Marie 
Therese  Blanc  (q.v.). 

BENUE,  ben'we,  or  BINUE,  a  river  of 
west  Africa,  the  chief  tributary  of  the  Niger. 
It  rises  in  the  Bub'n  Jidda  hills  on  the  east  of 
Adamawa,  flows  for  a  short  distance  north- 
west then  west  to  Bassama,  after  which  its 
course  is  generally  southwest  to  its  junction 
with  the  Niger  at  Lokoja  and  300  miles  from 
the  coast.  Its  length  is  about  850  miles.  Its 
width  in  its  lower  reaches  is  from  1.600  to 
3.200  feet,  and  it  is  navigable  for  about  600 
miles  during  the  rainy  season,  but  is  very  shal- 
low in  the  dry  season  (January- May).  The 
source  of  the  Benue  was  long  unknown.  Dr. 
Barth,  who  came  upon  the  river  in  1851,  while 
traveling  in  Adamawa,  near  the  confluence  of 
the  Faro,  which  joins  it  on  its  left- bank  about 
lat,  12°  30*  E.,  was  told  that  it  came  from  the 
southeast,  a  distance  of  nine  days'  journey.  In 
consequence  of  his  discovery  an  expedition  was 
filled  out  by  the  British  government  for  the 


t,zcd=y  Google 


BSNVOUO  —  ^EHZBNS 


purpose  of  exploring  the  Niger  from  its  mouth 
upward  The  exploration  was  made  in  a  small 
steamer  called  the  Pleiad,  and  was  under  the 
command  of  Dr,^  William  Balfour  Baikie.  After 
reaching  the  point  of  confluence  of  the  Benue 
with  the  Niger,  about  lat,  7°  4(f  N.,  Dr.  Baikie 
followed  the  former  eastward  for  a  direct  dis- 
tance of  about  370  miles.  The  point  thus 
reached  was  about  lat.  9°  25'  N.;  long.  11"  yf 
E.  There  was  sufficient  depth  of  water,  though 
the  river  was  only  rising,  to  allow  a  still  fur- 
ther exploration.  The  natives,  however,  had 
begun  to  display  their  hostility  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  made  it  necessary  to  return.  The  result 
was  to  show  that  a  large,  fertile  and  populous 
tract  of  a  region  of  Africa  previously  in  a 
great  measure  unknown  was  accessible  \rr 
means  of  a  navi^ble  river.  A  second  expedi- 
tion,  also  under  Dr.  Baikie.  explored  the  same 
river  in  1857.  In  1879  a  small  steamer  belong- 
ing to  the  Church  Missionary  Society  went  up 
the  river  140  miles,  and  its  source  was  discov- 
ered by  Flegel  in  1883.  The  explorer  Robert 
Hegel  journeyed  along  its  navieable  length  and 
explored  some  of  its  tributaries  in  1879.  In 
1892  the  cxpedLtion  of  Mizon  practically  gave 
IB  a  complete  knowledge  of  the  river.-  Its  prin- 
cipal tributaries  are  the  Uajo,  Kebbi,  Gongola, 
Kadera  and  Faro.  The  freedom  of  navigation 
on  the  river  is  guaranteed  by  an  agreement  be- 
tween Germany  and  Great  Britain.  With  the 
Niger  the  Benue  forms  the  only  navigable  route 
to  the  far  interior  of  Africa. 

BENVOLIO,  b*n-vflni-o.  in  Shakespeare's 
'Romeo  and  Juliet,*  a  friend  of  Romeo  and 
nephew  of  Montague. 

BBNWOOD,  W.  Va..  town  in  MarshaU 
County;  on  the  Ohio  River,  adjoining  Wheel- 
ing, and  on  the  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  Chica- 
go, and  Saint  Louis,  and  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio 
railroads.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  large  iron- 
mining  region  and  has  several  rolling  mills  and 
blast  furnaces.  About  a  mile  south  of  the 
town  is  a  government  dam,  built  to  hold  the 
Ohio  River  in  a  navigable  condition  during 
dry  periods.  Benwood  was  settled  about  1800. 
Pop.  4,976. 

BENZALDBHYDE,  or  BENZOIC  AL- 
DEHYDE, a  colorless,  volatile  oil,  fanuliarly 
known  as  'oil  of  bitter  almonds."  Benzalde- 
hyde  does  not  occur  in  the  bitter  almond  in 
nature,  but  is  formed,  when  the  kernels  are 
crushed  and  allowed  to  stand  in  water,  by 
the  decomposition  of  a  glucoside  known  as 
•amygdalin.'  It  has  the  chemical  formula 
C,H>.CO.H,  boils  at  354°  F.,  and  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  about  1.05  and  a  refractive  index 
of  1.56.  Benialdehyde  is  prepared,  artificially, 
by  boiling  benzyl  chlorid  with  nitrate  of  lead, 
copper  or  sodium  and  subsequent  treatment 
with  sodium  acid  stilphiie,  with  which  the  ben- 
zaldehyde  forms  a  crystalline  compound  that 
may  be  easily  separated  from  the  mother  li- 
quor by  filtration  or  otherwise. 

BENZENE,  an  aromatic  hydrocarbon  dis- 
covered by  Faraday  in  1825  and  called  by 
him  'bicarburet  of  hydrogeti."  It  has  the 
chemical  formula  CH4,  and  is  the  fundamental 
substance  from  which  the  extensive  series  of 
"aromatic  compounds"  is  obtained.  In  1845, 
Hofmann  proved  its  existence  in  coal  lar  and 
that    substance    n— ■ ••■■■••--    :•-    •    : — 


poTtant  commercial  source.  In  the  manufac- 
ture of  benzene,  coal  tar  is  distilled  at  a  tem- 
perature not  exceeding  300°  F.,  and  the  dis-  1 
filiate  is  treated  with  caustic  soda  to  remove  ' 
phenols  and  subsequently  with  sulphuric  acid 
to  remove  basic  substances.  It  is  then  re- 
distilled, the  temperature  (at  least  in  the  up- 
per ^rt  of  the  still)  being  kept  as  low  as  212° 
F.,  in  order  to  prevent  toluene  from  passing;  | 
over.  In  order  to  effect  a  still  further  pun- 
fi  cation,  the  beniene  so  obtained  may  be 
cooled  by  a  freezing  mixture  of  ice  and  salL 
The  tnte  benzene  solidifies  when  thus  treated 
and  the  fluid  impurities  that  it  contains  may 
be  exj)elled  by  pressure  or  by  the  aid  of  a  | 
centrifugal  drier.  Pure  beniene  is  a  colorless 
liqiiii  strongly  refractive,  boiling  at  about 
IT?"  P.,  and  freering  at  40°  F.  It  does  not 
mix  with  water,  but  mixes  readily  with  alco- 
hol, acetone,  glacial  acetic  acid,  chloroform  , 
and  ether.  It  crystalliies  in  the  trimetric  sys- 
tem when  solidilied  by  cold  and  dissolves 
iodine  phosphorus,  sulphur,  oils,  resins,  fats 
and  alkaloids.  It  expands  by  about  0.00075 
of  its  own  bulk,  per  degree  increase  in  its 
temperature  on  the  Fahrenheit  scale.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  about  OilS  at  IS*  and  its 
specific  heat  is  0.40.  For  the  chemical  consti- 
tption  of  benzetie,  see  Aromatic  CoiiPOUNns. 
Benzene  forms  two  general  classes  of  com- 
pounds, known  respectively  as  "addition"  and 
"substitution*  products.  In  forming  an  ■addi- 
tion* compound,  benzene  merely  t^es  up 
atoms  or  molecules  of  some  other  substance, 
without   parting   with   any   of   its   own   atoms; 


)d  example  of  a  benzent 
pound.  It  is  formed  by  dropping  bromine  into 
boiling  benzene,  in  direct  sunlight;  the  hexa- 
bromidc  crystallizing  out  upon  cooling.  The 
"substitution*  compounds  of  benrene  are  far 
more  numerous  and  important  than  the  'ad- 
dition* compounds,  however.  TTiey  are 
formed  by  replacing  one  or  more  of  the  typi- 
cal hydrogen  atoms  in  the  benzene  bv  an  cqtial 
number  of  other  atoms  or  monad  radicals. 
The  general  theory  of  benzene  substitutions  is 
given  under  Aromatic  Compounds ;  but  a  f^w 
of  the  more  important  examples  of  such  sub- 
stitution products  may  be  given  here.  The 
radical  OHi  (which  is  not  capable  of  inde- 
pendent existence)  is  called  'pnenyU*  and  is 
often  represented  by  the  symbol  Ph.  The 
mono- substitution  compounds  of  benzene,  in 
which  one  atom  of  die  hydrogen  in  liie  orig- 
inal bensene  has  been  replaced  by  a  radical 
(or  by  an  atom  different  from  hydrogen), 
may  then  be  regarded  as  addition  coropoiuids 
of  the  radical  phenyl.  Thus  •monochlorben- 
zene,*  CHtCl,  may  also  be  regarded  as  chloi " ' 


CH..H,  or  PhH.  Carbolic  acid  (or  ■phenol") 
is  hydrate  of  phenyl,  its  formula  being  PhOH, 
the  radical  OH  being  here  substituted  for  one 
atom  of  the  hydrogen  in  the  original  benzene. 
Nitrobenzene,  PhNiDi,  is  formed  frotn  benzene 
(PhH)  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  equation 

PhH  +  HNO,  =  PhNO.  +  HjO. 
It  is  used  in  the  arts  for  the  mauuf«ctarc  of 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


BBNZJDIHB~BEH2INE 


HI 


aniline  (qjv.).  Aniline  itself  is  an  unide  of 
phenyl,  obtained  by  replacing  an  atom  of  H 
in  ammonia  (MHi)  b^  phenyl,  or  by  replacing 
an  atom  of  I^droeen  in  benzeoe  by  iIk  radical 
NHl  The  fomiuTa  of  aniline  may  be  written 
PhNHi,  and  aniline  may  be  called  'amido- 
beniene,*  or  'phenylamme.*  (See  Amide; 
Amine).  Methyl-beniene,  GHtCHi,  in  which 
one  of  the  original  hydrogen  atoms  of  the 
benzene  is  replaced  by  the  radical  CHi 
('methyl')  is  also  an  important  benzene  sub- 
stitution compound  and  is  known  to  chemists 
as  toluene.  That  (tortion  of  the  original 
benzene  which  remains  intact,  after  a  sub- 
stitution, is  called  the  'benzene  residue.*  In  a 
mono- substitution  compound  of  benzene,  fur- 
ther substitutions  may  be  made  by  replacing 
one  or  more  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  in  the 
'benzene  residue*  by  univalent  radicals,  and  sec- 


tion of  the  secondary  substitution  compounds 
is  given  under  Aromatic  Compounds.  For  the 
etas  silica  tion    of    higher    compounds,     special 


if  A,  B,  C  and  D  arc  monad  radicals,  there 
are  no  less  than  30  distinct  substances  pos- 
sible, which  shall  all  have  the  same  gener^ 
formula  CVH^ABCD.  This  fact  illustrates 
the  exceeding  complexity  of  the  general  the- 
ory of  benzene  substitutions  compounds.  The 
full  tfaeoiy  is  even  more  complex  than  this 
example  indicates,  however,  for  it  often  hap- 
pens that  the  hydrogen  in  a  substituted  radical 
can  be  replaced  by  another  radical,  as  well 
as  the  hydrogen  of  the  •benzene  residue.* 
Thus  in  methyl  benzene  (or  toluene),  CtHi. 
CH.,  the  radical  OH  may  be  suhstitiited  for 
one  of  the  hydrogen  atoms.  If  the  hydrogen 
so  displaced  occurs  in  the  'benzene  residue.* 
the  resuhing  compound  will  be  •cresol,"  OHi 
(OH).CHi,  a  substance  which  (since  it  is  a 
di-substitution  compound)  can  exist  in  three 
:  forms.     If,   on   the  other  hand,   the 


und  will  be  'benzyl  alcohol,*  CH..CH. 


?!)" 


(01_. 

When  a  primary  amine  of  the  fatty  aeries 
is  acted  upon  by  nitrous  acid  (HN(Ji),  the 
NHi  group  of  the  amine  is  replaced  by  OH, 
with  uie  formation  of  an  alcohol ;  but  when 
nitrons  add  acts  upon  aromatic  amines,  the 
products  are  quite  different  and  are  known  as 
■diazo-compounds.*  Thus  when  nitrous  acid 
acts  upon  aniline  nitrate,  a  compound  having 
the  formula  C^HLNt-NC,  and  known  as 
"diazobcnzene  nitrate,*  is  formed.  This  is 
regarded  by  diemists  as  a  compomid  of  the 
univalent  radical  GHt-N  =  N^.  When  the 
free  affinity  of  this  radical  is  saturated  by  the 
addition  of  fheny]  (CJIt),  the  resulting  com- 
pound, CJL.N(.C^>,  is  known  as  'azoben- 
zene,'  or  as  "beniene-azo-benzene.*  Azo- 
benzene  m^av  be  prepared  by  beating  nitro- 
benzene with  a  solution  of  SnCIi  in  aqueous 
caustic  soda.  It  is  deposited  from  a  solution 
it)  benzene  in  the  fom  of  bright  red  Irimetric 
plates  and  owes  its  importance  largely  to  the 
fact  that  aniline  yellow,  aH..N,.CH.(NH,). 
is  one  of  its  derivatives. 

Benzene  is  an  exceedingly  inflammable 
substance,  burning  with  a  luminous  flame  and 


the  generation  of  a  great  amount  of  he^t    It 

is  volatile  and  its  vapor  forms  a  dangerously 
explosive  mixture  with  air  when  present  in 
any  considerable  quanlily.  Hofmann,  men- 
tioned above  as  having  iirst  demonstrated  its 
existence  in  coal  tar.  fast  his  life  on  25  Feb. 
1855,  while  experimenting  with  a  considerable 

Suantitv  of  benzene,  through  the  mass  acci- 
entally  takine  fire.  Benzene  may  be  formed 
syntheticallv  by  beating  acetylene  gas  (CJJi) 
to  dull  redness  in  a  glass  tube.  Polvmeriza- 
tion  occurs  and  among  numerous  olner  sub- 
stances benzene  is  formed  in  accordance  with 
the  equation  3CiHi  =  (UH*.  In  works  on 
chemistry,  benzene  is  ofteh  called  'benzol.* 
(Compare    Benzine). 

This  product  is  so  widely  employed  in  the 
industry  of  the   aniline   dyes  that  chronic  poi-' 

usually  breathed  as  vapor  in  the  vat  rooms  and 
causes,  after  some  exposure,  dizziness  in  the 
head,  ringing  in  the  ears,  nausea  and  vomit- 
ing, coughing  and  sleepiness  which  latter  may 
deepen  to  unconsciousness  somewhat  resem- 
bling the  narcosis  caused  by  breathing  chloro- 
form. In  some  instances  there  are  blood 
chances,  with  cyanosis  and  death.  Treatment 
by  fresh  air,  oxygen,  free  diuresis,  catharsis 
and  diaiihoresis,  and  if  the  blood  changes  are 
marked  infusion  of  physiological  salt  solution 
may  be  necessary. 

BENZIDINB,  an  important  substance  be- 
longing to  the  benzene  (or  aromatic)  series 
and  used  in  the  arts  for  the  manufacture  of 
Kongo  red,  chrysamin  and  other  so-called 
'_coal-(ar  colors."  The  colorirg  matters  de- 
rived from  benzidine  have  the  unusual  and 
valuable  property  of  dyeinK  cotton  without  the 
use  of  a  mordant  to  fix  fliem  upon  the  fibre. 
Benzidine  has  the  formula  H,N.GH,.CiH.. 
NHt  where  both  the  benzene  rings  contain  the 
NH,   and   the  C,H.NH.  radicals  in   the  para 

eosition,  and  is  prepared,  commerdially,  by 
eating  nitrobenzene  (see  Benzene)  with 
caustic  soda  and  zinc  dust  and  subsequent 
treatment  with  hot  dilute  hydrochloric  acid. 
Pure  benzidine  crystalli/cs  in  silvery  scales 
which  melt  at  252°  F.,  and  boil  at  a  tempera- 
ture probably  above  700°  F.  It  Is  easily  solu- 
ble in  alcohol  and  ether;  it  also  dissolves  read- 
ily in  hot  water,  but  is  almost  insoluble  in  cold 

BENZINE,  the  commercial  name  for  a 
mixture  of  the  lighter  and  more  volatile  hy- 
drocarbons that  pass  off  in  the  earlier  stages 
o£  the  distillation  of  crude  petroleum.  It  is 
essentiallj-  different  from  benzene  (q.v.),  the 
latter  being  a  definite  chemical  substance,  be- 
longing in  the  group  of  Aromatic  (Compounds 
(q.v.);  while  "benzine"  is  a  more  or  less  in- 
ddinite  mixture  of  hydrocarbons  thai  chiedy 
belong  to  the  paralTin  series.  Benzine  differs 
but  little  from  naphtha  and  gasolene,  such 
slight  differences  as  exist  being  due  to  varia- 
tions in  the  proportions  in  which  the  constit- 
uent hydrocarbons  are  present  Benzine  is  a 
colorless,  mobile  liquid,  very  volatile  and  in- 
flammable. It  is  valuable  as  a  solvent  for  fats, 
oils  and  resins  and  is  much  used  about  the 
household  as  a  cleansine  ^cnt.  Its  vapor, 
when  mixed  with  air,  is  highly  explosive  and 
serious  accidents  are  common,  as  the  result  of 
using  it  in   the  vicinity  of  lighted  lamps  or 


Digitized  byGoOgle 


BENZOATE  OF  SODA  —  BENZOIN  GUH 


tobacoo  pipes  or  near  stoves   in   which  fires 

are  buminB,  In  printing  offices  it  is  used  for 
cleaning  type  and  for  removing  ink  from  press 
rolls.  It  is  also  used  in  large  quantities  for 
enriching  illuminating  gas.  Benzine  is  much 
lighter  than  water  and  will  not  mix  with  iL 
It  boils  at  from  160°  to  190°  F.  Poisoning  bv 
benzine  is  rare.  The  vapor  has  been  used, 
combined  with  chloroform  and  ether,  for  pur- 
poses of  narcosis,  but  it  is  questionable  if  it 
will  ever  be  very  popular.  Instances  of  sud- 
den death  following  the  prolonged  breathing 
of  benzine  vapor  have  been   reported. 

BENZOATE  OF  SODA,  or  SODIUM 
BENZOATE,  most  commonly  used  as  a  nre- 
servative  in  canned  foods.  Under  the  Federal 
law  regulating  the  purity  of  foods  one-tenth 
of  1  per  cent  may  be  used  for  this  purpose, 
but  the  ^pular  feeling  against  its  use  in  any 
quantity  is  causing  the  higher  class  of  packers 
to  discard  it  entirely.  Its  harmfulncss  as  an 
ingredient  in  preserved  foods  has  not  been 
entirely   established.      See   Preservatives, 

BENZOIC  ACID,  an  organic  arid,  be- 
longing in  the  aromatic  series  and  having  the 
formula  CJt..COOH.  It  occurs  in  bcuKiin 
gum  and  in  certain  other  resins  and  balsams. 
It  may  be  obtained  also  from  the  hippuric  acid 
that  occurs  in  the  urine  of  the  horse  and 
other  herbivorous  animals  by  boiling  that 
acid  with  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid. 
Benzoic  acid  is  used  as  a  mordant  in  calico 
printing,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  aniline 
blue.     It  is  also  used  in  medicine  and  a 


largest  use  of  benzoic  acid,  however,  is  as  a 
food  preservative.  With  its  salt,  soda  ben- 
zoate,  it  is  used  in  huge  quantities  in  catsups, 
sauces,  jellies,  jams,  fruit  syrups,  sausages  and 
other  chopped  meats,  cider,  soft  drjidcs  and 
many  other  similar  food  preparations.  This 
use  was  questioned  by  the  U.  S.  Chemistry 
Bureau  and  led  to  an  elaborate  series  of  expcri- 


s  to  the  effect  that  benzoic  acid 
and  its  salts  were  distinctly  deleterious  to 
health  and  should  not  be  permitted  in  foods. 
A  referee  board  of  eminent  physiological  chem- 
ists were  called  to  confirm  or  refute  the  Chem- 
istry Bureau's  findings,  and  they  decided  that 
the  largest  amount  that  would  be  eaten  in  the 
ordinary  use  of  such  preserved  foods  would  not 
be  injurious  to  health.  Upon  this  decision  the 
government  permits  such  use  of  benzoic  acid 
and  benzoate  of  soda  on  condition  that  the 
proportion  used  is  stated  plainly  on  the  label 
covering  the  goods.  Many  States,  however, 
prohibit  it  absolutely ;  others  restrict  its  nse 
m  foods  to  very  narrow  limits. 

The  benzoic  acid  that  is  used  for  medical 
purposes  is  obtained  by  sublimation,  through  a 
paper  filter  of  benzoin  gum  over  a  sand  bath, 
at  a  temperature  of  about  340°  F.  When  so 
prepared,  the  acid  has  a  pleasant,  vanilla-like 
odor,  which  is  imparted  to  it  by  a  trace  of  an 
aromatic  oil  that  comes  over  with  it  from  the 
pum.  For  most  of  the  purposes  for  which  it 
IS  used  in  the  arts,  benzoic  acid  is  formed  Iw 
chlorinating  toluene.  The  resulting  benzotn- 
chloride  is  converted  into  benzoic  acid  by  ox- 
idation with  dilute  nitric  acid  in  boilers  pro- 
vided with   mechanical   stirrers.     Hydrochloric 


acid  is  liberated  and  the  benzoic  add  is  recrys- 
tallized  or  distilled  under  vacuum.  Benzoic 
acid  is  also  made  from  benzonitrile  (C^Hs.CN) 
obtained  from  the  'middle  oils*  or  carbolic 
oils  in  coal-tar  distillation.  After  washing  the 
carbolic  fraction  with  dilute  soda  lye  to  re- 
move the  phenol  and  cresol,  the  remaioing  oil 
is  placed  in  a  jacketed  vessel.  Caustic  soda  lye 
of  a  specific  gravity  of  1,400  is  added  in  quan- 
tity about  double  the  benzonitrile  content,  and 
the  mixture  agitated.  Steam  is  passed  in  k 
long  as  ammonia  is  evolved  in  quantity.  The 
still  then  contains  an  upper  oily  layer  and  a 
lower  alkaline  layer.  The  latter  is  neutralized 
with  carbonic  acid  or  a  mineral  add,  and  after 
the  remaining  traces  of  phenol  and  resinous 
matters  are  removed,  the  resulting  solution  of 
sodium  benzoate  is  decomposed  while  hot  by 
adding  an  excess  of  acid.  Upon  cooling,  pure 
benzoic  acid  separates  in  white  crystals. 

Benzoic  acid  dissolves  in  hot  water,  but  crysr 
tallizes  out,  upon  cooling,  in  needles  or  pearly 
prisms.  It  is  soluble  in  ether,  alcohol  and  ben- 
zene. It  melts  at  250°  F.,  boils  at  480°  F.,  and 
may  be  sublimed  at  intermediate  temperatures. 
Its  salts  are  called  'benioates.*  The  methyl, 
ethyl,  isobutyl  and  amyl  esters  of  benzoic  aod 
are  used  in  making  synthetic  perfumes  and 
flavors. 

In  medidne  bepzoic  acid  and  its  salts,  the 
benzoales  (sodium,  ammonium,  lithium)  are 
widely  employed  for  diseases  of  the  bladder 
and  of  the  mucous  membranes  of  .the  lungs. 
They  are  also  used  as  intestinal  germicides. 
Benzoic  add  has  maricedbacteriddal  properties, 
and  may  be  used  for  sterilizing  purposes. 
Taken  into  the  intestines  it  prevents  excessive 
bacterial  decomposition ;  absorbed  into  the 
blood  it  is  partly  broken  ap,  and  in  the  lod- 
neys  is  eliminated  in  part  as  (uppuric  add,  ren- 
dcrii^  the  urine  add.  It  is  therefore  useful  in 
alkaline  fermentations  of  the  urine,  particularly 
in  cystitis,  pyelitis,  etc.  Benzoic  add  is  partly 
eliminatea  by  the  lungs,  here  acting  to  itKrease 
the  amoimt  of  mucus,  it  is  therefore  used  lo 
loosen  the  tnHCUS  in  tight  coug^.  As  a  parasi- 
ticide, benzoic  acid  is  very  valuable  in  scabies. 
Benzoates  are  practically  useless  in  gout. 

BENZOIC   ALDEHYDE.     See  Benzal- 

DEBVDE. 

BENZOIN,  an  aroMatic  compound,  sol- 
uble in  hot  alci^ol  and  crystallizing  in 
colorless,  six-sided  prisms  ha,ving  the  for- 
mula GH..CH(OH).CQ.C.Hl  Bensoin  is  best 
prepared  by  acting  upon  pur«  benialddiyde 
with  a  hot  alcoholic  solntion  of  cyanide  of 
potassium.  Upon  cooling,  the  benzoin  separates 
and  may  be  removed  by  filtration.  The  actton 
of  the  cyanide  is  not  known,  because  the  chemi- 
cal change  involved  in  the  foresoing  inooess  of 
manufacture  appears  to  consist  merely  in  the 
imiting  of  two  molecules  of  benzaldehyde  lo 
form  a  single  molecule  of  benzoin. 

BENZOIN  GUM,  or  GUM  BENJAMIN, 
a  reddish  brown  resin  that  exudes  from 
the  tree  Styrtur  bfnuoin,  which  grows  in 
Sumatra,  Java  and  other  parts  of  the  East.  It 
is  a  mixture  of  various  resinous  substances,  to- 
gether with  free  benzoic  acid.  Cinnamic  add  is 
also  present  in  the  free  stale  in  many  cases,  bot 
it  is  absent  from  the  Siamese  gum.  Benzoin 
gum  has  a  pleasant  odor  when  bume^  and  fw 


Google 


BBNZOI BEOWULF 


589 


this  reason  has  been  much  used  for  incense  and 
in  making  pastilles.  It  has  antiseptic  properties, 
and  preparations  of  it  are  used  as  a  dressing 
for  wounds,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  court- 
plasler.  Benzoin  is  also  administered  internally, 
especially  in  asthma  and  olher  pulmonary  af- 
fections and  chronic  catarrh.  It  is  readily  sol- 
uble in  alcohol,  and  when  the  tincture  so  formed 
is  dropped  into  water,  it  forms  a  white,  milky 
fluid,  which  is  used  in  France  as  a  cosmetic, 
under  the  name  'lait  mrginal.*  The  gum  is 
obtained  from  the  styrax-tree  by  making  in- 
cisions in  the  bark,  through  which  the  resin 
oozes.  It  is  allowed  to  harden  by  exposure  to 
the  air  before  removal.  The  best  gum  is  ob- 
tained during  the  first  three  years  of  the  tree's 
life,  though  a  good  quality  may  be  had  for 
seven  or  eight  years  subsequently.  The  Sia- 
mese gum  is  esteemed  more  highly  than  that 
from  Sumatra. 

BENZOL.    See  BcNiUEKE. 

BENZONI,  Girolamo,  b«n-z(>'ne,  je-ro- 
la'-roo,  Itahan  traveler:  b.  Milan,  1519;  d.  after 
1566.  He  went  to  Spanish- Am  erica  in  1542 
vikited  the  principal  places  then  known,  and 
fre<}iiently  joined  the  Spaniards  in  raids  on 
Indian  settlesienta ;  and  after  returning  to  Italy 
<15S6)  iiublished  a  narrative  of  his  adventures, 
•History  of  the  New  World>   (Venice  1565). 

BENZOYL,  in  chemistry  the  mono- 
valent radical  CHj.CO.  Benzoyl  cannot  exist 
in  the  free  state,  but  it  occors  in  the  combined 
state  in  many  organic  substances.  Benzalde- 
hyde  (or  oil  of  bitter  almonds),  C.H..COH, 
may  be  regarded  as  its  hybrid,  and  benzoic  add, 
CJI..COOH,  as  its  hydrate. 

BENZYL,  the  monovalent  organic  radical 
C^.CH,,  which  does  not  exist  in  the  free 
state,  but  which  has  numerous  important  com- 
pounds. Toluene  is  its  hybrid.  Benzylamine, 
GH^CHJJHb  is  derived  by  substitnling  ben»yl 
for  one  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  in  ammonia,  by 
heating  benzyl  chloride  with  alcoholic  ammonia. 
Benryl  chloride,  which  is  used  as  a  source  of 
■oil  of  bitter  almonds"  (■benialdchyde")  and 
of  benzoic  acid,  has  the  formula  C>Hi.CHiCI, 
and  is  obtained  by  passing  chlorine  into  cold 
toluene,  in  direct  sunlight.  Benzyl  alcohol, 
OHtCHiCOH),  is  the  hydrate  of  benzyl,  and 
is  obtained  by  the  action  of  an  alcoholic  solu- 
tion of  potash  upon  bcnialdehyde. 

BBOTHUK,  ba'5-thnk,  a  linguistic  stock 
of  North  American  Indians,  habitants  of  the 
region  of  the  Exploits  River  in  northern  New- 
foundland, and  believed  to  have  been  limited 
to  a  single  tribe.  The  Beothuks  painted  their 
bodies  and  their  property  with  red  ochre,  and 
from  this  circumstance  their  stock  and  tribal 
name  was  derived.  They  were  also  known  as 
the  (joodnight  Indians,  from  the  incorrect 
translation  of  a  Micmac  word  that  sounded  like 
Bcolhuk.  It  b  not  known  whether  the  Beo- 
tbuks  became  extinct  by  reason  of  wars  and 
famine  or  by  absorption  among  other  tribes. 
They  built  very  large  tepees  which  they  covered 
with  bark  or  skins  and  also  designed  a  crescent- 
shaped  canoe.  Because  of  their  hostility  to 
the  while  man,  they  were  relentlessly  pursued 
and  hunted  until  1820,  when  the  remnant  of 
survivors  crossed  the  straits  and  hid  them- 
selves in  Labrador,  where  il  is  possible  that 
some  of   their  descendants  may   survive.     In 


1911,  F.  G.  Speck  came  upon  an  old  woman, 
who  claimed  to  be  of  Beothuk  descent,  and 
from  her  obtained  a  few  words  which  he  be- 
lieved indicated  Algonquin  linguistic  stock. 
Data  on  the  subject,  however,  are  far  from 
decisive. 

BEOTHY,  ZoIUn,  Hungarian  writer:  b. 
Komorn,  4  Sept  1848.  In  1882  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  Ksthelics  at  the  University  of 
Budapest,  after  he  had  published  several  novels 
and  many  short  stories  and  some  of  his  critical 
and  dramatic  essays.  His  most  important 
works  include  a  history  of  Hungarian  litera- 
ture  (1877);  a  history  of  Hungarian  prose 
fiction  (1886);  a  collection  of  essays  (Buda- 
pest 1881).  He  is  considered  one  of  the  fore- 
most critics  of  Hungary. 

BEOWULF,  ba'6-wulf.  Anglo-Saxon 
epic,  of  ^rcat  importance'  as  one  of  the  earliest 
extant  pieces  of  literature  in  the  English  lan- 
guage. 3S  a  source  of  information  in  regard  to 
early  manners,  customs  and  traditions,  and  as 
an  heroic  poem  of  great  dignity  and  beauty. 
The  unique  manuscript,  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  tiates  from  about  1000,  but  the  com- 
position of  the  poem  must  be  placed  some 
three  centuries  earlier.  The  manuscript,  care- 
lessly written  by  two  scribes^  is  in  the  West- 
Saxon  dialect,  but  the  original  poem  must  have 
been  composed  in  the  Northumbrian  dialect, 
like  most  extant  Ang^o-Saxon  poetry,  whidi 
represents  Southern  transcription  of  Northern 
work.  The  name  of  the  poet  is  not  known;  he 
was  not,  in  any  cage,  the  inventor  of  the  iiKi- 
dents.  but  rather  one  who  adapted  existing 
material,  probably  in  the  form  of  separate  lays, 
to  the  ampler  frame  of  the  epic. 

The  plot  of  the  poem  is  briefly  as  follows: 
Hrothgar,  King  of  the  Danes,  builds  a  great 
mead-hall  for  himself  and  his  warriors.  But 
an  evil  creature  named  Grendel,  descended 
from  Cain,  comes  at  night  and  attacks  the  hall, 
slaying  and  devouring  Hrothgar's  men. 
Twelve  years  this  continues.  Then  Beowulf, 
nephew  of  Hygelac,  King  of  the  (leatas,  in  the 
territory  which  is  now  southern  Sweden,  sails 
to  Denmark  with  14  warriors  to  kill  the  moti' 
ster.  He  is  entertained  magnificently  at  the 
Danish  court  and  silences  Unferth,  the  King's 
chief  counsellor,  who  behttles  his  courage. 
When  night  falls  Beowulf  watches  in  the  liall, 
with  his  ihanes.  The  monster  appears  and  kills 
one  of  the  men  before  coming  to  ^rips  with 
Beowulf.  A  fearful  struggle  ensues,  in  which 
the  hero  tears  off  the  demon's  arm  but  cannot 
prevent  his  escape  to  his  lair.  On  the  following 
day  there  is  great  rejoicing  and  magnificent 
presents  are  bestowed  upon  Beowulf.  But 
after  night  comes  on  the  mother  of  Grendel, 
bent  upon  revenge,  bursts  into  the  hall  and 
carries  off  jEschere,  a  Danish  warrior.  Beo- 
wulf then  seeks  out  the  ^e-demon  in  her  lair 
beneath  the  waters  of  an  inland  mere.  His 
sword,  loaned  him  by  Unferth,  fails  him,  and 
he  kills  the  hag  with  one  of  her  own  weapons. 
He  cuts  off  the  head  of  the  dead  Grendel  and 
takes  it  back  with  him  to  the  court  of  Hitithgar. 
After  more  feasting  and  present-giving  he  re- 
turns to  the  land  of  the  Gealas  and  recounts 
his  adventures  at  some  length  to  King  Hygelac. 
After  the  reign  of  Heardred,  the  successor  of 
Hygelac,  Beowulf  himself  ascends  the  throne 
ana    reigns  gloriously    for   50  years.     But   r 


iizodsi  Google 


BBPPO  —  BARANQSR 


dragon,  angered  by  the  plundering  of  his  hoard, 
devastates  the  country  with  fire,  whereupon 
Beowulf  attacks  and  (alls  him,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  Wiglaf,  a  young  thane.  In  this  en- 
counter Beowulf  is  himself  mortally  wounded 
and  dies.  His  body  is  burned  on  a  great  funeral 
pyre,  vf'ab  solemn  ceremonies. 

This  bare  outline  gives  no  hint  of  the  wealth 
of  episodes  which  enrich  the  poem.  The  most 
important  of  these  arc  the  account  of  Beowulf's 
swimming  feat  with  Breca  of  the  Brondings; 
the  story  of  Finn,  Kin^  of  the  Frisians,  and 
Hildeburg,  his  Danish  wife ;  the  tale  of  the  be- 
trothal of  Hrothgar's  daughter  Frcawani  to 
Ingeld;  and  the  descriptions  of  the  wars  between 
the  Geatas  and  Swedes.  A  part  of  the  Finn 
story  is  also  preserved  in  the  so-called  <Hnns- 
burg  Fragment,'  50  lines  of  verse  found  in  the 
binding  of  a  i>ook  of  homilies,  and  now  lost. 
'Beowulf,'  as  U  evident,  represents  die  fusion 
of  history  and  tradition  with  themes  of  popular 
story.  Much  of  what  is  told  of  kings  and 
diieftains  must  be  founded  upon  fact.  One 
event,  the  death  of  Hygelac,  established  by  docu- 
mentary evidence  as  between  512*  and  520 
(Gregory  of  Tours  and  the  'Gesta  Fran- 
conun'),  serves  roughly  as  a  basis  for  dating 
the  action  of  the  poem.  But  it  is  impossible  to 
establish  exact  chronology  for  events  so  highly 
colored  bv  imagination.  The  story  of  Grendel 
and  his  dam  may  be  traced  in  the  very  wide- 
Mread  popular  tale  of  the  'Bear's  Son';  the 
fight  with  the  dragon,  originally  quite  uncon- 
nected with  this,  attached  itself  independently 
to  the  figure  of  Beowulf;  The  material  prob- 
ably took  shape  in  the  form  of  lays  in  Scandi- 
navian territory,  was  carried  to  England,  retold 
there  in  the  vernacular,  and  finally  molded  by 
the  •Beowulf -poet*  into  the  present  epic  about 
the  first  quarter  of  the  8th  century.  It  is  im- 
possible, however,  to  distin^ish  in  the  present 
poem  the  lays  on  the  basis  of  which  it  was 
composed.  The  Christian  elements,  thougji 
foreign  to  the  material  in  its  earlier  form,  are 
not  mere  interpolations,  but  an  integral  part  of 
the  work  of  the  final  poet.  The  tale  of  Beo- 
wulf's troll-fights,  living  on  in  Scandinavia 
after  its  transference  to  England,  reappears  at- 
tached to  an  historical  personage  in  the  'Saga 
of  Grettir  the  Strong,'  with  very  striking  re- 
semblances to  the  ^glish  poem.  The  other 
Scandinavian  analogues  are  of  less  importance. 
Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  explain  the 
chief  events  of  the  epic  as  a  nature-myth,  but 
these  are  to  be  regarded  with  distrust.  If  a 
mythological  significance  was  ever  attached  to 
these  events,  which  may  be  doubted,  there  is  no 
sufficient  evidence  upon  which  to  base  an  in- 
terpretation. 

The  poem  is  written  in  alliterative  long 
line*,  with  four  strongly  emphasised  syllables 
and  a  varying  number  of  weaker  syllables.  The 
style  is  simple  but  vigorous.  Metaphor,  es- 
pecially in  decorative  epithets,  is  frcijuently 
used,  but  simile  is  rare.  The  narrative  is  con- 
stantly retarded  by  repetition  and  variation,  and 
an  understanding  of  much  in  the  story,  especi- 
ally in  the  episodes,  is  rendered  difficult  by  un- 
explained allusions.  The  whole  is  in  no  sense 
pnmitive,  but  represents  highly  developed  art- 
istry.     As    a    sustained    narrative    of  heroic 


'Beowulf  is  unrivalled  in  the  vernacular  lit- 
irature  of  western  Eurgie.  Consult  the  trans- 
lation by  Gummere,  F.  B.,  'The  Oldest  English 


William  Witresl^  Lawsenc^ 
Professor  of  English,  Columbia  Univemly. 

BBPPO,  a  satirical  poem  on  Venetian  life 
by  Byron,  published  in  1818,  and  named  for 
the  chief  figure.  In  Auber's  opera,  <Fra  Dia- 
volo,'  is  a  character  of  the  same  name. 

bathing  place 
ishiu,  famed  for 

hot  alkaline  baths.  It  is  seven  miles  by  rail 
from  Oita.  There  is  a  sanatorium  for  consump- 
tive railway  employees.  Beppu  is  also  a  port 
of  call  for  steamers, 

BERANB  formerly  a  Turkish  town  in 
the  vilayet  ot  Kossova,  which  came  into  the 
possession  of  Serbia  after  the  Balkan  wars. 
After  the  invasion  of  Serbia  by  the  Anstro- 
German  and  Bulgarian  armies  in  1915  it  re- 
verted to  the  Bulgarians  under  whose  jurisdic- 
tion it  now  is.  It  was  the  scene  of  some  of  the 
heaviest  fighting  between  the  Turks  and  the 
Serbians  during  the  Urst  Ballon  War.  In 
October  1912  it  was  stormed  bythe  Montene- 
grins and  by  them  occupied.  The  popula' 
IS  almost  entirely  Slavic,  only  a  small  perc 
age  being  Turkish. 

B^RAHGER,  Piem  Jean  dc,  bS-ran-zhi. 
pe-ir  zh6n  d£,  .nadonal  poet  of  Prance:  b. 
Paris,  19  Aug.  1780;  d.  there,  16  July  1857,  His 
father  was  a  restless  and  scheming  man,  and 

Biung  Biranger,  left  in  a  great  measure  to 
mself,  ran  a  great  chance  of  spending  his  life 
as  a  gamin  and  vagabond  in  the  streets  of 
Paris.  A  few  days  after  the  destruction  of  the 
bastille  he  was  conveyed  to  Peronne  and  placed 
under  the  charge  of  an  aunt  who  kept  a  tavern, 
and  to  whom  for  a  time  he  acted  as  waiter.  At 
the  a^e  of  14  he  was  awreoticed  to  M.  Laisnci, 
a  pnnter  in  Peronne,  but  after  retnainiiw  b 
that  employment  for  some  time,  was  suddenly 
summoned  to  Paris  by  his  father,  who  wish^ 
his  assistance.     The  improvidence  and  prodi- 

Slity  of  his  father  was  constantly  involving 
nn  in  difliculties,  and  Bfranger,  with  as  yet 
no  settled  vocation  in  life,  was  enduring  all 
the    hardships    and    privation   which    men    of 

fenius  in  a  similar  position  to  himself  have 
rwiuently  had  to  encounter  before  the  reo^- 
nitioD  of  their  talents.  He  had  now,  besides 
making  an  unsuccessful  attempt  in  the  drama. 


1  percent- 


'Les  Gueux' 
and  <Le  Vieil  Habit.'  Some  ot  these  were 
sent  by  him   in   1804  to  Lucien   Bonaparte,  in 


cation  he  e 

a  long  life,  Biranger  was  not  disappointed. 
Lucien  sent  for  him,  encouraged  him  to  proceed 
in  his  poetical  career  and  made  over  to  him 
his  own  income  as  member  of  the  French  In- 
stitute, He  was  afterward  employed  in  editing 
the  Annates  du  Muste,  and  in  1809  received  an 
appointment  as  clerk  in  the  office  of  the  secre- 
tary to  the  university.  Many  of  his  songs  had 
now  become  extremely  popular  and  in  I8I5 
the  first  collection  of  them  was  published  A 
second  collection  was  pubKshed  in   1821,  but 


.Google 


BBRAfi— BBRAUD 


Stranger  bad  made  himself  extremely  obnox- 
ious to  the  Bourbon  government  by  his  satires 
on  tbe  established  order  of  thinss ;  and  in  addi- 
tion to  being  (fismissed  from  his  office  in  the 
university,  he  was  prosecuted  and  sentenced 
to  three  months'  imprisonment  and  a  fine  of 
500  f  nncs.  A  third  collection  appeared  in  1825, 
and  a  fourth  in  1628,  which  last  pubbcation 
subjected  him  to  a  second  state  prosecution, 
an  imprisontnent  of  nine  months,  and  a  fine 
of  ID.OOO  francs.  Nothing^  however,  could 
daunt  his  spirit,  and  in  pnson  he  still  con- 
tinued lo  busy  himself  in  the  composition  of 
his  songs  and  lyrical  satires  upon  government. 
In  1833  he  published  his  fifth  and  last  collec- 
tion, which  contains  some  of  the  most  power- 
ful effusions  of  his  genius.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Constituent  Assembly  of  the  Second 
Republic,  took  his  seat,  and  soon  after  re- 
signed. He  refused  ali  honors  from  the 
Second  Empire,    The  concluding  years  of  his 


the  unequaled  grace   and  sprightliness   which 
they  display,  combined  with  great  descriptive 

Kwers,  much  comic  humor,  and  occasional 
rsts  of  indignation  and  invective  when  some 
social  or  political  grievance  is  denounced. 
They  are  sometimes  also,  it  must  be  admitted, 
marked  by  a  tendency  to  levity  and  looseness 
of  morals,  but  in  this  respect  they  partake  emi- 
nently of  the  French  character.  No  one,  in- 
deed, was  more  thoroughly  French  than 
Biranger,  and  the  glory  of  his  beloved  falrie, 
as  paramount  to  all  other  considerations,  ap- 
pears constantly  as  the  inspiring  genius  of  his 
poetry,  TTie  intense  nationality  of  his  songs 
constitutes  one  of  their  principal  charms,  and 
in  this  respect  he  bears  some  resemblance  to 
Thomas  Moore.  He  has  sometimes  been  calkd 
the  Bums  of  France,  but  -though  like  him  etsen- 
tially  a  poei  of  the  people,  he  falls  far  beneath 
the  pathos  and  depth  of  feeling  displayed  by 
the  Ayrshire  Bard  in  depicting  the  passion  of 
love.  In  private  life  Beranger  was  the  most 
amiable  and  benevolent  of  men^  beloved  by  his 
friends  alike  for  his  social  quahties  and  kindli- 
ness of  heart,  while  hts  charities  were  so 
numerous  and  extensive  as  often  to  exceed 
the  bounds  of  pmdence.  .  Consult  Boitcau, 
Paul,  'Vie  de  Bfcranger>  (5  vols.  1860-61); 
Brunetiire,  "Poisie  Tyriqiic>  (Paris  IfflK) ; 
Janin,  <B4ranger  et  son  temps'  (1866)  ;  Sainte- 
Bcuve,  'Portraits  contemporams' ;  Nivalet, 
'Souvenirs  historiques  et  itude  analytiqne  sur 
Biranger  rt  son  oeuvre'  (Paris  1892)  ;  Pcyrat. 
'Beranger   ct   Lamennais'    (1861), 

BERAR,  ba-rar*,  India,  former  commis- 
sionership  in  the  Deccan,  south  and  west  of 
the  Central  Provinces  and  north  of  Hyder- 
abad, touching  Bombay  territory  on  the  west; 
with  an  area  of  17,766  square  miles.  It  eon- 
Msts  chiefly  of  a  fertile  plain  bordered  on  the 
north  and  south  by  low  ranges  of  hills.  It  is  in- 
tersected by  the  Purna  and  is  partly  bounded 
north  and  south  by  the  Wardha  and  Pen- 
gan^  flowing  east  to  the  Godavari.  It  hag  a 
fertile  soil,  which  produces  much  good  cotton 
and  millet,  the  best  wheat  in  Inma,  as  well 
as  oil-sec<u  and  other  produce,  .  The  rainfall 


is  re^tar  and  this  province  is  in  the  position 
of  being  able  to  export  food  (o  other  parts  of 
India.  It  is  intersected  by  the  railway  from 
Bombay  lo  Nagpur  and  ultimately  to  Howrah, 
opposite  Calcutta.  After  being  ruled  by  in- 
dependent sovereigns,  it  was  added  in  the  17th 
century  to  the  Mogul  empire  and  latterly  be- 
came part  of  the  Nizam's  dominions  (Hyder- 
abad), to  which  it  still  in  a  sense  belongs.  In 
1853  It  was  assigned  or  handed  over  to  the 
British  authorities  to  provide  for  the  payment 
of  the  body  of  troops  which  the  Nizam  had 
been  previously  bound  to  furnish  in  lime  of 
war  for  the  Indian  government.  A  new 
treaty  was  concluded  in  1860  by  which  certain 
territorial  alterations  were  brought  about  and 
a  considerable  debt  due  by  the  Nizam  was 
canceled.  The  arrangement  continued  until 
1902,  when  Berar  was  leased  to  the  British  in 
perpetuity  and  it  is  now  attached  to  the  Cen- 
tral Provinces  for  administrative  purposes. 
The  province  has  greatly  prospered  under 
British  rule.  It  consists  of  six  districts: 
Ellichpur,  Amraoti,  Akola,  Buldan^  Basim 
and  Wun.  The  largest  towns  are  Ellichpur 
and  Amraoti  (Oomrawuttee).  Pop.  (1911) 
3.057,162. 

BERARD,  ba-rar,  FrMfiric,  French  physi- 
cian: b.  Montpelher.  8  Nov.  1789;  d.  there,  16 
April  1828.  When  only  20  years  of  age  he 
wrote  a  thesis  entitled  'Theory  of  Natural 
Medicine,  or  Nature  Considered  as  the  True 
Physician,  and  the  Physician  as  an  Imitator 
of  Nature,'  He  afterward  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  was  engaged  to  write  in  the  'Oic- 
tionanr  of  Medical  Science.'  In  1816  he  re- 
turned to  Montpellier  as  professor  of  thera- 
peutics in  a  private  course  of  lectures  to  the 
medical  students  of  the  college.  At  this  period 
he  published  a  work  explanatory  of  the  'Doc- 
trines of  the  Medical  School  of  Montpellier.' 
With  Rouzet,  he  published  Dumas'  work  on 
'Chronic  Diseases,'  with  instructive  commen- 
taries. In  1823  he  also  published  in  Paris  his 
work  on  'The  Relations  of  the  Physical  and 
the  Moral  Oi^anism,  as  a  Key  to  Metaphysics 
and  the  Physiology  of  Mind.'  In  this  he  ex- 
plains lus  own  views  of  human  nature  and  the 
principles  of  life,  in  opposition  to  the  views 
of  Cabanis.  He  also  took  occasion  to  publish 
at  the  same  time  a  manuscript  letter  of  Ca- 
banis on  'Primary  or  Final  Causes,'  accom- 
panied by  numerous  annotations. 

BERAT,  bfi-rat',  Albania,  a  town  on  the 
river  Ergent,  the  ancient  Apsus,  and  about  30 
miles  northeast  of  the  seaport  of  Valona.  The 
valley  in  which  it  stands  is  very  fertile,  pro- 
ducing large  quantities  of  grain,  oil  and  wine. 
The  town  is  picturesque  and  contains  several 
quaint  churches  and  mosques.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  pashalic  and  Greek  archbishopric  and 
was  taxen  by  Ali  Pasha  from  his  rival  Ibra- 
him. Amurath  II  captured  Be  rat  and  his 
troops  held  it  notwithstanding  a  desperate  at- 
tempt by  Scanderbeg  with  a  strong  body  of 
ItftKan  aturiliaries  to  retake  it.  Fop^  about 
15,000,   including  5,000  Greeks. 

BERAUD,  Jean,  hi-ro,  ih«n,  French 
painter  of  great  power;  b.  Saint  Petersburg,  of 
French  parents,  1849.  After  serving  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  French  army  during  the  Fran- 
co-Prussian War,  he  became  a  pupil  of  Bon- 
nat     His  contributions  to  the  salon  be^n  in 

,1,  .1  .Google 


BBRBE  —  BBRBBH8 


IS73  and  the  list  of  his  paintings  runs  from  his 
Leda  (1875)  and  L'arlequine  (1891).  throurfi 
a  very  large  number  of  portraits,  to  'La  Ma- 
deleine chez  le  Pharisien.'  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Sociii^  des  Beaux-Arts. 

BERBB,  a  west  African,  much-spotted 
genet    (Gtrvielta  pardina).     See  Genet. 

BERBER,  town  of  Nubia,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Nile,  below  the  confluence  of  the 
Atbara,  It  is  a  station  on  the  route  from 
Khartum  to  Cairo  and  a  point  to  which  cara- 
vans go  from'  Suakin  on  the  Red  Sea.  It  is 
still  of  commercial  importance,  but  the  open- 
ing of  a  railway  line  in  1906  lo  take  the  place 
of  the  caravan  route  has  diverted  much  of  the 
Red  Sea  trade  elsewhere.  In  the  conrsc  of 
Genera!  Graham's  operations  against  Osman 
Digna  in  188S,  a  railway  was  projected  from 
Suakin  to  Berber  and  the  work  was  actually 
begun,  but  was  uttimatdy  abandoned  when 
military  protection  was  taken  away.  Pop. 
10.000. 

BEEBERA,  the  chief  port  and  town  of 
British  Somaliland,  on  the  African  coast  of 
the  Gulf  of  Aden  and  about  170  miles  south 
of  Aden.  It  has  a  small  but  well- sheltered  har- 
bor and  a  long  pier;  a  European  quarter  with 
stone  houses  and  warehouses  and  a  native 
quarter  laid  out  with  broad  streets  but  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  huts  or  sheds.  There  is  a 
considerable  export  trade  in  the  products  of 
ihe  country,  such  as  hides  and  skins,  gums, 
ostrich  feathers,  ghee,  sheep,  goats  and  cat- 
tle; rice,  millet,  dates,  cottons,  tobacco,  etc^ 
being  iraporled.  The  trafHc  is  chiefly  with 
Aden.  The  population  is  perhaps  5,000,  in- 
creased lo  30,000  during  the  trading  season. 
The  Somali  Coast  Protectorate  extends  along 
the  coast  for  about  400  miles  and  inland  tor 
about  200.  the  area  being  about  80,000  square 
miles.  Besides  Berbera  it  contains  also  the 
ports  of  Zeilah  and  Bulbar.  It  was  acquired 
in  1884  and  is  administered  by  a  political  agent 
and  a  consul.  A  number  of  Indian  troops  are 
stationed  in  the  territory.  The  trade  is  of 
some  importance  and  is  increasing. 

BER SERINE,  a  non-poisonous  alkaloid 
discovered  by  Buchncr  in  1837  in  the  root  of 
the  common  barberry  and  now  known  lo  exist 
in  many  other  plants  also.  It  crystallizes,  or- 
dinarily, in  yellow,  silky  needles,  having  the 
composition  C.H»NO.+ S/iH^;  but  when 
thrown  down  from  solution  in  alcohol  the 
needles  arc  said  to  be  red  — probably  from  the 
absence  of  water.  Bcrherine  forms  numerous 
salts  and  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
medicine,  occurring  in  notable  quantities  in 
prcparalions  of  hydrastis.  The  alkaloid  itself 
IS  soluble  in  from  four  to  five  parts  of  water 
at  ortKnary  temperatures  and  is  also  moder- 
ately soluble  in  alcohol;  but  it  is  only  slightly 
soluble  in  chloroform  and  insoluble  in  ether. 
BERBERIS,  the  generic  name  of  the  bar 
berry    (q.v.). 

BERBERS  the  name  of  a  people  spread 
over  nearly  the  whole  of  northern  Africa. 
From  their  name  the  appellation  Barbary  is 
derived.  They  arc  considered  the  most  an- 
cient jnhabitanls  of  the  country.  Their  dif- 
ferent tribes  arc  scattered  over  the  whole  space 
intervening  between  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic 
and   the   confines  of   Egypt;   but   the   different 


branches  i     „ 

while  to  the  south  they  extend  lo  the  Soudan. 
Chief  branches  into  which  they  are  divided 
are :  First,  the  Amazirgh,  Amazigh.  or .  Ma- 
zigh,  estimated  to  number  from  2,000,000  to 
2.500,000,  and  who  inhabit  Morocco.  They 
are  for  the  most  part  quite  independent  of 
the  Sultan  of  Morocco  and  live  partly  under 
chieftains  and  partly  in  small  republican 
communities.  Second,  the  Shillooh  or  Shella- 
kah,  who  number  about  1,450,000,  and  inhabit 
the  south  ot  Morocco.  They  practise  agri- 
culture and  carry  on  some  manufactures. 
They  are  more  highly  civilized  than  ihe  Ama- 
zirgh.  Third,  the  Kabyles  in  Algeria  and 
Tunis,  who  are  said  to  number  about  1.000,- 
000.  Fourth,  the  Berbers  of  the  Sahara. 
who  inhabit  the  oases  and  consequently  live 
for  the  most  part  at  wide  intervals  from  each 
other.  Among  Ihe  Sahara  Berbers  the  most 
remarkable  are  the  Beni-Mexib  and  the 
Tuareg.  To  these  we  may  also  add  the 
Guanches  of  the  Canary  Islands,  now  extinct, 
but  undoubtedly  of   the  same   race. 

The  Berbers  generally  are  about  the  mid- 
dle height;  their  complexion  brown,  and  some- 
times almost  black,  with  brown  and  glossy 
hair.  Individuals  of  fair  complexion  and 
light  hair  and  even  with  blue  eyes  are  said 
to  be  not  uncommon  among  them.  They  are 
generally  thin,  but  extremely  strong  and  ro- 
bust, and  their  bodies  are  beautifully  formed. 
The  head  of  the  Berber  is  rounder  than  that 
of  the  Arab  and  the  features  shorter,  but  of 
an  equally  marked  character,  although  the 
fine  aquiline  nose,  so  common  among  the  lat- 
ter, is  not  often  seen  among  the  Berbers. 
The  language  of  the  Berbers  is  said  to  have 
affinities  with  the  Semitic  tongues.  Such  of 
them  as  mingle  with  the  Arabs  speak  or  un- 
derstand AratHC ;  but  those  who  dwell  in  the 
interior  of  the  mountains  understand  no  other 
language  than  their  own.  The  Berbers  are 
generalfy  straight  and  honest  in  their  dealitw* 
—  contrasting  favorably  with  the  Arabs  — 
and  of  high  intelligence.  They  are  Moham- 
medans in  religion.  They  generally  dwell  in 
huts  or  rude  houses,  the  latter  rectangular, 
with  two  gable  ends,  covered  with  thatch  anit 
entered  by  a  tow  and  narrow  door.  These 
dwellings  are  often  huill  in  little  groups, 
scattered  about  in  the  valleys  and  upon  (be 
sides  of  the  mountains,  and  in  some  parts  each 
group  of  huts  is  situated  in  ihe  midst  of  a 
plantation,  with  a  portion  of  ground  laid  out 
as  a  kitchen -garden.  Although  the  Berbers 
have  always  lived  in  ignorance  and  have  had 
but  little  connection  with  dvilized  nations, 
they  are  remarkably  industrious.  By  working 
the  mines  in  their  own  mountains  they  pro- 
duced lead,  copper  and  iron.  With  the  iron 
they  manufacture  giin-barrels,  implements  of 
husbandry  and  many  rudely- formed  utensils. 
They  understand  the  inaiiufacture  of  steel, 
from  which  they  make  knives,  swords  and 
other  instruments,  not  very  elegant  in  form, 
hut  of  good  quality.  The  tribes  inhaUting 
die  borders  of  the  plains  and  some  of  the 
great  valleys  breed  sheep  and  cattle  in  con- 
siderable numbers.  Their  sheep  are  small  and 
yield  very  little  wool,  and  they  have  numerous 
herds  of  goats.  Their  cows  and  oxen  are  oC 
a  small  species,  but  their  asses  ajid  mules  an 


.Google 


BERBICE  —  BERCHTOLD 


537 


much  esteemed.  Consult  Randal- Maciver  and 
Wilkin,    'Libyan  Notes'    (London  1901). 

BERBICE,  ber-bes',  a  district  of  British 
Guiana,  intersedcd  by  the  river  Berbice.  It 
extends  from  the  river  Abary  on  the  west  lo 
Corcntyn  River  on  the  east,  about  150  miles 
along;  the  coast,  the  boundary  inland  not  being 
fixed.  The  chief  town  is'  New  Amsterdam : 
pop.  about  10,000.  Its  citadel.  Fort  York,  and 
numerous  intersecting  canals,  pve  it  the  as- 
pect of  a  medixval  Dutch  town.  The  princi- 
pal productions  are  sugar,  rum,  cotton,  coffee, 
cocoa  and  tobacco.  The  coast  is  marshy  and 
the  air  damp.  Berbice  came  finally  into  Brit- 
ish possession  in  1815,  having  previously  be- 
longed lo  the  Duich.  Till  183)  it  formed  a 
separate  colony  from  Demerara  and  Essequibo. 
Pop.  about,  52,000.    See  Guiana 

BERBICE,  a  river  of  British  Guiana; 
flows  generally  northeast  into  the  Atlantic,  li 
ri^es  in  lal.  3  N.  and  flows  into  the  Atlantic 
in  lat.  6°  24'  N.  Crab  Island,  at  its  mouth, 
divides  it  into  two  channels  of  which  the 
western  is  from  9  to  16  feet  in  depth.  ,  It 
is  navigable  for  small  vessels  for  165  miles 
from  its  mouth,  but  beyond  that  the  rapids 
are_  numerous  and  dangerous. 

B£RCHEM,  berH'£m.  or  BERGHEM, 
Nikolau,  Dutch  painter:  b,  Haarlem,  1624 i 
d.  there,  18  Feb.  1683.  Having  studied  under 
his  father  and  Van  Goycn,  Weenix  the  elder, 
and  other  masters,  he  spent  several  years  in 
Italy,  where  he  soon  acquired  an  extraoruinary 
facility  of  execution.  His  industry  was  nat-. 
urally  great  and  his  innumerable  landscapes 
now  decorate  (he  best  collections  of  Europe. 
The  leading  features  of  Berchcm's  works,  be- 
sides the  general  happiness  of  the  composi- 
tions, are  warmth  and  coloring,  a  skilful 
handling  of  lights  aijd  a  mastery  of  perspec- 
tive. His  etchings  are  also  hignly  esteemed. 
Consult  Buxton  and  Poynier,  'iJerman,  Flem- 
ish  and   Dutch   Painting'    (1881). 

BERCHET,  bar-sha',  Giovanni,  Italian 
poet  and  prose  writer:  b.  Milan,  23  Dec.  1783; 
d.  1851,  He  was  a  friend  of  Manzoni  and 
Silvio  Pellico.  About  1819  he  became  a  fre- 
quent ctmlributor  to  a  liberal  journal  at  Mi- 
lan, called  the  ConcUiatore.  After  this  was 
suppressed  and  its  coDtribulors  cast  into 
pnson  or  exiled  by  the  Austrian  government, 
Berchet  sojourned  in  England  France  and 
Germany.  In  1848  he  returned  to  Italy  and 
during  the  tenure  of  oftice  of  the  provisional 
government  of  Milan  was  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction.  At  the  lime  of  his  death  he  was 
a  member  of  the  Sardinian  Parliament.  His 
writings  include  *Poesie'  ;  'Profugi  di  Pra- 
ga' ;  'Romanze' ;  'Fanlasie'  (1^9).  His 
collected  poems  appeared  in  Milan  in  1863, 
with  biographical  sketch;  and  more  recently 
were  edited  by  £.  Bcllorini   (Ban,   1911-12). 

BBRCHTA,  bfrR't?,  a  female  hobgoblin, 
in  the  folklore  of  southern  Germany  and 
Switzerland,  of  whom  naughty  children  are 
much  afraid.  Her  name  is  connected  with 
the  word  bright  and  originally  she  was  re- 
garded as  a  goddess  of  benign  influence.  She 
is  the  patroness  of  spinners.  The  last  day  of 
the  year  is  kept  in  her  honor  and  a  special 
meagre  fare  —  gruel,  poltage  and  fish  —  must 
be  eaten  on  that  day  to  the  exclusion  of  other 


foods.  Dire  penalties  are  imposed  on  those 
who  disregard  those  injunctions.  In  certain 
localities  Berchta  is  represented  as  queen  of 
the  crickets,  with  a  long  iron  nose  and  a  very 
laree  fooL  Numerous  springs  in  Salzburg 
and  elsewhere  are  named  after  her  indicating 
that  she  once  was  worshipped  in  those  locali- 
ties. In  the  course  of  the  centuries  many  of 
the  sagas  of  Berchta  came  to  be  atlribnied 
lo  the  Berthas  of  history.  Many  legends  of 
a  lady  who  appears  at  night  in  great  bouses, 
garbed  in  white,  and  nurses  the  children  and 
acts  generally  as  their  guardian,  are  no  doubt 
traceable  to  the  ancient  heathen  Berchta. 
Consult  arlicle  b:^  £.  Mogk  in  Paul's  'Grun- 
driss  dcr  gcrroanischen  Philologie'  (Vol.  Ill, 
p.  278). 

BERCHTESGADEN,  berH-tes-gaden, 
Bavaria,  village  situated  in  a  most  picturesque 
and  much- visited  region,  about  12  miles  south 
of  Salzburg,  on  the  Acheii,  or  Aim,  a  stream 
which  issues  from  the  beautiful  lake  called  the 
Konigssee.  It  lies  on  a  mountain  slope  sur- 
Ttiunded  by  meadows  and  trees,  consists  of 
well-built  houses,  and  has  a  fine  old  abbey,  now 
a  roval  residence;  the  abbey  church,  with  fine 
Romanesque  Iranscpts  of  the  12th  century;  a 
royal  villa,  etc.  Wood-carving  is  extensively 
carried  on  and  there  is  an  important  salt  mine. 
It  is  the  principal  settlement  in  the  district  of 
[he  same  name.  It  has  a  reputation  as  a 
tourist  resort.     I'op,  about  3,000. 

BERCHTOLD,  Coiut,  Austro-Hunga- 
rian  Foreign  Minister  1912-15:  b.  18  April 
1863.  Anton  Johann  Sigismund  Josef  Kor- 
sinus,  Graf  Berchtold,  is  one  of  the  largest 
landed  proprietors  in  the  Dual  Monarchy;  he 
married,  1^3,  the  Countess  Femandine  Karol- 
yi  von  Nagy-Kfiroly.  Whatever  may  be  the 
verdict  of  history  upon  the  great  European 
War  that  broke  out  in  1914,  to  Count  Berch- 
told belongs  the  distinction  of  having  applied 
the  actual  match  that  set  the  world  ablaze, 
namely,  the  declaration  of  war  against  Serbia. 
It  would  be  unjust,  however,  to  lay  more  than 
a  theore.lical  responsibility  for  that  act  upon 
his  own  shoulders :  be  was  the  instrument 
rather  than  the  cause.  He  began  his  official 
career  in  a  minor  administrative  capacity  at 
Briinn  and  afterward  became  a  secretary  in 
the  foreign  office  in  Vienna.  In  1895  he  was 
appointed  secretary  at  the  embassy  in  Paris; 
councillor  of  embassy  in  London  1899;  at 
Saint  Petersburg  (Petrograd)  in  1903,  and 
Ambassador  io  Russia  in  1906.  On  the  death 
of  Count  Artirenthal  (q.v.)  he  liecame  For- 
eign Minister  of  the  Dual  Monarchy,  19  Feb. 
1912.  thus  inheriting  the  aggressive  and  not 
over- scrupulous  foreign  policy  of  his  prede- 
cessors. Before  accepting  the  office  Connt 
Berchtold  gave  up  his  Austrian  in  favor  of 
his  Hungarian  nationality.  It  cannot  he  truly 
said  of  him  that  he  practised  the  Aehrenthal 
method  of  tortuous  policy ;  a  simple  country 
gentleman  —  although  a  diplomat  — he  brought 
the  instincts  of  a  gentleman  into  a  department 
organized  on  a  highly  efficient  but  thoroughly 
unscrupulous  basis.  He  held  no  pronounced 
political  tendencies,  but  he  was  surrounded  by 
a  number  of  subordinates  in  whom  the  worst 
traditions  of  Austrian  diplomacy  seemed  to 
have  been  incorporated  They  soon  became 
his  masters  and  obliged  him  lo  pursue  a  policy 


Google 


BERCK  — BERBA 


over  which  he  had  practicalh'  no  control.    Dur- 

ine  his  earlier  tenure  of  office  the  best  augury 
of  peace,  it  was  thought,  lay  in  his  personal 
friendship  for  M.  SazonofF,  the  Russian  for- 
eign minister.  He  also  qultivated  friendly  re- 
lations with  Italy,  and  succeeded  al  Rome  in 
removing  the  unfavorable  impressions  created 
by  Aehrenthal's  policy.  His  own  efforts  not- 
withstanding, he  became  a  respectable  figure- 
head for  the  a^ressive  and  dishonest  policy 
which  his  government  pursued  throughout  the 
Balkan  Wars  (q.v.)  of  1912-13,  down  to  the 
outbreak  of  the  European  War.  The  tool  of 
the  military  and  clerical  sections  of  the  state," 
he  prepared  for  an  attack  on  Serbia  in  con- 
formity with  their  designs.  At  the  instigation 
of  Count  Tisza,  the  Hungarian  premier,  Count 
Berchtold  prompted  the  Bulgarian  attack  on 
Serbia  after  the  end  of  the  first  Balkan  War 
and  the  signing  of  the  Treaty  of  London.  It 
was  expected  that  the  Bulgarians  would  van- 
quish the  Serbs  and  that  the  latter  would  there- 
by become  an  easy  prey  to  Austria-Hungary 
and  open  the  road  to  Salonica.  But  the 
scheme  was  defeated  by  the  Serbian  victories 
over  the  Bulgarians  in  June  1913.  No  sooner 
was  the  second  Balkan  War  closed  by  the 
Treaty  of  Bucharest  than  Austria- Hungary 
demanded  a  revision  of  the  treaty  and  Count 
Berchtold  proposed  to  Italy  to  undertake  an 
otfensive  war  against  Serbia  on  the  pretext 
that  it  would  be  in  reahty  a  defensive  war 
against  the  danger  of  a  Greater  Serbia  to 
Austria-Hungary,  The  Italian  government. 
however,  declined  lo  recognize  the  proposal 
as  entering  within  the  terms  of  the  alliance, 
the  undertaking  being  aggressive,  and  not  de- 
fensive. The  action  of  Italy  thus  postponed 
the  attack  on  Serbia  for  a  year,  when  an  ex- 
cellent opportunity  presented  itself. 

The  assassination  oE  the  Austrian  heir 
and  his  wife  gave  the  military  and  clerical 
parties  the  pretext  they  had  long  sought  In 
agreement  with  Berlin  it  was  decided  to  use 
the  occasion  for  an  attack  on  Serbia,  an  act 
which  precipitated  the  great  conflict.  It  must 
be  asserted  that  the  charge  of  duplicity  has 
never  been  leveled  at  Count  Berchtold.  Up- 
right and  conscientious,  weak  and  vacillating, 
he  was  unfitted  to  guide  the  affairs  of  the 
state  in  stormy  and  critical  times.  The  pub- 
lished correspondence  of  the  British  Ambassa- 
dor and  others  clearly  indicates  that  in  his 
personal  relations  with  Us  colleagues  Count 
Berchtold  pursued  direct  and  simple  courses, 
and  that  the  blame  tor  the  devious  Austrian 
policy  with  regard  to  Serbia  and  Russia  rests 
rather  upon  Berlin  and  the  German  Ambassa- 
dor tn  Vienna,  the  late  Herr  von  Tschirscky 
(q.v.),  than  upon  the  Count  himself.  He 
tendered  his  resignation  more  than  once,  but 
it  was  not  accepted  by  the  Emperor  Francis 
Joseph  till  January  1915,  when  Baron  Burian 
succeeded  turn  as  Foreign  Minister.  In  Feb- 
ruary 191 7,  Count  Berchtold  was  appointed 
Chief  Chamberlain  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
Court.  He  comes  of  an  old  Moravian  family, 
one  that  has  intermarried  in  the  most  exclu- 
sive ranks  of  the  nobility.    See  Wa«,  Eubopean. 

BERCK,  bark,  France,  a  fishing  village 
of  the  department  of  P a s-de- Calais,  on  the 
English  Channel,  28  miles  south  of  Boulogne. 
A  mile  distant  is  Berck-Plage,  a  summer  bath- 


ing resort  The  latter  has  an  excellent  beach, 
a  Kursaai  and  two  hosfntals  for  children.  Pop. 
(1911)  11,597. 

BERCKHEYDE,  bfrklii-de,  Gerrit.  Dutch 
painter:  b.  Haarlem,  1638;  d.  1698.  He  was 
a  younger  brother  of  Job  Berckheyde  and  with 
him  wa^  employed  at  the  court  of  the  Elector 
Palatine.  Gernt  studied  under  Jacob  Dentl. 
He  traveled  the  Rhine  country,  painting  at 
Cologne  and  Heidelberg.  He  became  a  mtm- 
bcr  of  the  Guild  of  Haarlem  in  1654  and  there 
he  remained  with  his  brother  until  bis  death. 
His  architectural  works  are  regarded  as  the 
best  of  their  kind.  Of  these  the  Bourse  of 
Amsterdam  was  a  favorite  (Amsterdam  Mu- 
seum, Rotterdam,  Frankfort,  Brussels),  and  the 
church  of  Saint  fiavou  in  Haarlem.  Odiet 
important  works  are  'View  of  Amsterdam,' 
'View  of  Cologne,'  "View  of  Heidelberg 
Castle.*  Among  his  celebrated  genre  subjects 
arc  'At  Breakfast*  (Schwcrin),  'Soldiers  on 
Guard*  (Dessau)  and  'A  Courtesan's  Room' 
(Rotterdam).  His  eider  brother.  Job,  b.  1630: 
d.  1693 ;  was  a  more  prolific  artist,  but  confined 


himself  to  street  scenes  and  i 


:   centres  of 


t  and  proclaimed  Gerrit  the  greater  a 
BERDIANSK,  b^r-dyansk*,  a  seaport  of 
southern  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Taurida, 
on  the  northern  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Azof.  It 
contains  many  handsome  houses,  arranged  in 
spacious  streets,  and  has  a  good  anchorage, 
sheltered    on    all    sides    except    the    south.     It 


id  exports  large  quantities  of^grain, 
oil-seeds,  and  wool.  It  has  also  a  large  inland 
trade  in  wood,  coal,  fish  and  salt,  the  last 
obtained  from  apparently  inexhaustible  mines  in 
the  vicinity.  It  is  also  the  centre  of  a  district 
in  which  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  im- 
plements and  machines  is  extensively  carried 
on.  There  are  three  churches,  a  gymnasium  and 
a  seminary  tor  teachers.    Pop.  29,000. 


southwest  of  Kiev.  It  is  an  ill-built  place, 
mainly  Jewish,  but  contains  several  churches 
and  synagogues,  and  a  large  Carmelite  convent, 
in  the  church  of  which  is  an  ima^e  of  the  Vir- 
gin Mary,  the  object  of  pilgrimages.  It  carries 
on  a  considerable  trade  in  com,  wine,  cattle, 
honey,  wax  and  leather.  It  is  famous  for  its 
four  annual  fairs.     At  these,  cattle,  com,  coun- 


mdliar 


e  sold  it 


ickide  tobacco,  oil  products  and  leather.  The 
population  in  1910  was  76,396,  includi[«  many 
Jews.  The  town  is  the  private  property  of 
Count  Tishkevitch.  It  has  figured  prominenliy 
in  the  many  conflicts  between  the  Poles,  the 
Cossacks  and  the  Russians. 

BEREA,  Ky.,  town  in  Madison  Couniy;oo 
the  Louisville  &  N.  Railroad,  35  miles  soulh- 
east  of  Lexington.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  large 
agricultural  section  and  is  the  seat  of  Berca 
College  (g.v.),  founded  in  1855,  Best  ties  the 
college  buildings  and  chapel  it  contains  a  Car- 
negie library  and  a  stave  factory.  The  water- 
works and  electric  lirfil  works  are  o?med  by  the 
college.    Pop,  l,Sia 


t,zcd=y  Google 


BBRBA  —  BERBNGARIA 


BBREA,  Ohio,  a  village  in  Cuyahoga 
County,  on  the  Big  Four,  L,  S.  &  M.  S.,  and 
the  C  L.  &  W.  division  of  the  B.  &  O.  Rail- 
roads, 14  miles  southwest  from  the  centie  of 
Geveland,  with  which,  and  Elyria  and  Obertin, 
il  is  connected  bv  electric  lines.  It  was  founded 
in  1829.  The  village  is  lighted  by  natural  gas 
and  cleetrieiiy;  it  has  extensive  quarries  of 
sandstone  (Berea  grit)  ;  a  foundry  and  nut  and 
bolt  works,  and  manufactories  of  toys,  grind- 
stones, pumps  and  torpedoes.  There  are  two 
banks.  Berea  is  the  seat  of  Baldwin  University, 
German  Wallace  College  (both  Melhodist  Epis- 
copal), and  a  German  orphan  asylum.  The 
assessed  property  valuation  is  $1,625,000.  Pop, 
2,609. 

BEREA  COLLEGE  a  co-educational,  non- 
sectarian  institution,  in  Berea,  Ky. ;  organized 
in  1855.  Il  has  96  members  in  its  faculty,  and 
some  1,668  students.  Its  building  and  grounds 
are  valued  at  $971,722,  and  its  library  contains 
29,000  volumes.  The  distinguishing  feature  of 
the  college  is  its  work  in  uie  southern  moun- 


1  very  valuable  kind  of  university 

BBRBA   GRIT,    a    variety   of    sandstone. 

Seat  deposiis  of  which  are  found  at  Berea, 
hio.  It  is  of  Mississippian  age,  lying  next 
above  the  Bedford  limestone.  II  is  widely 
famous  for  its  evenness  of  texture,  and  color, 
and  exemption  from  the  impurities  that  would 
deteriorate  its  marketable  value. 

BBRBANS,  in  modem  Church  history  an 
almost  extinct  sect  of  dissenters  from  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  founded  by  Rev.  John 
Barclay  (1734-98)  in  1773.  From  the  founder's 
name  they  are  sometimes  called  Barclay  a  ns. 
They  take  their  title  from,  and  profess  to 
follow  the  example  of,  the  ancient  Bereans 
(Acts  xvii,  10-lJ)  in  building  their  system 
of  faith  and  practice  upon  the  ScriptUTes 
alone,  without  regard  to  any  human  authority 
whatever.  They  agree  with  the  great  majority 
of  Christians,  both  Protestants  and  Roman 
Catholics,  respecting  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity, 
which  they  hold  as  a  fundamental  article  ot 
the  Christian  faith ;  but  differ  from  the  majority 
df  all  sects  of  Christians  in  various  other  im- 
portant particulars.  For  instance,  they  say 
that  the  majority  of  professed  Christians 
stumble  at  ihe  very  threshold  of  revelation  by 
admitting  the  doctrine  of  natural  religion, 
natural  conscience,  etc.,  not  founded  upon  rev- 
elation or  derived  from  it  by  tradition.  With 
regard  to  faith  in  Christ,  they  insist,  that  as 
faith  is  the  gift  of  God  alone,  so  the  person  to 
whom  it  is  pven  is  as  conscious  of  possessing 
it  as  the  being  lo  whom  God  gives  life  is  of 
being  alive,  and  therefore  he  entertains  no 
doubts  either  of  his  faith  or  his  consequent 
salvation  through  the  merits  of  Christ,  who  died 
and  rose  again  for  that  purpose.  Consistently 
with  (he  above  definition  of  faith,  they  say  that 
the  sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost  is  simply  unbe- 
lief. Their  mode  of  jjractice  and  Church  gov- 
ernment differs  but  little  from  those  of  many 
other  dissenting  sects.     See  Barclay,  John. 

BERENDT,  ba'rent,  Karl  Herniaim.  Ger- 
man ethnologist:  h.  Dantiic.  1817;  d,  1878. 
After  studying  medicine  at  Konigsberg  he  be- 
gan to  practise  in  Brestau,  where  he  lectured 


in  the  university.  In  18S1  his  political  attitude 
during  the  revolution  having  made  his  stay  in 
Germany  hazardous,  he  went  to  Nicaragua  and 
thence  to  Vera  Cruz,  where  he  devoted  some 
years  to  ethnological  sludy  and  research.  He 
retired  from  the  practice  of  medicine  and  gave 
his  whole  attention  lo  the  study  of  the  ethnology 
and  linguistics  of  the  Mayas.  He  came  to  the 
United  States  in  1863  and  soon  after  was  sent 
to  Yucatan  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
which  published  the  results  of  his  investigations 
in, its  report  of  1867.  In  1869  he  e3qtk)red  the 
ruins  of  Ceutla,  Tabasco,  Mexico,  and  went  to 
Guatemala  in  1874,  where  he  settled  in  Coban. 
began  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  and  studied 
the  Mayan  dialects.  He  publish^  'Analytical 
Alphabet  of  the  Mexican  an'd  Central  Ameri- 
can languages'  (1869);  <Los  cscritos  de  Don 
loaquin  Garcia  Icazbalceta*  (1870);  <Los  Ira- 
baios  linguisticos  de  Don  Pio  Perei'  (1871); 
<UirtilIa  en  lengua  Maya*  <1871);  'Los  indi- 
genas  de  la  America  central  y  sus  idiomas' 
(18^). 

BBRBNQAR,  bft'rin-gar.  two  kings  of 
Italy  in  the  9th  and  10th  centuries.  Berek- 
GAR  I,  son  of  the  Duke  of  Friuii  by  a  daughter 
of  Louis-le-Debonnaire,  during  the  confusion 
which  followed  on  the  dissolution  of  the  em- 

fire  of  Charlemagne,  laid  down  the  crown  of 
taly,  and  after  a  civil  war  obtained  it  tn  8S8. 
At  a  later  period,  having  been  invited  by  Pope 
John  X  to  repel  the  Saracens  who  were  dev- 
astating the  south  of  Italy,  he  was  crowned 
emperor  of  Rome  (915).  His  warlike  expedi- 
tions had  generally  been  fortunate,  and  his  in- 
ternal government  was  generally;  acceptable  to 
his  subjects;  but  his  nobility,  jealous  of  bis 
authority,  stirred  up  a  new  competitor  for  the 
throne  in  the  person  of  Rudolf  it,  who  invaded 
Italy  in  921,  and  ultimately  obliged  Bercngar 
to  take  refuge  in  Veroni  where  he  was  assassi- 
nated in  924.  Bek£NGAIi  tl,  grandson  of  Beren- 
GAK  I,  was  at  first  Count  of  Ivrea,  while  the 
throne  of  Italy  was  occupied  by  Hugo,  count 
of  Provence,  a  tyrant  who  had  incurred  the 
enmity  of  almost  all  the  great  feudal  lords  of 
the  kingdom.  Berengar  taldiw  advantage  of 
this  feenng,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  force 
collected  in  Germany  in  945,  and  was  almost 
universally  welcomco.  Hugo  abdicated  in  favor 
of  his  SOD  Lothario,  who  reigned  nominally 
for  a  few  years,  and  was  succeeded  in  950  by 
Berengar,  in  whom  all  the  powers  of  the  gov- 
ernment had  previously  centred.  A  quarrel 
with  the  Emperor  Otho  in  the  fallowing  year 
deprived  him  of  his  throne^  but  he  was  per- 
mitted to  resume  it  on  agreeing  to  acknowledge 
Otho  as  his  liege  lord.  In  a  second  quarrel 
he  was  not  allowed  to  escape  so  easily.  After 
losing  his  territories  he  shut  himself  up  in 
the  fortress  of  Saint  Leo,  and  defended  himself 
bravely  till  famine  compelled  him  to  submit. 
He  was  imprisoned  at  Bamberg  and  died  there 
in  966. 

BERBNGARIA.  ba-rgn-ga'd-a,  the  queen 
of  Richard  I  of  England :  a.  Le  Mans,  about 
1230.  She  was  a  daughter  of  Saneho  VI  of 
Navarre  and  was  married  to  Richard  at  Limasol 
in  Cyprus,  12  May  1191.  .  She  remained  at 
A«..-    ...u.-i_    4t^    i_r . ^_^    ..■.!_    .*__ 


Google 


BBRENGARIO  —  BERSNSON 


never  to  have  joined  him  again.  She  was 
buried  at  Espan  in  the  Church  of  Pictas  Dei, 
which  she  had  founded.  Tradition  says  she 
was  of  remarkable  beauty  and  was  highly  ac- 
complished for  her  age. 


studied  at  Bolugna,  taught  anatomy  and  sur- 
gery at  Pavia,  and  finally  sellled  at  Bologna 
till  a  clamor  caused  by  a  rumor  that  he  had  got 
possession  of  two  Spaniards  affected  by  a  loath- 
some disease,  and  was  intending  to  dissect 
them  alive,  obliged  him  to  retire  to  Fcrrara. 
This  rumor,  caused  doubttes;;  by  ihe  fact  that 
Berengario  looked  upon  the  dissection  of  the 
human  body  ^s  the  only  means  by  which  the 
science  of  anatomy  could  be  advanced,  points 
out  the  source  of  the  many  important  discov- 
eries which  he  made,  and  the  others  for  which 
he  paved  the  way,  leaving  them  to  be  followed 
out  by  Vesalius,  Eustachius,  and  Falloplus.  He 
is  justly  regarded  as  one  of  the  principal 
founders  of  modern  anatomy.  He  was  also  a 
dexterous  operator,  and  published  a  practical 
work  entitled,  'De  Cianii  Fractura'  and  an- 
other which  marked  out  the  path  for  the  ana- 
tomical discoveries  of  the  16th  century,  'Isa- 
gogje  breves  perlucidz  et  uberrima  in  anatom- 
iam  corporis  humatii,  ad  morum  scholaslicor- 
um  preces  in  lucem  editae,  cum  aliquot  liguris 
anatoniicis'    (Bologna   1514;   Strassburg    1530). 

BERENGARIUS     OF    TOURS,    French 

theologian:  b.  Tours,  about  1000;  d.  6  Jan.  1088. 
He  is  renowned  for  his  philosophical  aciitcness 
as  one  of  the  scholastic  writers.  While  admit- 
ting the  real  presence  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist, 
he  questioned  the  doctrine  of  tran substantia- 
tion and  held  that  the  substance  of  bread  and 
of  wine  continued  to  exist  with  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  (con.substantiation).  He  was 
condemned  by  several  councils  and  several 
limes  recanted,  but  died  fully  reconciled  with 
the  Church.  He  is  the  first  in  theological 
historj-  to  call  the  doctrine  of  t  ran  substantia- 
tion in  queslioa  He  was  treated  with  forbear- 
ance by  Gregory  VII,  but  the  scholastics  be- 
longing to  the  party  of  Lanfranc,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  were  irritated  against  him  to 
such  a  degree  that  he  retired  to  the  Isle  of 
Saint  Cosmas,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Tours, 
in  the  year  1080,  where  he  closed  his  life  in 
pious  exercises.     On   the  history  of   this   con- 


'Berengar'  (xTfO),  and  also  by  Staiidh  . 
who  likewise  published  the  work  of  Beren- 
garius  against  Lanfranc.  This  Bcrengarigs 
must  not  be  confounded  with  Peter  Bercnger 
of  Poitiers,  who  wrote  a  defense  of  his  in- 
structor Abelard. 

BERENGER.  ba-ran-zha,  Ren£,  French 
criminologist;  b.  Bourgles  Valence  (Drome), 
22  April  1830;  d.  30  Aug.  191 S.  He  was 
a  soldier  during  the  War  of  1870  and  was 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Nuits.  The  follow- 
ing year  he  was  elected  deputy  to  the  National 
Asscmblv;  and  in  1873  he  became  Minister  of 
Public  Works  in  the  cabinet  of  M.  Thiers  and 
national  senator  in  1875.  He  was  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  senate  from  1891  to  1897.  He  was 
foimder  and  president  of  a  number  of  societies 
established  for  the  general  improvement  oC  the 


conditions  of  society,  and  the  eradication  of 
vice  from  the  streets  of  Paris.  He  instituted  a 
campaign  against  the  while  slave  trafhc  and 
headed  an  association  for  the  protection  cf 
young  girls  and  women  from  the  dangers  and 
vices  of  the  great  modem  city.  His  studies 
of  the  vicious  conditions  of  the  great  centres 
of  population  and  his  bold  attempts  to  find 
remedies  for  them  have  made  him  one  of  the 
foremost  workers  in  this  field.  The  Legion  of 
Honor  and  many  other  honors  and  decorations 
have  been  bestowed  on  him. 

BERENHORST,  Georg  Heinrich,  Ger- 
man military  writer:  b,  1733;  d.  1814.  He  na^ 
one  of  the  first  writers  by  whom  the  military 
art  has  been  founded  on  clear  and  certain  prin- 
ciples. He  was  a  natural  son  of  Prince  Uo- 
pold  of  Dessau,  aiid  in  1760  became  the  sdju- 
liint  of  Frederick  11.  He  was  the  author  of 
'Reflections  on  the  Military  An'  (Letpiie 
1797).  . 

BERENICE,  b£r-t-ni's«  ("a  brinaer  of  w- 
lop>*).  (1)  This  was  the  name  of  the  wife  of 
Mithridates  the  Great,  king  of  Pontus.  Her 
husband,  when  vanquished  by  Liicullus,  caused 
her  to  be  put  to  death  (about  the  year  71  g.c), 
lest  she  should  fall  into  the  bands  of  his  ene- 
mies, (2)  The  wife  of  Herod,  brother  lo  the 
great  Agrippa,  her  father,  at  whose  request 
Herod  was  made  king  of  Chalcis  by  the  Em- 
peror Claudius,  but  soon  died.  In  spite  of  her 
dissolute  life,  she  insinuated  herself  into  ihc 
favor  of  the  Emperor  Vespasian  and  his  son 
Tilus.  The  latter  was  at  one  time  on  the  point 
of  marrying  her.  (3)  The  wife  of  Ptolemy 
Euergetes ;  who  loved  her  husband  with  rare 
tenderness,  and  when  he  went  to  war  in  Syria 
made  a  vow  to  devote  her  beautiful  hair  to  the 
gods  if  he  returned  safe.  Upon  his  return 
Berenice  performed  her  vow  in  the  temple  of 
Venus.  Soon  after  the  hair  was  missed,  and  the 
astronomer  Conon  of  Samos  declared  that  the 
gods  had  transferred  it  to  the  skies  as  a  con- 
stellation. From  (his  circumstance  the  con- 
stellation near  the  tail  of  the  Lion  is  called 
Coma  Bcrenicei   (the  hair  of  Berenice). 

BERENICE,  Egypt,  a  city  on  the  Red  Sei 
whence  a  road,  2S8  miles  in  length,  e\lcnded 
across  the  desert  to  Coptos,  on  the  Nile.  This 
road  was  constnicted  in  the  reign  of  the  second 
Ptolemy.  Berenice  was  one  of  the  principal 
centres  by  which  the  trade  of  EK>'pt,  under  the 
Macedonian  dynasty,  and  that  of  the  Romans 
subsequently,  were  carried  on  with  the  remote 
East.  Dunne  the  Roman  period,  a  sum  equal 
to  $2,000,000  IS  said  to  have  been  annually  re- 
milted  to  the  East  by  the  Roman  merchants  as 
payment  for  its  precious  products,  which  sold 
at  Rome  for  a  hundred-fold  more  than  their 
original  price.  Nothing  now  remains  of  Bert- 
nice  but  a  heap  of  ruins,  adjoining  the  modctn 
port.  The  modern  town  is  called  Sikkcl  Btn- 
der-el-Kebir.  and  now,  owing  to  the  formation 
of  a  sand  bar  at  the  entrance  of  the  harbor  »nd 
the  filling  up  of  the  harbor  itself,  the  poH  » 
practically  accessible  only  to  small  boats.  Bbe- 
NICE,  or  Hesperis,  a  city  of  Cyrenaica,  near 
which  the  ancients  imagined  the  gardens  of  the 
Hesperidcs  to  be  situated. 

BERENSON,  Bemhard,  American  aft- 
critic:  h.  Vtlna.  Russia,  26  June  1865.  .Hew" 
brought  to  America  as  a  child,  received  h"* 


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BBRBSFORD 


education  in  Boston,  and  gradiiated  from  Har- 
vard in  1887.  He  went  abroad  shortly  attcr- 
ward,  having  already  decided  on  his  life  work 
Since  that  time  he  has  resided  principally  at 
Settigano  near  Florence,  Italy,  maldng  journCTs 
to  the  various  parts  of  Europe  where  works 
of  art  needed  for  his  studies  are_  to  be  E«en, 
and  returning  to  America  from  time  to  time. 
He  has  been  influential  in  obtaining  many  im- 
portant works  for  American  collections  and  is 
^nerally  regarded  as  the  most  significant  figure 
in  art  criticism  that  this  country  has  produced. 
Indeed  he  is  to  be  placed  with  the  very  front 
rank  of  European  connoisseur),  especially  in 
his  own  specialty  of  Italian  art  An  iittertst- 
ing  fact  about  his  study  of  the  great  figures 
of  the  Florentine  Renaissance  is  that  it  brought 
to  him  an  early  realization  of  the  quality  and 
importance  of  the  modem  French  painters  like 
Cexanne  and  E)egas.  Outside  of  articles  in 
nearij^  all  the  ^eat  reviews  of  Europe  and 
America,  his  pnncipal  writings  are  'Venetian 
Painters  of  the  Renaissance*  (1894)  ;  'Lorenzo 
Lotto,  an  Essay  in  Constructive  Criticism' 
(1895-1901);  'Florentine  Painters  of  the  Ren- 
aissance* (1896);  'Central  Italian  Painters  of 
the  Renaissance'  (1897)  ;  'The  Study  and  Crit- 
icism of  Italian  Art*  (1901;  2d  series  1902); 
'The  Drawings  of  the  Florentine  Painters' 
(1903)  ;  'North  Italian  Painters  of  the  Renais- 
sance' (1907)  ;  'A  Sienese  Painter  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan Legend'  (1509);  'Catal(«ue  of  the  Ital- 
ian Paintings  in  the  John  G.  Johnson  Collec- 
tion now  at  Philadelphia*  (1913);  <Venetian 
Painting  in  America:  ihe  Fifteenth  Century.' 
Mr,  Berenson's  method  in  the  study  of  ancient 
works  is  largely  a  continuation  of  the  one 
inaugurated  by  the  Italian  critic  Giovanni 
Morelli.  Mrs.  Bernhard  Bercnson  is  also 
deeply  interested  in  art  criticism  and  has  writ- 
ten a  guide  book  on  the  most  important  Italian 
pictures  for  students  to  see. 

BBRESFORD,  hom,  British  admiral:  b. 
Ireland,  10  Feb.  1946.  (jharles  William  de  U 
Poer  BeresEord,  second  son  of  the  4th  marquis 
of  Walerford,  was  for  many  years  known  by 
his  courtesy  title  of  'Lord  Charles,'  On  his 
elevation  to  the  peerage  in  1916  he  adopted  the 
title  of  Baron  Beresford  of  Uetemmeh  and  of 
(^urragbmore.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1859  and 
rose  rapidly  through  all  grades  by  force  of  a 
strong  personality,  a  fiery  enthusiasm  in  his 
work  and  a  reckless  courage  that  made  bim  the 
idol  of  his  comrades.  On  three  occasions  he 
sprang  overboard  at  sea  to  the  rescue  of  drown- 
ing men.  He  commanded  the  gunboat  Condor 
during  the  bombardment  of  Alexandria  in  1882. 
By  running  his  vessel  close  under  the  forts  he 
succeeded  in  silencing  the  most  formidable  bat- 
tery opposed  to  the  British  squadron.  After 
the  landing  of  troops  he  organized  an  efficient 
police  force  for  the  protection  of  the  city,  and 
later  served  on  Lord  Wolseley's  staff  in  the 
Kile  Expedition  (1884-85),  and  subsequently 
commanded  the  naval  brigade  in  the  battles  of 
Abu  KJea,  Abu  Kru  and  Metemmeh.  For  the 
second  time  be  was  specially  commended  for 
gallantry.  He  was  in  command  of  the  expe- 
dition which  rescued  Sir  Charles  Wilson's  party 
in  the  Sofia,  when  her  boilers  were  repaired 
under  fierce  fire.  For  this  action  he  received 
the  thanks  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament.  He 
was  a  lord  commissioner  of  the  admiralty  from 


1886  to  188&  when  he  resigned,  owing  to  what 
he_  regarded  as  inadequate  provision  for  the 
needs  of  the  fleet.  In  1893-96  he  commanded 
the  naval  reserve  at  Chatham;  was  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Mediterranean  squadron  1905- 
07;  of  the  Channel  fleet  in  1907-09,  and  retired 
from  the  navy  in  1911.  He  was  a  persistent 
critic  of  Ihe  administration  of  Sir  John  (now 
Lord)  Fisher  while  the  latter  was  First  Sea  Lord. 
Beres ford's  book,  'The  Betrayal,'  issued  in 
1912,  was  withdrawn  by  request  of  the  govern- 
ment It  led,  however,  to  the  formation  of  an 
Imperial  naval  war  staff.  At  various  times 
Beresford  sat  in  Parliament  for  diflerent  con- 
stituencies; his  last  one,  Portsmouth,  he  repre- 
sented till  1916.  In  the  House  he  was  nick- 
named the  *stormy  petrel'  and  *M.P.  for  the 
Navy."  Like  Lord  Roberts,  he  was  one  of  the 
few  British  public  tnen  who  foresaw  a  gigantic 
conflict  in  the  not  distant  future,  and  openly 
proclaimed  it  on  every  possible  occasion.  As  the 
one  spent  10  ifears  in  pleading  for  a  powerful 
army  with  which  to  face  the  coming  storm,  so 
the  other  at  all  seasons  insisted  on  the  main- 
tenance of  the  'two-power  standard*  for  the 
nai'y,  propounding  the  fundamental  truth  that 
battleships  are  cheaper  than  battles.  Already  . 
in  1903  he  wrote,  "Great  Britain  must  watch  , 
the  activity  of  the  German  Navy  League  with 
the  greatest  attention.'  Early  in  the  war  Lord 
Beresford  was  appointed  honorable  colonel  o( 
Ihe  Marine  Brigade  in  the  Royal  naval  division 
organized  for  lard  service.  In  a  letter  to  the 
president  of  the  American  Navy  League  Lord 
Beresford  expressed  the  opinion  that  Germany 
could  have  won  the  war  had  she  promptly  at- 
tacked British  commerce  without  any  declara- 
tions of  war  (New  York  Evening  Sun,  30  Oct. 
1916).  In  1898  he -visited  China  at  the  request 
of  the  Associated  Chambers  of  Commerce  of 
Great  Britain  to  make  a  study  of  the  compli- 
cated commercial  conditions  existing  there;  and 
on  his  return,  in  1899,  he  passed  through  the 
United  States  and  was  received  with  distin- 
guished honors  by  official  and  commercial 
bodies.  He  has  done  much  to  promote  the 
"open  door"  policy  in  China,  His  publications 
include  'Nelson  and  His  Times';  'The  Break- 
Up  of  China*  (1899).  and  a  volume  of  'Mem- 
ories' (1914). 

BERESFORD,  William  Carr,  Viscount, 
Enghsh  general,  was  a  natural  son  of  the 
1st  marquis  of  Walerford:  b.  2  Oct.  1768;  d. 
Bcdgebury  Park.  Kent,  8  Jan.  1854.  He 
entered  Ihe  army  and  served  at  Toulon 
and  in  Corsica,  m  Ihe  West  Indies  under 
Abercromby,  in  E^pt  under  Baird  and  com- 
manded the  first  brigade  at  the  capture  of  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  in  1805.  In  1806  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general  and  the  same  year 
commanded  the  land  force  in  the  expedition  to 
and  capture  of  Buenos  Aires,  but  on  its  sur- 
render soon  after  was  imprisoned  for  six 
months  before  he  made  his  escape.  Having 
been  ordered  to  Portugal  in  1808,  he  wa?  in- 
trusted there  with  Ihe  remodeling  of  the  Portu- 
guese army  ^  an  ofpce  which  he  accomplished 
with  great  success,  and  in  acknowledgment  of 
his  services  was  created  a  Marshal  of  Portugal, 
Duke  of  Elvas  and  Marquis  of  Santo  Campo. 
He  covered  Moore's  retreat  at  Coraiia  in  1809 
and  subsequently  took  part  in  the  siege  of 
Badajoz  and  the  battles  of  Albuera,  where  he 


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BBRBSFORD  —  BERG 


bad  very  heavy  losses,  Vittoria  and  Bayonne- 
Eor  his  bravery  at  the  battle  of  Toulouse  he 
was  raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the  title  of 
Baron  Beresford,  afterward  superseded  b^  that 
of  Viscount  Beresford,  conferred  on  him  in 
1823.  In  political  principles  he  was  a  high 
Conservative  and  a  thorough  supporter  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington.  In  1328,  when  the  Duke 
became  premier,  he  was  made  master-general 
of  the  ordnance,  a  post  he  held  till  1830. 

BERESFORD,  5.  Dak.,  town  in  Union 
County,  on  the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  Rail- 
road, 20  miles  northwest  of  Sioux  City.  It  has 
a  few  local  industries,  three  hanks  and  a  public 
high  school.  It  has  a  good  trade  in  the  agri- 
cultural products  of  the  repon.  The  value  of 
its  taxable  property  is  estimated  at  $948,000. 
Pop.  1,400. 

BERKZIN,  byer-yf-zen',  Ilya  Nikolaye- 
vltch,  Russian  Orientalist:  h.  1818;  d.  1896.  He 
studied  oriental  philology  at  the  University  of 
Kazan,  where  in  1846  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor, and  in  1855  became  professor  of  Turkish 
at  the  University  of  Saint  Petersburg.  Some 
of  his  important  works  in  Russian  are  'Li- 
brary of  Oriental  Authors'  (1849-51);  <Tour 
'  Through  Daghcstan  and  Trans-Caucasia' 
n850) ;  'A  Grammar  of  the  Persian  Language* 
(1853) ;  'The  Mongol  Invasion  of  Russia* 
0852-54);  'Popular  Turkish  Sayings*  (1857). 
He  wrote  in  French  'Recherches  sur  les  dia- 
lectes  Musulmans'  (1848-53),  and  edited  the 
'Russian  Encyclopedic  Dictionary*  in  16 
volumes. 


rendered  famous  by  the  passage  of  the  French 
army  under  Napoleon^  26-27  Nov.  1812,  Ad- 
miral Tchitchakoff,  with  the  Moldavian  army, 
forced  his  wa^  from  the  south  to  join  the 
main  army,  which,  after  Borizoff  had  been  re- 
taken, was  to  assist  the  army  led  by  Wittgen- 
stein from  the  Dwina  and  in  this  manner  cut 
off  Napoleon  from  the  Vistula.  Napoleon  in 
face  of  armies  three  times  as  strong  as  his  own 
and  surrounding  him  on  all  sides,  was  obliged 
to  make  the  greatest  efforts  to  reach  Minsk,  or 
at  least  the  Berezina,  and  to  pass  it  earlier 
than  the  Russians,  After  the  advanced  guard 
of  the  Moldavian  army  had  been  repelled  to 
Borizoff  by  Oudinot  and  the  bridge  there  been 
burned  by  them,  early  in  the  morning  of  26 
November,  two  bridges  were  built  near  S em- 
bin,  about  two  miles  above  Borizoff,  an  under- 
taking the  more  difhcult  because  both  banks 
of  the  river  were  bordered  by  extensive 
morasses,  cohered,  like  the  river  itself,  with 
ice  not  sufficiently  strong  to  afford  passage  to 
the  army,  while  other  passes  were  already 
threatened  by  the  Russians.  Scarcely  had  a 
few  corps  effected  their  passage,  when  the 
greater  part  of  the  army,  unarmed  and  in  con- 
fusion, rushed  in  crowds  upon  the  bridges. 
Those  who  could  not  hope  to  escape  over  the 
bridges  sought  their  safely  on  the  floating  ice  of 
the  Bcreiina,  where  most  of  thera  perished, 
while  many  others  were  crowded  into  the  river 
by  their  comrades.  Besides  the  multitudes  who 
were  obliged  to  remain  beyond  the  Berezina, 
the  division  of  Bartouneaux,  which  formed  the 


rearguard,  was  also  lost  It  was  intrusted 
with  the  charge  of  burning  the  bridges  in  its 
rear,  but  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enenijr. 
The  French  lost  half  their  total  strength,  which 
stood  at  25,000  men.  The  genius  of  Napoleon 
saved    the    remnant,    a    broken    and    dispirited 

BEREZOV,  by«r-yii'zof  (the  town  of  Wrdi 
trees),  Siberia,  a  town  in  the  government  of, 
and  400  miles  north  from,  Tobolsk,  on  a  heigbl 
above  the  left  bank  of  the  Sosva,  one  of  the 
branches  of  the  Obi.  Its  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
Cossacks,  who  subsist  by  the  chase  and  by  fish- 
ing; they  barter  furs,  skins,  fish,  etc,  for  flour, 
flesh-meat,  tobacco,  ironware  and  brandv 
brought  by  the  Tobolsk  dealers,  whose  craft 
are  floated  down  the  Irtish.  It  lies  in  a  rou^ 
country,  covered  with  thick  forests,  and  has  » 
severe  climate.  Among  the  noted  personages 
exiled  to  this  place  were  Prince  Menzlkoff,  the 
favorite  of  Peter  the  Great,  who  died  here  in 
1729,  and  Dolgoruki.Pop.  about  1,100. 

BERG,  berg,  Friedrich  WUhelm  Rembeit, 
(generally  known  as  Feodoi  Feodokovitch 
Bpjig),  Russian  general  and  administrator:  b. 
Sagmtz,  Livonia,  27  May  1794;  d.  Saint  Peters- 
burg, 18  Jan.  1874.  He  received  his  education  at 
the  University  of  Dorpat  and  entered  a  regiment 
of  infantry  at  Libau.  He  took  part  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  1812,  1813  and  1814  in  Russia.  Ger- 
many and  France.  After  his  return  lo  Rnswa 
he  entered  the  diplomatic  service  and  was  suc- 
cessively attach^  at  the  embassies  of  Munich. 
Rome  and  Naples.  In  18Z2  he  re-entered  actiw 
service,  directed  some  expeditions  against  the 
Kirghizes  and  explored  the  shores  of  the  Sea 
of  Aral.  On  the  accession  of  Nicholas.  Berg 
was  appointed  imperial  chamberlain  and  nai 
attache  at  Constantinople.  During  the  Turkish 
campaign  he  was  quartermaster  of  the  Second 
Army,  directed  the  operations  before  Silistria 
and  crossed  the  Balkans.  He  arranged  the 
map  of  a  portion  of  Rumania  and  the  Balkans. 
In  1831  he  served  in  Poland  ander  Rudigier 
and  distinguished  himself  at  Ostrolenka  and 
at  the  capture  of  Warsaw.  He  was  appoinied 
lieutenant-general  and  was  afterward  in  charge 
of  geodetic  surveys  and  of  various  diplomatic 
and  military  missions.  In  1849,  at  Vienna  he 
prepared  the  plan  of  campaign  against  llun- 
gary.  In  1853  he  was  in  chat^e  of  the  troap: 
destined  for  the  defense  of  Esthonia  and  be 
put  the  fortress  of  Reval  in  a  state  of  defense 
sufficient  to  withstand  and  repulse  the  attack 
by  the  English  troops.  Tn  1854  he  was  made 
governor-general  of  Finland  and  repulsed  Ad- 
miral Dundas  before  Sveaborg.  Alexander  II 
bestowed  on  him  the  title  of  count  and.  in 
1863,  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  kingdom 
of  Poland.  He  brought  this  country  under 
submission  and  retained  this  post  iiolil  his 
death.  He  was  the  first  to  insist  on  the  policy 
of  Russification  at  ail  costs.  The  severity  wiih 
which  he  treated  the  Polish  population  during 
the    insurrection    aroused    widespread    indig- 

BERG,  Joseph  Frederick,  American  clw- 
gyman:  b.  Antigua,  W.  I..  3  June  1812;  d- 
Ncw  Bnmswick,  N  J.,  20  July  1871,  He  Cime 
to  the  United  States  in  1825,  entered  the  Gm- 
man  Reformed  ministry,  in  which  he  served, 
1835-S2,  and  then  entered  the  Dutch  Reformed 


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BERG  — BBRGAUO 


Church  and  was  professor  of  theology  in  the 
Dutch  Reformed  Theological  Seminary  at  New 
Bninswick  from  1861  till  his  death.  He  was 
distinguished  for  the  intensity  of  his  opposi- 
tion to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  on  which 
theme  he  wrote  extensively,  his  oest-known 
work  being  'Synopsis  of  the  Moral  Theolo^ 
of  Peter  Dens,  as  Prepared  for  Romish  Semi- 
naries and  Students  of  Theology'  (Philadel- 
phia 1S42;  new  ed.,  1856).  His  learning  was 
extensive  and  he  was  an  eminent  controver- 
ualist.  Consult  Corwin,  'Manual  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  in  America  >  (New  York 
i879). 

BBRG,  sm  ancient  duchy  of  Germany,  now 
included  in  the  governments  Arnsberg,  Cologne, 
and  Diuseldorf.  It  extended  along  the  Rmne 
from  the  Ruhr  to  the  frontiers  of  Nassau,  and 
is  everywhere  hitly.  It  is  more  a  manufactur- 
ing than  an  agricultural  district,  and  has  long 
been  famed  for  its  minerals,  which  include  iron 
o£  the  finest  quality  lead,  copper,  zinc  and 
ibe  precious  metals.  In  addition  to  the  employ- 
ment furnished  by  the  working  of  these  min- 
erals, the  inhabitants,  who  are  very  industrious, 
have  with  considerable  success  superadded  tex- 
tile manufactures.  It  is  now  indeed  the  chief 
manufacturing  district  in  Germany,  and  the 
roost  densely  peopled.  It  contains  the  important 
towns  of  Elberfeld  and  Barmen.  The  duchy 
of  Berg^  founded  in  1389,  had  been  long  con- 
solidated with  the  Prussian  dominions  when 
(1806)  Napoleon  revived  the  title,  and  con- 
ferred it,  with  an  enlarged  territory,  on  Murat. 
On  Murat's  receiving  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
Napoleon  named  his  nephew  Louis  Napoleon 
(brother  of  Napoleon  III)  hereditary  Grand- 
duke  of  Berg,  and  increased  its  limits  still 
farther.  At  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815, 
the  whole  was  given  to  the  King  of  Prussia. 

BBROAIONB,  Abel,  French  Orientalist: 
b.  Vimy,  31  Aug.  1838;  d.  6  Aug.  1888.  Me  was 
for  many  years  professor  of  Sanskrit  at  the 
Sorbonne  in  Paris.  As  a  Sanskrit  philologist  he 
is  considered  a  foremost  authority  and  be  was 
especially  noted  for  the  share  he  look  in  the 
interpretation  of  the  Vedas.  Among  his  works 
are  »La  religion  vMique*  (3  vols.,  Paris  1883) ; 
and  a  translation  of  two  Sanskrit  dramas 
'Ni^nanda*  (Paris  1879),  and  'S3countali> 
(Paris  1684). 

"  BERGAMA,  bir'M-m^,"  Asia  Minor,  town 
about  20  miles  mland  from  the  west  coast,  on 
the  Selinus,  a  tributary  of  the  Caicus.  46  miles 
north  by  east  of  Smyrna.  It  occupies  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Pergamus  (tj.v.),  and  contains 
numerous  remains  attesting  its  ancient  magnifi- 
cence. In  the  centre  are  the  remains  of  a  Targe 
Roman  basilica,  a  Byzantine  church  now  con- 
verted into  a  mos^e,  and  a  curious  double 
tunnel  200  yards  long  through  which  the  river 
nins.  To  the  cast  of  the  town  is  a  steep  hill 
with  the  acropolis  and  the  remains  of  a  Roman 
palace  on  the  top.  To  the  west  of  thfe  town  are 
the  ruins  of  the  ancient  amphitheatre  with 
arches  of  fine  workmanship.  It  was  built  so 
that  the  arena  could  be  Hooded  with  water 
from  a  stream,  thus  affording  an  opportunity 
for  nautical  sports.  Bergama  is  a  flourishing 
town  noted  for  its  manufaetures  of  morocco 
leather.  There  is  trade  also  in  wool  cotton, 
and  opum.    The  population  is  about  7,500,  in- 


cluding a  number  of  Greeks,  who  have  estab- 
lished excellent  schools. 

BERGAMI,  Bsrtolotnmeo.  The  celebrated 
trial  of  Queen  Caroline,  wife  of  George  IV 
of  England,  was  principally  founded  upon  a 
charge  of  adulterous  intercourse  with  Bereami, 
who,  in  1814,  upoD  recommendation  of  the 
Marquis  Ghislieri,  in  whose  previous  employ- 
ment he  had  been,  was  attached  to  her  house- 
hold. Bergami,  who  had  fought  his  way  up 
in  the  Italian  army  from  a  common  soldier  to 
the  rank  of  quartermaster,  belonged  to  a  respec- 
table family,  and  the  Marquis  Ghislieri  described 
him  to  the  queen  as  a  person  of  character 
and  attainments  superior  to  his  condition,  and 
bespoke  for  him  a  kind  treatment.  This,  and 
the  personal  advantages  of  Bereami,  who  was 
singularly  good-loofing,  combining  athletic 
strength    and    stature    with    almost     feminine 


nearly  became 
the  victim  of  poison  intended  for  her.  The 
<)uecn  treated  nis  whole  family,  especially  a 
little  child  of  his,  with  the  greatest  generosity 
and  kindness.  All  these  circumstances  were 
used  by  her  enemies  as  so  many  indications  of 
her  criminality,  and  during  the  trial  one  of 
the  Italian  witnesses,  Teodorc  Majocchi,  excited 
special  indignation  by  his  admitting  every  fact 
unfavoraUe  to  the  qncen,  and  by  answering 
every  question,  which  might  tell  in  her  favor 
with  NoH  mi  rieordo.  Ber^mi,  who  was  ai 
Pesaro  during  the  trial,  exclaimed,  when  he  -was 
apprised  of  her  acquittal,  but  at  the  same  lime 
of  her  death,  that  she  had  been  poisoned,  and 
never  could  te  convinced  to  the  contrary.  To 
the  last  he  ever  spoke  of  the  queen  with  the 
greatest  reverence  and  affection,  and  his  deport- 
ment before  and  after  her  death  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  he  looked  upon  her  rather  as  a 
benefactress  than  as  a  mistress.  However, 
wherever  he  went  he  became  the  observed  of 
all  observers.  During  bis  occasional  excursions 
to  Paris  his  apartments  were  crowded  with  visit- 
ors, consisting  principally  of  ladies,  who,  under 
the  pretext  caE  having  been  friends  of  Queen 
Caroline,  gratified  their  curiosity  and  obtained 
an  interview  with  the  portly  courier.  When  at 
home  he  lived  in  great  splendor;  in  the  capitals 
of  Italy,  Rome,  Naples,  Milan,  he  was  a  lion, 
and  the  houses  of  "uie  best  families'  were  open 
to  him.  At  the  tim«  of  the  trial  many  different 
statesments  about  Bergami's  character  were  cir- 
culated in  the  House  of  Lords,  but  however 
contradictory  in  many  other  respects,  they  all 
.a^eed  in  this  one  fact,  that  he  was  as  inoffen- 
sive as  he  was  good-looking  a  person,  who 
probably  would  never  have  been  beard  of  be- 
yond the  precincts  of  Italian  barracks  if  it  had 
not  been  for  his  relation  with  Queen  Caroline, 
and  for  the  peculiar  construction  which  was  put 
upon  it  by  her  enemies  at  the  trial.  His  name 
in  England  was,  by  a  curious  mistake,  spelled 
with  a  P. 

BERGAMO,  bfr'ga-mo,  Italy,  city  and 
capital  of  the  province  of  Bergamo,  situated  in 
the  district  lying  between  the  rivers  Brembo  and 
Serio,  and  33  miles  northeast  of  Milan.  It  con- 
sists of  two  distinct  portions,  the  upper  city, 
situated  on  hills,  and  now  attainable  by  a  cable 
tramway,  and  the  lower  city.  GttJ  Alta,  with 
Its   hilly   streets,    ancient  buildings,   and  lofty 


v  Google 


644 


BBROAHOT  —  BERGBN 


ramparts,  now  transformed  into  promenades, 
has  a  picturesque  medieval  appearance.  Tile 
much  more  extensive  new  quarters  in  the  plain 
are  very  modern  in  every  respect.  At  its  fair 
goods  to  the  value  of  a  million  sterling  have 
sometimes  been  sold.  It  has  an  academy  of 
painting  and  sculpture,  a  museum,  an  athenz- 
um,  a  public  library,  several  secondary  schools, 
and  various  manufactories.  There  is  a  cathedral 
bul  some  of  the  other  churches  are  of  greater 
interest.  There  is  a  small  Proleslant  congrega- 
tion. The  comic  characters  in  the  Italian  masked 
comedy  are  Bergamesc,  or  affect  the  dialect  of 
the  country  people  in  the  neighfwrhood 
of  this  city.  In  1796  Bonaparte  took  Ber- 
gamo, and  it  was  subsefjuenlly  made  the  capital 
of  the  department  of  the  Scno,  in  the  kingdom 
of  Italy.  Among  many  dislingnished  men  bom 
here  are  Tiraboschi,  the  historian  of  Italian 
literature;  the  composer  Donizetti,  and  Cardinal 
Mai.  Bergamo  has  a  thriving  trade;  it  was  one 
of  the  first  places  to  introduce  the  culture  of  the 
silkworm.  Its  principal  manufactures  are  silk 
and  other  textiles,  hats,  farm  implements  and 
organs.  Bergamum,  the  ancient  town,  was 
fettled  hy  the  Gauls  and  became  a  municipium 
in  Caesar's  time.  In  1428  it  was  added  to  the 
Republic  of  Venice.    Pop.  55,857. 

BERGAMOT,  a  shrub  or  smalt  tree,  Cilrus 
Icrgamia  ( family  Rutaceie) .  The  plant  is 
largely  cultivated  in  southern.  Europe,  espe- 
cially Italy,  for  its  green,  bitter  volatile  oil, 
known  as  oil  or  essence  of  bereamot,  which  is 
expressed  or  distilled  from  its  nighly  aromatic 
rind  for  use  in  perfumery.  The  name  is  also 
applied,  mainly  in  Europe,  to  many  varieties  of 
pears  and  in  both  Europe  and  America  to  sev- 
eral species  of  the  family  Menthacca;  for  ex- 
ample, Mentha  aquatica  (Europe),  Monarda 
didyma  and  M.  fistutosa  (Ajncrica).  The  name 
seems  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  Turkish  beg 
armAdi,  a  lord's  pear. 

BERGEDORF,  biSrg'iS-dorf.  Germany,  town 
10  miles  southeast  of  Hamburg,  and  in  the  ter- 
ritory l>elonging  to  that  city,  on  the  Bille,  a 
tributary  of  the  Elbe.  It  has  flourishing  glass 
works  and  manufactures  of  enamel  ware. 
Eesser  productions  are  cane  chairs,  brushes  and 
buttons,  and  there  are  tanneries  and  brick 
yards.  The  town  is  the  seat  of  a  District  Court 
and  has  a  realschule  and  an  institution  for  the 
blind.  It  is  the  birthplace  of  the  composer, 
Johann  Adolf  Hasse.  It  was  held  jointly  by 
Liiheck  and  Hamburg  till  1867,  when  Lubeck 
assigned  its  rights  to  Hamburg  on  payment  of 
200.000  thalers.    Pop.  14,907. 

BERGEN,  Joseph  YoanK,  American  edur 
cator:  b,  Rpd  Beach,  Me..  22  Feb.  1851,  He 
was  graduated  at  Antioch  College,  Ohio,  1872. 
and  for  a  time  was  on  the  Ohio  gL'ological  sur- 
vey and  professor  of  natural  .sciences  at  Lom- 
bard University.  Salisbury,  111.  He  was  teacher 
of  physics  in  the  Boston  Latin  School,  1887; 
junior  master  and  master  Boston  English  High 
School,  1889-1901.  He  is  joint  author  (with 
his  wife,  Fanny  P.  Bergen)  of  'The  Develop- 
ment Theory:  the  Study  of  Evolution  Simpli- 
fied for  General  Rcaders>  (1884);  (with 
Edwin  H.  Hall)  of  'A  TeKt-Book  of  Physics'; 
(with  Dr.  Bradh'v  Moore  Davis)  of  'Principles 
of  Botany'  (1906) ;  (with  O.  W.  CaldweH)  of 
'Practical  Botany'    (1911);  and  'Introduction 


to  Botany'  (1914).  Sole  author  of  'Etemenli 
of  Botany'  (1896),  and  'Essentials  of  Botany.' 
He  spent  four  years  (1901-05)  in  Italy,  mainl) 
in  the  Naples  region,  where  he  made  main 
studies  on  the  ecology  of  the  plants  which 
characterize  that  part  of  the  Mediterranean 
coast  and  published  papers  on  them  in  the 
Botanical  Gasette  and  The  Plant  World.  Since 
his  return  to  America  he  has  made  some  rr- 
scarcbes,  mostly  unpublished  as  yet,  on  the  light' 
relations  of  plants  and  on  transpiration. 

BERGEN,  Norway,  a  seaport  on  the  wot 
coast,  capital  of  a  province:  or  diocese  of  the 
same  name,  formerly  the  principal  town  oi  die 
kingdom,  but  now  the  second.  It  is  186  milt; 
northwest  of  Christiania,  and  about  25  from  the 
□pen  sea,  and  is  situated  on  and  about  the  head 
of  two  inlets,  one  of  which  forms  the  harbor. 
The  tongue  of  land  between  the  harbor  and  the 
other  inlet  (Puddefiord)  is  an  elevated  ridgt 
crowned  by  an  old  fort,  while  the  entrance  on 
the  other  or  northeast  side  is  commanded  by  the 
old  fortress  of  Bergenhus,  now  partly  used  as  i 
prison.  Rocky  hills  from  800  to  2,000  feet  high 
encircle  the  town  on  the  land  side  and  furnish 
many  picturesque  stwts.  The  climate  is  com- 
paratively mild,  on  account  of  the  sheltered 
situation,  but  is  remarkable  for  rain,  the  annual 
rainfall  being  about  73  inches.  The  town  is 
well  built  ana  clean,  but  the  houses  are  most!; 
of  wood,  and  many  of  the  streets  are  crooked 
and  uneven,  on  account  of  the  irregularity  of 
the  site.  A  portion  of  the  city,  burned  in  1835, 
has  been  rebuilt  very  regularly.  Electric  tram- 
ways traverse  the  principal  streets.  There  art 
a  number  of  squares  or  open  spaces,  including 
the  market-place.  There  is  a  cathedra!  (buill 
in  1537),  and  several  other  churches,  the  oldest 
being  Saint  Mary's,  built  after  a  fire  in  1249. 
The  public  institutions  include  schools,  a  library' 
of  90,000  volumes,  a  theatre,  a  museum,  etc 
The  inhabitants  of  the  middle  coast  of  Noruay 
bring  limber,  tar,  train-oil,  hides,  etc,  and 
particularly  dried  fish  (stock-fish),  to  Bergen  ro 
exchange  them  for  grain,  flour  and  other  neces- 
saries. The  town  carries  on  a  large  trade  in 
these  commodities.  It  is  the  great  fish  market 
of  Norway,  Twice  a  year  the  Norland  men 
come  to  Bergen  with  their  fish,  in  March  aad 
April  several  hundred  vessels  arc  to  be  seen 
in  the  harbor  at  once,  laden  with  the  produce 
of  the  winter  fishing  and  with  skins  and 
feathers.  Codfish  fOr  salting,  fish  roc,  blubber, 
skins,  herrings  and  cod-liver  oil  are  the  chief 
exports,  amounting  to  two-fifths  those  of  the 
entire  country.  A  fair,  attended  by  fishermen 
of  all  nations,  is  annually  held.  A  fisberi 
museum  was  established  here  in  1881.  A  con- 
siderable amount  of  shii>-bui1ding  is  carried  on. 
A  United  States  consul  is  rcsideni  here.  BerRen 
is  the  native  place  of  the  poet  Holberg. 
Bergen  was  founded  in  1070  bv  King  Ohi 
Kyrre,  who  made  il  the  second  city  of  hi? 
kingdom,  and  il  was  soon  raised  to  ihc  first 
rank.  The  first  treaty  entered  into  b^  England 
with  any  foreign  nation  was  made  with  Bcr^ 
in  1217.  But  the  English  and  Scottish  iradm 
were  soon  displaced  hy  the  merchants  of  ihf 
Hanse  towns,  who  made  Bergen  one  of  their 
four  depots,  compelled  the  fishermen  to  trade 
here  exclusively,  and  continued  to  exercise  ino 
abuse  their  monopoly  until  their  supremao' 
was  broken  by  an  act  issued  by  Frederick  11 


vCiOogIc 


BBROBM-OP-ZOOM  —  BERGERAC 


S4lt. 


of  Denmark  in  t56<X  In  1763  tlMir  last,  ware- 
bouse  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  citizen  of  Bergen. 
Pop.  76^i7. 

BERGEN-OP-ZOOH,  berg'en-6p-z5m'. 
Holland,  a  town' in  the  province  of  North 
Brabant  in  a  marshy  situation  on  the  Scheldt, 
where  the  Zoom  enters  it,  20  miles  north-north- 
west of  Antwerp.  It  was  formerly  a  stroiK 
fortress,  the  morasses  around  it  making  it  al- 
most inaccessible  to  an  assailing  force,  while  its 
fortifications  consisted  of  regular  works,  con- 
structed by  the  celebrated  Coehom.  It  is  well 
built,  but  ha.'i  no  edifices  deserving  of  particular 
notice.  It  matle  an  important  figure  durinB  th(; 
Spanish  war,  and  succewfully  resisted  the  at- 
tacks of  the  Duke  of  Parma  in  1581  and  1S88, 
and  of  Spinola  in  1622.  It  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  1747  after  a  siege  of  nearly  three 
months;  and  in  1795  the  French  under  Piche- 
^ru  again  gained  possession  of  it  by  capitula- 
tion, it  was  unsuccessfully  attempted  by  the 
British  nnder  Sir  Thomas  Graham,  afterward 
Lord  Lynedoch,  in  1814.  Its  trade  has  suffered 
greatly  from  the  proximity  of  Antwerp.  Its 
industries  include  the  makincr  of  cloth,  pottery 
and  bricks,  and  it  raises  anrf  exports  consider- 
able quantities  of  oysters  and  anchoviss.  Pop. 
15.000. 

BEBGBNROTH,  Gnstav  AdoU,  German 
historian:  b.  Oletiko,  East  Prussia,  26  Feb. 
1813;  d.  Madrid.  13  Feb.  1869.  Graduating 
from  University  of  Konigsberg,  where  he  had 
studied  law,  he  entered  the  service  of  the 
Prussian  government.  On  account  of  his  ac- 
tivities during  the  revolutionary  disturtences 
in  1848,  in  which  he  took  a  prominent  part,  he 
was  dismissed  from  the  government  service, 
whereupon  he  emigrated  to  California,  in  the 
United  States.  Here  he  remained  only  a  few 
years,  however,  returning  to  Europe  in  1851. 
He  now  became  interested  in  historical  research 
and  in  1857  settled  in  England,  where  he  began 
3  deep  study  of  the  historical  records  and  state 
papers  covering  the  times  ofthe  Tudors.  In 
1867  he  went  to  Simancas,  Spain,  to  continue 
his  historical  studies,  where  he  remained  until 
his  death.  His  chief  work  is  'Calendar  of  Let- 
ters, Despatches  and  Slate  Papers  Relating  to 
the  NegotiaticKis  Between  En^nd  and  Spain, 
Preserved  in  the  Archives  of  Simancas  atw 
Elsewhere*  (London  ISdZ-AS). 

BBRGER,  Oeorgn,  French  critic  and 
essayist:  b  Paris  1834;  d.  1910-  His  early 
years  were  spent  in  the  management  of 
his  own  agricultural  interests :  he  owned  large 
vineyards,  from  whose  income  he  was  enaOled 
to  devote  most  of  his  time  to  a  study  of  art. 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  supervision  of 
the  exhibitions  held  in  1867,  1878  and  1899. 
Finally  he  accepted  an  appointment  to  the  chair 
of  esthetics  and  the  history  of  the  fine  arts  at 
the  Elcole  des  Beaux-Arts,  a  position  he  re- 
tained for  many  years.  During  this  period  he 
served  also  as  a  depnfy  in  the  chamber  tor  the 
department  of  the  Seine.  He  was  honored 
with  membership  in  the  Initttule  of  Fiaace, 
the  Higher  Council  of  the  Fine  Arts  and  the 
Conncilof  National  Mnseoms.  He  contributed 
copiously  to  periodical  literature,  but  his  most 
prominent  work  is  'The  French  School  of 
Painting  from  its  Origin  Down  to  the  Reign 
of  Louis  XIV  (1879). 


BERGBR,  Lndwig,  German  pianist  and 
composer  I  h  Berlin,  18  April  177?;  d,  there, 
16  F^b.  1839.  After  studying  composition  under 
Giirrlich,  he  went  to  Dresden  in  1801,  there  to 
continue  his  studies  under  Naumann.  Later 
he  accompanied  dementi  on  a  tour  to  Saint 
Petersburg,  where  he  remained  for  six  years.  In 
1812  he  went  to  Stoddiolm  and  later  to  London, 
where  he  again  met  Clementi  and  undertook  a 
short  tour  with  him.  In  1815  he  returned  to 
Berlin,  where  he  remained  until  his  death. 
During  this  period  he  was  the  teacher  of  Men- 
delucwn,  Taubert  and  others  who  later  became 
famous.  Many  of  his  compositions  are  still 
popular,  especially  his   'Die  schone   MtUlerin.* 

BERGBR  PhiHppe,  French  Orientalist:  b. 
Beaucourt,  Alsace,  1848.  Having_  concluded  his 
studies  at  Strassburg  and  Paris,  he  became 
assistant  U)>rarian  at  the  Institute  and  professor 
of  Hebrew  at  the  Sorbonnc.  Later  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  chair  of  Hebrew,  Syriac  and 
Chaldee  at  the  College  de  France,  succeeding 
Renan.  A  few  of  his  many  works  are  'L'Ecri- 
ture  et  les  inscriptions  semitiques'  (1880)  ; 
*L'Arabie  avam  Mahomet'  (188.';):  'Histoire 
de  r^criture  dans  I'antiquiti'  (1892);  'Etudes 
sur  les  renseignements  fonrnis  sur  le  gnostt- 
cisme  par  les  Fhilosophotimcna'  (1893);  'Le 
Mtis^  Saint-Louis  de  Carthage,  antiquites 
phfniciennes'  (1900);  <Un  nouveau  tarif  des 
sacrifices  k  Carthage'  (1910);  'Le  Culte  de 
Mithra  i  Carthage'    (1912). 

BERGER,  Victor,  German-American  So- 
cialist leader  and  United  States  congressman : 
b.  Nieder  Rebbuch,  Austria,  28  Feb,  l*toO.  Hav- 
ing graduated  from  the  University  of  Vienna, 
be  emigrated  to  Milwaukee,  Wis^  where 
he  became  a  teacher  of  German  in  the  public 
schools.  He  became  at  once  Interested  m  the 
activities  of  the  Socialists  and  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  American  Socialist  Parly,  In 
1892  he  was  made  editor  of  the  Milwaukee 
Daily  Vorworrts  by  the  party  local  leaders. 
Since  then  he  lias  edited  various  other  Socialist 

Epers  and  periodicals  in  Milwaukee.  In  1911 
was  elected  to  Congress  by  the  Socialist  vote 
of  Milwaukee,  being  the  first  of  that  political 
faith  to  be  sent  to  Washington, 

BERGERAC,  Savlnien  Cynno  de,  French 
author:  b.  1619;  d.  1655.  He  was  distinguished 
(or  his  cotirage  in  the  field,  and  for  the  number 
of  bis  dnels,  more  than  a  thousand,  most  of 
them  fought  on  account  of  his  monstrously 
large  nose.  His  writings,  which  are  often 
crude,  but  full  of  invention,  vigor  and  wit,  in- 
clude a  tragedy,  'Agrippine,'  which  was  re- 
garded at  the  time  as  the  vehicle  of  atheistic 
teaching;  and  a  comedy,  'The  Pedant  Tricked,' 
from  which  Comeille  and  Moliere  have  freely 
borrowed  ideas;  and  his  'Comical  History  o£ 
ttie  States  and  Empires  of  the  Sun  and  the 
Moon'  probably  suggested  'Micromigaa'  to 
Voltaire,  and  'Gulliver'  to  Swift.  His  works 
have  been  frequently  repubhshed.  He  was  made 
the  hero  of  a  drama  bearing  his  name,  written 
by  Edmond  Rostand,  the  French  playwright, 
which  had  a  phenomenal  success  in  the  United 
States  in  1899-1900,  and  was  the  occasion  of  a 
suit  for  plagiarism.    See  Rostand,  EnttOND. 

BERGERAC,  Fiance,  town  in  the  depart' 
ment  of  the  Dofdogne,  about  2S  miles  south- 
soutfawest  of  Pirignenx,  and  on  the  riwr  Dor- 


Google 


Ma 


BSSGERAT  ~  BBSOK 


dogne.  In  1345  the  En^sh  took  the  tcwn  uid 
fortified  it.  They  were  driven  off  but  again 
took  it  and  it  was  iu  their  hands  until  1450.  It 
contains  a  splendid  Gothic  church,  dating  from 
1SS6.  Its  industries  include  brewing,  flour 
milling,  paper  manufacture,  tanning,  weaving, 
hat-nuidng  and  hosiery.  There  is  a  considet^ 
able  trade  in  brandy,  fish  and  wine.  The  town, 
48  miles  east  of  Bordeaux,  gives  the  name  to 
an  ^reeable  wine  cultivated  on  the  banlu  of 
the  Dordogne,  in  France  sometimes  called  ptiit 
champagne. 


BBRGBRAT,  Idnh-rY,  Aneoste  Emile, 
French  journalist,  playwright  and  novelist:  b. 
Paris,  29  April  1845.  He  received  his  education 
in  a  Jesuit  sominaiy,  the  Lyc^  Charlemagne, 

and  at  first  aspired  to  be  an  artisl,  but  soon 
after  turned  his  attention  to  journalism.  He  is 
son-in-law  of  Theopbile  Gautier,  and  since  18S4 
particularly  known  as  the  amusing  ijironicler 
of  the  Figaro  under  the  pseudonym  of  Cauban. 
His  feuuletons  for  that  paper  were  pubHshed 
collectively  as  'Life  and  Adventures  o£  Sieur 
Caliban'  (1886) ;  'The  Book  of  Caliban' 
(1887);  'Caliban's  Laughter'  (1890),  etc  He 
also  wrote  two  novels,  'Faublas  in  Spite  of 
Himself  (1884);  'The  Rape'  (1886).  He  has 
published  'War  Poems'  (1871);  'Enguerande,' 
a  dramatic  poem  (1884);  'La  lure  comique' 
(1SS9)  ;  <La  terre  est  le  domaine  de  I'hunianite' 
(1903);  'Ballades  et  Sonnets'  (1910);  'Souv- 
enirs d'un  enfant  de  Paris'  (Vol.  I,  1911 ;  Vols. 
II  and  HI,  1912;  Vol.  IV,  1913);  besides  two 
volumes  to  the  memoiy  of  his  father-in-law, 
'Theophile  Gautier,  Painter'  (1877).  and  'Th. 
Gautier,  Conversations,  Souvenirs  and  Corre- 
spondence'  (1879). 

B&RGH,  birg,  Henry.  American  philan- 
thropist and  author:  b.  New  York.  8  May  1820; 
d.  there,  12  March  1888.  He  was  educated  at 
Columbia  College,  and  from  1861  to  1864  was  in 
(Uplomatic  service,  being  secretary  of  the  Amer- 
ican legation  and  United  States  consul  at  Saint 
Petersburg.     In  1865  he  founded  the  American 


Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Ani- 

'  osen    its    president,    and   in    1866 

ssage  of  an  act  giving  the  Society 

maldng  -         .  ■  - 


secured  the  pas  _       „ 

the  power  of  making  arrests  and  carrying 
prosecutions  for  violations  of  the  statute  on 
which  the  omaniiation  was  instituted.  He  re- 
mained president  of  the  Society  until  his  death, 
being  ever  its  guiding  spirit,  living  entirely  in  its 
work,  and  serving  without  comj>cnsation.  At 
the  beginning  of  his  work  no  State  or  Terri- 
tory had  any  statute  relating  to  the  prevention 
of  cruelty  to  animals.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
39  States  had  proper  laws  on  the  subject,  and  in 
36  of  them  brancli  societies  of  the  organiiation 
had  been  formed.  The  work  of  the  Society 
was  extended  to  Argentina,  Brazil  and  Canada. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  volume  of  tales  and 
sketches  "The  Streets  of  New  York' ;  a  suc- 
cessful drama,  'Love  Alternative,'  produced  in 
Baltimore  (1881)  ;  "The  Portentous  Telegram'  ; 
'The  Ocean  Paragon':  and  'Married  Off;  a 
Poem'  (1859).  Berg  also  founded  the  Society 
for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Children, 
which  is  now  firmly  established  in  every  State 
of   the  Union. 


later  with  Gtide  at  Dusseldorf  and  at  Geneva 
under  Calame.  He  toured  Italy  in  1856-57  and 
on  his  return  to  Sweden  became  professor  in 
the  Stockholm  Acadeno'.  He  is  looked  upon  as 
the  founder  of  a  new  school  of  landscape  att 
in  Sweden,  distinguished  by  accurate  draw- 
ing, intelllEent  representation  of  nature,  and  a 
very  decided  nationalism.  Among  his  most 
noted  subjects  are  'Wood  Interior'  (Stock- 
holm Museum)  •< View  of  Stockholm'  (owned 
bv  the  King  of  England) ;  'View  in  Dalecarlia' 
(Amsterd^),  and  'Beech-Wood'  (Sodicn- 
burg). 

BERGH,  Pietcr  Thcodor  Helvethu  van 
den,  Dutch  dramatist  and  poet ;  b.  Zwollc  1799; 
d.  1873.  He  took  up  his  residence  successively 
in  Paris.  Brussels  and  Vienna,  and  after  becom- 
ing blind  removed  to  The  Hague.  Here,  in  col- 
laboration with  Weiland  he  edited  the  Maxaajn 
voor  Toon  en  Schilderkunst.  He  attracted  at- 
tention with  hb  comedy  'The  Nephew'  (1837), 
considered  one  of  the  best  in  modem  Dutch 
literature,  but  did  not  justify  expectations  hy 
his  subsequent  dramatic  efforts.  He  also  pub' 
lished  'De  Nichten,*  and  a  collection,  'Prose 
and  Poetry'    (3d  ed,  1863). 


especially    the    bataleur 


colonial  n       _  .     _ . . 
hill-haunting    eagles 

(qv.). 

BERGHAUS,  HeinTich,  German  gec«r»- 
pher:  b.  Omt,  3  Uay  1797;  d.  Stettin,  17  Feh 
1884.  He  served  in  1815  in  the  German  army  in 
France,  and  was  from  1816  to  1821  employed  in 
trigonometrical  survey  of  Prussia  under  the 
War  Department.  From  1824  to  1855  he  was 
professor  of  applied  mathematics  in  the  Berlin 
Academy  of  Architecture.  Besides  his  varioui 
maps  and  his  great  'Physical  Atlas'  (repub- 
lished in  a  remodeled  form  in  1886-92),  he  pub- 
lished 'Allgemeine  LiLnder  und  Volkerkunde' 
fl837-41);  'Die  Volker  des  Erdballs'  (1852); 
'Grundhnien  der  phvsikalischen  Erdbesdirei- 
bung>  (1856);  'Grundlinien  der  £thnc«raplue' 
(1856) ;  'Deutschland  seit  hundert  Jahreu' 
(1859-62);  'Was  man  von  der  Erde  weiss' 
(1856-60],  His  correspondcpce  with  Humboldt 
was  pubhshed  in  1863. 


(q.v.) :  b.  Hereford  WestphaKa,  16  No*.  I 
d.  Gotha,  3  Dec  1890.  Durii^  most  of  his  life 
he  was  cartographer  in  the  (jeographical  Insti- 
tute of  Justus  Perthes  at  (Jotha.  His  best  known 
work  is  a  chart  of  the  world  (1863)  which  has 


sikalische  Wandkarte  von  Europa'  (1875); 
'Phjrsikalische  Wandkarte  von  Afrika'  (1881). 
Besides  this  he  supervised  the  revision  of  his 
famous  uncle's  'Physikaliscber  Atlas'  (1886), 
which  work  was  participated  in  by  many  ncrteo 
specialists. 

BERGHEH,  Nlkolau.  See  Bexcbeu, 
Nikola  AS. 

BBROK,  ThAodor.  German  cluneal  |du- 


putable  aulhori^  i 
two  works   of 


1  Hellenic  poetry,  producing 
ing   importance   ii    "*""■ 


=,Googlc 


BBROUAH  —  BBRGSON 


crature>  (1872J:  the  latKr  brooght  to  c«npl»- 
tion  with  the  aid  of  his  pasthumons  papers, 

BBROMAN,  Torbero  Olof,  Swedish  natu- 
ral pbiloaopher  arid  chemist:  b,  Katharinberg, 
West  Gotbknd,  20  Manh  1735;  A.  1784.  Sent 
to  U^la  with  a  view  to  preparaing  either  for 
the  Chnrcfa  or  the  bar,  he,  distiking  both,  gave 
his  attention  to  natural  history,  physics  and 
matheinatics.  He  soon  tnade  itnportant  dis- 
coveries in  eiUomology  and  became  noted  as  an 
astronomical  observer.  In  1758  he  became 
doctor  of  phikMophv  and  professor  of  physics 
at  Uptala.  Upon  tne  resignation  of  the  cele- 
brated Wallerius,  Bergman  was  a  candidate  for 
the  profe*sorshlp  «f  aiemistry  and  miaeralogy. 
His  competitcrs  charged  iiim  with  ^oranee  of 
the  subject,  becanse  he  had  never  written  on  it. 
To  refute  them  he  shut  himsell  up  for  some 
lime  in  a  laboratory,  and  prepared  a  treatise  on 
the  manufacture  of  alum,  which  is  still  con- 
sidered as  a  standard  work    In  17^7  he  became 


preparation  of  artificial  mineral  _.  ...  ._  . 
discovered  the  sulphuretted  bydfogen  gas  of 
mineral  springs.  Weare  indeUed  to  him  for  a 
knowledge  of  the  characters  which  distinguiah 
nickel  from  other  metals.  On  a  number  of 
minerals  he  made  chemical  experiments;  with  an. 
accuracy  before  uncommon.  He  publiahed  a 
classification  of  minerals,  in  which  the  chief 
divisions  are  based  oti  their  chemical  char- 
acter, and  the  subdivisions  on  their  external 
form.  In  preparing  this  work  he  was  much 
aided  by  his  former  discoverer  of  the  geometri- 
cal relations  between  difterent  cvstals  of  the 
same  substance:  which  may  be  deduced  from 
one  primitive  form,  and  are  produced  by  tlie 
aggregation  of  similar  particles,  according  to 
fixed  and  obvious  laws.  His  theory  of  the 
chemical  relations  is  still  esteemed,  and  althoui^ 
it  has  received  new  developments  from  the  fur- 
ther researches  of  BertboUet,  has  not  been  over- 
thrown. The  order  of  Gustavua  Vasa  was  be- 
stowed on  Bergman.  Amo^  his  works  the  fust 
place  Is  due  to  'Opuscula  Fhysica.  Chemica,  el 
Mtneralta>  (Upsala  1779-94),  of  which  an  Eng- 
lish translation  appeared.  His  famous  essay  on 
'Elective  Affinities'  was  translated  into  English 
by  Dr.   Beddoes. 

BERGMANN,  JuUhb,  German  philosopher: 


himself  to  mathematics  and  philosophy,  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  philosophy  at  Konigs- 
ber^  in  1872,  and  three  years  later  to  a  similar 
chair  at  Marburg.  Among  his  more  im[>ortant 
writings  are  'Gnindlinien  einer  Theorie  des 
Bewusstseins'  (1870);  'Zur  Beurleilung  des 
Kriticismus'  (1875);  'Reine  Logik'  <I8TO>; 
'Sein  und  Erkennen'  (1880);  'Die  Grundr 
probleme  der  Lorak'  (1882) ;  'Geschichte  der 
Philosophie'  0892-94):  'Untersudmngcn 
iiber  Hauptpunkte  der  Philosophic'  (1900)  ; 
'System  des  objektiven  Idealismus'    (.1*3). 

BBRGMANN  Karl,  American  mniician: 
b.  Ebersbach,  Saxony,  1821-  d.  New  York,  10 
Aug  187&  He  stu<Ued  at  Zittau  and  Breslau. 
Participation  in  the  revolutionary  outbreaks  of 
1848  obliged  him  to  go  into  exile  and  he  came 
to  New  York.  He  organized  and  conducted  the 
F.rst  great  German  music  festival,  held  in  the 
Winter  Garden  Theatre  (1855);  in  18.%  intro- 


duced German  opera  at  Niblo's  Garden,  and  for  . 
several  years  pnor  to  his  death  conducted  the 
concerts  of  the  Philharmonic  Society.  He  com- 
posed several  orchestral  pieces,  and  excelled  it 
a  placer  of  the  violoncello  and  the  piano.  He 
contributed  greatly  to  the  advancement  of  good 
music  in  America. 

BERGHEHL.  See  Diatomaceocs  Easth, 
BERGONZI,  Carlo,  Italian  violin  maker: 
b.  Cremona  1715 ;  d.  there  1755.  He  was  an 
assocjale  of  the  famous  Stradivari,  from  whom 
he  learned  the  art  at  which  both  were  such 
adepts.  Beyond  that  little  is  known  of  his  life. 
His  violins  are  now  rare  and  bring  high  prices, 
though  not  so  bi^  as  those  of  his  master.  They 
are  not  on^  remarkable  for  their  tone,  but  for 
their  beautiful  shapes  as  well, 

BERQSCHRUND.  the  large  crescentic 
crevasse  partly  encircling  the  head  of  a  glacier, 
caused  by  the  forward  movement  of  the  ice 
which  flows  away  from  the  stationary  snow  and 
rock  walls.    See  Gi-acieii;  Cibque. 

BERGSOE,  berg's;,  Jor^en  Vilfaelm,  Dan- 
ish novelist,  poet  and  naturafast:  b.  Copenhagen, 
S.Feb.  1835;  d.  1911.  While  suffering  paitial 
blindness,  caused  by  excessive  use  of  the  micro- 
scope in  his  memorable  biological  researches  at 
Messina,  he  turned  to  literary  composition;  and 
soon  appeared  the  first  of  a  cycle  of  novels, 
'From  the  Piazza  del  Popolo>  0866),  which 
had  an  extraordinary  success.  The  following 
year  he  published  his  Arst  volume  of  poems, 
'Now  and  Then'  (1867).  Of  his  many  novels, 
the  one  which  excels  for  fineness  of  touch  is, 
'Who  was  He?'  (1878).  All  his  stories  are 
characterized  by  rirfi  imagination,  fine  observa- 
tion and  great  originality ;  his  poetty  is  inferior 
in  these  respects  !o  his  prose.  He  also  wrote  an 
historical  work  *Rorae  under  Pius  IX'   (1877). 

BSRGSON,  Henri,  French  philosopher:  b. 
Paris,  18  Oct.  1859.  He  received  his  educarion 
in  Paris,  graduating  from  the  ficole  Normaic 
with  the  degree  Licencifi  ^s-Lettres.  He  then 
taught  at  provincial  lycees  and  colleges  for  a 
number  of  years,  removing  to  Paris  and  taking 
his  degree  of  Docteur-es-Lettres  in  1889.  In 
1896  he  received  an  appointment  in  the  ficole 
Normale  in  Paris  and  two  years  later  became 
a  professor  in  the  College  de  France.  In  1913 
he  visited  America  where  he  delivered  a  course 
of  lectures  at  Columbia  University.  The  same 
year  be  was  also  president  of  the  English  So- 
ciety for  Psychical  Research,  and  delivered 
addresses  at  London  and  Oxford.  The  volumes 
in  which  his  philosoi^cal  ideas  are  contained 
have  been  translated  into  English  and  other 
languages.  The  three  principal  books  are 
'Essaj  sur  les  donn^es  imm^diates  de  la  con- 
science' <tr.  into  English  undef  the  title,  'Time 
and  Free-will,'  Londoti  and  New  York  1910)  ; 
■Matiere  et  Memoire'  (1896,  English  tr.,  'Mat- 
ter and  Memory,'  London  1911);  'L'Evolution 
Creatrice'  (19CP,  English  tr.,  'Creative  Evolu- 
tion,' New  York  1911).  In  addition,  the  follow- 
ing translations  into  English  have  appeared 
from  his  writings :  'Introduction  to  Meta- 
ohyslcs'  (New  York  1912)  ;  'Laughter'  (New 
York  1911) ;  'The  Perception  of  Oiange'  (Ox- 
ford 1911)  ;  'The  Meaning  of  the  War'  (Lon- 
don 1915).  For  an  account  of  Bergson's  phi- 
losophy, E-     "- 


y  Google 


BSRGS0HI8M 


BERGSONISM,  the  teaching  of  the  French 
philosopher,  Henri  Ber^on  (q.vr).  The  central- 
idea  of  this  philosophy  is  Freedom ;  it  is  at  once 
an  explanation  and  a  refutation  of  mechanism 
—  a  refutation  of  the  claim  of  mechanical  prin- 
ciples and  methods  to  furnish  a  final  exjJana- 
tion  of  things,  and  a  demonstration  of  the 
essential  use  and  function  of  these  ideas  in 
human  life.  The  significance  of  Bergsonism  in 
France  consists  in  its  attempt  to  meet  and  refute 
the  determination  and  pessimism  of  writers  who 
claimed  in  the  name  of  "science"  to  lay  down 
certain  general  conclusions  regarding  man's 
place  in  nature.  In  the  first  place,  the  most 
original  feattire  of  this  system  is  that  it  finds 
its  primat^datum  and  its  explanator:/'  principle 
in  life.  The  classical  historical  philosophies, 
realistic  and  idealistic  alike,  proceeded  on  the 
plane  of  the  intellect.  The  relation  of  ideas  and 
objects  furnishes  the  material  for  philosophy  — 
the  one  school  explaining  ideas  as  the  efifects 
of  the  movement  of  material  bodies,  the  other 
interpreting  material  things  in  terms  of  ideas. 
For  both  alike,  the  relation  of  man  to  the  world 
is  staled  in  terms  of  ideas;  both  put  science  or 
knowledge  in  the  first  place.  But  for  Bemon 
life  is  something  deeper  and  more  significant 
.■flian  knowledge.  To  live  is  somethinjf  more 
^  ftinda menial  than  to  know.  All  the  distinctions 
ffiat  we  make,  stich  as  that  between  ideas  and 
objects^  between  inner  and  outer,  fall  within  ■ 
the  original  unity  of  the  life  process.  They  . 
are  secondary  distinctions  which  the  reflective 
intelligence  introduces  for  the  sake  of  its  own 

Cractical  purposes  into  the  immediate  unity  of 
fe  as  it  actually  goes  on.  Life  itself  is  just 
unceasing  change,  an  integral  continuous  proc- 
ess, not  made  up  of  parts,  but  something  that 
is  one  and  indivisible  throughout.  Moreover, 
it  is  characteristic  of  life  that  its  changes  can- 
not be  predicted;  it  is  in  its  very  essence  unde- 
termined spontaneity,  free  creative  energy,  which 
constantly  advances  to  what  is  genuinely  new. 
This  creative  vital  process  is  at  once  the  reality 
and  moving  principle  of  individual  life  and  of 
the  cosmos  as  a  whole.  We  become  aware  of 
it  directly  in  ourselves  through  intuition ;  and 
through  sympathy,  through  the  power  which 
life  everywhere  possesses  of  recognizing  life, 
we  divine  its  presence  in  objects  and  in  the 
world  as  a  whole.  For  we  ourselves  are  part 
and  parcel  of  the  total  cosmic  movement;  all 
reality  is  alike  a  manifestation  of  the  same' 
vital  impulse,  the  tlan  vital,  as  Bergson  names 
it.  The  ultimate  principle  for  this  philosophy 
is  accordingly  neither  conscious  mind  nor  ma- 
terial substance  or  energy ;  the  ultimate  reality 
does  not  consist  of  unchanging  elements, 
whether  conceived  as  material  or  as  *mind 
stuff" ;  but  it  is  a  moving,  creative,  living  proc- 
ess, in  which  there  is  nothing  fixed  and  static, 
nothing  isolated  or  related  only  externally  to 
other  things  and  to  the  whole.  It  is  creativf 
evolution.  We  become  aware  of  the  nature  of 
reaKty  through  direct  experience  of  it,  by  enter- 
ing into  it,  forming  a  part  of  it,  and  interpret- 
ing it  through  sympathy.  This  direct  form  of 
knowing,  Bergson  names  Intuition,  and  he 
contrasts  it  sharply  with  Logic  or  Intellect. 
which  he  confines  to  the  analytic  procedure  of 
the  reflective  understanding. 

lattiition,  which  is  just  the  immediate  aware- 
ness of  life  by  itself,  through  direct  experience 


and  illumined  by  sympathy,  icveals  the  true 
nature  of  reality  as  a  creative  indivisible  proc- 
ess of  change  or  development.  On  the  other 
band,  the  reflective  understanding  breaks  up  this 
integral  process  into  a  world  of  permanent  ob- 
jects existing  in  apjiarent  isolation,  and  proceeds 
to  organize  them  into  casual  systems  and  to 
represent  their  relations  1^  meaas  of  con- 
ceptions which  completely  exclude  freedom. 
Through  this  logic  of  the  intellect  the  stand- 
point of  physical  science  comes  into  existence. 
But  this  intellectual  way  of  reading  reality  is 
only  a  represents ticm  of  it  in  symbolic  tenni. 
It  does  not  set  before  us  reality  as  it  really  is, 
but  is  a  translation  of  die  real,  made  in  the 
interest  at  practical  life,  into  a  series  of  con- 
cepts and  symbols.  For  it  is  not  the  function 
of  logic  and  scientific  analysis  to  reveal  to  us 
the  nature  of  the  world,  but  to  furnish,  through 
the  use  of  symbols,  such  a  schematized  repre- 
sentation of  things  as  will- enable  us  to  deal 
with  thent  in  a  practical  way.  Science  is  an 
intellectual  procedure,  dcpen(^^  on  analysis. 
Btit  to  analyze  is  to  present  a  thing  as  a  finic- 
tion  of  something  else;  all  analysis  is  thtis  a 
translation,  a  developinent  into  synibols,  a 
representation,  it  may  be  from  sixcessive  pmnts 
of  view  in  which  we  note  as  many  resemblances 
as  possible  between  the  object  we  are  study- 
ing and  other  objects  which  are  taken  as  already 
defined.  Its  results  accordingly  are  always 
relative,  yielding  only  a  formulation  of  the  thing 
in  terms  of  something  other  than  itself.  But, 
it  may  be  asked.  Is  it  possible  to  know  a  tUag 
except  in  this  relative  way?  Bergson  replies 
that  there  is  at  least  one  object  which  we  are 
able  to  seize  from  within  by  direct  intuition, 
and  that  is  our  own  personality  as  it  appears  as 
a  conscious  stream  in  time.  This  life  is  not, 
however,  composed  of  discrete  states  of  con- 
sciousness, as  psychology  describes  it,  and  as 
our  ordinary  thought  is  accustomed  to  repre- 
sent it;  but  It  is,  as  actually  lived,  a  contintious 
flow,  a  temporal  whole  without  differentiation 
into  distinct  states  or  parts.  The  tendency  to 
conceive  of  the  mental  life  as  constituted  by  the 
addition  of  'states  of  consciousness*  rests  upon 
the  representation  of  time  in  terms  of  space. 
It  is  essential  to  distinguish,  between  real  time 
or  duration  (la  duree  reelle)  and  the  mathe- 
matical view  of  time  which  is  that  of  an  empty 
homogeneous  (jualityless  medium,  which  allows 
us  only  to  distinguish  paints  as  external  to  each 
other.  Bergson  uses  many  figures  in  order  to 
make  clear  his  view  of  Duration  —  the  concrete 
form  of  the  mental  life.  Perhaps  bis  most 
illuminating  metaphor  is  that  of  the  way  in 
which  a 'musical  phrase  is  apprehended.  The 
various  notes  which  compose  it  are  successive, 
yet  are  not  apprehended  as  a  mere  succession. 
They  interpenetrate:  each  has  its  own  place  as 
part  of  the  musical  idea,  yet  eadi  contains 
within  it  what  has  preceded,  and  prepares  for 
that  which  is  to  follow.  So  inner  experience, 
life,  is  a  whole,  not  as  an  af^egation  of  er- 
temat  parts  or  states  of  consciousness,  bat  in 
the  sense  of  a  movement  wWch  sums  up  die 
past  and  presages  the  future,  uniting  tbem  both 
in  itself.  Il  is  a  continuous  process  of  change, 
which,  however,  must  not  be  regarded  as  » 
passing  awav  of  'states*  or  "moments,"  hut  K 
a  whole  wnich  changes  and  endures  whtk 
changing.    The  intelligence,  operating  by  means 


KBKGSONKH 


of  logicat  concepts,  cannot  enier  into  the  real 
flow  of  time:  it  can  represent  movement  only 
by  taking  cross- sections  of  (he  process,-  and  de- 
termining and  describing  the  cuttdition  of  things 
at  some  specified  point.  When  science  prof  esses 
to  measure  time  and  motion,  what  it  does  is  to 
leave  out  of  account  in  them  what  is  really 
characteristic,  the  duration  and  mobility,  and  to 
measure  the  correspondence  of  certain  fixed 
points,  or  determine  the  relations  of  certain 
elements  of  the  system  with  which  it  is  dealing, 
at  the  end  of  x  longer  or  shorter  period.  A 
favorite  figure  of  Bergson  for  describing  the 
operation  of  the  intellect  is  the  cinema tograplL 
"The  intellect  fixes  things  as  an  order  of  exist- 
ing things  in  space,  setting  each  tbinp  off  as 
something  distinct  and  uncuanging.  To  repre- 
sent change,  it  is  said,  we  must  introduce  time. 
But  it  is  only  the  fiction  of  time  that  the  in- 
telligence is  able  to  represent,  just  as  it  is  only 
the  appearance  of  movement  that  the  cinemato- 
graph gives  us.  In  both  cases  alike,  we  have 
presented,  not  real  change  and  not  motion,  biU 
onty  a  succession  of  fixed  states ;  not  the  flow 
which  is  the  real,  but  a  representation  of  it  in 
terms  of  what  is  static  and  tuicbat^n^.*  The 
idea  of  time  which  the  sciences  employ  is  there- 
fore not  that  of  real  concrete  time  at  all,  but 
of  time  which  has  been  assimilated  to  space. 
Time  from  this  point  of  view  is  represented  as 
a  line,  or  as  the  successive  movemeDts  of  a 
body  over  the  ^arts  of  a  lim.  But,  so  regarded, 
it  is  robbed  uf  its  real  continuity,  and  of  all  that 
is  characteristic  of  concrete  time,  being  ai^im- 
ilated  to  space  in  two  respects.  First,  it  is 
regarded  as  something  discrete,  made  up  of 
parts,  of  minutes  or  seconds,  or  fractions  of  a 
second.  And,  secondly,  it  is  reduced  to  terms  of 
space  by  being  regarded  as  homogeneous 
throughout,  in  shor^  as  kaving  quantity  but  no 
quality.  But  time  is  in  every  respecf  the  an- 
tithesis of  space;  it  is  not  quantity,  but  pure 
quality.  Space  is  homogeneous  and  without 
quality,  it  is  made  up  of  parts  that  are  discrete: 
it  is  just  pure  quantity  without  quality. 

But  it  is  on  this  spatial  view  of  things  that 
the  physical  sciences  are  built  up;  the  logic  of 
their  procedure  is  based  upon  ihe  arrangement 
of  solid  bodies  in  space.  Corresponding  to  the 
antithesis  of  space  and  time,  accordingly,  there 
is  the  opposition  between  life  as  a  continuous 
movemenT,  usentially  free  and  creative,  and  the 
world  of  permanent  objects,  standing  apart 
from  each  other,  and  related  by  necessary  laws. 
The  former  is  iJie  view  of  Intuition,  the  latter 
that  of  die  logic  of  the  Intellect,  But  the  former 
is  the  world  of  real  immediate  experience,  the 
btter  a  transformation  or  construction  of  the 
former  effected  by  the  intelligeitce.  It  is  be- 
cause we  are  imde  for  action  as  well  as  for 
speculation  that  this  transformation  of  the  real 
b  necessary.  The  intellect  is  Ihe  servant  and 
instrument  of  action.  For  the  sake  of  action- 
it  is  necessary  to  break  up  the  inner  fkjw  of 
evfuls,  differentiatii^  it  into  permanent  ele- 
ments with  fixed  relations.  Only  by  thus  ei- 
temalizing  and  fixating  the  unceasing  move- 
ment of  ihe  real  can  we  get  a  fulcrum  for  our 
action ;  only  by  symlwlizing  it  l>y  means  of  un-<. 
changing  concepts  and  established  definitions 
are  we  able  to  predict  the  future  behavior  of 
Ihingsj.and  without  such  prediction  we  should 
be  unable  to  act.  Moreover,  it  is  inevitable  that 
these  same  concepts  and  descriptive  terms  which 


have  proved  so  practically  important  in  dealing 
with  the  outer  world  should  be  carried  over  to 
.the  mentiil  life,  and  that  psychology  should 
come  to  describe  the  mind  by  means  of  concepts 
and  methods  derived  from  the  physical  sciences. 
Nor  is  it  possible  to  den^  a  certain  justifica- 
tion  to  this  description :  mind  has  a  mechanical 
habitual  side,  and  to  a  large  extent  we  live  in 
terms  of  external  acts  and  ideas.  But  in  our 
every-day  acts  and  ordinary  associative  play  of 
ideas  we  live  outside  our  true  |elves ;  and  it  is 
only  such  an  externalized  form  of  life  which 
can  be  represented  or  symbolized  in  terms  of 
separate  states  of  consciousness  and  their  re- 

We  have  now  before  us  the  grounds  on 
which  Ber^son  bases  his  defense  of  freedom. 
Freedom  is  possible  because  the  intellectual 
point  of  view  is  not  absolute  and  final.  The 
concept  of  causality  and  the  logical  standpoint 
of  the  sciences  is  something  which  the  intcl~ 
ligence  has  superimposed  upon  reality  as  it  is 
immediately  given  in  experience.  It  has  even 
extended  this  deterministic  point  of  view  to 
living  things  and  to  the  iimer  world  of  con- 
sciousness. But  this  transformation  is  for  pnc- 
tical  purposes  only.  The  true  reality  as  it  is 
lived  IS  quite  different  from  the  symbolic  repre- 
sentation of  it  which  science  gives:  reality  is 
no  repetition  of  identical  terms,  but  a  free  crea- 
tive process  in  which  what  awiears  is  new  and 
original.  TIte  importance  of  Bergson's  view  of 
change  as  a  process  of  creation  is  seen  when 
this  IS  contrasted  with  the  older  ways  of  con- 
ceiving of  the  process  of  evolution.  The  lo^c 
of  the  sciences,  unable  to  deal  with  genuine 
change,  represents  evolution  as  a  procession  of 
unchanging  elements.  From  this  standpoint, 
the  process  of  evolution  is  described  as  consist- 
ing in  the  redistribution  of  mailer  and  energy: 
in  a  progressive  adjustment  of  factors  and 
forces  wmch  are  taken  as  given,  ready-made, 
perhaps  co.ntaliied  in  the  primitive  nebula  from 
which  the  movement  is  supposed  to  set  out. 
And  the  same  thing  is  true  in  principle  of  those 
theories  which  find  in  the  idea  or  intelligent 
end  the  explanation  of  the  evolutionary  proc- 
ess. In  tioth  cases  alike,  nothing  genuinely 
new  ever  occurs :  all  is  predetermined,  pre- 
arranged: there  is  transformation  and  redis-  _ 
._;v„. —    1..,.  —  ^pai  change.     From  this  point "" 

w,  real  time  is  eliminated,  being  taken 
only  an  external  medium  like  Sjpace: 
that    in    which    things    are,    but    it    is 

isential  to  them  or  they  to  it.  But 
■  'Its  into  things,  and  is  essen- 
tial to  their  comings  and  goings.  Bergson 
describes  his  own  point  of  view  by  the 
term  "creative  evolution."  Change  musi  find  its 
way  to  the  very  heart  of  things,  time  is  of  their 
very  essence ;  the  concrete  movement  of  life 
ana  history  cannot  be  adequately  represented  in 
terms  of  the  mechanical  redistribution  of  ab- 
stract elements  or  unchanging  counters.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  in  this  connection  he  repre- 
sents teleology  as  in  principle  idcntica]  with 
mechanism,  bein^,  as  he  says,  nothing  bill  an 
inverted  mechanism,  and  like  it  an  intellectual 
and   deterministic   pMnt   of   view. 

Bergson,  however,  does  not  confine  his  de- 
fense of  Freedom  to  these  general  considera- 
tions. In  his  book  entitled  'Matter  and 
Memory,'  he  enters  into  a  detailed  discussiott 
of  the  relations  of  twdy  and  mind.     The  geo-- 


tribulio 


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5BO 


BERGSTROll  —SMU-BERI 


era!  position  which  he  defends  is  that  the  body, 
like  the  intellect,  is  the  tool  or  instrument  of 
life,  not  something  which  causes  or  determines 
it.  By  an  examination  of  psycho-physical  ex- 
periments, he  attempts  to  refute  the  current 
notion  that  the  brain  is  a  kind  of  manufactory 
of  ideas,  or  that  memories  are  stored  up  in 
brain  cells.  To  understand  the  function  of  the 
brain,  we  must  regard  it,  not  from  the  point  of 
view  of  knowledge,  but  from  that  of  action. 
The  body  is  organized  for  action,  the  impres- 
sions which  pass  into  the  body  are  stimuli  for 
action,  and  the  function  of  the  brain  (which 
Ptu^  be  compared  to  a  telephone  exchange)  is 
to  respond  by  initiating  the  appropriate  move- 
ment. Perceptions  then  depend  upon  the  body, 
and  their  function  is  not  theoretical,  but  purely 
practical.  On  the  other  hand,  pure  memory  is 
completely  spiritual  in  character,  it  docs  not 
depend  upon  the  body,  but  is  the  affirmation 
of  the  life  of  the  spirit.  These  two,  pure  per- 
ception and  pure  memorv,  are  fundamentally 
different  in  principle  ana  origin  and  sharply 
opposed  to  each  other  in  every  way.  Never- 
theless, in  COTicrete  experience  they  co-operale, 
always  being  found  in  correlation.  But  in  the 
end,  Bergson  maintains  that  the  memory,  as 
the  inner  spiritual  principle,  is  primary  and  that 
it  subordinates  to  itself  the  body  and  the  life 
of  perception.  Progress  consists  in  bringing  the 
past  to  bear  upon  the  present,  in  prolonging 
memory  throupi  perception,  in  the  embodiment 
of  the  spiritual  in  the  material,  in  making  the 
inner  outer. 

Bibliography,— Ruhc,  A.  and  Paul,  N.  M^ 
'Henri  Bergson:  An  Account  of  His  Life  and 


Philosophy*  (London  and  New  York  1914): 
Carr,  H.  W.,  'The  Philosophy  of  Chane  ' 
(London  1914);  Lindsay,  A.  p.,  'The  Philo: 


phy  of  Bergson'  (New  York  1911);  Kallen, 
H,  M.,  'William  James  and  Henry  Bergson' 
(New  York  1914);  Cunningham,  G.  W„  'The 
Philosophy  of  Bergson'  (New  York  1916) ; 
Wilm,  E.  C,  'Henri  Bergson'  (New  York 
1914);  Stewart,  }.  A..  'A  Critical  Exposition 
of  Bcrgson's  Philosophy'  (London  and  New 
Yot4t  1911). 

James  E.  Creichton, 
Profesior  of  Philosophy,  Cornell  University, 

BERGSTROH,  Hjalmar,  Danish  play- 
wright :  b.  1868.  In  1893  be  became  a  teacher 
in  the  Brockshe  Commercial  School,  where  he 
remained  until  1905.  He  is  a  member  of  the 
commission  for  the  preservation  of  the  manu- 
scripts of  neglected  Danish  dramatists  and  one 
of  the  directors  of  the  Danish  Dramatic  So- 
ciety. Most  of  his  plays  were  first  produced 
in  Copenhagen  at  the  Royal  Theatre.  Among 
the  most  important  are  '  Ida's  Wedding' 
(1902);  'Monlergarde  39'  (19(M)  ;  'Lynggaard 
&  Co.'  (1905);  'The  Golden  Fleece'  (1908); 
'The  Birthday  Party'  (1910);  'The  Way  to 
God'  (1912).  'Lynggaard  &  Co.'  has  been 
translated  into  English  by  Edwin  Bjorkman  in 
'The  Modem  Drama  Series'  (New  York 
1913). 

BESGUBS,  Mrg,  France,  town  in  the  de- 
partment of  Le  Nord,  in  a  marshy  district, 
five  miles  south  of  Dmikirk;  pop.  (1911) 
4.856.  It  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  three 
canals,  one  of  which  admits  vessels  of  300 
tons'  burden  and  connects  Beqtues  with  Dun- 
kirk and  the  sea.     This  circumstance,  united 


with  its  central  position,  mkkes  it  the  entrepot 
of  the  adjoining  country.  It  has  manufacinrts 
of  beer  and  oil  and  also  sugar  and  *alt  refin- 
eries. It  ranks  as  a  fortress  of  the  second 
class,  is  well  built  of  brick  and  has  fadLiiies 
for  laying  the  valley  under  water  as  a  de- 
fensive measure  in  war  time.  Its  principal  edi- 
fices are  the  townhouse  and  a  beautilul  and 
richly  ornamented  belfry  about  160  feet  higt. 
It  owes  its  ori^n  to  the  castle  of  Berg,  to 
which  Saint  Wmnoc  retired  in  9G2,  was  first 
fortified  by  Baldwin  II,  CoWt  of  Flanders 
afterward  adorned  with  a  munificent  monas- 
tery of  Saint  Winnoc  by  Baldwin  IV.  and  in 
the  13th  century  possessed  flourishing  manu- 
factories. It  has  suffered  all  the  vicissitudes 
of  a  frontier  fortress;  it  was  finally  taken  b>- 
Louis  XIV  in  1667,  and  Vauban  so  effeciiveh- 
fortified  it  that  the  English  found  it  impreg- 
nable in  1793. 

BERGUT,  or  BEARCOOT,  the  Tanar 
name  in  Central  Asia  for  the  golden  e^k 
(see  Eagle),  there  trained  by  Kirghiz  for  use 
in   falconry. 

BESHAUPUR,  ber-him-poor',  India,  the 
name  of  two  towns.  (1)  The  capital  of  the 
Ganiam  district,  Madras,  525  miles  nordieati  of 
Madras,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail.  A 
good  road  leads  from  it  to  the  coast  town  of 
Gopalpnr,  nine  miles  dbtant.  As  the  headquar- 
ters town  of  the  district,  it  contains  the  usual 
ofGdal  buildings.  (2)  A  town  of  the  Uoor- 
shedabad  distnct,  Bengal,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Bhagirathi.  five  miles  south  of  Moorsheda- 
bad  Berhampar  was  at  one  time  a  latge  mili- 
tary station  of  the  British.  It  contains  a  college, 
hospitals  and  churches.  The  cantonment  has 
been  abandoned.  The  town  has  manufactories 
of  gold^  embroidered  turbans  and  tussah-silk 
cloths.  Improved  sanitation  methods  have  made 
the  place  the  equal  of  any  tn  Bengal  for  health- 
fulness.  The  first  open  act  of  the  Sepoy  mutin>- 
took  place  here  on  25  Feb.  1857.  The  town  con- 
tains a  government  college.     Pop.  22,777. 

BERI-BERI,  bfi-ri-bi-ri  Tlus  is  die 
strange  name  for  a  disease  of  which  but  few 
cases  are  seen  in  the  United  States,  but  in  Ori- 
»mtaJ  countries  and  in  the  PhiUppines  it  is  of 
common    occurrence    and    still    more    so    in 

Japan.  It  is  also  very  common  in  Ceylon, 
ava,  Borneo  and  the  Malay  countries  else- 
where. It  is  a  ro«tnber  of  the  group  of 
diseases  called  tropical  diseases  whiai  it  the 
present  time,  when  all  the  nations  of  the  world 
are  newhbors  and  mutually  interested  in  each 
other,  for  purposes  of  trade  if  for  nothing  else, 
are  being  constantly  investigated.  The  woni 
origioalM  in  Ceylon  and  simply  means  great 
weakness,  in  Japan  it  is  called  Kakke.  whije 
the  English  equivalent  is  tropical  endemic 
multiple  neuritis.  It  is  common  not  only  among 
the  common  people  in  tropical  countries,  but  is 
also  often  seen  in  camps,  hospitals  and  on  ship- 
Multiple  nenritia  U  a  disease  which  i^ 
very  well  known  in  this  country,  it  is  very  pain- 
ful, disfiguring,  protracted  and  fatal.  If  > 
large  number  of  people  were  constantly  afiectw 
witit  this  disease  at  the  same  time  and  in  the 
same  region  of  territory  it  would  be  called 
endemic  multiple  neuritis,  and  if  they  were  tn 
a  tropical  country  it  would  be  cslled  beri-ben. 


=y  Google 


BKKING  — SBRING  SEA 


Wl 


Muld^e  neuritis,  in  temperate  cKtnates,  can 
come  from  a  great  many  causes,  from  the  free 
use  of  alcohol  in  any  form,  from  Doisoning  by 
arsenic,  lead,  mercury  or  phosphoms,  from 
syphilis,  malaria  and  the  infections  fevers,  from 
cold  and  wet,  poor  food  and  poor  home  sur- 
roundings, and  some  of  these  causes  are  often 
at  work  when  the  disease  is  called  beri-beri. 
So  many  diseases  are  the  result  of  germ  lite 
and  action,  it  was  thought  for  a  long  time 
there  must  be  snch  a  cause  for  this  disease.  As 
^t  no  such  germ  has  been  found,  though  when 
It  is  associated  with  other  diseases  like  syphilis, 
malaria  and  the  infectious  fevers,  the  specific 
germs  of  those  diseases  will  of  course  be 
present.  It  is  chiefly  observed  in  those  conntries 
m  which  rice  forms  the  prindpal  article  of  food 
for  the  majority  of  the  people,  and  about  20 
years  ago  it  began  to  be  suspected  by  those  who 
were  studying  the  disease  in  the  islands  of  the 
East  India  archipelago  that  there  must  be  a 
relation  between  a  diet  of  rice  and  this  disease, 
especially  after  it  was  observed  that  those  who 
had  multiple  neuritis  as  a  result  of  insuihcient 
food  and  those  who  were  fed  on  a  diet  oE 

Klished  rice,  that  is,  rice  from  which  the  husk 
s    been    removed,    suffered   with    the    same 
symptoms. 

In  experiments  which  were  made  on  fowls 
the  symptoms  of  multiple  neuritis  were  pro- 
duced when  they  were  fed  on  polished  rice  but 
not  when  they  were  given  the  unhusked  or  red 
rice.  Similar  results  were  obtained  on  human 
hein^  in  Java,  in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and  in 
the  Philippines,  and  hence  it  was  concluded  that 
the  husk  of  rice  like  the  husk  of  wheat  contains 
important  mineral  constituents,  probably  phos- 
phorus in  particular,  the  lack  of  which  resulted 
in  the  development  of  beri-beri.  When  those 
who  suffered  with  this  disease  were  fed  with 
rice  bran  they  at  once  bc^an  to  improve  and 
steadily  got  well.  In  this  disease  there  is  iniuiy 
or  destruction  of  the  ends  of  the  nerves  which 
^  to  the  skin,  with  consequent  loss  of  sensa- 
tion, and  of  those  which  go  to  the  muscles,  with 
loss  of  motion  and  gradual  withering,  the  heart 
muscle  becomes  flabby  and  weak  and  the  liver, 
kidneys,  lungs  and  spleen  become  congested. 
There  are  two  forms  of  the  disease,  tne  wet 
and  the  dry. 

In  the  wel  form  there  are  dropsical  swel!- 
ines  of  the  tissues,  especially  of  tlie  legs  and 
ankles,  and  the  cavities  of  the  body,  the  abdo- 
men, the  chest  and  the  pericardium,  which  sur- 
rounds the  heart,  become  more  or  less  filled 
with  fluid.  This  of  course  produces  great  weak- 
ness, diSiculty  in  walking,  standing  and  breath- 
ing, yfcsk  heart  action  and  frequently  death 
wiHiin  a  few  days.  The  disease  often  begins 
with  a  chill  and  besides  the  symptoms  already 
mentioned  there  are  fever|  nausea,  vomiting  of 
blood,  albumen  in  the  unnc,  etc.  Should  the 
disease  take  a  favorable  turn  the  bad  symptoms 
will  gradually  subside  leaving  more  or  less 
paralysis  and  withering  of  the  muscles  which 
after  wedcs  or  months  may  entirely  disappear. 
In  the  dry  form  of  beri-beri  the  disease  pro- 
gresses slowly  and  is 'less  fatal  than  the  wet 
form.  It  begins  with  neuralf^c  pain  in  the  ex- 
tremities ana  witlt  changes  in  the  nutrition  of 
the  skin.  There  are  cramps,  tenderness  to  the 
touch,  deformity  of  the  joints^paralysis  of  the 
mascles   and  unsteady  gait.     Then   follow  dis- 


turbances of  the  stomach,  blood  poisoning  and 
emaciation,  and  the  disease  may  continue  for 
weeks,  months  or  years  or'  until  some  other 
disease  develops  and  the  patient  dies.  The 
mortality  from  both  forms  of  the  disease  is 
from  10  to  40  per  cent.  The  most  important 
thing  in  the  treatment  of  the  disease  is  to 
change  the  diet  from  polished  rice  to  un- 
polished, that  is  with  the  husk  intact  or  ground 
up  in  bran  with  the  rest  of  the  kernel.  Pre- 
ventive measures  are  all  important  and  mean 
proper  diet,  freedom  from  exposure  to  wet  and 
cola,  freedom  from  excesses  and  vic^  and 
avoidance  of  infectious  tropical  diseases.  Tonics 
like  quinine  and  strychnia  must  be  given,  and 
such  drugs  as  will  relieve  pain  and  assist  in 
removiag  the  dropsical  fluids  from  the  body. 
Massage,  electricity  and  hot  baths  also  play  an 
important  part  in  the  treatment. 

BERING,  be'ring,  or  BEHRING,  Vitus, 
Danish  navigator:  b.  Horsen  1680;  d.  19  Dec. 
1741.  Being  known  as  a  skilful  seaman,  he  was 
employed  by  Peter  the  Great  in  the  navy  estab- 
lished at  Cronstadt.  His  talents  and  the  un- 
daunted courage  displayed  by  him  in  the  naval 
wars  against  the  Swedes  procured  him  the 
honor  of  being  chosen  to  command  a  voyage  of 
discovery  in  tne  Sea  of  Kamchatka.  He  set  out 
from  Saint  Petersburg,  5  Feb.  1725,  for  Siberia. 
In  the  year  1723  he  examined  the  northeastern 
coasts  of  Asia,  discovered  the  strait  named 
after  him  and  provea  that  Asia  is  not  united  to 
America.  It  remained  however,  to  be  deter- 
mined whether  the  ]and  opposite  to  Kamchatka 
was  in  reality  the  coast  of  the  American  con- 
tinent or  merely  islands  lying  between  Asia  and 
America.  On  4  June  1741  he  sailed,  with  tyto 
ships,  from  Okhotsk,  and  touched  the  north- 
west coast  of  America.  Tempests  and  sickness 
Erevented  him  from  pursuing  his  discoveries; 
e  was  cast  on  a  desolate  island  covered  with 
snow  and  ice,  where  he  died.  The  account  of 
the  voyage  was  written  by  the  survivor,  Steller 
(Saint  Petersburg  1793).  Consult  also  the 
'Life'  by  Laridsen  (Chicago  18)0). 

BERING  SEA,  that  part  of  the  north 
Pacific  Ocean  between  the  Aleutian  Islands,  in 
55°,  and  Bering  Strait,  66°  N.,  by  which  latter 
it  communicates  with  the  Arctic  Ocean,  h  has 
on  its  west  side  Kamchatka  and  the  (Thukchi 
country,  with  the  Gulf  of  Anadyr,  and  on  its 
east  die  territory  of  Alaska,  with  Norton  Sound 
and  Bristol  Bay;  contains  several  islands,  and 
receives  the  Yukon  River  from  North  America 
and  the  Anadyr  River  from  Asia.  It  is  about 
1,000  miles  from  north  to  south  and  1,500  from 
east  to  west  Fogs  are  almost  perpetual  in  this 
sea.  Ice  is  fotrned  and  melted  in  the  sea  every 
year,  die  northern  part  becoming  closed  to 
navigation  about  the  beginning  of  November. 
The  chief  islands  are  the  Pnbilof,  Nunivafc, 
Saint  Lawrence  and  Saint  Matthew.  The 
northern  portion  is  about  100  fathoms  deep, 
while  the  southern  portion  has  a  depth  of  from 
1,000  to  1,700  fathoms.  Pack  ice  gradually  ex- 
tends southward  to  a  little  below  the  latitude  of 
Saint  Matthew's  Island  (OHVi'),  beyond  which 
ice  is  found  in  floes.  The  souttiem  limit  of  the 
ice  usually  extends  from  Bristol  Bay,  Alaska, 
to  about  is  mites,  south  of  the  Pribilof  Islands 
though  in  exceptionally  severe  winters  it  reaches 
as  far  south  as  tlniraak  Pass.  It  usually  leaves 
the  Pribilof  Islands  about  1  May,  and  vesselt 


.Google 


6M 


BERING  SBA  CONTBOVBSSY 


following  in  its  wake  may  reach  Bering  Strait 
between  about  15  and  25  June.  A  strong  and 
comparatively  warm  current  sets  northward  at 
about  two  to  three  knots  an  hour,  through 
Beriag  Strait,  and  after  following  the  Siberian 
shore  turns  north  toward  Herald  Island.  A 
cold  current  also  passes  out  through  the  strait. 
BERING  SBA  CONTROVERSY,  an 
international  dispute  over  the  territorial  status 
of  that  sea,  chiefly  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain,  and  growing  out  of  attempts 
of  the  former  to  protect  its  fur-sealing  indus- 
tries  there  from 'the  Canadian  subjects  of  the 
latter.  This  industry  rests  on  three  great  herds 
in  the  north  Pacific,  which  resort  regularly 
to  irertain  islands  in  the  breeding  season,  from 
Uay  or  June  till  the  autumn  storms,  then  move 
southward  to  about  35°  N.,  and  gradually  work 
northward  the  next  spring.  At  the  islands  the 
elder  males  remain  with  the  young  on  the  beach 


elors,*  two  to  four  years  old,  herd  apart,  and 
should  furnish  all  the  commercial  sealskin^  the 
pelts  of  the  old  males  being  unsalable  anti  the 
killing  of  females  a  blow  at  the  continuance 
of  the  species.  But  this  selection  can  only  be 
-made  on  shore ;  pelagic  or  ocean  sealing  is  at 
best  indiscriminate  if  done  during  migrations, 
and  is  almost  exclusively  of  females  during 
the  breeding  season,  while  every  mother  seal 
then  killed  means  a  yotmg  seal  starved  ashore. 
The  largest  of  these  "rookeries'  is  on  the  Pribi- 
lof  Islands  in- Bering  Sea,  where  the  Rossiao- 
Ameiican  Company  carried  on  sealing  till  their 
cession  to  the  United  States  in  1867,  when  it 
was  talung  some  40,000  seals  a  year;  the  herd 
being  prT>tected  by  restrictive  regulations.  In 
1821  AlejLander  I  Issued  a  ukase  claiming 
Bering  Sea  as  Russian  property,  and  forbiddtnR 
trespass  on  pain  of  confiscation ;  but  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  protested  so  vigorously 
that  the  claim  was  dropped.  After  the  cession 
the  rivalry  of  competins  companies  would 
speedily  have  made  an  end  to  the  seals  in  (he 
Northern  Ocean,  as  it  long  since  bad  in  the 
Southern,  had  not  the  United  States  leased  the 
islands  for  20  years  to  the  Alaska  Commercial 
Company  (which  then  leased  the  Russian  seal- 
islands  also)  for  $55,000  a  year  and  $2.62'^  a 
sldn,  restricting  the  catch  to  100,000  a  year. 
In  fact  the  company  kept  a  little  under  that' 
mark;  but  the  contract  was  so  profitable  that 
vessels  were  soon  fitting  out  from  British  Co- 
lumbia, Hawaii  and  Australia,  which  intercepted 
the  seals  as  they  passed  between  the  Aleutian 
Islands  northward  or  southward,  or  entered 
Bering  Sea  and  caught  the  females  as  ihcy 
ranged  the  seas  for  food.  The  poaching  grew 
in  volume,  and  a  stream  of  protest  from  the 
Alaslca  Company  (lowed  in  year  after  year  to 
the  govermnent  at  Washington,  which  m  18S1 
was  goaded  into  ofKcialty  reversing  its  former 
contention,  and  declared  Bering  Sea  east  of 
the  treaty  meridian  of  1867  American  waters; 
hut  took  no  further  step  till  1886,  when  under 
President  Cleveland  it  seiied  and  condemned 
three  Canadian  sealers.  Great  Britain  pro- 
tested, and  proceedings  were  suspended  pending 
discussion :  but  in  1887  five  more  were  seized, 
and  the  question  at  once  became  a  matter  of 
serious  diplomacy.  Secretary  Bayard  attempted 
to     convene    ddcgates     from     Great     Britain, 


France,  Germany,  Sweden,  Russia  and  Japan  to 
meet  with  our  own  and  frame  regulations  1o 
prevent  the  extirpation  of  the  northern  seals* 
but  in  June  1888  Great  Britain  vritbdrew,  under 
pressure  from  Canada.  In  1889  several  more 
Canadian  vessels  were  seized,  and  Great  Britain 
sent  a  practical  menace  of  war  if  this  were  doI 
stopped  There  being  but  three  alternatives. 
abandDnment  of  the  sealing  interest  to  dcslnic- 
tion,  which  the  country  woijd  not  endure;  seiz- 
ure of  all  poaching  vessels,  which  meant  war; 
and  arbitration  —  Uie  latter  was  decided  on  in 
1890.  The  same  year  the  Alalia  Company,  its 
lease  expired,  was  succeeded  by  the  North 
American  Company:  the  herd,  estimated  in 
1867  at  over  3,000.000  on  the  Pribilof  IsUSds, 
had  shrunk  so  enormously  under  the  pela^ 
sealing  that  the  price  had  risen  from  $2.50  to 
$30  per  skin,  and  the  new  cpmpany's  Umii  of 
capture  was  restricted  to  2O,0iDO,  with  a  roialtv 
of  $10  a  skin.  On  15  June  1891  a  modus  viven£ 
was  ^recd  on  for  joint  policing  of  Bering  Sea 
byBritish  and  American  vessels ;  and  on  29  Feb. 
1892  a  treaty  of  arbitration  was  ugned,  tinder 
which  on  23  March  1893  a  tribunal  met  at  Paris, 
composed  of  Baron  de  Courcel  (France),  Uar- 


Emilo  Visconti-Venosti  (Italy),  Judge 
vjregers  W.  W.  Gram  (Sweden-Norway),  '  ' 
Hannan  (England),  Sir  John  S.  D.  Thon 


(Canada),  Justice  John  Si.  Harlan  and  Senator 
John  T.  Morgan  (United  States).  The  Uniitd 
States  case  was  conducted  by  the  Secretary  oi 
State  (John  W.  Foster)  ;  counsel.  Edward  J. 
Phelps,  James  C.  Carter,  Frederick  R.  Couderl 
and  Henry  Blodgct.  The  decision  on  the  logical 
points  was  entirety  against  the  United  Stales; 
Bering  Sea  was  held  part  of  the  hif^  seas  and 
no  one's  preserve,  and  seals  fera  tiatHm  and  no 
one's  property.  But  on  the  point  of  equin  in 
our  case,  that  the  preservation  of  the  seals  fiotn 
extinction  was  a  common  interest  of  (he  civil- 
ized world,  it  agreed  with  us  and  framed  reg- 
ulations binding  (or  live  ^ears  to  prohibit  all 
pelagic  sealing  within  60  miles  of  the  Pribilof s, 
or  from  I  May  to  3)  July  in  the  north  Pacific 
east  of  180°  or  north  of  35°.  with  other  regula- 
tions. The  restrictions  proved  absurdly  ineflec- 
tive,  and  Great  Britain  would  not  antagonize 
(Canada  to  make  them  less  so ;  in  1894  the 
pelagic  catch  was  the  enormous  one  of  142,00(L 
far  beyond  any  former  record,  and  lor  several 
more  seasons  was  very  great,  till  the  herds 
showed  signs  of  rapid  extuustion.  Great  Brit- 
ain obstinately  refused  to  make  any  chaoge 
in  the  regulations  till  the  five  years  were  up, 
sent  an  expert  to  the  spot  who  laid  alt  the 
blame  on  the  North  American  Company,  and 
refused  to  send  a  delegate  to  meet  those  of 
Russia,  Japan  and  the  United  States,  who 
agreed  to  prohibit  ^lagic  sealing  to  .their  sub- 
jects if  Great  Britain  would  do  so.  Meantime, 
to  put  pressure  on  the  latter.  Congress  prohib- 
ited (he  importation  of  all  sealskins  except  ihe 
North  American  (^mpany's,  in  order  to  destroy 
the  market  for  Canadian-caught  skins  and  mifce 
their  bu^ness  unprofitable;  but  Ei^land  sdU 
refused  to  agree  to  the  provisional  treaty,  on 
the  groiwd  uiat  it  would  injure  Canada,  was 
not  necessary  to  protect  the  seals  and  that  (he 
North  AmericBn  Company  was  solely  in  fault. 


digitized  byGoOt^Ie 


BERING    STRAIT  — BERKBLEY 


U3 


tention  at  every  point,  thiit  the  herds  had  dimin' 
ished  by  from  66^  to  80  per  cent,  and  mark- 
edly so  even  from  1896  to  1S97;  that  the  North 
American  Company  was  haodlin^  its  business 
widi  entire  propriety;  that  pelagic  scaling,  in- 
volving the  killing  off  of  the  females,  was  the 
sole  cause  of  the  reduction,  which  was  ihreat- 
rniag  the  entire  extinction  of  the  fur  seaL 
Another  year  would  bring  about  the  time  foi 
changing  the  Paris  regiilations,  and  the  United 
States  agreed  to  prohibit  all  seal  killing,  even  on 
the  Piibilofs,  for  a  year,  but  Canada  would 
not  ooasent  because  it  would  scatter  the  crews 
of  her  sealing  fleet.  Meantime,  Congress  on  14 
June  1898  appropriated  $473,151^  to  pay  for 
the  Canadian  vessels  seized  ^ears  before.  On 
JO  May  1898  a  joint  Canadian  and  American 
commission  was  authorized;  it  met  at  Quebec  in 
August,  adjourned  to  November  at  Washing- 
ton, continued  till  February  1899,  adjourned  to 
the  summer  and  did  not  reassemble.  Uost  un- 
forttinatcly,  its  scope  mcluded  all  the  questions 
at  issue  between  the  two  governments ;  the  seal- 
ing; problem  became  entangled  at  the  outset 
with  impossible  bargains  for  general  commer- 
cial reciprocity,  then  with  the  Alaska  boundary 
question  (q.v.)  made  acute  by  the  Klondike 
gold  discoveries,  and  at  the  adjournment  not 
a  single  issue  before  it  had  i>een  decided  The 
Paris  regulations  had  expired,  no  new  ones 
had  been  established,  and  the  seals  were  left 
wholly  without  protection;  while  even  so.'as 
the  United  States  forbade  pelagic  sealing  to  its 
S' while  England  did  not.  all  the  profit  of 


bercd  26  vessels,  that  of  1900  numbered  33,  with 
a  catch  of  over  35,000  each  year,  considerably 
more  than  half  females.  The  same  conditions 
continuing,  the  North  American  Company 
increased  its  efforts  in  order  to  obtain  its 
shace  while  the  seals  lasted ;  and  in  the 
Congressional  session  of  1901-02  it  was  seriously 
proposed  to  kill  off  the  entire  herd  at  once,  and 
thus  end  the  question  by  putting  an  end  to  the 
seals.  In  1911,  an  international  agreement  pro- 
vided for  the  coriservation  of  the  seal  industry. 
See  Alaska:  Comuekcial  Development  — 
FuB- Seals.  Consult  Henderson's  '  American 
Diplomatic  Questions'  (New  York  1901)  ; 
Stanton's  .'Bering  Sea  Controversy*  (New 
York  1892) ;  Snow,  'Treaties  and  Topics  in 
American  Diplomacy'  (Boston  1894).  See 
United  States  —  Diplomacv  of  the. 

BERING  STRAIT  and  ISLAND.  The 
strait  is  the  channel  that  separates  Asia  from 
America,  and  omnects  the  north  Pacific  with 
the  Arctic  Ocean.  Its  breadth  at  the  narrowest 
part,  between  Cape  Prince  of  Wales  on  the 
American  coast  and  East  Cape  in  Asia,  is  about 
36  miles,  and  its  depth  in  the  middle  varies 
from  29  to  30  fathoms.  On  both  sides  are  sev- 
eral commodious  bays;  biit  the  coimtry  is  bar- 
ren and  rocky,  with  scanty  vegetadon.  The 
sea  here  is  frozen  over  every  winter,  md  foggy, 
hazy  weather  is  almost  perpetual.  VVIiales  fre- 
quent the  strait.ajid  the  walrus  occurs  in  vast 
numbers.  The  inhabitants  on  either  shore  sup- 
port themselves  chiefly  by  hunting  and  fishing; 
but  those  on  the  Asiatic  side  are  greatly  su- 
perior, both  phyacally  and  intellectually,  to 
those  on  the  American.  The  strait  is  called 
after  Vitus  Bering,  by  whom  it  was  first  dis~ 


covered.  It  was  more  ftUly  explored  by  Cap- 
tain Cook  in  l77a  Berikc  Islajid  is  in  the 
southwest  part  of  the  above  sea,  off  the  coast 
of  Kamchatka.  It  is  uninhabited,  and  is  with- 
out wood.  It  has,  however,  several  springs  of 
excellent  water.  Here  the  navigator  Bering 
died  in  1741. 

BERINGTON,  Joseph,  English  Roman 
Catholic  theologian :  b.  Shropshire  1746;  d. 
Berkshire,  1  Dec.  1827.  He  was  a  Catholic 
liberal,  who  agitated  for  the  repeal  of  the  tests. 
In  1779  he  published  a  letter  to  Fordyce  on  his 
*Sermon  against  Popery.'  His  other  works 
include  'State  and  Bdiavior  of  English  Catho- 
lics from  the  Reformation  till  1780'  <I7S0): 
'An  Address  to  the  Protestant  Dissenters' 
(1786);  'History  of  Abelard  and  Heloise,' 
with  their  genuine  letters  (1787)  ;  'History  of 
Henry  IP  (1790)  ;  'Memoirs  of  Grcgorio 
Panzani,'  papal  legate  to  £iu[tand  in  1634-36, 
translated  from  the  Italian  (1793) ;  <The  Faith 
of  Catholics'  (1813).  and  'A  Literary  History 
of  the  Uiddk  Ages'    (1814). 

BERIOT,  ba-r^6,  Charles  Angiute  de, 
Belgian  violinist:  b.  Louvain,  20  Feb.  1802;  d. 
there.  20  April  1870.  He  studied  with  Hob- 
brccht  and  Tiby,  and,  in  Paris^^  with  Baillot; 
and  became  a  professor  in  the  Conservatory  in 
Paris  atid  in  that  of  Brussels  in  1842.  In  1836 
he  married  the  celebrated  singer,  Malibran.  In 
1S51  failing  eyesight  obliged  him  to  resign.  He 
composed  a  complete  manual  for  the  violin 
(1858)  and  wrote  seven  concertos  and  a  preat 
number  of  popular  compo^tions,  all  distin- 
guished by  rehned  taste  and  great  brilliancy. 
He  showed  a  great  advance  over  his  prede- 
cessors in  his  treatment  of  the  instrument. 
His  splendid  tedinique  and  eminent  qualities  of 
composer  made  him  the  head  of  the  Belgian 
school  of  irtolinists,  which  through'  him  and  his 
pupils  became  jttstly  famous. 

BERISLAV,  bi'r;-s1af,  or  BORISLAV, 
Russia,  a  fortified  town  on  the  Dnieper  Kiver 
in  the  govcniment  of  Kherson,  46  miles  north- 
cast  of  Kherson.  The  trade  in  grain  is  consid- 
erable. The  Turks  are  supi^osed  to  have 
founded  a  town  here  in  14S0  which  they  named 
Kiii-Kerman,  Peter  the  Great  wrestecf  it  from 
then)  in  1696,  and  later  it  was  named  Berislav. 
Pop.  about  12,000, 

'  BERKELEY,  George,  English  philosopher 
and  bUhop:  b.  Kikrin,  Ireland,  12  March  168S; 
d.  Oxford,  14  Jan,  1753.  He  was  educated  at 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  where  he  took  a  keen 
interest  in  the  philosophical  problems  then  un- 
der discussion.  He  received  the  degree  of  A.B. 
with  honors  in  1704,  being  afterward  succes- 
sively scholar  and  fellow.  Almost  immediately 
he  began  his  career  of  authorship.  He  pub- 
lished in  1709  his  first  important  work,  the 
'New  Theory  of  Vision,'  which  is  the  logical 
preliminary  to  his  system  and  ^ves  expression 
to  certain  of  its  fundamental  prmciples.  A  year 
bter  his  philosophy  £nds  complete  statement  in 
the  'Treatise  Concerning  the  Principles  of 
Human  Knowledge.'  During  the  next  15  years 
Berkeley  advanced  to  a  position  ol  prominence 
in  the  English  Church.  In  1711,  shortly  after 
his  ordination  to  the  diaconate,  he  published 
his  'Discourse .on  Passive  Obedience,'  a  treatise 
upon  ethics,  in  which  he  develops  a  system  of 
theological    utilitarianism.     The     'Dialogues,' 


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accompanied  by  increasing  fame  and  prosperity. 
He  was  appointed  successively  to  the  deaneries 
of  Dromore  and  of  D^rry,  the  latter  of  which 
yielded  a  laree  income.  But  this  he  resigned 
ht  order  lo  devote  himself  to  a  plan  for  the 
establishment  of  a  college  in  the  Bermudas, 
wiierc  the  Indians  of  America  were  to  be  en- 
lightened and  christianized.  For  the  further- 
ance of  such  a.  plan  he  obtained  a  promise  from 
the  government  for  a  grant  of  £20,000.  Upon 
the  strength  of  this  he  sailed  for  America  in 
1728,  accompanied  by  his  wife  and  a  few 
friends.  They  went  first  to  Rhode  Island, 
where  they  planned  to  await  the  expected  grant 
Here  Berkeley  purchased  a  farm  and  waited 
three  years  in  quiet  and  study.  Finally,  upon 
the  failure  of  the  government  to  make  ^ooa  ixt 
promise,  he  was  compelled  to  give  up  bis  cher- 
ished plan  and  return  to  England  in  1731.  Soon 
after  his  return  he  was  made  bishop  of  Cloyne. 
During  the  remaining  years  of  his  life  he  pub- 
lished a  number  of  works  upon  philosophy, 
economics  and  other  subjects.  Notable  among 
these  were   'Alciphron,  or  the  Minute  Philoso- 

fher,*  the  result  of  his  quiet  studies  in  Rhode 
sland,  and  *Sirus_,>ja  remarkable  essay  in 
which  the  author  interweaves  his  convictions 
concerning  the  healing  properties  of  tar-waier 
with  the  deepest  ana  most  profound  of  his 
philosophic  reflections. 

Although  the  representative  English  idealist| 
Berkeley  proceeds  in  his  thought  from  the 
empirical  philosophy  of  Locke.  It  was  Locke's 
contention  dtat.in  knowledge  we  are  concerned 
with  our  own  ideas  only,  and  that  these  ideas 
are  derived  entireljt  from  experience^  He  made 
an  important  distinction  among  these  ideas, 
however,  with  reference  to  their  representation 
of  objective  or  material  reality.  Ideas  of  color, 
sound,  taste,  etc.,  called  secondary  qualities, 
are  subjective  processes,  and  reveal  nothing  of 
the  nature  of  material  reality.  But  ideas  of  ex- ' 
tension,  figure,  motion,  etc.,  called  primary  qual- 
ities, reveal  directly  the  nature  and  constitution 
of  uiat  reality  which  exists  without  the  mind^ 
in  the  material  world.  Berkeley  agreed  with 
Locke  that  we  know  cmly  our  own  ideas,  but  h^ 
attacked  vigorously  this  distinction  between  pri- 
mary and  secondary  qualities.  He  maintained 
that  ideas  of  primary  qualities  are  wholly  sub- 
jective, and  tell  us  no  more  of  the  nature  of 
material  reality  than  do  our  ideas  of  secondary 
qualities.  He  attempts  a  partial  proof  of  this 
in  his  'New  Theory  of  Vision,'  by  showing 
that  distance,  magnitude  and  situation  are  not 
directly  perceived  by  sight,  but  are  inferred 
in  an  indirect  manner.  These  ideas  of  distance, 
magnitude  and  situation  are  results  of  judg- 
ment based  upon  visual  sensations.  Such  visual 
sensations  have  no  essential  relation  to  the 
ideas  in  question,  hpwevcr  ^-they  are  simply 
associated  with  tnem  in  experience.  For  ex- 
ample, consider  our  idea  of  distance.  We  find 
connected  with  this  idea;  (1)  Sensation  of 
movement  in  the  eyt-  (2)  contusion  in  vision 
due  to  nearness  of  the  object,  and  (3)  strain 
of  fixation.  These  sensations  are  associated  by 
custom  with  d^prees  of  distance.  Hence  we 
have  in  this  idea  of  distance  no  direct  revela- 


tion through  vision  of  the  nature  of  m^erial 
realil);.  Rather  we  have  the  product  of  otir 
own  judgment,  based  upon  sensations  wUdi 
have  themselves  no  objective  reference.  So  it 
is  with  other  ideas  of  primary  qualities  wliidi 
have  been  held  to  bring  us  into  immediate  con- 
tact with  material  reality.  In  ideas  of  fig)m 
and  motion  we  have  sensations  of  light,  color 
and  strain,  and  the  remainder  is  due  to  asso- 
ciation and  judgment.  Thus  Berkeley  oinchidM 
that  we  have  in  visual  ideas  not  a  revehtion 
of  the  nature  of  matter,  but  a  universal  lan- 
guage of  symbols  whereby  we  interpret  our 
sensations  of  touch,  and  so  regulate  our  actions  -' 
as  to  preserve  and  promote  our  lives.  In  his 
'Treatise  Concerning  the  Principles  of  Htunan 
Know)ei^,>  he  uses  this  conclusion  to  dis- 
prove the  existence  of  a  material  worid  apart  ' 
from,  and  independent  of,  the  percnving  nund. 
The  very  notion  of  matter  or  corporeal  sob- 
stance  involves  insoluble  contradiction.  By  mat- 
ter is  meant  inert,  senseless  substance  in  wbidh^ 
extension,  figure  and  motion  reude.  But  these 
so-called  attributes  of  matter  are  ideas  in  the 
mind,  and  are  shown  to  be  every  whit  as  sub- 
jective as  ideas  of  colors  and  tastes.  Now 
ideas  can  be  similar  only  to  ideas.  Hence  to 
suppose  that  our  ideas  copy  or  represent  a 
material  substance  that  is  un_perceiving  and  on- 
perccived,  is  a  crass  absurdity.  Ideas  are  the 
otjjy  objects  of  our  thought.  To  exist  is  an 
object  is  to  be  perceived.  (Este  est  pereipi)  Al- 
though confined  to  our  own  ideas,  we  may  ob- 
serve their  various  characteristics  and  combina- 
tions. Sense  qualities  are  simply  states  of  con- 
sciousness. Sense-objects  are  sensation-com- 
plexes. There  is  in  our  consciousness  a  con- 
tinuous succession  of  these  perceptions,  in 
which  we  perceive  perceptions  newly  exdted, 
perceptions  changed  and  perceptions  obliterated. 
For  all  these  phenomena  there  must  be  some 
cause.  This  cause  cannot  be  an  jdca  or  com- 
bination of  ideas;  for  it  is  the  appearance  and 
arrangement  of  ideas  which  must  be  explained. 
Thii  cause  must  be  a  substance,  a  ground  of 
existence.  Matter,  or  corporeal  substance,  is  an 
impossibility.  We  are  compelled,  therefore,  to 
find  the  cause  of  our  ideas  in  an  incorporeal, 
active  substance  or  spirit.  But  we  observe  an 
important  difference  in  the  production,  of  our 
ideas.  Those  ideas  actually  perceived  by  the 
senses  of  the  individual  are  not  dependent  upon 
his  own  mind  or  will.  Hence  there  must  ht 
some  other  will  or  spirit  which  produces  then. 
This  is  God,  the  Author  of  Nature.  The  ideas 
of  sense  are  imprinted  upo"  our  tninds  by  the 
direct  influence  of  the  Divine  Mind,  Hence 
they  are  strong,  orderly  and  cohercnL  Thar 
source  guarantees  their  trustworthiness,  and 
with  good  reason  they  may  be  called  'real 
things^  In  this  way  our  knowledge  acquires 
an  objective  vali4£ty_  much  more  adequate  than 
if  our  ideas  were  aroused  by  the  action  of  i 
material  substance  upon  our  sense-organs.  The 
laws  of  nature,  which  we  properly  regard,  rep- 
resent the  regular  operation  of  the  Divine  Mind 
upon  onr  minds.  There  is  consequently  no  dif- 
ficulty in  distinguishing  the  order  of  ideas  whtcb 
is  real  and  objective,  from  the  train  of  subjec- 
tive fancies  and  imaginations. 

Bibliography.—  The  best  edition  of  Berte- 
ley's  worlcs  is  that  by  Fraser  (2d  ed.,  Oxford 
I9tE),   containing  a    *Life.>     Ctmioit  fuitiier 


tizcdbyGoOl^Ie 


BBRKBLSY 


Fraser's  briefer  'Life'  (London  1881;  new  ed. 
1901;  in  *  Philosophical  aaasiea');  Proderichs, 
'Uebcr  Berfceleys  Idalismiis^  (BerKn  1870) ; 
Spicker,  'Kant,  Hume  imd  Berkeley'  (BerHn 
187S) ;  Janitscli,  'Kants  Urtheil  uber  Beilce- 
ley'  (Straasburg  1879^  ;  Penjon,  'Etudes  sut  la 
vie  ef  les  ojuvres  philosoiAigties  dc  Berkeley' 
(Paris  1878);  Stephen,  Sir  L.,  'English 
Thought  in  the  Eighteenth  Century'  (1902); 
Fullerton,  G.  S.,  'System  of  Metaphysics' 
(New  York  1904).  For  Berkeley's  visit  to 
America  consult  TVler,  M.  C,  'Three  Men  of 
Letters'    (New  York  1895). 

Henry  W.  Wright, 
Lake   Forest  College. 

BBKKSLBY,  George  Charles  Grantley 
FitzhardinEC,  English  writer:  b.  10  Feb.  1800; 
d.  Poole,  Dorsetshire,  23  Feb.  1881.  In  1832- 
52  he  was  a  member  of  the  British  Parhament 
and  (or  a  time  he  was  in  the  amw.  He  vis- 
ited America  in  1861.  His  'My  Life  and  Rec- 
ollections' (1864-66),  an  extensive  work  at- 
tracted some  attention.  Among  his  further 
works  arc  'Berkeley  Castle'  (1836),  adverse 
criticism  of  which  in  Fraser's  Magasine  led 
Berkeley  to  assault  the  publisher  and  fight  a 
duel  with  the  critic.  Dr.  William  Maginn; 
'Sandron  Hall,  or  the  Days  of  Queen  Anne' 
(18«)  ;  'The  English  Sportsman  on  the  West- 
em  Prairies'  (1861) ;  'Anecdotes  of  the  Upper 
Ten  Thousand  at  Home  and  Abroad'  (1867); 
and  'Tales  of  Life  and  Death'  (1870).  He 
was  the  last  person  who  wore  the  flat  cocked 
hat  loiowD  as  the  chapeau  bras.  Consult  his 
'Recollections*  and  also  'Men  of  the  Time' 
(7th  ed). 

BERKELEY,  Sir  Georite,  English  en- 
gineer:  b.  London  26  April  1821;  d.  there,  20 
Dec.  1893.  In  1835  he  began  experimenting 
with  methods  for  operating  atmospheric  raif- 
ways.  In  1841  be  associated  himself  with  Rob- 
ert Stephenson  and  continued  his  experiments. 
On  Stephenson's  death  he  became  engineer  of 
the  Great  Indian  Peninsular  Railway.  In  1892 
he  was  made  president  of  the  Institute  of  Civil 
Engineers.  He  wrote  papers  on  atmospheric 
railways  and  on  the  strength  of  iron  and  steel; 
and  was  knighted  in  1893. 

BERKELEY,  Sir  John,  Etiglish  nobleman, 
one  of  the  proprietors  of  New  Jersey;  b.  ,1607; 
d.  28  Aug.  1678.  He  was  a  prominent  Royalist 
during  the  contest  of  Charles  I  with  Parlia- 
ment. Charles  II  granted  him,  with  Sir  Georf^ 
Carteret,  a  proprietary  interest  in  New  Jersey 
and  Carolina. 

BERKELEY,  HUes  Joseph,  Fjigtish  bota- 
nist: b.  Biggin,  Derbyshire,  !S)3;  d.  Sibbertoft, 
Leicestershire,  Inly  1889.  Educated  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  he  took  orders,  was  curate  at 
Margate  (Kent)  and  Market  Harborough 
(Leicestershire),  and  subsequently  was  made 
vicar  of  Sihbenoft.  He  soon  became  the  lead- 
ing British  authority  on  Innm  and  plant  pathol- 
ogy and  was  especially  well  known  for  achieve- 
ments in  mycology.  About  6,(>00  species  of 
fungi  are  credited  to  him ;  his  most  important 
vit>rk  was  the  sectioti  on  fungi  contributed  to 
Hooker's  'British  Fk>ra'  (1836)  and  his  <Out^ 
lines  of  British  Fimgology'  (I860),  and  he  as- 
sembled a  fht  herbarium  of  more  than  9,000 
species,  now  at  the  Kew  Gardens  and  regarded 
as  one  of  the  most  tiotewortliy  in  the  world. 


A  bibliogra^y  may  be  fonnd  in  the  ^Cata- 
logue  of  Scientific  Paper?'  of  the  Royal  Socie- 
ty. Consult  also  'Proceedings  of  the  Ro3ral 
Society>    (Vol  XLVII,  1890)   for  a  sketch  by 

BERKELEY,  S«  William,  American  colo- 
nial governor:  b.  near  London  about .1610;  d.  13 
July  1677.  _  His  father  and  brother  were  colo- 
nial proprietors.  Graduating  from  Oxford 
1629,  he  traveled  on  the  Contment  for  a  year; 
was  appointed  a  commissioner  of  <^nada  1632 
and  won  a  high  reputation  there.  In  1641  he 
was  made  governor  of  Virginia,  and  arriving 
ill  1642,  was  for  a  time  very  popular.  He  ex- 
perimented in  the  cultivation  of  rice,  cotton, 
indigo,  hemp,  flax  and  silk,  the  manufacture 
of  potash  and  naval  stores  and  the  cutting  and 
exporting  of  masts ;  pleased  the  Royalist  party 
by  expelling  the  New  England  Puritans  in  1643, 
and  all  parties  by  capturing'  the  Indian  chief 
Opechancanoi^b  in  1644,  after  a  scries  of  In- 
dian massacres.  Always  with  an  eye  to  profit, 
however,  he  received  from  the  King  a  monop- 
oly of  the  fur  trade.  During  the  Engli^ 
revolution  he  adhered  to  the  royal  side  and 
offered  an  asylum  in  Virpnia  to  exited  or  dis- 
satisfied Royalists ;  many  hundreds  availed 
themselves  of  this.  When  Cromwell  felt 
strong  enouc^  he  sent  a  fleet  (in  1651)  to  bring 
him  back  for  punishment;  tut  Berkeley  suc- 
ceeded in  making  certain  terms  by  mingled 
*blu<{*  and  finesse  and  was  allowed  to  retire 
in  safety  to  his  plantation,  though  deprived  of 
his  office.  When  the  Restoration  began  to  seem 
probable,  the  colonists  elected  Berkeley  as  gov- 
ernor to  gain  favor  in  such  event;  Berkeley 
accepted  it  provisionally  and  Charles  II  on  ac- 
cession confirmed  it.    But  in  this  second  term 


pelling  and  confiscating  the  goods  of  Puritans 
and  Quakcrs,'a  measure  popular  at  the  time, 
he  frowned  on  the  establishment  of  schools 
and  absolutely  refused  to  have  a  printing-press 
set  up,  as  making  people  too  censorious  of  their 
superiors.  He  formed  a  council  of  the 
wealthier  planters  and  havmg  obtained  during 
the  spasm  of  Restoration  loyalty  in  1662  an 
ultra-roy^ist  house  of  burgesses,  would  not 
issue  writs  for  another  election  tor  14  years, 
simply  adjourning  annually  the  'Long  Assem- 
bly,* as  it  came  to  be  called;  and  in  1670  abol- 
ished universal  suffrage,  substituting  a  property 
Jualification,  purely  as  a  precaution  for  the 
iiture,  as  no  elections  were  held  for  years  be- 
fore and  after.  These,  however,  were  only 
means  to  the  end  of  profiting  himself  and 
his  friends  and  the  rapacious  crew  of 
civil  officers  sent  over  by  Charles  to  quiet 
the  people's  importunities.  Heavy  taxes  and 
fees  imposed  on  the  colony  drove  them 
to  desperation,  so  that  as  early  as  1667  they 
were  npe  for  revolt.  Besides  Berkeley's  share 
in  various  extortions,  he  had  one  monopoly 
which  led  directly  to  the  catastrophe,  that 
of  the  Indian  trade,  which  he  gained  by  under- 
hand means.  The  colony  allowed  no  trade  with 
the  Indians  without  license ;  Berkeley  there- 
fore licensed  a  small  number  of  men  to  trade 
infufs  with  them,  which  secretly  included  liq- 
uor, firearms  and  other  things  and  exacted  a 
third  of  the  profits.  It  was  believed  to  be  this 
gain  which  led  him  to  refuse  permission  b 


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BBRKBLBY 


dians  in  1675-76,  while  hundreds  "of  them 
being  massacred  and  tortured  and  scares  of 
plantations  laid  waste,  and  to  dissolve  force 
after  force  assembled  to  protect  them.  How 
Nathaniel  Bacon  chastised  the  Indians  in  spite 
of  him,  was  proscribed  for  itj  forced  into  open 
rebellion,  drove  Berkeley  into  retreat  and 
burned  his  capital,  and  died  at  the  moment 
of  his  victory,  is  told  under  'Bacon's  Rebel- 
lion.' Berkeley's  soul  was  as  full  ot  senile 
fury  as  it  had  been  oF  senile  avarice;  he 
slaughtered  right  ?nd  left,  hanging  a  score  of 
victims  with  such  vindictive  haste  and  ruf- 
fianly insult  that  the  assembly  remonstrated, 
and  the  royal  commissioners,  who  came  in 
January  to  investigalc  the  condition  of  the 
colony,  made  a  report  that  led  the  King  to  re- 
move him,  with  the  comment,  'The  old  fool 
has  put  to  death  more  people  in  that  naked 
covmtry  than  I   for  the  murder  of  my  father.' 


pected  to  justify  himself  to  the  King  and  re- 
turn. But  Charles  kept  postponing  an  inter- 
view and  in  a  Few  weeks  Berkeley  died  —  of 
chargin,  it  was  believed.  He  wrote  'The  Lost 
Lady'  (1638)  and  'A  Discourse  and  View  of 
Virginia'    (1663), 

BBRKELBY,  Cal.,  city  in  Alameda  County, 
on  San  Francisco  Bay,  nine  miles  northeast 
from  and  directly  opposite  lo  San  Francisco 
and  the  Golden  Gate.  A  channel  with  a  con- 
stant depth  of  42  feet  leads  straight  from  the 
Berkeley  waterfront  clear  out  through  the 
"Gale,"  into  the  Pacific  Ocean,  affordim?  facili- 
ties unsurpassed  anywhere  in  the  neighborhood 
for  a  projected  great  docking  warehouse  and 
railway  district  and  for  an  important  auxiliary 
naval  base  or  station.  Berkeley  is  a  motoring 
centre.  You  may  use  your  automobile  every 
day.  Starting  from  Berkeley  you  will  find  well- 
kept  boulevards  that  reach  to  all  parts  of  the 
county  and  to  interior  points  in  California.    The 


tbrou^^  Berkeley.  -Owners  of  machines  declare 
this  city  to  be  an  ideal  rendezvous  for  tourists. 
As  a  summer  home  Berkel^  cannot  be  escelled. 
The  average,  temperature  in  summer  is  about 
59°  F.  In  winter  the  average  is  about  48°  F„ 
giving  a  range  of  something  tike  11°  for  the 
year.  This  equable  climate  is  beneficial  to 
ocalth.  It  is  particularly  good  for  children  who 
live  out-of-doors  the  vear  round.  Berkeley  is 
just  south  of  laL  38  N.,  375  miles  south  of  the 
latitude  of  Marseilles,  400  miles  south  of  the 
latitude  of  Nice,  Cannes,  Mentone  and  the 
famous  Riviera,  all  boasting  so  many  attrac' 
ticms  of  climate ;  on  the  latitudinal  line  of  south- 
ern Sicily,  southern  Greece  and  Smyrna.  To 
this  geographical  position  and  the  favorable 
topographical  formation  of  the  surrounding 
country  must  be  attributed  the  enjoyable  cli- 
matic conditions  that  prevail  in  Berkeley. 
The  average  rainfall  is  about  25  inches. 
During  the  summer  and  autumn  months  gentle 
fogK  or  mists  prevail  that  are  charged  with 
health -giving  ozone.  F.lectric  lines  connect 
with  Oakland  the  county-seat  adjoining  Berke- 
ley, and  with  San  Francisco,  which  is  also  coq' 
nected  by  ferry  service.  Two  transcontinental 
railroads,  the  Souibom  Pacific  and  the  Santa 


Ft  systems,  pass  through  Berkeley.  The  city's 
fame  rests  primarily  on  its  established  char- 
acter as  a  home  place,  the  favorite  residence  of 
man)[  San  Franciscans,  to  which  its  altiactive 
location  and  scenic  surroundings  have  contrib- 
uted. That_  character  it  still  maintains,  with 
added  qualities  which  enhance  its  attractiveness 
and  the  prominence  which  it  has  attained  lat- 
terly because  of  the  advantages  that  it  offers 
lo  manufacturers.  Qimatic  conditions  conduce 
to  efficiency.  Even  when  paid  higher  wages 
for  fewer  hours,  workers  here  return  a  greater 
profit  to  the  factory  per  miit  than  operatives  in 
any  other  location,  because  operatives  are  able 
to  keep  employed  every  working  day  of  the 
year,  with  no  interruptions  on  account  of  ex- 
cessive heat  or  cold.  Besides  this,  Berkeley 
enjoys  a  low  rate  for  electric  power  — as  low 
as  any  city  in  the  countiy,  not  even  excepting 
Niagara 'Falls;  fuel  oil  for  motive  machineiy 
is  also  procured  at  small  cost,  because  of  near- 
ness to  the  terminals  of  the  pipe  lines ;  level 
land  and  reasonable  prices  provide  for  factoo' 
sites ;  water  competition  insures  moderate 
freight  rates  by  rail;  while  railroad  facilities 
and  the  liberal  policy  of  the  municipal  authori- 
ties govern  spur  tracks  and  like  accommoda- 
tions. Above  all,  the  civic  and  social  condi- 
tions prevailing  in  the  city, —  Berkeley  has 
neither  a  saloon  nor  a  disorderly  house  within 
its  boundaries, —  are  big  physical  points  in  its 
favor  with  companies  and  corporations  which, 
along  modem  lines,  devote  thought  and  care 
to  clean  surroundings  for  their  employees  and 
those  dependent  on  them.  Twenty  new  fac- 
tories were  established  in  Berkeley  since  the 
year  I9IS  and  options  on  many  odier  sites 
were  obtained  by  several  companies.  The  lead- 
ing manufactures  of  Berkeley  include  aeroplane 
and  other  motors,  hvdraulic  machinery,  health 
foods,  soaps,  refined  petroleum,  cocoanut  oil, 
carbonic  gas,  elevators,  pumps,  etc.  The  surt'cv 
of  manufactures  for  1917  recorded  107  in- 
dustrial establishments  of  factory  grade,  em- 
ploying 2,350  persons,  of  whom  1,828  were 
wage  earners,  receiving  annually  $3,054,- 
000  in  wages.  The  capital  invested  aggregated 
$9,814,000  and  the  value  of  the  year's  output 
was  $7,321,000:  of  this,  $2,532,000  was  the  value 
added  by  manufacture.  It  also  carries  on  lu- 
crative fishing  industries.  As  a  dependable 
barometer  of  business  the  upward  tendency  of 
the  city's  postal  recdpts  indicates  continuous 
and  growing  prosperity.  Ftom  SI  12,444  in 
1910  they  had  increased  to  $100338  in  1917. 
Properly  returns  for  taxation  also  increased 
from  $35,736,140  in  1910  to  $45,000,000  in  1917, 
Not  a  single  dollar  on  current  account  was  due 
lo  any  city  creditor  and  the  bonded  indebted- 
ness amounted  to  only  $1,266,075,  As  Berkeley 
has  authority  under  the  law  to  incur  bonded 
indebtedness  a^egating  more  than  $5,000,000. 
the  city's  paper  is  regarded  as  gilt-edged  by  the 
financial  experts  of  the  country.  A  new  and 
ample  sewer  system  has  been  installed  at  a  cost 
of  $700,000.  An  eliident  fire  department  i« 
maintained,  with  nine  stations  serving  the  city's 
area  of  nine  square  miles.  The  department 
is  completely  motorized,  operating  16  cars. 
Double  platoon  system  for  the  department  has 
brought  more  expense,  but  also  has  insured 
better  service,  as  the  men  are  on  full  pay,  with 
no  call  men.  Berkeley  was  the  first  city  in  the 
West  to  introduce  the  golden  rule  oi  the  po- 


.Ciooglc 


GBORGE  BBREBLEY 


Digitized  by  GOOI^IC 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


BBRKELBY— BBRKSLttV   SPRINGS 


657 


.Ike  department,  impressing  on  patrolmen  the 
duty  to  befriend  unfortunates  wherever  possi- 
ble. The  consequence  is  that  there  is  less  dis- 
position to  lawlessness  than  in  cities  where  the 
stem  hand  of  authority  is  never  relaxed  even 
in  trivial  affairs.  There  were  only  four  ar- 
rests for  dmnkenness  in  Berkeley  during  1915: 
eleven  in  1916,  and  seven  in  1917.  The  tola) 
arrests  in  the  city  in  1915  were  291 ;  in  1916; 
307;  in  1917,  333.  The  death  rate  in  1915  was 
7.75  per  thousaod,  which  was  above  the  figure 
of  several  previous  years,  on  account  ot  the 
auniber  of  elderly  people  who  retire  here  to 
enjoy  their  declining  years.  The  city  is  the 
facMne  of  a  great  many  men  and  women  above 
the  age  of  80  years.  Death  rate  in  1916 
was  7.34:  in  1917,  7.52.  Race  suicide  does 
not  exist  in  Berkeley.  The  average  birth- 
rate per  thousand  is  11.36  and  diildhood 
in  Berkeley  is  blessed  with  favorable  con- 
ditions, the  little  ones  Uving  in  the  open 
air  almost  constantly.  The  result  is  a 
vigorous  lot  of  youngsters.  This  is  shown 
by  the  way  in  which  school  children  win  cham- 
pionships in  the  various  sports  which  bring 
them  in  competition  with  students  from  other 
parts  of  the  State.  In  1915  Berkeley  built  and 
equipped  Ave  new  school  building  at  a  cost 
of  over  half  a  million  dollars.  These  are  lo- 
cated in  different  ports  of  the  city_  for  the 
greater  accotmnodation  and  convenience  of 
parents  and  pupils.  The  equipment  of  these 
schools  is  modern  in  every  particular.  Berke- 
ley is  the  acknowledged  educational  capital  of 
the  Pacific  coast.  The  city  is  not  surpassed 
in  this  by  any  other  community  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  This  is  true  in  respect  to 
all  departments  of  instniction,  from  kinder- 
eanen  to  the  University  of  California^  which 
has  its  home  here.  This  university  ranks  with 
the  great  seats  of  learning  ire  the  world.  Sit- 
uaied  in  beautiful  grounds  covering  250  acres, 
new  btiildings  at  a  cost  of  $2,000^000  are  being 
added  lo  the  eiristing  structures.  (For  full  de- 
scription see  Cauvornia.  Umivmsity  of).  In 
Berkeley  also  are  located  the  California  School 
of  Arts  and  Crafts,  the  Cora  L.  Williams  In- 
stitute for  Creative  Education,  the  State  School 
for  the  Deaf  and  the  Blind,  White's  School  for 
Boys,  Miss  Head's  School  for  Girls,  Saint 
Joseph's  Academy  for  Boys,  Saint  Jost^h's 
Presentation  Academy  for  Girls,  the  A  to  Zed 
School,  the  Berkeley  Business  College,  the 
South  Berkeley  Business  College,  the  Pacific 
School  of  Religion,  the  Berkeley  Baptist  Di- 
vinity School,  the  Pacific  Unitarian  School,  the 
Berkeley  Outdoor  School,  the  Berkeley  Kinder- 
garten and  several  musical  and  art  schools;  also 
public  and  school  libraries.  As  a  genuine  musi- 
cal centre  also,  Berkeley  is  attractive  to'  all 
who  are  musically  inclined.  The  Berkeley 
Musical  Association,  which  has  a  membership 
of  2,000,  ^vcs  four  or  6ve  events  a  year,  the 
artists  being  of  international  -tame.  The 
Berkeley  Oratorio  Society  presents  two  con- 
certs a  season  at  which  students  are  accorded 
liberal  concessions.  Club  life  in  Bericeley  is 
attractive  by  reason  of  variety.  There  are 
three  kinds  of  clubs;  clubs  for  men;  clubs  for 
women;  and  clubs  to  which  both  men  and 
women  are  admitted.  All  of  these  devote  much 
time  and  attention  to  the  serious  at!airs  of  life. 
This  is  particularly  true  of  the  women's  dubs 
of   Berkeley    which    are   merely   social   orgatti- 


lations,  although  the  society  ot  the  community 
is  a  highly  developed  organism.  Women  here 
devote  much  attention  to  civic  betterment  and 
public  affairs,  as  befits  their  character  as  voters 
and  law  makers.  While  the  natural  ad- 
vantages of  Berkeley  are  highly  priied  by  the 
citizens  and  although  they  nndoubtedly  at- 
tract a  great  many  of  (he  thousands  who  are 
coming  het«  annually,  yet  the  real  lure  of 
Berkeley  is  its  characteristic  hospitalitj;.  All 
comers  are  welcomed  with  a  broad  Sjririt^  of 
Western  comradeship  that  is  most  inviting. 
The  schools,  art  imftifules,  civic  centres,'  frater- 
nal organizations,  rehgious.  societieSi  and  social 
conditions  tenl  to  elevate  and  enrich  the  lives 
of  thoee  who  come  here.  In  all  the  world  there 
is  not  a  more  eosmopoUtan  community  —  cos- 
mopolitan in  the.  best' sense -r-Iliat  of  equal  op- 
portuni^  and  c^ual  respect  Character  and 
personal  wdcth  arc  what  count  in  fixing  the 
status  of  the  individual  or  the  family  in  this 
eoromtinty.  The  setHemetit  of  Berkeley  dates 
from  the  selection  of  the  univeraity  site  in 
1868.  The  town  was  incorporated  in  1878  and 
adopted  (he  comlnission  form  of  government  in 
1909.  Pop.  (1900)  13,214;  (1910)  40,434; 
(1918)  63,000,  In  view  of  Berkeley's  fame 
as  an  edgcational  centre  it  is  proper  to 
mention  that  the  city  was  named  in  honor  of 
Dr.  Gfoige  Bedcdey,  Dean  of  Derry  and  lord 
bishop  of  Coyne,  the  giited  scholar  and  ph*. 
losopher,  author  of  the  oft-quoted  line,  *West- 
ward  the  course  of  empire  blocs  tit  way.* 
Wells  Ditort, 
Srcrelary  BerkeUy  Chamber  df  Commerce. 


miles  southwest   .      _   .  __   ,  ,_.., 

ated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Avon,  io  the  rich 
vale  of  Berkeley,  and  celebrated  for  its  castle, 
where  Edward  H  was  confined  and  barba- 
rously murdered  itj  1327. 

BERKELEY  DI'tflNlTY  SCHOOL,  an 
Episcopal  theological  school  at  Middietown, 
Conn.  It  was  organized  in  1851  by  Bishop 
John  Williams  of  Connecticut  while  he  wa> 
president  of  Trinity  College,  at  Hartford,  and 
was  at  first  intended  to  be  the  theological  de- 
partment of  the  college.  It  was  later  (1854) 
placed  upon  an  independent  basis  and  removed 
to  its  present  location.  The  chaoel  was  built 
in  1851,  and  the  library  in  1896.  'The  graduates 
on  the  roll  of  the  seminary  number  (1913)  525, 
of  whom  335  survive,  including  20  bishops  and 
many  of  (he  best-known  clergymen  of  the  Epis- 
copal Church.  There  are  about  30,000  volumes 
in  the  library.  The  value  of  its  buildings  is 
about  $100,000,  and  its  endowment  fund  aggre- 
gates $485,000. 

BERKELEY  SOUND,  next  to  Stanley 
Sound  the  most  frequented  inlet  of  the  East 
Falkland  Island,  near  its  northeast  extremity, 
Though  it  ia  difficult  to  enter,  it  contains  some 
of  the  best  harbors  in  the  south  Atlantic. 

BERKELEY  SPRINGS,  W.  Va..  town 
and  county-seat  of  Morgan  County,  two  miles 
south  of  ihe  Potomac  and  103  miles  northwest 
of  Washington,  on  a  branch  of  the  Baltimore 
&  Ohio  Railroad.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,, 
tomatoes  and  fruit  bong  extensively  raised,  and 
has  been  widely  known  and  popular  for  more 
than  a  ccnturv  Wause  of  its  mineral  springs. 
The  sit«  of  the  town  was  a  part  of  tbe-'Vast 


tne-'Vast        j 

\j00gle 


ess 


BBRKENHOUT—  BERLJCHINGBN 


estate  of  Lard  Fairfax,  and  WasluBSton  owned 
ConGiderable  property  here.  It  is  the  oldest 
pleasure  resort  in  the  South,  and  as  far  bade 
as  the  colonial  days  the  gentry  of  Virginia 
came  here  in  warm  weather  and  lived  in  log 
huts  in  order  to  enjoy  or  be  benefited  by  the 
baths  and  swimming  pools.  Mount  WeaLey 
Academy  is  situated  in  the  town,  and  there  are 
handle  and  canning  factories,  a  planing  mill 
and  sand  pulverizing  plant,  extensive  deposits 
of  silica  sand  being  in  the  vicinity.  Berkeley 
Springs  was  incorporated  in  1872.    Fop.  864. 

BERKENHOUT,  John,  Dutcb-Enzlish 
physician  and  general  writer :  b.  Leeds,  ahotit 
1730;  d  1791.  Having  entered  the  Pniisian 
service,  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  captain.  In 
1756  he  quitted  that  service  and  entered  into 
that  of  Enfflaod,  where  he  obtained  the  same 
rank.  At  Oie  peace  in  1760  he  went  to  Edin- 
bur^  and  be^n  the  studjr  of  physic;  while 
there  he  publiihed  his  'Clavis  Angelica  LinguK 
Botanicft,'  a  bo<^  of  great  merit,  and  later 
his  'Pharmacopoeia  Medici,'  which  passed 
throiiWh  three  editions.  Other  works  by  hint 
are  'Outlines  of  the  Natural  History  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland'  (3  vols.,  1770) ;  'Essay 
on  the  Bite  of  a  Mad  Dc«>  (1773);  'Symp- 
tomatology'  (1774),  etc  In  1778  he  attended 
the  British  commissioners  to  America,  and  at 
Philadelphia  he  was  committed  to  prison,  bnt 
he  sotm  afterward  .was  set  at  liberty,  and 
returned  with  the  commissioners  to  England, 
where  he  obtained  a  pension.  He  was  an  ii>- 
dustrioua  writer,  and  his  publications  possess 
considerable  merit.  Consult  Rose,  'New  Bio- 
graphical Dictionary.' 

BERKHAMPSTEAD,  berk'ham-stjd,  or 
BERKHAMSTBD,  Grut,  an  urban  district 
parish  and  marked  town  in  Hertfordshire,  Eng- 
land, beautifully  situated  in  a  hollow  surrounded 
bjr  hills,  on  the  London  &  N.  W.  Railway,  28 
miles  north  of  London.  It  consists  almost 
whotlv  of  one  main  street,  and  has  a  fine  old 
church,  restored  1871-87;  several  chapels  and 
Berkhamsted  School,  with  a  fine  chapel  (189S). 
There  arc  works  for  wooden  ware,  a  large 
chemical  woric,  a  boat-buitding  yard,  brush, 
coach  and  mantle  factories,  an  iron  foundry, 
etc.  The  poet  Cowperwas  bom  here  in  1731. 
In  the  small  parish  of  Little  Berkhampsiead, 
some  miles  to  the  north,  the  famous  Bishop 
Ken  was  bom.     Pop.  7,302. 

BERKHEY,  bcrkVi,  Johannes  Lefranca 
van,  Dutch  writer  and  naturalist:  b.  Leyden,  3 
Jan.  1729;  d.  there,  13  March  1812.  He  was 
early  interested  in  natilral  history  and  also 
stumed  Latin  and  Greek.  Poetry  he  reserved 
for  his  leisure  moments.  He  resided  succes- 
sively at  Amsterdam,  Leervliet  and  Leyden, 
where  he  was  professor  at  the  university.  His 
later  years  were  passed  at  The  Hague.  Among 
his  principal  works  arc  'Expositio  Gharacter- 
istica  flomm  qui  dicuntur  compositi'  (Leyden 
1761);  'Letter  on  the  Generation  of  the  Tes- 
tae ere' ;  'Notes  oo  the  Best  Methbds  of  Pre- 
paring the  Lands  of  Holland,  both  Upper  and 
Lower,  so  as  to  Cultivate  Them  to  the  Best 
Advantage';  'Natural  History  of  Holland'  (6 
vols.,  Amsterdam  1769).  He  also  disiinguidied 
himself  as  a  poet,  though  he  often  manifests  a 
tendency  to  bombast,  and  indulges  in  false 
pathos.  One  of  his  best  poems  is  entitled  <Het 
Verheerligki  Leyden.' 


BEKKSHIRE,  Englaiid,  an  inland  county,. 
lying  in  the  valley  of  die  Thames,  with  an  area 
of  450,132  acres  or  712  sQoare  miles.  Its  shape 
is  very  irregular,,  and  lus  been  compared  to 
that  of  a  shoe  or  slipper.  A  range  of  chalk 
hills  crosses  the  country  in  a  westet^  (hrection. 
and  forms  a  boundary  to  the  fertile  vale  ol 
Whiteborse,  so  called  from  the  gigantic  form 
of  a  horse  which  has  been  scooped  oat  od  ihc 
side  of  a  chalk  hill,  so  as  to  become  coDspicuous 
to  all  the  country  round,  referred  to  in  Thomas 
Hughes'  'The  Soooring  of  the  White  Horse.' 
The  cultivated  parts  of  the  county,  and  more 
especially  this  val^  arc  pecaharty  firiitCnl  in 
barley.  They  also  contain  much  rich  pasturage 
and  D^ny  excellent  dairy  farms.  Timber 
abounds,  particularly  oak  and  beech,  in  Wind- 
sor Forest  and  toward  the  west.  Turnips  ir.: 
an  important  crop.  There  are  but  few  manufac- 
tures carried  on  in  this  county,  the  principal 
beir^  agricultural  implements  and  anitkial 
manures,  flour,  paper,  sacking  and  suklotb, 
and  hiscnits  (at  Rcathn^).  Malt  is  madi;  in 
great  ([umtities,  and  chiefly  sent  to  London. 
The  pranc^l  towns  of  Berkshire  are  Reading 
(the  county  town),  Newbury,  Maidenhead. 
Woldnghau,  Wallingford,  Windsor,  Abingdon, 
Wantage  and  Farringdon.  Including  the 
boroagns  of  Windsor  and  Reading  the  county 
returns  five  members  to  Parliament.  Pop. 
(1911)  280,794.  Consult  Graves,  'The  Way 
About  Berkshire*   (1898). 

BERKSHIRES,  The,  or  BERKSHIRE 
HILLS,  a  range  of  mountains  in  the  oortliwest 
p£  Massachusetts,  in  Berkshire  County,  stretch- 
ing 16  miles  north  and  south  i  '  ' 
the  valley  of  the  upper  Hoosac 
are  a  favorite  summer  and  autun 
highest  summits  are  Greylock 
3,535  feet,  and  Mount  Everett, 
in  the  south,  2,635  feet 

BERLAD,  bir-lad'  Rumania,  a  tomi  on 
the  Berlad  River,  and  Teucud-Baslui  Railroad 
in  the  district  of  Tutova,  about  66  miles  north- 
west of  Bucharest.  It  is  the  trade  centre  af  » 
r in-raising  district  and  has  many  distilleries, 
it  a  well-bnilt  town,  with  good  scbools.  a 
tb^lre,  a  hospital  and  a  number  of  instilntions 
for  secondary  education.    Pop.  25,381. 

BERLEBURG,  berle-boorg,  oi  BESLB- 
BURGER  BIBLE,  a  translation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures published  at  Berlebure,  Gertnany  (8  vols, 
1726-42).  Its  unknown  editors  have  givcnan 
original  version  with  accompanying  exposition 
more  or  less  mystical  in  character.  It  has  all 
the  merits  and  demerits  of  pietism. 

BERLICHINGEN,  ber^iK-Ing-en,  GStt. 
or  Gottfried  von,  German  soldier  ol  fortune :  b, 
Tagsthansen  1480;  d.  23  July  1562.  He  *'3^  a 
bold,  restless,  warlike  and  honorable  knight. 
At  first  he  served  Elector  Frederick  of  Bnii- 
denburg,  but -soon  joined  himself  to  Albert  of 
Bavaria.  He  lost  his  right  hand  in  ISOi,  at 
the  siege  of  Landshut,  and  In  its  stead  wore  an 
iron  one,  bciri];  rfiercafter  known  as  ^^ jj. 
the  Iron  Hand.  He  was  continually  engaged 
in  quarrels  with  his  neighbors,  disregarded  me 
edict  against  private  warfare  and  was  twict 
under  the  ban  of  the  Empire  — in  1512  »io 
151&  He  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  Mt 
of  the  rebellious  peasants,  in  the  war  wtndi 
they  waged  against  their  oppressors,  but  wai 


River.  They 
)  resort.  The 
n  the  north, 
>r  the  Dome, 


,  further  warfare  he  was  releaMd  after 
two  yt^Ti.  For  many  years  he  waa  inactive, 
but  m  1542  he  took  part  in  the  Hungsriui 
canvaign  against  the  Turks,  and  two  years 
later  fought  for  Charles  V  against  the  forces 
of  Franat  I.  His  bionaphy,  writteu  i»  him- 
self, was  printed  in  Naremberg  in  1731  and 
1775,  and.  for  the  third  time,  at  Breglau  in 
1813.  It  was, edited  by  Schonhuth  (Heilbronn 
1859)  and  by  MuUer  (Leipzig  1882).  This 
book  contains  an  excellent  picture  of  the  social 
life  and  customs  of  the  time,  and  has  iuraished 
Goethe  with  the  subject  of  his  drama,  <Gdtz 
Berlichingen,    translated    by    Sir    Walter 


Rossach,  %eschichte  des  Ritters  G^ti  von  Ber- 
lichingen mit  der  tisemen  Hand'  (Leipcig 
1861)  ;  and  Pallman,  'Der  hiitorische  Goli 
von  Berlichingen'   (Berlin  1894). 

BERLIN,  Canada,  dty  and  county-seat  of 
Waterloo  County,  Ontario,  on  the  Grand  R.  and 
the  Grand  T.  railways,  62  miles  west  of 
Toronto.  It  was  settled  orieinally  by  German, 
immiKtants  from  the  United  States,  and  has 
rapidly  developing  manufactories  of  furniture, 
leadier,  boots  and  shoes,  pianos  and  organs, 
buttons,  gloves,  etc. ;  excellent  sewerage  system, 
waterworks,  street  railway  and  gas  and  electric- 
Itght  plants;  a  Roman  Catholic  college,  and  15 
churches.  _  Pop.  15,196. 

BERLIN,  Conn.,  town  of  Hartford  County, 
11  miles  soudi  of  the  dty  of  Hartford,  on  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Rail- 
road. There  are  brick  works  and  manufac- 
tories of  paper  goods.    Pop.  3,728. 

BERLIN,  Germany,  capital  of  die  onpire 
and  of  the  Idngdom  of  Prussia,  180  miles  south- 
east of  Hamburg.  The  river  Spree,  here  nearly 
200  feet  wide,  spanned  by  several  fine  bridges, 
flows  through  the  centre  of  the  city,  com- 
tnunicating  throufdi  the  Elbe  with  the  North 
Sea,  aiul  also  having  canal  communication  with 
.  the  river  Oder  and  the  Baltic  Sea. 

Hirtory.—  No  account  of  the  earliest  settle- 
ment of  Berlin  has  come  down  to  us,  but  it  is 
supposed  that  the  dty  was  founded  during  the 
decade  from  1230  to  1240.  Indeed,  the  Mar- 
graves John  I  and  Otto  III  are  said  to  have 
established  the  dty  as  a  stronghold  against  the 
Slavs.  The  name  Berlin  is  probably  of  Slavic 
origin,  although  some  scholars  trace  the  word 
to  "Barldn,*  from  the  fact  that  a  bear  appars 
on  the  coat  of  arms  of  the.  city.  The  new  city, 
or  town,  was  situated  on  the  old  commerdal 
highway  which  led  from  Leipzig  to  Stettin  and 
was  known  especially  as  a  mancet  for  herring, 
grain  and  wood.  Cologne  (Colonia),  the 
near-by  sister  dty  on  the  river  Spree,  seems  to 
have  been  established  as  an  independent  munid- 
pality  simultaneously  with  Berlin  and  was  united 
with  Berlin,  temporarily,  in  the  year  1307. 
Though  the  margrave  had  his  castle  m  the  city, 
the  municipal  government  was  left  to  the  mayor 
and  aldermen,  who  enjoyed  full  sway. 

In  1134  the  mark  of  Brandenburg  had  come 
into  the  hands  of  Albrccbt  the  Bear,  of  the 
botue  of  AscaiL  to  which  famih  also  bdonged 
the  founders  of  Berlin,  who  ruled  in  common. 
After  the  extinction  of  tlus  family  (1323)  the 
German    emperor,    Ludwig   of    Bavaria,   gave 


Brandenburg  to  fais  son  Ludwig  as  a  fief,  who 
in  1351  passed  it  to  his  brother,  Ludwig  the 
Roman.  His*  successor.  Otto  the  Lazy,  sold 
the  marif  to  the  Emperor  Kari  IV  (1373). 
Karl's  SOD,  the  Emperor  Sigismund,  appointed 
Friedrich  von  Hohemt^era,  Burggrave  of  Nu- 
remberg, viceroy  of  the  mark  in  1411  and  made 
him  an  elector  in  1415.  This  increased  dignity, 
which  indeed  had  already  been  worn  by  Ludwig 
the  Roman,  gave  the  ruler  of  the  mark  an  im- 
portance that  redounded  to  the  good  of  the 
oountry  and  of  the  dty.  The  first  Hohenzollem 
had  a  difficult  position  to  fill,  in  that  he  had  to 
pnt  down  a  rebellious  and,  in  part,  thievish 
nobility.  This  nobility,  especially  the  family  of 
Quitzows,  did  great  damage  to  the  trade  of 
Beriin  (1406-10).  Just  as  his  father  had  had 
to  contend  with  the  nobili^,  Frederick  II,  the 
second  Hohenzollem,  had  to  fight  against  the 
populace  of  Berlin-Cologne.  Soon  after  he  un- 
dertook the  government  he  began  a  strong 
citadel  in  Cologne,  on  the  bank  of  the  Spree. 

This  same  citadel,  enlarged  and  extended 
during  the  centuries,  now  serves  the  present 
emperor  both  as  a  residence,  and  as  the  palace 
where  he  receives  his  princely  guests.  With  the 
building  of  the  citadel  the  mat^n^ve  removed 
to  Berlin:  and  the  result  was  that  Berlin  and 
(Ilologne  nad  to  surrender  mudi  of  their  au- 
thority to  him.     At  first  the  cities  had  become 

.involved  in  a  dispute  over  constitutional  and 
administrative  matters  and  had  called  in  Fred- 
eridc  11  as  arbiter;  but  soon  they  were  quarrel- 
ling with  the  prince  himself,  and  he  defeated 
both  of  them. 

Since  Berlin- Cologne  has  been  the  reudence 
of  the  Hoheniollems  the  histoiv  of  the  dty  has 
been  intimately  connected  with  that  of  the  reign- 
ing family.  Tlie  rulers  have  alw^s  been  par- 
ticularly interested  in  building  up  the  dty.  In 
this  respect  the  work  of  the  Great  Elector,  Fred- 
erick William  (1640-88),  was  noteworthy.  He 
added  two  new  wards  to  the  div,  Friedrichs* 
werder  and  Dorotbcenstadt,  built  magnificent 
fortifications  (though  later  these  were  re- 
moved), and  sommonedarchitects  and  engineers 
from  Holland  to  finish  the  palace  and  lay  out 
public  grotmds,  as  the  Lustgarten  and  the  Lin- 
den-promenade, His  successor,  Frederick  III, 
the  first  king  of  Prussia,  added  to  the  dty 
Friedrichstadt  and  other  suburbs.    Supported  1^ 

■  artists  like  Schluter  and  Eosander  he  enlarged 
and  beautified  tne  palace  and  gave  the  city  a 
number  of  fine  statues  and  public  buildings,  par- 
ticularly the  Eenghaus,  which  is  one  of  Berlin's 
conspicuous  monuments  of  architecture.  The 
fine  equestrian  statue  of  the  Great  Elector,  on 
the  bndge  near  the  palace  is  by  Schliiler.  Fred- 
erick William  I  was  especially  interested  in 
building  private  residences.  He  made  presents 
of  buiTduig-lots  and  even  furnished  lumber 
gratis  and  made  other  concessions. 

His  son,  Frederick  the  Great,  turned  his  at- 
tention to  die  erection  of  new  buildings  in  Pots- 
dam, his  favorite  residence.  After  the  Seven 
Years'  War,  in  which  Berlin  had  been  burned 
twice,  the  King  began,  at  great  personal  expense, 
the  construction  of  houses  for  those  who  en- 
joyed his  favor,  ExtemaL  architectural  beauty 
was  aimed  at,  rather  than  convenience.  Among 
the  public  structures  erected  by  Frederick  the 
Great  may  be  mentioned  the  two  domes  of  the 
(icrman   and   the   French   church,   the   King's 


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50O  BBI 

Colonade  and  the  Rot^  Library.  In  1763  he 
established  the  Koyal  Porcelain  Manufactory. 

The  famous  Brandenburg  Gate,  a  Iriumphal 
arch  in  classic  stylc^  was  erected  in  1793,  during 
the  reign  of  Fredenck  William  II.  It  was  orna- 
mented by  the  sculptor  Schadow  with  a  bronze 
statue  of  Victory  driving  a  four-horse  chariot. 
When  Berlin  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1807 
this  was  taken  to  Paris,  but  was  recovered  in 
1814  after  Paris  had  been  taken  by  the  Allies. 
Under  Frederick  William  III  the  present  Royal 
Theatre  and  the  Old  Museum  were  built,  and 
under  Frederick  William  IV  the  statue  of  Fred- 
erick the  Great.  The  wonderful  progress  made 
by  Berlin  during  the  reign  of  William  ]  gave 
the  city  quite  a  different  appearance  in  a  short 
time.  Buildinfpt  of  a  moniinr»ental  character, 
both  public  and  private,  sprang  up  everywhere. 

This  development  has  continued :  and  the 
present  Emperor  has  done  all  he  can  to  beautify 
the  city,  chiefty  with  monuments  and  statues. 
Likewise  the  activity  of  private  citiiens  along 
the  same  lines  is  now  far  greater  than  in  former 
centuries.  The  great  historical  events  which 
created  ihe  German  Empire  and  made  Berlin 
the  capital  of  it  found  a  happy  echo  in  the 
populace.  The  new  development  of  the  city  to 
the  metropolis  of  the  political  life  and  of  na- 
lional  and  international  trade  has  not  been  ex- 
ternal and  ardfidal  as  formerly,  but  has  been 
internal  and  necessary.  This  fad  cannot  be 
set  forth  in  an  account  of  buildingB  and  monu- 
ments. It  would  be  necessary  to  examine  the 
statistics  of.  trade  and  commerce,  of  banking, 
and  of  the  industries,  etc.  I  f  one  stuifies 
the  statistics,  then  it  becomes  clear  that  those 
material  aspects  of  the  city  that  amaze  one  and 
compel  admiration  are  only  the  manifestation 
of  a  powerful  historical  development,  which 
cannot  by  any  means  be  regarded  as  having 
reached  its  zenith. 

Area,  Popnlatioii,  Suburbs,  etc.>~  Besides 
Cologne,  other  nei^boring  towns  were  built  up 
later,  as  Fricdrichwerder  (with  Friedrichstadt) 
and  Dorothcenatadt  All  four  of  these  towns, 
though  lying  in  immediate  proximity  to  one 
another,  remained  completely  independent  of 
each  other  till  1709.  when  Frederick  I  fused 
them  into  one  municipal  corporation.  At  that 
time  the  population  was  about  57,000.  Now, 
after  over  200  years,  we  find  a  similar  situ- 
ation as  regards  a  plurality  of  independent 
cities.  Immediately  adjoining  Berlin  there 
are  some  20  completely  independent  municipali- 
ties of  one  kind  and  anotiicr.  For  the  most  part 
these  towns  and  cities  have,  to  all  appearance, 
become  fused  with  Berlin,  and  boundary  tines 
have  been  obhtenitcd;  but  each  one  has  it  own 
independent  municipal  government.  As  yet 
there  is  no  centralized,  unifying  government  to 
bind  them  together.  The  population  of  Berlin 
was  in  lH2n,  202.000;  in  1871.  826,000;  and  in 
1910,  2,071.257,  composed  of  1,689.118  of  the 
Evangelical  faith,  243,020  Roman  Catholics  and 
90,013  Jews.  Among  the  contiguous  cities  may 
be  mentioned  Charlottenburg  {305,978  inhabit- 
ants);  Neu-Koitt  (formerly  Rixdorf,  237.289); 
and  Schoneboig  (173,823).  The  area  of  Berlin 
is  l.'l.Wft  acres,  and  of  Greater  Berlin  156.290 
acres.  The  area  of  Berlin  proper  is  much  less 
than  that  of  several  other  German  cilies,  as 
for  instance  Cologne  (27,750  acres),  Frank- 
fort-on-Main  (20,0«>  acres),  Strassburg  (19.500 


acres),  Mumch  (18,570  acres)  and  1 

(16,500  acr«). 

There  has  been  no  considerable  e  .... 

the  corpora.te  limits  of  Berlin  into  this  ncigb. 
borine  territory  since  1860,  thotigh  the  necn- 
sity  for  such  a  proceeding  has  been  urgrd  ic- 
peatedly  in  various  quarters.  To  do  this,  and 
thus  effect  a  union  of  these  several  mnnkipali- 
ties,  the  consent  of  both  the  state  TOvemmin' 
and  the  Parliament  is  necessary.  For  >  long 
time  the  Prussian  government  was  inclined  to 
carry  out  such  a  plan,  but  the  cit^  of  BerKti 
objected  to  assuming  the  burden  which  iht  poor 
condition  of  the  streets  and  public  utililie!  ol 
the  suburbs  would  have  imposed  upon  her.  .^i 
present  the  state  government  encotirages  tht 
incorporation  of  the  smaller  country  suburb: 
into  towns,  and  sooner  or  later  all  thesr  ele- 
ments, large  and  small,  will  be  brought  toeelhei 
under  one  municipal  government. 

The  present  fr^tmentary  condition  of  tht 
':ity  entails  upon  Berlin  many  practical  diilicul- 


ties. 


the 


suburbs  not  less  than  14.^  hectares  of  laud 
for  the  utilization  of  the  sewerage,  and  the  l»j- 
Ing  of  pipes  through  these  neighboring  mu- 
nicipalities often  gives  occasion  for  loDg  and 
tedious  negotiations.  Similar  difBcultics  bave 
formerly  attended  ihc  construction  of  slrcti- 
car  lines.  In  every  case  the  company  in  ques- 
tion has  bad  to  secure  a  concession  from  every 
suburb  concerned.  This  always  iovoived  loii 
negotiations  as  to   details. 

Mmticipal  Government— The  adtninisin- 
tton  of  the  city  of  Berlin  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
municipal  cotincil  of  34  members,  including  ihf 
mayor.  Half  of  these  fill  honorary  posiltont, 
half  receive  pay.  Among  the  salaried  members 
may  be  mentioned  the  chief  mayor  (Okr- 
borgermeister),  the  mayor,  two  syndici.  a  "un- 
ister  of  finance,  two  school  commisuoners  and 
two  commissioners  on  buildings.  The  men- 
bers  of  the  council  are  elected,  for  a  limited 
period,  by  the  board  of  Aldermen.  The  aktn- 
men  themselves  are  elected  by  vote  of  the  citi- 
zens. The  sessions  of  the  cowicil  are  secret; 
those  of  the  board  of  aldermen  are  usually  pub- 
lic. All  important  innovations  require  the  con- 
sent of  both  bodies.  Besides,  there  are  a  nutn- 
ber  of  cornmitteas,  composed  of  members  of 
the  council  and  of  the  board  of  aldermen.  In 
certain  branches  of  the  admini  si  ration  the  au- 
thority of  these  committees  is  competent,  but 
in  important  matters  transcending  thdr  special 
departments  their  authority  is  conditioned  Iv 
the  consent  of  the  municipal  council. 

The  aldermeUj  144  in  number,  receive  no 
salary,  their  position  being  honorary.  They  ait 
represented  by  a  chairman  and  his  deputy.  A 
ftirthcr  category  of  honorary  and  unsalaried 
oflficials  is  formed  by  the  cttiicn-depntiei.  *™ 
are  elected  by  the  board  of  aldermen;  also 
the  poor  law  guardian  and  the  members  ol 
the  poor  commission.  Altogether,  there  art 
several  thousand  persons  working  for  the  nlj' 
without  any  salary.  The  city  poKce  force  is 
employed  and  controlled  by  the  state,  uno« 
the  Ministry  of  the  Interior,  but  the  city  has 
to  make  appropriation   for  this  object. 

Finances.— The  city  budget  for  1910-11. 
amounted  to  $75,00O,CX)O  and  the  indebtedness 
in  1904  was  $351,000,000. 

The  receipts  come  mainly  from  laxw.  "'■ 


,  Google 


I  Init  OmWb,  ihoiriBC  Stana  of  ?r*4«rick  WUIUm  in  1  Brudmbati  Gala 


DijilizcdbyGoOl^le 


1  ScUOHbnck*,  wjtb  Lut  Outsa  1  Palu*  tf  Safcnit  VnUlun  I 


DijilizcdbyGoOl^le 


eluding  income  tax  —  levied  on  incomes  just 
as  tke  corresponding  state  tax -^  the  special 
tax  on  incomes  derived  from  trade,  taxes  on 
real  estate  and  real  estate  transfers,  and  for 
sewerage  purposes.  The  citiien  of  Berlin  pays 
on  an  averase  not  less  than  $25  a  year  in  taxes. 
PidtUc  UtilitiM. —  The  eas  plant  is  munid- 
pally  owned.  The  street  lidning  system  covers 
an  area  of  320  miles.  The  water  supply  is 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  city.  There  are 
several  waterworks,  the  water  being  obtained 
in  part  from  deep  wells.  Other  wells  are  to 
be  bored  soon.  Seweraee  is  also  provided  for 
by  the  city,  the  waste  being  brought  through 
pressure  ^pes  to  the  city's  farms  in  the  country, 
where  it  is  prenared  for  agricultural  purposes. 
The  sewage  and  drainage  system,  begun  in  1873, 
was  completed  in  1911  at  a  cost  of  upwards  of 
S42,O00iOO0. 

The  dty  has  a  stock-yard,  which  serves  as 
a  general  market  for  live  stock,  also  a  staugh- 


inspected.     AH   meats   shipped  into   Berlin 

inspected,  unless  an  official  inspection  has  taken 

£lace  elsevdiere.  There  are  14  city  matket- 
ouses  for  the  retail  trade  and  one  special 
market-house  for  the  wholesale  trade. 

There  are  five  regular  city  hospitals  and  a 
smaller  sick-houae,  \rtich  arc  open  to  the  pub- 
lic; also  three  state  hospitals  and  at  least  10 
other  i>ublic  hospitals,  including  the  large  Vir- 
chow  dty  hospital.  Besides  there  are  three  city 
asylums  for  the  insane.  The  dty  also  main- 
tains a  disinfecting  establishment  for  furnish- 
ings, flats,  etc.  There  are  seven  public  bathing 
places  for  hot  baths,  and  16  with  cold  running 

The  city  also  runs  a  savings  bank 
CSparicasse*).  There  is  also  a  royal  pawn- 
office,  and  a  number  of  private  benevolent  insti- 
tutions which  are,  in  part,  supported  by  (he  dty. 
The  Central  Employment  office  is  of  par- 
ticular significance,  and  its  management  is  un- 
usual. In  many  German  dlies  such  an  institu- 
tion is  managed  directly  by  the  city  administra- 
tion. A  special  office  is  fitted  up  for  the  purpose, 
notices  of  vacandes  of  one  land  and  another 
are  recnved  and  those  seeking  employment  are 
informed  of  such  opportunities  for  work.  Now, 
in  Berlin,  this  general  employment  agency  is 
not  directly  in  the  hands  of  the  dty,  but  re- 
ceives support  from  the  dty.  This  support  on 
the  part  of  the  city,  which  has  been  extended 
to  $10,000,  was  given  after  a  number  of  hid) 
city  offidals  had  identified  themselves  with  the 
management  of  the  agency  in  question,  which 
was  called  the  Centrat-Vertin.  This  employ- 
ment agency  has  a  special  building  for  its  pur- 
poses, containing  separate  oflices  for  different 
kinds  of  work;  also  youthful  applicants  are 
separated  from  the  mature.  A  number  of 
smaller  employment  agencies  and  unions  of 
one  kind  and  another  have  joined  this  general 
union.  This  condition  for  thus  joinmg  is  that 
an  execntive  committee  be  formed  for  each 
trade,  consisting  equally  of  workmen  and  em- 
ployers, with  a  chainnan  belongiag  to  neiAer 
party- 

Clianties,  etc.— The  city  council  spends  an- 
nually about  $80.00,  aiding  various  jtrlvate 
charitable  associations;  for  instance,  nine  or- 
ganizations for  nursing  the  sick;  15  for  the  care 


LIM  561 

of  children,  five  for  the  care  of  women  lying-in. 
and  43  other  aid  associations ;  also  23  educa- 
tional institutions,  besides  a  large  number  of 
foundations  partly  under  the  administration, 
partly  under  the  inspection  of  the  dty. 

TTie  dty  has  two  asylums  for  the  homeless, 
one  for  families,  the  other  for  such  persons 
as  only  require  a  shelter  for  the  night.  A  simi-. 
lar  Institution,  as  *Asyl,>  is  maintained  t^  a 
private  assodation.  In  fact,  it  is  charactenstic 
of  Berlin  that  public  and  private  charity  sup- 
plement each  other.  The  care  of  the  poor,  as 
such,  is  in  the  hands  of  the  dty  administration, 
and  about  ^000  persons  are  employed  in  this 
work,  though  in  honorary  positions  and  with- 
out salary. 

In  addition  to  these  means  of  providing  for 
the  poor  must  be  mentioned  the  system  of  in- 
surance for  the  working  classes.  The  statute 
regulating  insurance  against  sickness  was 
passed  in  1883,  though  previous  to  that  time 
such  insurance  had  already  been  made  com- 
pulsory. The  obligation  is  placed  upon  the 
employer,  who  pays  the  assessments  and  de- 
ducts the  amount  from  the  wages  of  the  work- 
man. At  present  there  are  129  branches  of  tWs 
kind  of  insurance  under  the  control  of  the  rity 
coundl,  besides  a  few  branches  that  are  con- 
trolled by  the  state,  and  a  number  of  private 
associations.  The  number  of  worhingmen  and 
women  insured  already  exceeds  700,000,  and  in 
1910  about  $7,000,000  was  paid  out  in  sick 
insurance.  According  to  the  law,  the  weekly  al- 
lowance daring  sickness  is  paid  for  as  long  as 
36  consecutive  weeks,  but,  under  special  cir- 
cumstances, it  may  be  paid  for  as  long  a  period 
as  S2  weeks.  The  city  has  built  upon  its  own 
land  homes  for  the  convalescent  which  are 
for  the  complete  recovery  of  the  sick.  For  the 
rest  the  dty  hospitals  are  open  to  the  insured, 
but  their  expenses  must  be  paid  out  of  the  in- 

There  is  in  Berlin  a  state  institution  for  the 
care  of  invalid  workmen.  In  connection  with 
the  same  there  are  several  sanatoria  which  care 
for  those  who  are  about  to  become  invalids. 
The  sanatorium  at  Belitz  may  be  mentioned.  It 
is  fitted  up  in  magnificent  style  and  is  probably 
the  best  sanatorium  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

Edncational  Initittitions^  In  the  field  of 
education  the  University  of  Berlin  takes  the 
first  place.  It  was  founded  by  Frederick  Wil- 
liam HI  in  1810,  During  the  winter  term  of 
1910  there  were  enrolled  over  7,500  regular 
students,  besides  almost  as  many  more  so- 
called  ZuMrer,  i.e.,  mostly  persons  who  have 
secured  permission  to  attend  lectures,  but 
whose  previous  education  is  not  suffident  to 
enable  them  to  take  up  systematic  studies  lead- 
ing to  a  degree.  In  connection  with  the  uni- 
versity is  the  Seminary  for  Oriental  Languages. 

Further,  of  special  significance  is  the  'Tech- 
nische  Hochschule,*  which  has  nearly  3,000 
students;  also  the  'Bergidtademie,*  and  the 
Hocbschulen  for  agriculture,  for  fine  art,  and 
for  music. 

All  these  are  state  institutions.  To  them  has 
now  been  added  a  Hochschule  for  Commerce, 
which  is  bdng  erected  by  the  'Aeltesten  der 
Berliner  Kaufmannschaft.*  This  is  a  sodety 
of  merchants  which  was  licensed  by  Frederick 
William  in  in  1820.  Formerly  they  exercised 
the  function  of  a  board  of  trade.     Since  the 


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S8S  BBi 

Chamber  o£  Commerce  was  formed  some  year* 
ago  tbey  have  had  to  give  up  this  Eunction  and 
have  extended  their  activity  into  the  Aeld  of 
.commercial  education. 

As  to  Gymnasia  and  Realgyfflnasia,  Berlin 
has  five  royal  and  20  city  institutions.  There 
are  besides,  13  city  Realschulen,  two  royal  aod 
six  city  hi^  schools  for  girls,  four  city  finish- 
ing schools,  a  normal  school,  a  royal  seminary 
for  male  teachers,  a  similar  one  for  female 
teachers  and  teachers  of  gymnastics,  a  royal  the- 
atre-school and  school  for  deaf-mutes,  a  city 
school  for  deaf-mutes,  and  a  city  school  for  the 
blind  Instruction  in  these  schools  is  free.  It 
may  be  added  that  each  of  the  suburbs  has  its 
own  schools  of  various  kinds. 

MuseoniB  and  CoUectlons.— The  more  im- 
portant picture  galleries  and  collections  are,  the 
OM  and  the  New  Museums,  the  National  Gal- 
lery, the  Pergaraon  Museum  and  the  Emperor 
Frederick  Museum  —  all  maintained  by  the 
state.  Further,  the  Raveni  Museum.  Among 
historical  collections  may  be  mentioned  the 
Royal  Hohcnzollern  Museum,  the  Zeughaus, 
the  Provincial  Museum  —  a  city  institution,  the 
Post  Museum,  and  the  royal  museums  for  an- 
thropology and  German  ethnology.  The  liberal 
arts  are  represented  by  the  Ro^  Museum  for 
Liberal  Arts  and  by  the  exhibit  of  the  Royal 
Porcelain  Manufactory.  Further,  there  are  the 
royal  museums  for  saence,  for  agriculture,  for 
mining  and  smelting,  and  for  pathology.  The 
Zoological  Garden  belongs  to  a  private  com- 
^ny,  but  it  is  in  the  nature  of  a  public  utility. 
The  Aquarium  is  also  owned  by  private  par- 
ties, but  is  subvcntiored  by  the  authorities. 
The  stale  maintains  a  botanical  garden.  There 
are  also  the  Hygienic  Museum,  the  Colonial  Mu- 
seum and  the  Institute  for  Hydro^apby,  which 
serve  further  the  interests  of  science  and  the 
technic  of  shipbiulding.  A  curious  recent  crea- 
tion is  a  permanent  exhibition  of  contrivance» 
for  the  betterment  of  the  conditions  of  labor. 
There  are  three  astronomical  observatories,  a 
Stale  observatory  and  two  private  ones.  The 
latter  are  always  open  to  the  public 

Many  libraries,  including  the  Royal  Librat^ 
of  about  a  million  volumes,  provide  opportutu- 
ties  for  study  in  every  field  of  knowledge. 

Monuments  and  Public  BuUdiogi.— There 
are  a  lar^e  ntmnber  of  monuments  on  the  streets 
and  public  sauares  of  the  city.  A  considerable 
number  of  tnem  have  been  erected  during  the 
reign  of  the  present  Emperor,  and,  in  fact,  un- 
der his  immediate  influence. 

The  number  of  the  palaces  and  public  build- 
ings is  likewise  very  large,  though,  as  com- 
pared with  other  German  cities,  Berlin  is  poor 
in  specimens  of  old  architecture. 

There  are  numerous  theatres,  including  the 
Royal  Play  House,  the  Royal  Opera  House,  the 
New  Royal  Opera-Theatre.  13  other  large  the- 
atres, and  about  a  dozen  smaller  ones,  a  num- 
ber of  so-called  "cabarets,*  and  two  permanent 
circuses. 

Churches. —  The  oldest  churches  in  Berlir. 
are  the  Nikolai  Church  and  Saint  Mary's.  Both 
were  built  in  the  13th  century  but  have  been 
restored.  Further.  Saint  Peter's  may  be,  men- 
tioned There  are  more  than  40  evangelical 
churches,  the  most  important  being  the  F.m- 
peror  William  Memorial  Church,  bolk  in  1891- 
95    in    beautiful    Romanic    style    Ctwo    large 


Deighboruig  houses  are  in  the  same  s^  o( 
ardtitecture)  ;  the  Emperor  Frederick  Uemoiial 
Church,  beautifully  situated  in  the  Thiergarten; 
and  the  New  Cathedral  (dedicaited  b  190S). 
built  in  Italian  Renaissance  s^le  and  ono- 
mented  with  numerous  sculptures.  A  Frendi 
church  was  built  in  I701-0S;  and  there  are 
also  an  En^ish  and  an  American  church.  Saint 
Hedwig's  Church  (Catholic)  dales  from  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century.  Of  the  two  larger 
E^ynagoguea  the  oldest  and  finest  dates  from  tbt 
year  1^ 

UonnmenUl  BnUdin(«. — To  be  mentioned 
keie  especially  are  the  Royal  Palace,  the 
palaces  of  Emperor  William  I,  Emperor  Fred- 
erick and  Prince  Albrecht,  and  the  palace  at 
Charlotlenburg ;  further  niunerous  state  build- 
ings, e.g.,  those  occupied  by  the  Departmenls 
of  War  and  Education,  the  Foreign  Office,  At 
Imperial  Health  Office,  the  Imperial  Insurance 
Office,  the  Patent  OBice,  the  Al^eordnetenhaui, 
and  the  large  Reichstag  building,  in  Italian 
Renaissance  style;  also  various  railwav  stations 
and  palatial  structures  of  the  Postal  Depart- 
ment. Of  municipal  buildings  the  city  hall 
deserves  mention;  further,  the  city  museum  and 
numerous  public  schools;  also  the  new  city  ball 
in  Charlotlenburg.  The  magnificent  strucluret 
of  the  large  banks,  stores,  breweries,  msurance 
companies,  etc.,  add  much  to  the  beauty  of  the 
city.  The  arcade  between  Frederick  street  and 
Unter-den-Linden  may  also   be  mentioned 

Bridges,  Statuary.  Fountain*.-—  The  follow- 
ing are  the  more  notable  of  the  monumenti! 
bridges  in  Berlin :  H^^ltbrncke,  Potsdamer- 
brudLe,  Belle  Alliancebriicke,  Kurfiirstenbriicke 
Wilhelmbrucke,  Friedrichbrucke,  Schlossbructe 
Moltkebriicke  and  Oberbaumbriicke.  Aside 
from  the  National  Monument,  the  most  note- 
worthy statues  in  the  central  part  of  the  city 
are  those  of  William  I,  Frederick  the  Great,  the 
Great  Elector,  Frederick  William  III,  Emperor 
Frederick,  Empress  AugustsL  the  two  Hum- 
boldts.  Helmholtz,  Luther,  Schiller,  Waldeck  and 
Schulae-Delitesch.  In  front  of  the  Reichstag 
btulding  is  an  iounense  bronze  statue  of  Biis- 
marck.  Near  by  are  the  statues  of  Uoltke  and 
Roon  and  the  Column  of  Victory,  which  over- 
looks the  32  marble  groups  of  Brandenburgian 
and  Prussian  statesmen  and  rulers  in  the  Ave- 
nue of  Victory,  Other  notable  statues  in  .lb* 
Thiergarten  are  those  of  Goethe,  Lessinft 
Richard  Wagner,  Frederick  William  III  and 
Queen  Louise.  Some  of  the  numerous  foun- 
tains, worthy  of  note  are  the  large  fountain 
before  the  palace,  which  was  designed  by  Begaj 
and  presented  by  the  city  on  the  acceiiion  of 
Emperor  VVilliara  II;  the  Hercules  Fountain  on 
Lutzowplatz,  which  was  desif^ned  t^  LessinK) 
and  the   artificial  water-fall  tn   Victoria  Park 

Trade,  Traniportatioti  and  Popntation.-- 
The  land  traffic  of  Greater  Berhn  in  l^lO 
amounted  to  12,697,965  tons  (exclusive  o' 
transit  trade),  and  the  water-borne  traffic  to 
6,848,900  tons.  In  that  year  the  value  ofut 
exports  to  the  United  States  and  its  possessiooi 
amounted  to  $17,172,413. 

Twelve  main  lines  of  railway  eater  the  cilTi 
and  dtese  arc  splendidly  eauipped.  An  import- 
ant waterway  for  large  snips  from  Berlin  to 
Stettin  on  the  Baltic,  a  distance  of  62  miles,  w>^ 
opened  on  2  May  1914.  It  is  an  exlension  and 
deepeaing  of  canals  preytously  enstti^.  and  u 


tizcdbyGoOl^Ie 


The  chancter  o(  the  population  of  Berlin  is 
subjected  to  a  gradual  cnange,  whkh  is  caused 
partly  by  the  building  up  of  new  industries, 
partly  by  the  rcniovjil  of  well-to-do  taxpayer* 
to  the  suburbs.  This  migratiDn  of  the  wealdiier 
classes  is  attended  by  an  influx  of  the  taboring 
classes,  especially  in  the  newly  built  parts  of 
the  dtyf  so  that  the  laboring  pt^ulation  is  con- 
stantly  mcreasin([.  Again,  the  inner  residential 
part  of  the  cit^  is  coming  to  be  used  more  and 
more  for  business  purposes,  so  that  here  the 
population  is  decreasing  continuously. 

The  development  of  facilities  for  transpor- 
tation has  contributed  much  to  these  changes. 
The  "Stadtbahn,*  a  railway  which  crosses  the 
city  from  east  to  west,  then  eticircles  it  both  on 
the  north  and  on  the  south,  Was  and  has  been  the 
cause  of  the  wonderful  growth  of  the  western 
suburbs.  Migration  was  encouraged  by  the  ex- 
ceedingly low  fare  of  10  pfennigs  to  the  filth 
station,  or  20  pfennigs  for  the  entire  distance, 
not  to  mention  the  great  reduction  allowed  on 
monthly  tickets.  This  has  led  to  the  building 
of  new  stations  along  the  outer  parts  of  the 
'Stadtbahn'  and  to  the  institution  of  sub  urban 
trains,  on  which  one  may  have  a  monthly  ticket 
at  a  price  varying  with  the  distance. 

In  this  connection  must  be  mentioned  also 
the  «Grosse  Berliner  Slrassenbahn."  This  is  a 
private  traction  company  which  owns  nearly  all 
the  street  cars  in  the  city.  Since  on  most  of 
the  lines  the  fare  is  only  10  pfennigs  this  com- 
pany has  bad  great  influence  in  the  development 
of  the  suburbs.  The  fare  is  S  and  10  pfennigs. 
The  electric  elevated  and  underground  road 
passes  along  the  southern  periphery  of  the  city 
from  east  to  west.  Important  extensions  of  the 
subway  svstem  are  now  (1916)  ahnost  com- 
pleted. During  construction  a  section  under 
the  Spree  was  flooded  on  27  March  1912,  happily 
without  loss  of  life. 

Since  1911,  when  the  lease  of  the  operating 
company  expired,  the  tramway  lines  within  the 
city_  have  been  municipally  owned.  In  1912  the 
decision  was  taken  to  electrify  the  entire 
suburban  system  of  Berlin.  Electric  locomo- 
tives are  to  be  used  in  traction,  the  current  for 
which  is  to  be  supplied  by  two  150,000  horse- 
power electric  plants,  one  near  Bitterfcid  coal 
mines,  80  miles  from  Berlin^  and  the  other  in 
Berlin.  The  entire  cost,  including  stations, 
cables,  feeders  and  rolling  stock,  is  estimated 
at  $32,000,000.  The  system  has  been  leased  to 
a  company  for  a  period  of  30  years.  The  whole 
enterprise  was  completed  in  1917. 

The  bridging  of  the  Havel  Valley,  completed 
in  1914,  marks  an  important  epodn  in  the  de- 
velopment of  Greater  Berlin.  This  engine  ring 
triumph,  carried  through  in  despite  of  bad  sofl 
conditions,  has  involved  the  building  of  a  dam 
and  two  bridges  —  the  Stateserge  and  the 
Havel  — the  latter,  79  feet  wide  and  537  feet 
long,  with  five  spans. 

Under  the  influence  of  improved  facilities 
for  transportation  the  composition  of  the  popu- 
lation in  the  various  parts  of  the  greater  city 
has  become  quite  vaned.  The  well-to-do  live 
in  the  west  and  in  the  western  suburbs,  while 
the  working  classes  have  settled  in  the  east  and 
the  north,  and  partl_y  in   the  southeast.     The 


large  factories  are  situated  in  the  e 


die  northwest.  While  in  Berlin  80  persona  out 
of  every  thousand  pay  tax  on  an  income  of 
S750  and  upward,  the  proportion  of  people  in 
kixdorf,  a  southeastern  suburb,  who  have  such 
an  incoqie  is  only  27  out  of  a  thousand.  On 
the  other  hand,  in  the  wealthy  western  suburbs, 
Griinewald  and  Wilmersdorf,  the  proportion  is 
441  and  2%  respectively,  out  of  every  thousand. 
Similar  differences  can  also  be  noted  in  the 
interior  of  the  city.. 

The  city  maintains  a  statistical  bureau  that 
keeps  a  careful  record  of  all  these  conditions. 
Undoubtedly,  such  differences  in  the  composi- 
tion of  the  population  will  be  found  to  account 
for  the  varying  rate  of  mortality  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  city,  as  well  as  for  the  varying  rate 
of  taxation. 

Death  Rate,— To  be  sure,  the  mortality  in 
Berlin  is  not  only  low,  but  is  still  decreasing. 
In  1873  the  death  rate  was  28  per  1,000;  in  I88S 
it  bad  risen  to  29.98;  but  by  1898  it  had  fallen 
to  18.16;  in  1904  was  17;  and  in  1911,  15,59. 
Still,  the  rate  is  not  uniform,  varying  from  8 
in  the  wealthier  parts  of  the  dfy  to  22  per 
thousand  in  the  poorer  quarters.  The  decrease 
of  mortality  is  due  to  better  hygienic  conditions, 
especially  to  water-supply  and  sewerage.  Thouf^ 
the  death  rate  among  children  Is  still  high  the 
city  authorities  are  doing  everything  possible  to 
combat  the  evil  Building  ordinances  have  been 
made  stricter,  and  the  hygienic  conditions  of 
flat^ouses  have  been  thereby  greatly  improved, 
especially  in  the  newly  butit  portions  of  the 
city.  Within  recent  years  there  has  been  a  de- 
cline in  the  birth  rate  which  was  25.98  in  190^ 
and  21.64  in  1911. 

TenementB.— Still  the  principal  evil  per- 
rists,  i.e.,  the  crowded  condition  of  ajjartmert- 
houses.  On  an  average  such  a  house  in  Berlin 
shelters  77  persons,  and  the  flat  of  a  workman, 
which  usually  consists  of  only  two  rooms,  closet, 
etc.,  must  not  only  shelter  the  family,  but  pro- 
vide sleeping  (juarters  for  one  or  two  outsiders. 
The  explanation  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  the 
relatively  high  rents  for  sudi  flats,  the  minimum 
being  $5  per  month,  or  about  one-fourth  of  a 
laborer's  mcome.  The  desire  to  cut  down  the 
rent  by  letting  slee|nng  quarters  is  amply  met 
by  the  large  number  of  workmen  moving  into 
Berlin. 

The  building  of  model  tenements  for  the  bet- 
terment of  living  conditions  among  the  poor  has 
not  taken  place  to  any  considerable  extent. 
Aside  from  a  co-operative  company  that  built 
269  small  homes  for  workingmen  in  the  sub- 
urbs, which  were  sold  to  the  members  of  the 
company,  there  are  seven  building  companies  of 
philanthropic  nature,  but  their  houses  offer  ac- 
commodations for  less  than  10,000  persons.  Be- 
sides, the  administrations  of  some  of  the  state 
industries  have  placed  homes  at  the  disposal  of 
their  workmen,  and  both  the  city  and  the  stale 
aid  such  benevolent  enterprises  by  furnishing 
capital  at  a  low  rate  of  interest. 

Aside  from  the  evils  of  high  rents,  and,  con- 
sequently, overcrowded  flats^  the  conditions  are 
not  ba(L  The  plumbing  in  the  newer  flat- 
houses  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired.  In  fact, 
both  in  Berlin  and  the  suburbs,  the  better  class 
of  such  houses  have  all  modem  conveniences, 
and  are  comparatively  luxurious. 

Streets.— ITie  streets  of  Beriin  are  wdl 
cared  for  and  are  in  excellent  conditioiL    Ai- 


,  Google 


684 

ready  40  per  cent  of  the  streets  are  paved  with 
wood  or  asphalt,  the  rest  being;  paved  with  stone 
or  cement.  Bnt  the  work  of  improvement  con- 
tinues. The  yearly  pay-roll  for  street  cleaning 
amounU  to  $531,000.  Much  more  is  s^nt  now 
on  parks  than  formerly.  Within  the  city  limits 
there  are  seven  state  and  five  dty  parks.  For 
the  most  part  the  dty  is  illtrniinated  by  gas,  but, 
since  recently,  in  part  by  electridty.  The  city 
maintains  an  efficient  fire  dejiartment,  which  also 
acts  'as  a  sood  Samaritan  in  all  cases  of  dis- 
tress, whether  from  fire  or  otherwise.  In  ac- 
cordance with  an  ordinance  of  more  than  a  hun- 
dred years  standing,  all  buildings  must  be  in- 
sured in  the  city  ■Feuerkasse.'  The  average  in- 
surance valuation  per  house  is  $41,500. 

Naturally,  the  great  demand  for  real  estate 
and  the  more  luxurious  style  of  architecture 
have  increased  valuations  considerably.  On  an 
average  property  is  worth  about  $65  per  square 
metre. 

Climate.— The  mean  temperature  is  9''  Cen- 
tigrade,  the   thermometer   varying   from   about 


the  months  of  December,  January  and  Febru- 
ary the  mean  temperature  varies  from  0.7°  be- 
low lero  to  0,8°  above  zero.  The  mean  tem- 
perature for  other  months  is  as  follows :  Uarch, 
3.5°;  April,  &5°;  May,  13.3°;  Tune,  17,4°;  July, 
18.9*;  August,  l&l";  September,  14.6°;  Octo- 
ber, 9.5° ;  November,  3.8  ,  The  mean  barome- 
ter is  762,  the  lowest,  56.9  centimetres.  West 
vfinds  prevail. 


in  the  summer.  Stomach  troubles  are  aggra- 
vated by  the  heat,  and  the  death  rate  among  in- 
fants is  thereby  considerably  increased.  The 
city  has  been  free  of  epidemics  for  years. 

Recent  DevelopmenL —  Since  about  1865 
the  capital  dty  of  the  empire  has  had,  in  many 
respects,  a  bnlliant  development  In  this  short 
period  die  population  has  trebled,  hjrgienic  con- 
ditions have  been  wonderfully  unproved,  and 
the  dty  has  become  one  of  the  most  beautiful, 
and  one  of  the  most  visited,  dties  in  the  world 
More  than  a  million  strao^rs  register  in  the 
hotels  annually,  not  including  the  large  num- 
ber of  visitors  who  find  their  temporary  quar- 
ters in  those  parts  of  the  greater  dty  which 
are  under  separate  munidpaJ  control.  Indeed, 
for  the  stranger,  who  cannot  see  the  imaginary 
boundary  lines,  it  is  alt  Berlin.  Socially  and 
industrially  it  is  really  only  one  dty,  and  the 
entire  complex  of  separate  municipal  corpora- 
tions might  be  fittingly  called  Greater  Berlin. 
E,  HntsCHHEW^  Ph.D., 
Director  of  Slalistical  Bureau  of  Berlin. 

BERLIN,  N.  H.,  dty  in  Coos  County  on 
the  Androscoggin  River  and  on  the  Grand 
Trunk  and  the  Boston  and  Maine  railroads, 
98  miles  northwest  of  Portland,  Me,    The  sur- 


wages.  The  capitsl  invested  aggregated  $20,- 
860,000,  and  the  year's  output  was  valued  U 
$13,090,000;  of  this,  $4^245,000  was  tbe  value 
added  by  manufacture.  The  dty  has  a  public 
library,  a  hospital,  two  theatres,  parochial  and 

fublic  schools  and  a  fine  mtmicipal  buildii^ 
op.  (1910)  11,7KI;  (1914)  13,013. 
BERLIN,  Wis.,  rity  in  Green  L^e  County, 
97  miles  northwest  of  Milwaukee,  on  it 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  Saint  Paul  Railroad, 
and  on  the  Fox  River,  There  are  (panilt 
quarries  in  the  vicinity,  and  the  dairying  and 
cranberry  growing  industries  are  of  considerable 
importance.  It  manufactures  apiaty  supplies, 
bricks,  dairy  supplies,  brooms,  gloves,  fur  coat^ 
mittens,  shoes  and  washboards.  It  was  settled 
in  1847  and  was  incorporated  in  1856  The  gov- 
emmenl  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  chosen  for  tw* 
years,  and  a  counril.    Pop.  4,636. 

BERLIN,  Treaty  of.  See  Berlin'  Cokciess, 
BERLIN,  University  of,  a  celebrated  in- 
stitution of  learning  in  Berlin,  Germany.    It  a. 


supplies  a  water  power  equivalent  to  nearly 
20,000  horse  power.  The  chief  manufactures 
are  sulphite  pulp  and  paper,  in  connection  with 
the  large  lumbering  industry.  The  United 
States  census  of  manufactures  of  1914  recorded 
19  industrial  establishments  of  faetoiy  grade 
employing  2^86  persons,  of  whom  2,M0  were 
wage  earners,  receiving  annually  $1,974,000  in 


famous  of  them  all.  It  was  founded  in  IBIO, 
when  the  Napoleonic  victories  had  left  Pniisii 
apparently  crushed^  and  had  even  transfcrfcd 
her  great  University  of  Halle  to  the  newly- 
formed  kingdom  of  Westphalia.  Wilhelm  von 
Humboldt  was  Minister  of  Education  at  the 
time,  and  Prussia's  debt  to  him  for  organizing 
her  national  school  system,  with  the  Universily 
of  Berlin  at  its  head,  during  that  ^riod  of 
national   defeat   and  disaster^  is  certainly  very 

freat.  It  should  be  borne  in  mini  too,  tba! 
[umboldt  was  ably  seconded  by  Fichte  and 
Schleiermacher.     The   first   rector   of  the  uiu- 


land  and  Fichte ;  and  before  it  was  lO  years 
old  it  had  for  professors  such  men  as  Niebubr, 
Wolff,  Bockh,  Bekker  and  Hegel,  In  more 
recent  years,  Ranke,  Mommsen,  Helmholti, 
Grimm  brothers,  Lepsius,  Ritter,  Gneist,  Savigny, 
Virchow,  and  other  famous  scholars  have  up- 
held the  reputation  which  the  university  won 
for  itself  at  the  very  start.  There  are  four 
faculties,  theology,  medidne,  jurisprudence  and 
philosophy,  with  a  total  of  377  professors  and 
teachers.  It  had  in  1912  more  than  14.000 
student^  of  whom  over  8,000  were  matriculated. 
The  umversi^  also  includes  several  'institu- 
tions»  comprising  the  seminars  the  institutes 
of  pfiysics,  clinics,  museums  and  observatories. 
The  university  is  supported  by  the  stale  and  is 
under  control  of  the  Minister  of  Education. 
The  administration  is  in  the  hands  of  the  rector 
and  senate,  the  so-called  «plenum.»  or  full  b«>dy 
of  professors,  and  the  faculties.  It  has  police 
and  judicial  powers  over  its  members,  eierdsed 
by  the  administration  and  a  university  court 
Men  and  women  of  all  nationalities  are  ad- 
mitted. The  choice  of  professors  for  distin- 
guished excellence  is  still  maintained.  Tfae 
library  consists  of  over  200,000  volumes  and 
more  than  that  number  of  imiversihr  and  school 
"theses,*  etc.  The  chief  library  facilities  for 
studehts  are  to  be  found,  however,  in  the  Royal 
Library  (1,260,000  volumes),  in  the  Reichstag 
Library  (153,000  volumes),  the  Royal  \Vat 
Academy  library  (94,000  volumes),  and  the 
Roya!  Prussian  and  Royal  Secret  Archives; 
other  collecliotn  are  also  acccsriUe. 

l3n,t,zcd=yG00<^Ic 


BERLIN  CONORBSS  — BBRLIOZ 


Prom  1906-14  the  University  of  Berlin  was 
exchanging  professors  with  ColumUa  and  Har- 
vard universities,  a  system  by  which  it 
maintained  permanent  diairs  at  Uese  univer- 
sities in  return  for  an  American  professarship 
at  home.  The  arrangement  was  in  the  hands  of 
the  Prussian  government  The  'Akademische 
Aiiskunftsstelle'  was  recently  estaUished  as  a 
bureau  of  informadon,  particularly  for  foreign 
students. 

BERLIN  CONGRESS,  a  gathering  at  Ber- 
lin, Germany,  where  the  European  powers 
imdertook  the  settlement  of  the  questions  grow- 
ing out  of  the  Russo-Turtdsh  War  of  1877-78, 
The  Congress  met  13  June  1878;  and  completed 
its  latxirs  with  the  ugning  of  a  treaty  on  13 
July  following.  The  Treaty  of  San  Stefano  (3 
March  1878)  between  Russia  and  Turkey  did 
not  suit  the  other  powers ;  and  the  Congress, 
convened  at  the  suggestion  of  Germany,  so 
mocUfied  the  agreement  between  Russia  and 
Turkey  that  the  former  lost  nearly  all  the 
fruits  of  victory.  B^  the  new  arrangement 
Bulgaria  was  divided  into  two  parts,  Bulgaria 
propter  and  eastern  Rumelia.  Parts  of  Ar- 
menia were  given  to  Russia  and  Persia;  the 
independence  of  Roumania,  Serbia  and  Uonte- 
n^ro  was  guaranteed ;  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
was  transferred  as '  protectorates  of  Austria;, 
and  Bessarabia  restored  to  Russia.  Greece  was 
also  to  have  an  accession  of  territory.  By  a 
separate  arrangement  previously  made  between' 
Great  Britain  and  Turkey,  the  former  got  Cy- 
prus to  administer.  Bismarck  was  the  president 
of  die  Congress.  The  more  iinportant  members 
were  Prince  Gortchakoff,  Count  Andrassy, 
Lord  Beaconsfield,  Lord  Salisbury,  Lord  Rus- 
sell, M.  Waddington,  Count  Cotti,  Karathdodori 
Pasha,  Prince  Hohcnlohe  and  General  von  Bil- 
low. On  9  April  1909  Great  Britain  and  Ger- 
many recognized  the  annexation  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina  by  Austria  and  signed  their  con- 
sent to  the  abrogation  of  Article  25  of  the 
Treaty  o!  Berlin.  France  and  Russia  took  the 
same  action  on  the  following  day.  Consult 
Hertslet,  <The  Man  of  Europe  by  Treaty* 
(Vols.  Ill  and  iV;  London  1891);  Holland, 
'The  European  Concert  in  the  Eastern  Ques- 
tions' (Oxford  1885)  ;  id.,  'Studies  in  Inter- 
national Uw'  (Oxford  188S). 

BERLIN  DECREE,  a  decree  issued  by 
NMwleon,  21  Nov.  180^  which  declared  the 
British  Islands  in  a  state  of  blockade.  It  for- 
bade commerce  with  them  and  trade  in  their 
merchandise,  and  declared  all  merchandise  be- 
longing to  Englishmen,  or  transported  from 
England,  lawful  prize.  Its  effect  was  to  inflict 
great  injury  on  the  American  carrying  trade. 

See   CONTINEHTAL   SrSTEU. 

BERLIN  MEMORANDUM,  ft  remon- 
strance addressed  to  the  Turkish  government  in 
Ma^  1876  l^  the  principal  European  Powers, 
insisting  on  a  two  months'  armistice  between  the 
Sultan  and  hii  European  subjects  who  were  in 
rebellion,  in  order  that  terms  of  peace  might 
be  n^otiated.    See  Ansbassy  Note. 

BERLINER.  Emile.  tur-le'ner,  a'mfl, 
American  inventor :  b.  Hanover,  Germany,  20 
May  1831.  After  graduating  at  Wolfenbuttel  in 
186S|he  came  to  America  five  years  later,  and 
in  lo78  was  appointed  chief  inspector  of  instru- 
ments by  the  Bell  Tele^one  Company.     He 


invented  the  loose  contact  telephone  transmitter 
or  microphone,  known  by  bis  name,  and  the 
device  called  the  gramoi^one.  He  has  devoted 
hit  ener^s  to  perfectiiw  the  telephone,  and  has 
secured  many  patents  tor  his  inventions.  He 
planned  and  was  a  member  of  the  Washington 
milk  conference  of  1907.  He  has  been  eng^d 
since  1901  in  an  educational  campaign  against 
the  dangers  of  raw  milk  and  other  dairy  prod- 
ucts. He  was  the  first  to  have  made  and  used 
in  aeronautical  ex^rimeuts  the  light  weight 
revolving  cjjlinder  internal  combustion  motor, 
now  extensively  used  on  aeroplanes  (1908). 
He  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  pamphlets  deal- 
ing with  the  prevention  of  sickness  and  has 
published  'Conclusions,'  a  work  dealing  with 
philosophical  and  religious  questions. 

BERLIOZ,  Louis  Hector,  French  com- 
poser: b.  Cole  Saint  Andrt  II  Dec.  1803:  d. 
Paris,  8  March  1869.  His  father,  a  physician, 
desired  bis  son  to  follow  the  same  career  but 
the  latter  early  in  life  was  greatly  attracted  to 
music,  and  soon  found  his  way  to  the  Paris 
Conscrvatoiv  library,  where  he  studied  the 
masters.  He  studied  harmony  under  Lesueur 
and  composed  a  mass  which  was  performed  at 
Saint  Roch.  In  1823  he  was  admitted  to  the 
Conservatory  and  at  once  his  great  talent  be- 
came evident,  and 'at  the  same  time  his  dis- 
regard for  the  traditional  canons.  Bent  on 
giving  expression  to  his  own  ideas,  Berlioz 
proceeded  by  violating  all  precedents  and  estab- 
lished rules.  As  a  consequence  he  was  never 
comjjlete  master  of  the  various  forms  of  com- 
position. With  his  'Fantastic  Symphonjf  '  and 
the  cantata,  'Sardana^alus'  he  established  a 
new  school  of  composition  which  came  to  be 
known  as  the  school  of  program  music.  Com- 
posers of  the  school  seek  to  express  by  means 
of  music  definite  ideas  and  moods  and  even  to 
relate  definite  events.  Berlioz  had  won  the 
Prix  de  Rome  with  'Sardanapalus'  in,  1830  and 
his  residence  in  Italy  fumi^d  him  with  in- 
spiration for  his  gifts.  He  wrote  the  overture 
to  'Kiiffi  Lear*  and  'LQio,*  a  symphonic  poen^ 
He  took  up  journalistic  work  successively  for 
the  Correibondant,  the  Conrrier  de  I'Europe, 
the  RtMie  Europienne  and  the  GaeetU  Mtisicate 
de  Paris.  His  style  was  marked  by  its  brilliancy 
and  power  and  by  unswerving  honesty  and 
candor.  In  1839  he  was  made  conservator;  and 
in  1852  librarian  at  the  Conservatory.  The 
symphony  'Harold  en  Italic'  (1834),  the 
'Messe  ties  morts'  (1837)  and  'Romeo  et 
Juliette*  (1839)  won  him  high  praise  from  the 
critics,  but  his  opera,  'BenvenutoOllini*  (1838), 
was  a  dismal  failure.  In  1843  Berlioz  made  a 
tour  of  (jcrmany  and  for  the  next  10  years  he 
toured  Austria,  England,  Russia  and  other 
countries  of  Europe,  and  met  with  success 
everywhere.  In  1856  he  was  elected  to  the 
Academy.  *Les  Troyers*  (1863J  proved  a 
failure,  which  greatly  disheartened  tne  composer. 
His  writings  on  music  and  musical  topics  are 
among  the  best  of  their  kind.  His  'Traits  d'in- 
slrumentation'  expressed  his  views  on  instru- 
mentation and  long  remained  the  first  work  in 
its  field.    In  his  lifetime  Berlioz  did  not  reeeivo 


>gle 


BERH  —  BEKHUDBE 


There  is  a  German  tranalation  of  his  collected 
vritinBS  t^  RicUrd  Pohl  (4  vols.,  1804).  A 
complete  edition  of  his  compositionK  and  writ- 
tngs  in  1?  volumes  is  in  preparation  at  Ldpxig 
under  the  editorship  of  Breitkopf,  Malherbe, 
Hirtel  and  Weingartner.  Consult  Ambros, 
'Bunte  Blitter* ;  Hippean,  'Berlioz,  rhomme 
et  J'artiste>  (Paris  1888);  Julbien,  A.,  'H. 
Bcrlioz>  (Paris  1888)  ;  PohL  R..  'H.  Berlioz, 
Studien  nnd  Erinnerungen'  (Leipzig  1884)  ;  id., 
(H.  Berlioz,  Leben  und  Werice>  (ib.  1900)  ;  the 
autobiographic  ^Memoirs'  (Paris  1870;  English 
trans.,  R.  &  E.  Holmes,  London  1884);  Pnid'- 
homme,  J.  G.,  'Hector  Berlioz,  ISOJ-lfiW 
(Paris  190S).  _ 

BERH,  or  BERHB.  In  fortification,  % 
narrow,  level  space  at  the  foot  of  the  exterior 
slope  of  a  parapet,  to  keep  the  crumbling  mate- 
rials of  the  parapet  from  fallinf;  into  the  ditch. 
It  is  from  four  to  eight  feet  in  width  and  is 
about  level  with  the  natural  ground  surface. 


BERMBJO,  bir-mSlid,  a  South  Americaa 
river  rising  in  Tarijo,  Bolivia,  and  flowing 
across  Argentina  to  the  Paraguay  River,  which 
it  enters  about  140  miles  south  of  Ascension. 
It  is  navigable  for  about  half  of  its  length  of 
1,300  miles.  It  is  of  great  importance  as  a 
waterway  from  Paraguay  to  the  Andine  region. 
There  is  a  steamer  service  in  operation  on  the 
river.  It  was  first  thorouf^ly  explored  by 
Cornejo  in  1790. 

BERHONDSEY,  a  metropolitan  borough 
in  the  southeast  of  London,  Enfcland,  bounded 
on  Qie  west  by  Southwark.  Area,  1,500  acres. 
It  is  a  congested  district  of  mean  streets,  and  is 
the  centre  of  the  leather  trade.  The  riverside 
wharves  .^ve  employment  to  numbers  of  the 
laboring  population.  Pop.  (1911)  125.903.  Con- 
suh  local  histories  by  Bell  (1380),  Qarke 
(1901).  Phillips  (1841),  and  Besant's  'South 
London>  (1899). 

BERMUDA,  ber-mu'd4,  or  SOMERS, 
ISLANDS,  a  cluster  of  small  islands  in  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  belon^ng  to  Great  Britain,  and 
situated  580  miles  southeast  of  C^pe  Hatteras 
and  677  miles  from  New  York.  They  number 
360  but  20  arc  for  the  most  part  so  small  and 
so  barren  that  they  have  neither  inhabitants  nor 
name.  They  were  first  discovered  by  Juan 
Bermudez,  a  Spaniard,  in  1522;  in  1609  Sir 
George  Somers,  an  Englishman,  was  wrecked 
here,  and  after  bis  shipwred^  formed  the  first 
settlement  The  most  considerable  of  these 
islands  arc  Saint  George,  Bermuda  or  Long 
Island  (with  the  chief  town,  Hamilton,  papu- 
lation 2,630,  forming  the  seat  of  the  governor), 
Somerset,  Saint  David's  and  Ireland.  They  are 
chiefly  used  as  a  naval  and  military  station,  the 
strategic  importance  of  which  has  increased 
since  the  constniction  of  the  Panama  Canal  and 
has  led  to  improvements  in  the  spacious  harbor 
of  Saint  (jeorge.  The  island  of  Ireland  is  oc- 
cupied by  a  govemmect  dockyard  and  other 
naval  establishments,  ivhile  Boaz  and  Watford 
islands  have  the  military  depots.  The  military 
headquarters  are  ai  Prospect.  The  climate  is 
generally  healthful  and  delightful,  the  air  beina 
mild  and  moiit  at  all  seasons.    It  is  not  adapted 


however,  for  consumptive  ^tictits.  The  Aer- 
mometer  seldom  falls  below  40'  F,,  and  rarelr 
rises  above  85*.  These  islands  with  their  scenic 
attractions  have  become  a  popnlar  holiday  re- 
sort for  Americans,  and  plentiful  hotel  accom* 
modation  is  supplied  at  Saint  (jeorge's  and 
Hamilton.  The  surface  i>  rather  irregular;  the 
soil,  thouf^  Ught  and  stony,  is  in  general  rich 
and  fertile.  The  islands  form  a  nearly  con- 
tinuous chain  and  are  connected  almost  uniii' 
tcrniptedly  b^  roads,  bridges  and  causcways- 
Tbe  water  is  in  general  salt;  there  is  but  little 
fresh  except  rain-water,  preserved  in  cisterns. 
The  inhabitants  export  early  potatoes  onions, 
lily  bulbs,  etc.,  nearly  all  of  these  products  be- 
ing  shipped  to  New  York,  The  value  of  die 
exports   ranges   from  $585,000   to  $635,000  U- 


BERHUDA  GRASS  iCapriolo  dactylon), 
a  pereimial  prass  cultivated  in  the  West  Indies 
and  the  United  States,  where  it  is  of  special 
value  on  the  sandy  soils  of  the  Southern  States. 
It  is  a  valuable  fodder  grass  for  warm  cli- 
mates. It  will  grow  in  any  soil  not  too  damp^ 
but  in  America  it  matures  only  in  the  extronc 
south.  It  is  probably  a  native  of  In^a,  hut 
has  no  spread  throu^out  the  warmer  portions 
of  the  globe.  It  is  a  low,  creepins  plant,  root- 
ing at  the  joints  and  has  short  nowcr  stalks. 
It  makes  a  dense  sod  It  turns  brown  under 
frost  Because  of  its  rooting  qualities  it  is  dis- 
lod^  with  difficulty  once  it  is  well  established 
It  15  propagated  from  root  stocks  as  well  as 
from  Its  seed. 

BERMUDA  HUNDRED,  Va.,  a  peninsula 
in  Chesterfield  County,  formed  b/  the  junction 
of  the  Appomattox  and  James  nvers,  occupied 
by  Gea  B.  F.  Butler,  who,  in  1864,  commanded 
the  Army  of  the  James,  numbering  about  25,000 
Federals,  where  he  might  intrench  himself  and 
await  Grant's  arrival.  In  the  vicinity  of  this 
position  there  was  constant  fighting  between 
Butler's  troops  and  those  of  the  Confederates 
under  General  Beaur^ard  whose  forces  were 
20,000  strong.  The  fighting  continued  from 
16  May  to  30  May.  On  the  16th  Heckman's 
brigade  was  destroyed  by  the  Confederates, 
who  were  then  pushing  on  to  Bermuda  Hun- 
dred, when  Ames  and  (Hllmore  came  up  and 
Beauregard's  plans  miscarried.  On  the  19th 
the  Confederates  assaulted  the  Federal  rifle 
pits  under  Ames  and  Terry,  but  without  suc- 
cess. Skirmishing  continued  until  the  30th, 
when  the  Confederates  desisted  Bermuda 
Hundred  was  a  valuable  position,  since  it  was 
very  near  both  Richmond  and  Petersburg ;  but 
Butler  was  charged  with  militaiy  iacapacitxin 
having  "corked  himself  up  in  a  bottle,*    The 

Spulatiou  of  the  district  was  2,554  in  I9ia 
nsult  Johnson  and  Buel,  'Battles  and  Lead- 
ers of  the  Gvil  War'  (VoL  IV.  New  Yorit 
1887). 

BERMUDEZ,  RenUdo  Mondea,  bir- 
moo'd&th,  ri-mc'je-A  raA-ra^iz,  Peruvian  states- 
man: b.  Tarapaca  province,  30  Sept.  1836;  d 
Lima,  31  March  1894.  He  began  business  in 
the  nitrate  trade  in  his  nabve  province.  In 
1854,  as  a  heutenant  he  joined  the  revolution- 
ary   army    which    finally    overthrew    General 


.Google 


BERN  —  BBRN  ADOTTB 


50? 


Echinique's  goveitinKnt.  In  1864  he  joined 
the  revolution  aninst  President  Castilta.  In 
the  war  with  Chile  he  led  the  force  that 
marrjied  to  Arica.  When  Caceres  was  elected 
President  in  1886,  Bermudez  was  chosen  Vice- 
President  and  was  elected  President  in  1890. 

BERN,  Mm,  or  b*rn,  Switierland,  the  chief 
canton  of  the  confederacy,  situated  in  the 
western  half  and  surrounded  by  the  cantons  of 
Neucbatel,  Freiburg,  Vaud,  Valais,  Uri,  Un- 
terwalden.  Lucerne  and  Solothum,  being  partly 
bounded  also  by  France  and  Alsace;  area  2,65/ 
square  miles.  The  more  northern  portion  of 
the  canton  has  beautiful  plains  and  valleys  and 
a  fertile  and  highly  cultivated  soil,  producing 
com,  wine  and  fruits;  the  Emmenthal,  one  of 
the  richest  and  most  fertile  valleys  in  Switier- 
bnd,  raises  the  finest  cattle  and  produces  a 
celebrated  cheese.  The  southern  portion  of  the 
canton,  the  Bemese  Oberiand,  begins  at  the 
foot  of  the  high  mountain  chain  between  this 
cantan  and  that  of  the  Valats  and  extends  to 
its  sumniil.  The  lower  valleys  produce  good 
fruits  and  are  fertile  and  agreeable :  higher  up 
are  excellent  Alpine  pastures;  then  succeed 
bare  rocks,  extensive  glaciers  (the  source  of 
magnificent  streams  and  waterfalls)  and  some 
of  die  highest  moimtsins  of  Switzerland  as  the 
Finsteraarhorn,  the  Schreckhom  and  Wetter- 
horn,  the  Eiger^  the  Jungtrau.  The  chief  trade 
of  (he  canton  is  in  linen  and  woolen  manufac- 
tures and  cattle- raising.     Pop.  about  550,000. 

BERN,  Switzerland,  the  capital  of  the  can- 
ton of  the  same  name  (see  above)  and  of  the 
whole  confederation  since  1848,  situated  on  an 
elevated  rocky  peninsula,  washed  on  three  sides 
by  the  Aar,  which  is  crossed  by  several  bridges. 


is  still  Reserved.  In  1353  it  entered  into  the 
Helvetic  Confederacy.  The  government  of  the 
town  from  early  times  was  democratic  but  in 
the  16th  century  a  tendency  toward  aristocratic 
domination  set  in.  The  invasion  by  the  French 
in  1798  overthrew  the  aristocratic  regime.  The 
struggle  between  Liberals  and  Conservatives 
during  the  19th  century  resulted  in  victory  for 
the  Liberals.  The  Constitution  was  repeatedly 
revised  in  a  democratic  sense  and  after  1870 
the  referendum  was  developed  with  great  com- 
plcAeness,  In  1405  the  greater  part  of  the  city 
was  destroyed  by  fire,  but  it  was  afterward 
regularly  rebuilt  The  bear,  as  the  heraldic 
emblem  of  Bern,  figures  frequently  in  a  sculp- 
tured form;  ana  a  number  of  these  animals  m 
the  flesh  are  kept  at  the  cost  of  the  municipal- 
ity. There  is  a  curious  clock-tower  containing 
mechanism  by  which  the  striking  of  the  hours 
is  heralded  by  the  crowing  of  a  cock  and  a 
procession  of  bears.     Pop.    (1910)   85,264. 

BERN,  Utiiverdty  of,  a  state  educational 
institution  having  its  origin  in  a  minor  school 
which  in  the  early  part  of  the  16lh  century  was 
much  enlarged  by  the  demand  for  accommoda- 
tions for  theological  students.  About  200  years 
later  it  expanded  by  the  institution  of  depart- 
ments of  law,  science  and  medicine.  The  Na- 
poleonic period  seriously  affected  the  univer- 
sity, as  it  did  others  near  to  the  French  fron- 
tier, but  in  1834  it  was  formally  reorganiied 
as  a  state  university.  It  has  an  income  of  about 
900,000  francs  and  an  endowment  of  1,000,000 
francs.  Its  1,800  students  include  over  300 
women  and  are  divided  among  the  faculties 
of     evangelical     theology.     Catholic    theology, 


haus  Bridge  (opened  in  1898),  with  a  roadway 
160  feet  above  the  Aar  and  a  principal  arch  of 
380  feet  span.    The  streets  are,  for  the  greater 

Krt,  straight,  wide  and  well  paved;  and  the 
uses,  partly  provided  with  piazzas,  are  sub- 
stantially built  of  stone.  The  streets  are  puri- 
fied by  rills  of  water  and  adorned  with  foun- 
tains. The  city  gets  water  for  its  drinking  sup- 
ply and  for  the  motive  power  of  its  electric 
plants  by  means  of  a  dam  1,000  feet  long  across 
the  Aar.  Among  the  public  buildings  arc  the 
great  Gothic  cathedral  '1421-1573;  the  Church 
of  the  Holy  Spirit;  the  University;  the  hall  of 
the  Swiss  Federal  Council ;  the  art  musetim, 
containing  the  municipal  picture  gallery;  a  hos- 
pital; the  (own-house,  a  Gothic  edifice  of  the 
ISth  century,  restored  1868;  the  mint,  com  hall, 
historical  and  archxological  museum;  the  nat- 
ural history  museum;  observatory;  deaf-and- 
dnrob  institution;  infirmaiy;  orphan  and  luna- 
tic asylums.  The  public  library  possesses  great 
treasures  of  printed  books  and  manuscripts. 
Trade  and  commerce  are  lively;  the  manufac- 
tures consist  of  woolens,  cottons,  silks,  machin- 
ery, chocolate,  scientific  instruments,  etc.  It 
has  two  great  annual  fairs  and  a  large  cattle 
and  horse  market.  There  are  street  railroads 
with  compressed  air  and  electricity  as  motive 
power.  Steam  roads  run  to  the  suburbs.  At 
fiern  is  located  the  central  office  of  the  Inter- 
national Postal  Union.  The  city  whs  founded 
in  1191  and  in  1218  the  German  Emperor  Fred- 
erick II  declared  it  a  free  city  of  the  emjare 
and  confirmed  its  privileges  by  a  charter,  which 


BERNADOTTB,    Jean    Baptiste    Jnlu, 

bar-na-dot',  zhdii  biiptest  zhool,  king  of  Swe- 
den and  Norway,  b.  Pau,  26  Jan.  1763;  d.  8 
March  1844.  He  was  the  son  of  an  advocate 
of  Pau  and  enlisted  in  a  French  regiment  of 
marines  at  the  age  of  17,  He  was  made  a  sub- 
altern in  1790  and  thereafter  his  promotion 
was  rapid.  In  1794  he  was  appointed  general 
of  division  and  distinguished  himself  greatly 
in  the  campaign  in  Germany  and  on  the  Rliine. 
After  the  battle  of  Neuwied  he  was  introduced 
for  the  first  time  to  Bonaparte,  who  conceived 
the  highest  opinion  of  his  abilities,  though  a 
constant  suspicion  of  Napoleon  seems  always 
to  have  been  present  in  the  mind  of  Bernadotte. 
In  1798  he  married  Mademoiselle  Claiv,  sister- 
in-law  oE  Joseph  Bonaparte.  The  following 
year  he  became  Minister  of  War,  but  was 
shortly  obliged  to  resign.  On  the  establish- 
ment  of  the  empire  Bernadotte  was  created 
Marshal  of  France  and  (after  Ausierlitz) 
Prince  of  Ponte-Corvo,  At  the  head  of  an 
army  of  observation  stationed  in  the  north  of 
Germany,  he  fixed  liis  headquarters  at  Ham- 
burg. At  the  battle  of  Wagram  (1809)  he  led 
the  Saxon  contingent.  At  this  time  Gustavus 
IV  had  been  driven  from  the  throne  of  Sweden. 
The  Duke  of  Sudermania  assumed  the  crown 
under  the  name  of  Charles  XIIT ;  and  as  be 
was  far  advanced  in  years  the  Diet  had  nomi- 
nated, as  his  successor,  the  Princ«  of  Holstein- 
Augustenburg,  when  the  latter  died  in  a  myste- 
rious manner.      The    hcir-apparency    to    the 


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Swedish  crown  was  then  ofFered  to  the  Prince 
of  Ponte-Corvo.  This  offer  was  accepted  by 
Bcmadotte  with  the  consent  of  the  Emperor; 
and  in  October  1810  he  arrived  in  Sweden, 
where,  having  previously  abjured  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion,  he  was  proclaimed  heir-ap- 
parent to  the  throne  under  the  title  of  Prince 
Giarles  John.  He  had  not  lon^  been  estah- 
h'shed  in  this  dignity  before  senous  disagree- 
ments took  place  between  him  and  Bonaparte, 
whose  bloclsde  of  the  Continental  ports  wai- 
veiy  detrimental  to  the  commercial  interesti 
of  Sweden.  The  result  was  a  complete  rup- 
ture and  the  accession  of  Sweden  in  1812  to 
the  coalition  of  sovereigns  formed  against  Na- 
poleon. At  the  battle  of  Leipzig  Prince  Charles 
John  contributed  effectually  to  the  victory  of 
the  Allies.  The  acquisition  of  Norway  was  one 
of  his  chief  aims;  it.  was  provisionally  ceded 
from  Denmark  under  the  Treaty  of  Kiel  (1814), 
but  a  military  campaign  was  required  to  make 
it  effective.  On  the  guieral  re- establishment 
of  the  European  dynasties  at  the  terminatba 
of  Napoleonic  war,  Bemadotte  retained  his 
position  as  crown  prince  and  became  king  of 
Sweden  in  1818,  under  the  title  of  Charles 
XIV.  During  his  reign  agriculture  and  com- 
merce made  great  advances,  many  important 
public  works  were  completed,  and  the  King, 
thoueh  he  could  not  speak  their  language,  was 
popular  with  his  subjects.  Consult  Meredith, 
^Memoirs  of  Charles  John,  King  of  Sweden 
and  Norway'..  (London  1829) 

BBRNARD,  btr'njrd,  ber-nard',  or  (Fr.) 
bSr-nar.  Saint,  of  CiaiTTanz,  French  eccle- 
siastic: b.  Fontaines,  Burgundy,  1091;  d.  1153. 
In  1113  he  became  a  monk  at  Ctteaux;  in  1115 
1st  abbot  of  Clairvaux,  near  Langres.  An 
austere  manner  of  living,  solitair  studies,  an 
inspiring  eloquence,  boldness  of  language  and 
the  reputation  of  a  prophet,  rendered  Um  an 
oracle  to  all  Christian  Elurope.  In  1128  he 
drew  up  the  rules  for  the  new  order  of  Knights 
Templars  and  wjis  instrumental  in  securing  its 
recofjtiition.  He  was  the  founder  of  70  mon- 
asteries. Such  was  the  spell  of  his  oratory  that 
it  is  said  mothers  hid  meir  sons,  wives  their 
husbands,  companions  their  friends,  that  they 
might  escape  the  contagion  of  his  spiritual  en- 
thusiasm. He  promoted  the  Crusade  of  1146, 
with  almost  fatal  success,  as  of  the  many  thou- 
sands who  gave  up  home  and  kindred  to  join 
that   adventure,    few   returned.     Its    failure,   in 


lem*  (as  he  used  lo  call  Clairvaux).  he  .  . 
.  tinned  with  all  humility,  but  with  great  bald- 
ness, his  censures  of  the  laxity  of  the  clergy 
and  his  counsels  (o  the  Popes.  Innocent  II 
owed  to  him  the  possession  of  ^e  right  of  in- 
1-estiture  in  Germany  and  Eugenins  III  his 
education.  He  was.  at  the  same  time,  the  um- 
pire of  princes  and  bishops  and  his  voice  in 
the  synods  was  regarded  as  divine.  By  his 
rigid  orthodoxy  ana  his  remarkable  eloquence, 
which  was  always  directed  to  the  promotion  of 
practical  Christianity,  he  did  much  to  confirm 


Latin,  he  was  honored  with  die  title  of  the 
■Mellifluous  Doctor,*  and  he  is  esteemed  by 
the  Catholic  Church  as  the  last  of  the  Fathers. 
He  was  a  strong  opponent  of  Abelard  and  Gil- 
bert of  Porie  in  their  philosophical  teachings. 
He  is  the  author  of  two  well-known  hsrmns, 
"Jesus,  the  Very  Thought  of  Thee."  and  'O 
Sacred  Head,  Now  Wounded.*  He  was  canon- 
ized by  Alexander  III  in  1174.  The  monks  of 
the  reformed  order  of  Cistercians,  which  he 
founded,  are  named  in  his  honor.  The  best 
edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  Uabillon  (Paris 
1690,  2  vols.;  reprinted  Paris  1839-40).  Con- 
sult the  works  bearing  his  name  by  Eates,  S.  J. 
(1890);  Morrison,  J.  C  (1863);  Ratisbonne 
(1841;  English  trans.,  1878);  Sparrow-Simp- 
son (1895);  Storrs  (1893);  and  Vacandard 
(1895). 

BBKNARD,  Saint,  of  Hentone  (Men- 
thon)  :  b.  Mentone,  Savoy,  923 ;  d.  Novara,  May 
1007.  Very  little  is  known  of  his  life  except 
that  he  was  at  one  time  archdeacon  of  the  dtj 
of  Aosta  and  that  be  later  entered  upon  a 
monastic  life  and  founded  the  hos^ces  on  the 
Great  and  Little  Mount  Saint  Bernard,  about 
962  A.D.  For  his  biography  consult  L.  Bur- 
gener  (2d  ed..  Lucerne  1870). 

BERNARD,  Alexia  Xyate,  Canadian  cler- 
gyman: b.  at  Beloeil,  29  Dec.  1847.  He  was 
educated  at  Montreal  College  Grand  Seminary 
of  Montreal  and  the  College  of  Sorel,  ordained 
to  the  priesthood  in  1871  and  consecrated  bishop 
of  Saint  Hyacinthe  15  Feb.  1906. 

BERNARD,  Iw-nar',  Charles  de,  properly 
Beniard  da  Grail  de  la  Villette,  Frendi  novel- 
ist: b.  Besan(on,  2S  Feb.  1804:  d.  NeuUly.  6 
March  1850.  He  entered  upon  the  study  of  the 
law,  but  soon  gave  it  up  to  engage  in  journal- 
ism. He  was  a  disciple  of  Bakac,  whom  he 
resembles  in  his  power  of  realistic  description 
and  psychological  analysis;  but  he  possesses  a 
purer  and  more  nervous  style  and  above  all  is 
content  with  a  less  minute  elaboration  of  ston 
and  characters.  His  first  piece,  'The  Gerfal- 
con,' made  a  hit  with  its  clever  description  of 
the  literary  cliques.  Everywhere  he  evinces 
clear  insight  into  the  foibles  of  society.  Of 
his  novels,  the  following  may  be  named  as  only 
second  in  rank  to  his  masterpiece,  'The  Ger- 
falcon', 'A  Magistrate's  Adventure' ;  'The 
Gordian  Knot';  'Wings  of  Icarus';  "The 
Lion's  Skin';  'The  Country  Gentleman.'  He 
collaborated  with  C  H.  L.  iJaurengot  in  produc- 
ing two  comedies.  His  'CEuvrcs  completes* 
n-cre  published  in  12  volumes  after  his  death. 
For  appreciative  criticisms  consult  James,  Hen- 
ry, 'French  Poets  and  Novelists'  (1878)  and 
Thackeray.  W.  M.,  'Paris  Sketch-Book.' 

BERNARD,  Claode.  Frendi  physiologist: 
b.  Saint  Julien,  Rhone,  12  July  I8I3 ;  d.  Paris. 
10  Feb.  187&  His  parents  were  small  rural 
proprietors.  The  pansh  cati  tau^t  Bernard  at 
first,  and  he  continued  hb  studies  at  the  col- 
lege of  Villefranche  and  at  Lyons.  He  was 
destined  at  first  for  the  profession  of  pharma- 
dst,  which  he  soon  abandoned  for  literature. 
St.  Marc  Girardin,  to  whom 'he  submitted  one 
of  his  works,  dissuaded  him  from  following  a 
literar>[  career  and  Bernard  turned  to  mediant 
He  paid  particular  attention  to  anatomy,  dis- 
section and  operation.  In  1839  he  became  in- 
terne and  in  this  capadty  became  aisodated 


IJn,t,zcd=y  Google 


with  Magendie  al  the  Hotel  Dieu.  Under  the 
direction  of  the  latter  he  was  soon  attracted  to 
(he  study  of  physiology  and  took  Mu^ndie's 
course  at  the  College  de  France  in  lo41.  In 
1843  Bernard  published  his  first  work  on  an- 
atomy and  physiology,  the  same  year  his  thesis 
on  s:astric  jiuce  secured  to  him  his  doctorate. 
Within  a  few  years  his  discoveries  placed  him 
ir  the  ^rst  rank  among  the  physiologists  of 
France  and  of  Europe.  In  184/  he  assisted 
Maeendie  at  the  College  de  France  and  suc- 
ceeded to  the  latter's  chair  of  medicine  in  1853. 
In  1854  he  entered  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
and  entered  on  his  duties  in  the  newly-founded 
chair  of  experimental  physioloey  at  the  Sor- 
bonne.  In  1868  he  was  succeeded  at  the  Sor- 
bonne  by  Paul  Bert  and  became  professor  of 
general  physiology  at  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History.  He  was  elected  lo  Flouren's  place  in 
the  French  Academy  in  1868,  and  became  sen- 
ator of  the  empire  in  1869.  Bernard  exer- 
cised a  great  influence  on  the  science  of  physi- 
ology throu^  his  works  and  his  important  dis- 
coveries, also  by  his  lectures  at  the  museum, 
and  by  his  activity  as  president  of  the  Socl^e 
de  Biologic.  In  his  later  years  he  was  a  world- 
wide figure  and  his  prestige,  gained  through  bis 
discoveries,  was  sustained  by  his  personal  char- 
acter. His  death  caused  universal  regret.  The 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  on  the  motion  of  Gam- 
betta,  voted  him  a  public  funeral,  the  first 
scientist  so  honored.  A  monument  by  Guil- 
laume  was  erected  to  his  memory  on  the 
grounds  of  the  Collige  de  France.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  point  out  in  detail  all  his  original  discov- 
eries; they  cover  the  entire  field  of  physiology 
and  time  has  left  them  almost  intact.  His 
works  include  'Lemons  de  physiologic  expiri- 
mentale  apptiqufe  i  la  mMicine'  (2  vols.,  1854- 
55) ;  'Lemons  sur  les  efiets  des  substances  tox- 
iques  et  m^dicamenteuses'  ( 1S57) :  'LeQons 
sur  la  physiolome  el  la  pathologic  du  system  e 
nervcux*  (1858)  ;  'Lemons  sur  les  propri^s 
physiolo^ues  et  les  alterations  patholc«ique5 
des  liquides  de  Torgaiiisme'  (1859);  'Lemons 
sur  la  chaleur  aninale'  (1876)  ;  'Lemons  sur  la 
diabete  et  la  glycog^ese  animale'  (1877); 
*  Lemons  sur  les  proprietes  des  tissus  vivants' 
(1866) ;  'PhysioJogie  g6nirale>  (1872) ; 
'Le(ons  de  physiologie  opiratoire'  (1879)  ;  <La 
science  experimentale'  0878),  and  'Introduc- 
tion i  la  medicine  expfrimentafe'  (1876).  Con- 
sult Malloizel,  G.,  'Bibliographie  de  travaux 
scientifiques*  (1881)  and  the  notices  by  Chau- 
veau,  Dartre  and  Paul  Bert  in  the  'Proceedings' 
of  the  Socifti  de  Biologic  tor  1886. 


:  b,  Nettleham,  England 
d.  Aylesbury,  England.  16  June  1779.  Gradu- 
ated at  Oxford  in  1736,  he  became  a  dis- 
tinguished member  of  the  bar,  and  was  made 
governor  of  New  Jersey  1758-60,  and  of  Mas- 
sachusetts Bay  1760-69.  At  first  he  enjoyed 
the  good  will  of  the  people;  but  when  the  di- 
vision into  two  parties  came  he  favored  the 
Crown  and  did  a  great  deal  toward  precipitat- 
ing the  Revolution  by  his  aggressive  attempts 
lo  strengthen  the  royal  authority.  He  was 
finally  recalled  on  account  of  the  unpopularity 
resultant  on  his  bringing  troops  into  Boston. 
His  departure  was  the  occasion  of  general  re- 
ioicing.  He  manifested  a  special  interest  in 
Harvard    College,   and   when   its    library  was 


4estroyed  in  1764  he  obtained  funds  for  its 
reconstruction.  He  published  'Letters  to  the 
Ministry'  (1769)  ;  'Select  Letters  on  the  Trade 
and  Government  of  America'  (1774).  In  1848 
his  'Letter  Books'  were  purchased  by  Dr. 
Jared  Sparks,  who  bequeathed  them  to  the 
library  of  Harvard  University. 

BERNARD,  Juquea,  French  Protestant 
clergyman  and  author:  b.  Nions,  in  Dauphin^ 
I  Sept.  1658;  d.  The  Hagu^  27  April  17ia 
When  the  Eldict  of  Nantes  was  revoked,  Ber- 
nard went  to  Holland,  and  while  there  founded 
a  school  of  i^ilosophy  and  beUes-lettrei  at  The 
Hague.  He  was  for  a  time  assistant  professor 
at  Ley  den.  He  became  editor  of  the  Bib- 
liothigue  Vntverselte,  and  later  editor  of  the 
Rfpubtique  det  Lettres,  He  wrote  and  pub- 
lished 'Recueil  de  traites  de  paix,  de  treves,  de 
neutrality  .  .  ,  et  d'autres  actes  publics 
faits  en  Europe'  (1700);  'Actes  et.memoires 
des  n£gociations  de  la  paix  de  Ryswick' 
(1725).  etc. 

BERNARD,  Montagne,  ^tgliih  lawyer: 
b.  Gloucestershire,  28  Jan.  1820;  a.  Overross,  2 
Sept,  1882.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, and  was  professor  of  international  law 
at  Oxford  1859-74.  In  1871  he  was  one  of  the 
high  commissioners  who  signed  the  Treaty  of 
Washington,  and  on  his  return  home  was  made 
a  privy  councillor.  In  1872  he  assisted  Sir 
Roundell  Palmer  io  preparing  the  British  case 
for  the  Geneva  Arbitration  Tribunal.  He  re- 
signed his  professorship  at  Oxford  in  1874  be- 
cause  of  the  multiplicity  of  bis  public  empknr- 
ments,  but  be  also  took  an  active  interest  in  the 
university.  He  published  'Four  Lectures  on 
Subjects  Connected  with  Diplomacy'  (1868), 
and  'Historical  Account  of  the  Neutrality  of 
Great  Britain  during  the  American  Civil  War' 
(1870). 

BERNARD,  Pierre  Joseph,  bir-nar,  pe-Sr 
iho-sff.  or  GENTIL  (ihfln-tel)  BERNARD, 
French  poet:  b.  Grenoble  26  Aug.  1708;  d. 
Choisy-le-Roi,  1  Nov.  1775.  At  an  early  age 
he  showed  a  gi^at  taste  for  poesy,  and  was  at 
first  an  attorney's  clerk,  but  afterward  became 
secretary  to  Marshal  de  Coigny,  who  had  com- 
mand of  the  army  of  Italy  in  1733-34.  After 
the  marshal's  death  he  obtained  a  lucrative  ap- 
pointment, through  the  protection  of  Madame 
Pompadour,  and  was  then  able  to  indulge  his 
poetic  faculties.  Few  writers  were  more  popu- 
lar in  their  own  day  than  Bernard.  He  wrote 
an  opera,  'Castor  and  Pollux,'  which  met  with 
great  success;  the  'Art  of  Loving,'  and  a  num- 
ber of  odes,  songs,  etc.  His  works  were  col- 
lected and  reprinted  by  F.  Drujon  (1883).  Con- 
sult 'Correspondance  littirairc,  philosophique 
et  critique'  {16  vols.,  Paris  1877-82),  and  Vol- 
taire, 'Corr^pon dance  gen£ra1e,' 

BERNARD,  Simon,  bar-nar,  se-m6A, 
French  engineer:  b.  Dole,  28  April  1779;  d.  S 
Nov.  1839.  He  served  as  aide-de-camp  to 
Napoleon ;  was  wounded  in  the  retreat  after  the 
battle  of  Leiprig;  superintended  the  defense  of 
Torgau,  and  was  present  at  Waterloo.  In 
1816  he  came  to  the  United  States;  was  com- 
missioned brigadier-general  of  engineers,  and 
planned  an  elaborate  system  of  seacoast  de- 
fenses, the  most  important  of  the  works  built 
bjr  him  being  Fort  Monroe.  He  was  also  asso- 
ciated with  the  building  of  the  Chesapeake  and 


Google 


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BERNARD  —  BBRNARDBS 


Ohio  canals  and  the  Delaware  breakwater.  In 
1831  he  returned  to  France,  where  he  designed 
the  fortifications  of  Paris.  In  1834  he  was 
appointed  inspector-general  of  engineers,  and 
from  1836-39  was  Minister  of  War. 

BERNARD,  ber-nqrd,  William  Bajrle, 
Anglo-American  dramatist :  b.  Boston,  Mass., 
27  Nov.  1807;  d.  5  Aug.  1875.  His  first  work 
was  a  nautical  drama  called  *The  Pilot.>  This 
proved  successful  and  encouraged  him  to  pur- 
sue a  literary  career.  He  wrote  in  alt  114  plays, 
of  which  the  best  known  are  ' 
*The  Man  About  Town'; 
and  'The  Boarding  School. 

BERNARD,  ber'n^rd,  Great  Saint,  a  cele- 
brated pass  of  the  Pennine  Alps,  Switzerland. 
in  the  canton  Valais,  on  the  mountain- roaa 
leading  from  Montigny  to  Aosta  in  Piedmont. 
On  the  east  side  of  the  pass  is  Mount  Velan, 
and  on  the  west  side  the  Point  de  Dronaz; 
there  is  no  mountain  known  by  the  name  of 
Saint  Bernard.  Almost  on  the  very  crest  of 
the  pass  is  the  famous  hospice,  among  the  high- 
est permanently  inhabited  spots  of  Europe, 
8,700  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  There  is 
a  massive  stone  building  capable  of  accommo- 
dating 70  or  80  travelers  with  beds  and  of 
sheltering  300.  As  many  as  500  or  600  have 
received  assistance  in  one  day.  It  is  situated 
on  the  highest  point  of  the  pass,  eipoaed  to 
tremendous  storms  from  the  northeast  and 
southwest,  and  is  tenanted  by  a  prior  and  15 
brethren  of  the  order  of  Saint  Augustine,  who 
have  devoted  themselves  by  vow  to  the  aid  of 
travelers  crossing  the  mountains.  The  climate 
of  this  high  region  is  extremely  rigorous. 
There  is  a  lake  on  the  summit,  at  a  short  dis- 
tance from  the  hospice,  on  which  ice  has  fre- 
fuently  remained  throughout  the  whole  year. 
'ram  the  difiiculty  of  respiration  in  so  elevated 
a  locality,  and  the  severi^  of  the  climate,  few 
of  the  monks  survive  the  time  of  their  vow,  IS 
years  from  the  age  of  lik  when  they  are  de- 
voted to  this  service.  The  famous  breed  of 
dogs  kept  at  Saint  Bernard  to  assist  the  breth- 
ren in  tneir  humane  labors  have  died  out,  and 
their  place  is  now  taken  by  Newfoundland  dews. 
In  the  midst  of  tempests  and  snowstorms  tne 
monks,  accompanied  by  some  of  the  dogs,  set 
out  for  the  purpose  of  tracking  those  who 
have  lost  their  way,  If  they  find  the  body  of  a 
traveler  who  has  perished  t£ey  carry  it  into  the 
vault  of  the  dead,  where  it  is  wrapped  in  luien 
and  remains  lying  on  a  table  till  another  victim 
occupies  the  place.  It  is  then  set  up  against 
the  wall  among  other  dead  bodies,  whicn,  oo 
account  of  the  cold,  decav  so  slowly  that  they 
are  often  recognized  by  tneir  friends  after  the 
lapse  of  years.  Adjoining  this  vault  is  a  kind 
of  burying-ground,  where  the  bones  are  de- 
posited when  they  accumulate  too  mtich  in  the 
vault.  It  is  impossible  to  bury  them,  because 
there  ts  nothing  around  the  hospice  but  naked 
rocks.  The  institution  is  supported  partly  by 
its  own  revenues,  partly  by  subscriptions  and 
donations.     The    pass    appears    to    nave    been 

known  at  a  very  earlj;  period;  and  a  Roman 
road  led  down  the  Piedmoniese  side  of  the 
The  remains  of  a  massive  pavement 
still  visible;  and  the  cabinet  of  the  hospice 

__.  .ains  votive  tablets,  bronze  figures  and  other 
antiqncs    found   in    the   vicinity.      The   hospice 

was  founded  in  962  by  Saint  Bernard  of  Men- 


thon,  an  Italian  ecclesiastic,  for  the  benetit  of 
those  who  performed  pilgrimages  to  Rome.  In 
May  1800  Napoleon  led  an  army  of  30.000  men. 
with  its  artillery  and  cavalry,  into  Italy  by  thii 
pass.  A  carriage  road  has  been  built  to  its 
summit;  but  the  importance  of  the  pas;  has 
diminished  with  railroads. 

BERNARD,  Little  Sunt,  a  mountain  of 
Italy,  belonging  to  what  are  called  the  Graian 
Alps,  about  10  miles  south  of  Mount  Blanc  It 
stands  between  Savoy  and  Piedmont,  having 
the  valley  of  the  isere,  in  the  former,  oq  the 
west,  and  that  of  the  Doire,  in  the  latter,  on 
the  east.  The  pass  across  it  is  one  of  tbc 
easiest  in  the  Alps,  and  is  supposed  by  numy 
to  be  that  which  Hannibal  usetf.  The  hosjnce, 
at  the  summit  of  the  pass,  has  an  elevation  of 
7,192  feet. 

BERNARD  DE  CHARTRBS,  b&r-aar  de 
shartr  (sumamed  SvLVEaTHis),  a  writer  of  iht 
12th  century,  who  has  been  lauded  as  the  ablet 
Platonic  of  his  time,  and  wrote  two  works,  now 
lost,  in  one  of  which  he  endeavored  to  recondk 
Plato  and  Aristotle,  and  in  the  other  maint^ned 
the  doctrine  of  a  Providence,  and  proved  tbu 
all  material  beings,  possessing  a  nature  subitct 
to  change,  must  necessarily  perish.  Aoodm 
work  under  the  name  of  Bernard  SylvMlris 
still  exists,  and  is  composed  of  two  puts,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  names  of  'M^racosmus'  and 
'Microcosmus,'  or  the  'Great  World'  and  the 
'Little  World.'  He  reduces  all  things  to  two 
elements  —  matter  and  ideas.  Matter  is  in  it- 
self devoid  of  fonn,  but  stuceptible  of  receiv- 
ing it;  ideas  reside  in  the  divine  intelleci,  and 
are  the  models  of  hfe,  and  from  thdr  union 
with  matter  all  thmgs  result.  M.  Cousin  has 
published  extracts  from  these  works. 

BERNARD  OF  CLUNY,  Benedictine 
monk;  b.  at  Morlaix,  about  1100;  d.  1156.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Benedictine  monastery  al 
Cluny  under  Peter  the  Venerable,  and  is  best 
known  -as  the  author  of  three  hymns  included 
in  almost  every  Enrfish  collection :  •Jerusaiem 
the  Golden* ;  *For  Thee,  O  Dear,  Dear  Coun- 
try,* and  "The  World  is  Very  Evil.'  Thest 
are  a  part  of  his  3,000-line  poem  <De  Con- 
temptu  Mundi,'  in  dactylic  hexameters,  irans- 
Uted  by  J.  M.  Neale. 

BERNARD  DE  VENTADOUR,  t»^u3r 
de  v6n-ta-d6r,  French  troubadour :  h.  abcwl 
1J25;  d.  Dalon,  about  1197.  Love  songs  'To 
Eleonore,*  and  various  amatory  lays  to  courtly 
dames,  form  the  riches  of  his  delicate  verse. 

BERNARDAKIS,  Demetrioe.  ber-nar'di- 
kis,  da-mS'tre-6sj  Greek  poet  and  dramatist:  h 
Santa  Marin^  Lesbos,  2  Dec.  1834.  Ader  } 
course  of  study  at  Athens  and  in  German  uni- 
versities he  was  (with  one  considerable  inwf- 
mission)  professor  of  history  and  ^ilolog}'  ^ 
the  University  of  Athens.  1861-82,  when  he 
went  back  to  Lesbos.  He  is  author  of  a  spirit™ 
Pindaric  ode  tor  a  jubilee  occasion,  of  sewral 
dramas  and  of  a  satire,  *The  Battle  of  Crane* 
and  Mice';  he  has  also  written  a  'Universal 
History';  a  'Church  History';  and  a  spinlrf 
tractate,  'Confutation  of  a  False  Allicisni, 
directed  against  the  would-hc  Attic  purists. 

BERNARDES,  Diego,  ber-nar'dfs.  de-i' 
go,  Portuguese  poet :  b.  Ponte  de  Lima  al*"' 
lsS0:d.l605,  He  was  called 'the  Sweet  Suig*' 
of    the    Lima,*    a    streamlet   immortalued  "' 


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BERNARDIN    OP   SIBNA— BBRHB-BELLBCOUR 


his  verse.  He  left  his  native  vallej;  in  1550 
and  attached  himself  to  the  master-Mngvr,  Si 
de  Miranda,  who  lived  retired  on  his  estate, 
Quinta  da  Tapada,  a  devotee  of  the  Muse), 
Here  Bemardea  wrote  *The  Lima' ;  'Various 
Rimes  —  Flowers  from  Linnt's  Banks' ;  'Vari- 
ous Rimes  to  the  Good  Je5u,>  and  other  poems. 

BERNARDIN  OP  SIBNA,  Italian  eccle- 
siastic: b.  Massa,  Italy.  8  Sept.  1380;  d  Aquila, 
Abruzzi,  20  May  1444.  He  became  a  Francis- 
can friar  in  a  monastery  near  Siena  in  1404, 
but  desiring  to  make  a  pilgrimage  lo  the  Holy 
Land,  was  appointed  a  commissary  of  that 
country,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  gratify  his 
wish.  After  his  return  he  acquired  a  great 
reputation  as  a  preacher,  and  three  cities  were 
rival  suitors  for  the  honor  of  having_  him  as 
bishop.  Bernardin,  however,  was  nnwillin^  to 
accept  the  distinction,  and  was  made  vicar- 
pcner^  of  the  friars  of  the  Observantine  order 
in  Italy.  He  is  said  to  have  founded  more 
than  300  monasteries.  In  1450  he  was  canon- 
ized t^  Pope  Nicholas  V.  His  works  appeared 
at  Venice  m  1591  in  4  vcdmnes  quarto,  and  at 
Paris  in  1636  in  2  volumes  foho.  They  consist 
of  essays  on  religious  subjects,  sermons  and 
a  commentary  on  the  book  of  Revelation.  A 
biography  by  J.  P.  Toussaint  was  published 
(R^ensburR  1873),  and  one  hy  L.  Bianchi 
(Siena  1888). 

BERNARDINKS,  b*r'nar-dtoz.     See  Cis- 


BBRNARDO  DEL  CARPIO,  b£r-nar'd6 
dil  bar'pe-6,  Spanish  knight-errant  (the  fnut 
of  a.  secret  niariiage  between  Ximena,  the 
sister  of  Alphonso  the  Chaste,  and  of  Don 
Sancho.  lord  of  Saldagua)  ;  b.  in  the  9th  cen- 
tury. Alphonso,  irritated  at  the  marriage,  put 
out  the  eyes  of  Don  Sancho  and  imprisoned 
him  in  a  castle,  but  spared  Bernardo  and 
broueht  him  up  carefully  at  his  court.  In 
course  of  time  Don  Bernardo  grew  up  to  l«  a 
warrior,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  Moor- 
ish wars,  in  the  hope  tliat  the  King  would  i>e 
bent  to  pity  and  set  his  father  at  liberty.  Al- 
phonso was  inflexible,  and  Bernardo  withdrew 
to  his  paternal  domains:  and  leaguing  with 
other  lords  opposed  to  the  court,  set  him  at 
defiance  On  the  accession  of  Alphonso  the 
Great,  Bernardo  returned  (o  court,  and  again 
performed  many  exploits  against  the  Moors, 
hoping  to  be  rewarded  with  his  father's  free- 
dom. He  was  once  more  denied  the  boon,  and 
withdrew  as  before,  not  only  leagrung  with 
his  friends,  but  making  alliance  with  the  Moors. . 
Alphonso  agreed  at  length  to  give  up  his  father 
on  receiving  the  surrender  of  the  castle  of 
Carpi o.  Bernardo,  true  to  his  word,  per- 
formed his  part  of  the  stipulation,  and  tncn 
learned  with  indignation  that  Alphonso  had 
practised  an  infamous  deception  upon  him,  as 
his  father  had  been  for  some  time  dead.  He 
disdained  any  longer  to  tread  the  Spanish  soil, 
and  removed  to  France,  where  he  spent  the 
remainder  of  his  life  as  a  knight-errant. 

BBRNAUBR,  b6r-now-«r,  Agnea,  Bava- 
rian lady  celebrated  for  her  beauty  and  her 
unfortunate  fate ;  d.  2  Oct,  1435.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  a  poor  citizen,  said  to  be  a  harber 
of  Aiigsbui^.  Duke  Albert  of  Bavaria,  on^' 
son  of  the  reigning  prince,  met  Agnca  «t  a 
tournament  given  in  his  honor  by  the  grandees 


671 


of  Augsburg,  became  enamored  of  her,  and,  as 
he  coold  not  prevail  on  her  to  be  his  mistress, 
secretely  marned  her.  He  conducted  her  to  his 
own  castle  of  Vohburg,  and  for  a  time  suc- 
ceeded in  concealing  the  alliance  he  had  con- 
tracted; but  his  father  wishing  to  marry  him 
to  Anne,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Brunswick, 
be  was  compdled  to  acknowledge  his  marria^ 
with  A(jnes.  His  father  refused  to  credit  it, 
and  having  caused  the  Duke  to  be  denied  ad- 
mission to  3  tournament  on  the  plea  that  he 
was  living  unlawfully  with  a  woman,  Albert 
openly  proclaimed  his  marriage  and  caused 
Agnes  to  be  reco^ized  as  Duchess  of  Bavaria, 
giving  her  for  residence  the  castle  of  Straubing 
on  the  Danube.  The  Duke  of  Bavaria,  incensed 
at  this  open  avowal  of  a  misalliance,  caused 
Agnes  to  be  seized  in  her  casllc  during  the 
absence  of  his  son,  brought  her  before  a  tribu- 
nal specially  constituted,  where  she  was  accused 
of  m^c,  and  being  condemned,  had  her  hands 
tied  together  and  was  thrown  into  the  river. 
Albert  in  revenge  took  arms  against  Ws  father, 
hut  the  Emperor  Sigismund  finally  reconciled 
them.  The  story  is  a  favorite  theme  with  the 
Bavarian  poets. 

BERNAY^  bir-nl,  France,  town  in  the  de- 
partment of  Eure,  25  miles  west-northwest  of 
Evceux.  and  17  miles  southeast  of  Lisieux,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Charentonne.  It  has  two 
fine  old  churcheSj  a  communal  college,  a  hospi- 
tal, a  court  of  first  resort,  a  board  of  manu- 
factures, an  agricultural  socie^  and  a  savings 
bank.  It  has  important  manufactures  of  cloth 
and  flannel,  tape,  linen  and  cotton  goods;  and 
spins  a  good  deal  of  cotton  thread  and  worsted. 
It  has  also  bleachfields,  dye  works,  tanneries, 
etc.  Its  trade  is  principally  in  grain,  cider, 
cloth,  iron,  paper,  leather,  linen,  horses  and 
cattle.  The  horse-fair,  held  in  Lent  is  one  of 
the  greatest  in  France,  and  is  attended  by  pur- 
chasers from  all  parts  of  the  country.  Pop. 
7.883, 

BERNBURG.  bem-burH.  Germany,  town 
in  the  duchy  of  Anhalt,  cainlal  of  the  former 
duchy  of  Anhatt-Bernburg;  on  both  sides  of 
the  Saale,  northwest  from  Leipzig,  with  which, 
as  well  as  with  Berlin  and  Magdeburg,  it  is 
connected  by  railway.  It  is  divided  into  the  ol<^ 
the  new  and  the  high  town,  the  first  two  sur- 
rounded by  walls  and  communicating  by  a 
bridge  173  feet  long.  Bemburg  is  well  built 
and  contains  several  well  paved  and  well  lighted 
streets.  The  principal  building  is  the  palace, 
situated,  with  a  garden,  on  the  highest  part  of 
the  high  town.  It  is  very  ancient,  but  ha& 
receiv^  numerous  modern  additions  and  con- 
tains a  picture  gallery,  theatre  and  church.  Be- 
sides an  oil-milt  and  several  breweries  and  dis- 
tilleries, there  are  manufactories  of  paper  and 
earthenware,  copper  and  tin  wares,  lead,  zin(% 
cement  and  starch,  etc.  Old  Bemburg  was  a 
fortified  town  as  early  as  the  lOlh  century. 
Pop.  about  35.000. 

BERNE-BBLLBCOUR,  ^tiemie  Prosper,' 
bam-bel-koor,  S-te-in  pr6s-p*r,  French  painter: 
b.  Boulogne,  29  July  1838;  d.  1910.  After  some 
years  of  study  under  Barras  and  Picot,  he 
made  a  refutation  by  his  spirited  representa- 
tions of  episodes  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War 
of  1870.  He  received  a  first-class  medal  in  the 
Paris  Salon  of  1872,  the  Legioa  of  Honor  in 


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BBRNERS  —  BBRHHARDI 


1878  and  a  second-class  medal  at  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1889.  His  best'known  works  are 
'Cannon  Shot';  *The  Intended,'  and  'In  the 
Trenches,'  the  last  two  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum,  New  York ;  'Attack  on  the  Chateau* ; 
'To  Arms  I' 

BBRNERS,  John  Bonrcluer,  boor'she-i, 
Losn,  English  baron,  a  descendant  of  the 
Duke  of  Gloucester,  youngest  son  of  Edward 
III :  b.  1474  i  d.  1533.  He  was  a  member  of  Par- 
liament, 1495-1529;  aided  in  suppressing  the 
Cornish  insurrection,  1497;  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer,  1515;  Ambassador  to  Spain,  1518, 
and  for  many  years  governor  of  Calais.  He 
translated  'Froissart's  Chronicles'  (1523-25) 
and  other  works,  his  translation  of  the  former 
being  a  sort  of  English  classic. 

BERNERS,  or  BARNES,  Dame  Juliana, 
Lady,  English  prioress  and  author:  fi.  15lh 
century;  dauKhter  of  Sir  James  Bemers,  who 
was  beheadea  in  the  reisn  of  Richard  II.  Lit' 
tie  more  is  known  than  that  she  was  prioress  of 
the  nunnery  of  Sopewell,  near  Saint  Albani,  and 
has  her  name  prefixed  as  writer  or  compiler  to 
one  of  the  earliest  and  most  curious  produc- 
tions of  the  English  press.  The  first  edition, 
entitled  'The  Treatyses  Pertynynge  to 
Hawkynge,  Huntynge  and  Fysshynge  with  an 
Angle'  (of  which  only  three  perfect  copies  are 
known),  printed  in  the  abbey  of  Saint  Albans 
in  1486,  treats  of  hawking,  hunting  and  her- 
aldry. A  second  edition  was  printed  by  Wyn- 
l^-n  de  Worde  in  1496.  This  work,  under  the 
title  of  the  'Book  of  Saint  Albans,'  became  a 
popular  manual  of  sporting  science  and  was 
many  times  reprinted  in  the  16th  century.  It 
has  latterly  been  issued  in  facsimile  of  the 
original  print. 

BERNHARD,  bemlurt  (Duke  of  Wbi- 
uar),  German  soldier  (fourth  son  of  Duke 
John  of  Saxe-Weimar)  :  b.  6  Aug.  1604;  d.  8 
July  1639.  He  entered  first  the  service  of  Hol- 
land and  afterward  the  Danish  army  employed 
in  Holstein  against  the  troops  of  the  Emperor. 
When  Gustavua  Adolphus  entered  Germany, 
Bemhard  joined  him  (1630)  and  was  present 
at  the  attack  upon  Wallenstein's  camp  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Nuremberg,  24  Aug.  1632,  In 
the  battle  of  Liitzen,  6  Oct.  1632,  he  commanded 
the  left  wing  of  the  Swedish  army  and  took 
over  the  command  of  the  army  on  the  death 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and,  although  himself 
severely  wounded,  put  the  right  wing  of  the 
imperial  troops  to  flight.  In  1633  he  captured 
Ratisbon  and  Straubing  and  frustrated  Wallcn- 
stein.  His  impetuosity  caused  the  defeat  at 
Nordlingen  (q.v,),  24  Aug.  1634,  where  he  nar- 
rowly escaped  being  made  prisoner.  France, 
now  entering  into  a  closer  alliance  with  Swe- 
den (1634),  Bemhard  carried  on  the  war  in 
the  country  adjacent  to  the  Rhine,  took  the 
fortress  of  Zabcm  and  vanquished  the  farces 
of  the  Emperor  in  several  battles.  A  brilliant 
campaign  in  1638  culminated  in  the  capture  of 
Breisacn.  Friction  over  the  occupation  of  Brei- 
sach  is  said,  on  unsubstantial  foundations,  to 
have  been  the  cause  of  his  death  by  poison  at 
the  instigation  of  Richelieu.  He  died  suddenly 
at  Neuburg  on  the  Rhine. 

BERNHARDI,  August  Ferdinand,  him- 
har'de,  German  scholar:  b.  Bcrhn  1760;  d. 
there    1820.    In   his   youth  his   attention    was 


directed  to  tmiversal  language  (that  is, 
to  language  as  far  as  it  is  common  to 
all  rational  beings),  to  the  mystery  of  its  con- 
struction—  the  mathematics,  as  it  were,  of  lan- 
guage. Bembardi,  considering  all  different 
languages  as  a  whole,  endeavored  to  discover 
a  universal  grammar  common  to  them  all.  The 
result  of  his  researches  appears  in  his  works, 
'Abstract  Grammar'  (2  vols.,  1801)  ;  'Grammar 
in  Its  Application'  (1803);  and  'Elements  of 
the  Science  of  Language,'  in  which  many  philo- 
sophical principles  of  language  are  laid  down. 
He  was  a  professor  and  director  of  a  classical 
school  in  Berlin, 

BERNHARDI,  Friediich  Ton,  Prussian 
general  and  military  writer ;  b,  22  Nov.  1849, 
the  son  of  an  able  diplomat  and  historian  and 
grandson  of  a  philolocnst  and  his  poet  wife, 
the  sister  of  Ludwig  Tiedc.  He  was  hardly 
known  until  the  English  translation  of  his 
'Deutschland  und  der  nachste  Krieg'  (1911) 
was  seised  upon  in  England  as  revealing  the 
cause  of  the  European  war.  In  it  he  makes 
some  interesting  statements,  declaring  that  the 
conflict  between  England  and  Ormany  was  an 
eventuality  determined  upon  in  1902.  He  pre- 
dicted in  1911  the  defection  of  Italy  from  the 
Triple  Alliance.  Recalling  the  British  capture 
□f  the  Danish  fleet  in  1807  and  the  bombard- 
ment of  Alexandria  in  1884,  he  warned  Ger- 
many that  she  would  have  to  fight  Russia, 
France  and  England  (the  Entente)  with  only 
the  assistance  of  Austria.  The  Prussian  disas- 
ter of  Jena  in  1806  he  laid  to  a  fatuous  pacifism, 
which  was  being  repeated  in  a  (Germany  de- 
voted to  commercialism  and  enjoyment.  He 
calls  war  a  biological  necessin,  an  indispensable 
regulative  element  in  the  life  of  man,  due  to 
the  universal  struggle  for  existence,  posses- 
sions, power,  sovereignty.  Only  the  weary, 
spiritless  ages  have  toyed  with  the  dream  of 
perpetual  peace,  and  if  strong  nations  estab- 
lish peace  congresses  and  Hague  tribunals  he 
thinks  pacific  ideals  are  seldom  the  real  motive 
of  their  action  but  onlj|  a  cloak  under  which 
to  further  seHish  political  aims.  No  power 
exists  which  can  judge  between  states  and  make 
its  judgment  final.  Increase  of  population  and 
trade  rivalry  make  expansion  imperative  or 
nations'  decay  inevitable.  War  does  more  to 
arouse  national  life  and  to  expand  national 
power  than  any  other  known  means.  National 
needs  may  demand  an  aggressive  war.  Most 
unfavorably  situated  in  the  midst  of  mighty 
colonial  powers,  who  are  determined  not  to 
allow  German  expansion,  (jermany  must  be 
prepared  to  'gain  a  start*  on  her  probable 
enemies.  She  must  strike  quick  and  with  all 
force  in  order  to  win.  The  most  efficient  and 
most  dangerous  foe  must  be  struck  first.  It 
is  the  moral  duW  for  tiie  state  to  begin  the 
struggle  before  the  rival  nations  gain  a  lead 
which  cannot  be  won  bade  As  Germany  was 
Yulnerahle  only  in  the  northwest,  Bernhardi 
was  convinced  that  in  case  of  war  England  and 
France  would  attempt  to  turn  Germany's  stra- 
tegical right  flank  between  Flushing  and  Wesel 
(a  fortress  near  the  Dutch  border),  at  (he 
same  time  seizing  a  naval  base  on  ttic  north- 
west coast  of  (lermany.  Hence  he  regarded 
the  neutrality  of  Belgium  as  impossible.  (}er- 
many  must  maintain  a  defensive  war  by  seas, 
controlling  the  Baltic  at  all  haiards,  but  mast 


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BBRNHARDI  —  BBRNI 


DT8 


defeat  France  deciMvely  on  land  and  destroy 
her  Channel  naval  ports.  The  occupation  by 
the  enemy  of  the  Danish  islands  must  be  pre- 
vented at  all  haiards.  For  Bemhardi  the  Gan- 
ger is  in  the  west,  while  Russia's  defeat  is 
presupposed,  providing  Germany  is  successful 
in  the  west.  He  expects  the  effective  blockade 
of  the  German  coast  and  urges  [he  develop- 
t  and  vigorous  use_  of  the  submarine  and 


boat  attacks  by  night  are  recommended.  "The 
blockading  fleet  must  be  given  no  breathing- 
time"  and  must  be  "whittled  down.*  Ger- 
many's "whole  history  may  turn  upon  the  im- 
pregnability of  the  fortifications  which,  in 
combination  with  the  fleet,  are  intended  to 
guard  our  coasts  and  naval  bases,  and  should 
inflict  such  heavy  losses  on  the  enemy  that  the 
difference  of  strength  between  the  two  fleets 
would  be  gradually  equalized.'  He  accepts  the 
principle  of  the  submarine  blockade  and  the 
sinking  of  all  enemy  or  neutral  ships  to  or  from 
hostile  ports.  As  a  popular  explanation  of 
Germany's  defense,  Bernhardi's  book  is  keen 
and  ingenious.  Less  so  is  the  program 
of  offense  in  'Unsere  Zukunft,  etn  Mahn- 
wort  an  das  deutsche  Volk,'  to  which  the 
translator  gives  the  title  'Britain  as  German^s 
Vassal.'  This  contemplates  Turkey's  making 
common  cause  with  die  Central  Powers  from 
the  banning.  Other  books  by  Bemhardi  are 
'How  Germany  Makes  War';  'Cavalry';  'On 
War  of  To-day'   (trans,  by  Karl  von  Donat). 

Carl  £.  Eccert. 
Assislanl  Professor  of  German,  Universily  of 
ilickigan, 

BERNHARDT,  Theodor  von,  German 
historian  and  diplomat :  b.  Berliit,  6  Nov. 
1802;  d.  Ktuersdorf,  Silesia,  12  Feb.  1887. 
His  diplomatic  career  was  important  and  af- 
forded him  special  fadlitiea  tor  compiling^  a 
'History  of  Russia  and  of  European  Politics 
during  the  Years  181*-31'  (1863-77);  'Fred- 
erick the  Great  as  a  Military  Commander' 
(1881) ;  and  similar  worics,  all  of  value. 

BERNHARDT,  Rosine,  bam-hirt.  ri>-ien, 
better  known  as  Sarah,  French  actress :  b, 
Paris.  23  Oct.  1845.  Of  Jewish  descent,  her 
father  French,  her  mother  Ehitch,  her  eai^  life 
was  spent  largely  in  Amsterdam.  In  18^  she 
entered  the  Paris  Conservatoire  and  gained 
prizes  for  tragedy  and'comedy  in  1861  and  1862, 
but  her  djbut  at  the  Th&tre  Francais  in  <Iphi- 
g£nie'  and  Scribe's  'Valtrie'  was  not  a  suc- 
cess. After  a  brief  retirement  she  reappeared 
at  the  Gymnase  and  the  Porte  Saint-Martin  in 
burlesque  and  in  1867,  at  the  Odten  in  higher 
tlrama.  Her  success  in  Hugo's  'Ruy  Bias'  in 
1872  led  to  her  being  recalled  to  the  Thiatre 
Francais,  since  which  she  has  abundantly 
proved  her  dramatic  genius.  In  1879  she  vis- 
ited London  and  again  in  1880,  about  which 
time  she  severed  connection  with  the  Comfcdie 
Frani;aise  under  heavy  penalty.  In  1880,  1887, 
1891,  IS96  and  1900  she  made  successful  qp- 
pearances  in  the  United  States,  and  between 
and  after  these  dates  visited  Switierland,  Hol- 
land, South  America,  Italy,  Algeria,  Australia, 
etc.  In  1899  she  appeared  in  a  new  rendering 
of  'Hamlet'  in  Pans  and  scored  a  most  flat- 
tering triumph.  Among  her  most  successful 
impersonations  are   'Th&dora,'    'Fedora,'    'La 


Tosca'  and  'Ofopatrc'  in  the  plays  bearing 
those  titles.  In  ISS2  she  married  M.  Damala, 
a  Greek,  whom  she  divorced  not  long  after- 
ward. She  visited  America  again  in  1911, 
appearing  in  a  repertoire  of  her  best-known 
roles,  and  in  the  spring  of  1913  returned  and 
played  a  short  engagement,  her  repertoire  con- 
sisting of  single  acts  selected  from  'Phedre,' 
'Lucrece  Borgia,*  'La  Dame  aux  Camelias,' 
'La  Tosca*  and  a  new  one-act  play,  'Une  Nuit' 
de  Noel,  sous  la  terreur,'  written  b^  her  son 
Maurice  Bernhardt  in  collaboration  with  Henri 
Cain.  Owing  to  a  sli^t  accident  she  was 
unable  to  walk  without  assistance  curing  this 
enga^ment,  but  her  matchless  voice  was  un- 
impaired and  she  received  an  ovation  at  every 
performance.  Her  position  as  the  first  actress 
of  her  day  is  undisputed.  She  is  mistress  of 
evei7  item  of  stagecraft.  With  the  exception 
of  Coquelin,  no  actor  or  actress  of  her  time 
has  approadied  her  in  the  perfection  of  her 
art.  In  addition  to  her  extraordinary  gifts  as 
an  actress,  she  has  shown  considerable  talent 
in  sculpture,  painting  and  writing.  She  has 
exhibited  both  painting  and  sculpture  at  the 
Salon,  where  her  piece  <Apr^  la  tcmpete' 
(1876)  received  honorable  mention.  In  1907 
she  published  a  volume  of  'M^oires.'  She 
has  written  two  plays,  "L'aveu,*  a  one-act 
comedy,  produced  at  the  Odeon  in  1888,  and 
'Adrienne  Lecouvreur'  (1907),  based  on  the 
plt^  of  the  same  name  by  Scribe  and  Legouv& 
She  was  made  a  member  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor  in  1913.  and  -in  the  same  year,  in  Paris, 
won  one  of  her  greatest  triumpbs  in  'Jeanne 
Dort>  Consult  Jules  Huret,  'Sarah  Bern- 
hardt,' with  a  preface  by  Edmond  Rostand 
(Eng.  trans.,  Philadelphia  1909),  and  her  own 
'Mimoires'   (Paris  1907). 

BBRNHARDY,     Gottfried,      b«m'har-de 

S6t-f  rid,  German  classical  philologist ;  b.  Lands- 
erg-on-the-Warthe.  20  March  1800;  d.  HalK 
14  May  1875.  He  was  professor  at  the  philo- 
k^cal  seminal^  in  Halle  and  librarian  of  the 
university.  His  prindfal  works  are  "Greek 
Syntax  Scientifically  Considered'  (1829),  an 
historical  study  of  the  subject ;  'Outlines  of 
Roman  Literature'  (Sth  ed..  1872)  ;  'Outlines 
of  Greek  LJterature';  a  supplement  to  the  first- 
named  treatise,  entitled  'Paralipomena  [Orob- 
sion)  in  [the  Work  on]  Greek  SynUx'  (1854- 
62) ;  and  a  monumental  edition  of  Suidas' 
'Lexicon'   (1834-53). 

BBRNI.  BZRNA,  or  BZRNIA,  Prascet- 
co,  ber'ne,  bfir'na  or  bir'ne-?,  Italian  poet: 
b.  Lamporecchio,  Tuscany,  about  1497 ;  d.  26 
July  1536.  His  family  was  noble  but  poor,  and 
young  Bemi  went  to  Florence  and,  at  the  age 
of  19,  to  Rome,  where  he  lived  under  the  tare 
of  his  relation.  Cardinal  Bibbena.  At  length 
he  entered  the  service  of  Ghiberti,  bishop  of 
Verona,  datary  of  the  papal  chancery,  as  sec- 
retary. In  the  hope  of  promotion,  he  took 
orders ;  but  sought  recreation  in  amusements 
which  displeasea  the  prelate.  A  society  had 
been  established  in  Rome,  consisting  of  young 
ecclesiastics  of  a  jovial  temper  like  Bemi,  ana 
of  a  poetical  vein,  who,  in  order  to  denote 
their  love  for  wine  and  their  careless  gaiety, 
called  themselves  ■  vignajuoli  (vine- dressers). 
They  laughed  at  ever^hing  and  made  sport  in 
verse  of  the  most  senous,  nay,  the  most  tragic 
matters.    Demi's  verses  were  uie  most  success* 


,  Google 


BT* 


BBRNICE  ~  BKINIHI 


ful  and  were  written  in  so  peculiar  a  style  that 

his  name  has  been  given  to  it  (maniera  ber- 
nesca  or  bemiesca).  When  Rome  was  sacked 
by  the  troops  of  the  Constable  Bourbon,  1527. 
Bemi  lost  all  that  be  possessed.  He  afterward 
Diade  several  journeys,  with  his  patron  Ghibcrti, 
to  Verona,  Venice  and  Padua.  At  length, 
wearied  with  serving  and  satisfied  with  a  canon- 
ship  in  the  cathedral  at  Florence,  he  retired 
to  that  place.  The  favor  of  the  great,  how- 
ever, which  he  was  weak  enough  to  court, 
brought  him  into  difficulties.  He  was  requirea 
to  commit  a  crime,  and  his  refusal  is  said  to 
have  cost  him  his  life.  Alcssandro  dc'  Uedici, 
at  that  time  Duke  of  Florence,  lived  in  open 
enmity  with  the  youn^  Cardinal  Ippolito  dc' 
Medici.  Berni  was  so  intimate  with  both  that 
\*  is  doubtful  which  first  made  him  the  pro- 
posal to  poison  the  other.  Certain  it  is  that 
the  cardinal   died  biy  poison  in   1535,  and  it  is 

frobable  that  Alessaaoro  caused  Bernj's  death, 
n  the  burlesque  style  of  poetry,  Bemi  is  still 
considered  the  best  model.  His  satire  is  often 
very  bitter  and  frequently  unites  the  good 
humor  of  Horace  with  the  causticity  of  Juvenal. 
The  extreme  licentiousness  of  his  writings  is 
his  ■  greatest  fault.  Bemi  also  wrote  Latin 
verses  very  correctly  and  was  well  acquainted 
with    Greek.      His     'Burlesque    Verses'     have 

Sreat  merit ;  so  also  has  his  rifacimcnto  of 
oiardo's  'Orlando  innamorato.' 
BBRNICE,  in  Inblical  history,  was  the 
daug^iter  of  Herod  Agrippa  I  and  married  to 
Kii^  Herod  of  Chalds,  who  was  her  uncle. 
After  his  death  she  lived  with  her  brother 
Agrippa,  and  subsequently  became  the  wife  of 
Poletnon,  the  King  of  Cilicia,  but  soon  left  him 
and  returned  to  her  brother.  Joscphus,  Tacitus 
and  Suetonius  state  that  she  was  mistress  of 
Titus  and  Vespasian. 

BERNICLE  or  BARNACLE  GOOSE, 
a  large  500 se  of  northern  Europe  and  Green- 
land, allied  to  the  brant  and  named  Branta 
lettcdpHs,  a  name  identified  with  strange  old 
fables.  It  differs  from  the  brant  mainly  in  its 
white  cheeks  and  the  lavender-gray  of  the 
mantle.  This  goose  is  a  common  winter  visitor 
to  western  Europe,  retiring  in  summer  to  Arc- 
tic regions  to  breed,  but  the  re^on  and  char- 
acter of  its  nesting  remain  undiscovered.  Up 
to  comparatively  recent  times  it  was  the  belief 
of  the  European  peasants  that  this  goose  was 
bom  from  the  stalked  barnacles  which  adhere 
to  driftwood  and  sometimes  to  the  branches  o£ 
trees  that  reach  down  into  the  sea  at  high  tide. 
Oreumslantial  accounts  were  ^ven  of  the  birth 
of  the  young,  whose  tiny  wings  (the  waving 

>  this 
,  -  s  given 

and  Illustrated  with  much  detail  as  truth  in 
many  books  of  the  time,  and  the  Roman  Church 
permitted  these  geese  to  be  eaten  on  holy  days 
because  they  were  sea-born  and  therefore 
'fish*!  What  is  less  generally  known  is  that 
the  cirripeds  were  named  after  the  bird,  as 
their  supposed  parent,  and  not  the  bird  after 
the  crustacean.  Berntcle,  like  "brant,*  refers 
to  the  "burnt"  black  color  of  the  birds,  as  ex- 
plained in  the  'English  Dictionary'  and  by 
other  authorities.  Others  derive  bernicle  from 
hibeniacula,  as  the  bird  was  supposed  to  come 


from  Ireland.    The  name  has  been  adopted  as 

f:neric  for  a  large  group  of  the  geese  usually 
stinguished  by  sportsmen  as  "brants'  (q-v.). 
BERNIER,      ber-nya.,      Cmmille,       Frendi 

e inter:  b.  1823;  d.  1*2  or  1903.  His  best- 
own  works  are  *The  Abandoned  Lane'  (L« 
Rochelte) ;  'Road  near  Bannalec'  (Names); 
and  'Uoming'   (Lille). 

BERNIEK,  Francois,  French  physician  and 
traveler:  b.  Ang^s,  about  1625;  d.  Paris  1688. 
He  set  out  on  his  travels  in  1654,  and  after 
visiting  Egypt  and  Palestine,  went  into  India, 
where  his  skill  in  medicine  brou^t  him  into 
notice,  and  he  remained  for  12  years,  residing 
chiefly  at  Delhi,  as  physician  to  the  great  Mogul 
Emperor  AurangzeM.  On  one  occasion  he  ac- 
companied the  Prime  Minister  on  his  march, 
at  the  head  of  an  immense  army,  to  the  con- 
quest of  Cashmere,  and  in  his  travels,  recording 
all  that  he  saw,  has  given  accounts  full  of  in- 
terest and  recognized  By  subsequent  travelers  as 
remarkable  for  their  fidelity.  After  Ids  return 
to  France  he  not  only  compiled  hJs  'Travels' 
and  several  volumes  of  history  relating  to  the 
empire  of  the  Great  Mogul,  but  turned  his  at- 
tention to  philosophical  subjects  and  published 
an  abridgment  of  the  i)hiloso^hy  of  Gassendi. 
He  also  wrote  a  treatise  entitled  'Trait*  du 
Libre  ct  du  Volontaire.' 

BERNINA,  ber-ne'nt,  a  mountain  of  the 
Rhietian  Alps.  U,290  feet  hi^,  in  the  Swiss 
canton  of  Grisons,  with  remarkable  and  exten- 
sive glaciers.  Its  summit  was  first  attained  in 
1850.  The  Bemina  Pass,  which  attains  an  ele- 
vation of  7,642  feet  and  over  which  a  carriage 
road  was  completed  in  1864,  leads  from  Pontre- 
sina  to  Posduavo. 

BERNINI,  Giovanni  Loreuo,  bir-De'ne, 
i6-van'n(  lo-ren'«6,  called  II  Catauexb  Ber- 
KiKi,  Italian  sculptor  and  architect:  b.  Naples, 
7  Dec  1598;  d.  Rome,  28  Nov.  1680.  His  father 
WHS  a  sculptor,  and  even  in  childhood  he  showed 
remarkable  aptitude  in  this  art.  Thus  richly 
endowed  by  nature  and  favored  by  drcum- 
stances,  he  rose  superior  to  the  rules  of  art, 
creating  for  himself  an  easy  manner,  the  faults 
of  which  he  knew  how  to  disguise  by  its  bril- 
liancy. One  of  his  first  works  was  the  marble 
bust  of  the  prelate  Montajo;  and  in  this  type 
of  art  he  excelled  from  first  to  last.  He  was 
not  yet  IS  when  be  produced  the  'Apollo  and 
Daphne,'  in  marble,  a  masterpiece  of  grace 
and  execution.  Looking  at  this  group  near  the 
close  of  his  life,  he  declared  that  he  had  made 
very  little  progress  since  the  time  when  that 
was  produced.  Without  forsaking  sculpture, 
Bernini's  genius  embraced  architecture,  and  he 
furnished  the  design  for  the  canopy  and  the 
pulpit  of  Saint  Peter's,  as  well  as  for  the  cir- 
cular place  before  the  church.  Amcm^  his 
numerous  works  were  the  palace  Barberini,  the 
belfry  of  Saint  Peter's,  the  model  of  the  monu- 
ment of  the  Countess  Matilda  and  the  monu- 
ment of  Urban  VIII,  his  benefactor.  Urban 
had  scarcely  closed  his  eyes  and  Innocent  X 
ascended  the  papal  throne,  when  the  envy  en- 

Sndered  by  the  merits  of  the  artist  and  the 
wor  bestowed  on  him  broke  forth.  His  ene- 
mies triumphed,  but  he  regained  the  favor  of 
the  Pope  by  a  model  for  a  fountain.  About 
the  same  time  he  erected  the  palace  of  Monte 
Citorio,  Alexander  VII,  the  successor  of  Inao- 


UigitizcdbyGoOgle 


BBIWIS  —  BERHOUILLI 


.575 


cent  X,  required  of  him  a  plan  for  the  embel- 
jiahment  of  the  Piazza  di  San  Pietro.  The 
adinirable  colonnade,  mi  beautifully  proportioned 
to  the  Basilica,  was  buUt  under  the  direction  of 
Bernini.  We  may  also  mention  the  palace 
Odescalchi,  the  Rotunda  della  Riccia  and  the 


lu  1  oils,  »i^  aEi  uut  from  Rome  in  1665, 
panied  by  one  of  his  sons  and  a  nu 
retinue.  Never  (Ud  an  artist  travel  with  so  great 
pomp  and  under  such  flattering  circumstances. 
The  reception  which  he  met  with  in  Paris  was 
highly  honorable.  He  was  first  occtmicd  in  pre- 
paring plans  for  the  restoration  of  «ie  Louvre. 
which,  however,  were  never  executed.  Cardinal 
RospigHosi  having  become  Pope,  Bernini  was 
admitted  to  an  intimate  intercourse  with  him 
and  charged  with  several  works,  among^  others 
with  the  decoration  of  the  bridge  of  Saint  An- 
gelo.  In  his  70th  year  this  indefatigable  artist 
executed  one  of  his  most  beautiful  -wcrks,  the 
tomb  of  Alexander  VII.  He  was  buried  with 
great  magnificence  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria 
Maggiorc.  To  his  children  he  left  a  fortune 
amounting  to  about  3^300,000  francs.  Bernini's 
favorite  maxim  was  Chi  tton  esce  laholla  della 
regola,  tion  paisa  *nai.  Thus  he  was  of  opinion 
that,  in  order  to  excel  in  the  arts,  one  must 
rise  above  all  rules  and  create  a  manner  peculiar 
to  one's  self. 

BBRNIS,  Fransoli  Joadhitn  de  Fierrea  de, 
bar-nfs,  fidn-swa  jo-a-kcm  de  pe-ar  de,  French 
cardinal  and  minister  of  Louis  XV :  b.  Saint 
Marcel,  de  TArddche,  171S;  d.  Rorae,  2  Nov. 
1794.  Madame  de  Pompadour  presented  hira  to 
Louis  XV,  who,  being  pleased  with  him,  as- 
$i{[ned  to  Mm  an  apartment  in  the  Tuileries, 
with  a  pension  of  1,500  livres.  He  went  as 
Ambassador  to  Venice,  a^id  after  his  return  en- 
joyed the  hi^est  favor  at  court  and  soon  be- 
came Minister  of  Foreign,  Affairs.  The  politi- 
cal system  of  Europe  was  chaqged  at  that  time. 
Prance  and  Austria,  hitherto  enemies,  united 
in  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance,  which 
was  siKceeded  by  the  Seven  Years'  War,  so 
unfortunate  for  France.  Bemis  has  been  des- 
ignated by  several  writers  as  the  chief  author 
of  this  alliance.  Duclos,  however,  asserts  ilut 
it  was  the  intention  of  Bemii  to  maintain  the 
old  system  which,  since  the  time  of  Henry  IV 
and  especially  since  the  time  of  Richelieu,  had 
made  France  the  protectress  of  the  less  power- 
ful states  of  Germany  and  the  rival  of  Austria. 
Oppressed  by  the  misfortunes  of  his  country, 
which,  in  part  at  least,  were  ascribed  to  hiro, 
Bemis  surrendered  his  post  and  was  soon  after 
banished. from  court.  His  disgrace  lasted  till 
the  year  1764,  when  the  King  appointed  him 
archbishop  of  Albi  and,  five  years  later.  Am- 
bassador to  Rome.  Here  he  remained  till  his 
death.  In  the  name  of  his  court,  and  against 
his  own  opinion,  he  labored  to  effect  the  abo- 
lition of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits.  When  the 
aunts  of  Loui^  XVI  left  France  in  1791  they 
fled  to  hini  for  refuge  and  lived  in  his  house. 
The  Revolution  deprived  him  of  his  fortune 
and  the  me^ns  of  indulging  his  generous  dispo- 
sition. "The  easy  poefry  of  youtn  had  procured 
him  a  place  in  the  French  Academy,  but  he 
himself  is  its  severest  critic.  Voltaire  had  a 
great  esteem  for  his  talents,  his  judgment,  his 
criticisms  and  his  character,  as  is  evident  from 


their  correspondency  which,  in  every  other  re- 
spect, is  very  honorable  to  Bemis.  A  collec- 
tion of  Bemis'  works  was  published  in  1797 
by  Didot,  and  another  in   1825. 

BERNOUILLI,  bir-noo-y«,  or  BER- 
NOULLI, a  family  which  has  produced  nine 
distinguishJed  men,  who  have  cultivated  mathe- 
matiud  and  physical  science  with  success.  The 
family,  emigrated  from  Antwerp  on  account  of 
religious  persecutions  under  the  administration 
of  the  Duke  of  Alva,  fled  first  to  Frankfort 
and  afterward  removed  to  Basel.  Important 
members  of  the  family  were  Nicolas  (1623- 
1708),  Takob  (1654-1705),  Johann  (1667-1748), 
Nicolas  (1687-1759),  Nicolas  {1695-1726).  Dan- 
iel (170(^82).  Jobami  (1710-90).  Johann  (1744- 
1807)  and  Jakob  (1758-89). 

BERNOUILLI,  Daniel,  Swiss  philosopher: 
b.  Groningen,  9  Feb.  1700;  d  1782.  He  studied 
medicine,  he  took  the  doctor's  defpee,  and 
at  the  age  of  24  was  offered  the  presidency  of 

academy  about  to  be  established  at  Genoa, 


but  in  the  following  year  accepted  a 
tion  to  Saint  Petersburg.  Accconpani' 
younger  brothei  John,  he  returned  to  Basel  i 


1733;  became  there  professor  of  anatomy  a.._ 
botany;  in  1750  professor  of  natural  ^ilos- 
Dpby ;  resigned  this  plnce,  because  of  his  ad- 
vanced age,  to  his  brother's  son,  the  younger 
Daniel  Bemouilli,  in  1777  and  died  in  1762. 
He  was  one  of  the  greatest  natural  philoso- 
phers as  well  as  mathematicians  of  his  time. 
At  10  different  times  he  received  a  prize  from 
the  Academy  of  Paris.  In  1734  he  shared  with 
his  father  a  double  prize,  mvcn  by  this  academy 
for  dieir  joint  essay  on  the  causes  of  the  dif- 
ferent inclinations  of  the  iilanetary  orbits.  Most 
of  his  writings  are  contained  in  the  Transac- 
tions of  the  Saint  Petersburg,  Paris  and  Berlin 
academic^  of  which  he  was  a  member.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  the  'Hydrodynamlca,'  in  which 
he  first  developed  the  kinetic  theory  of  gases. 


The  difierential  calculus  discovered  by  Leib- 
nitz and  Newton  was  applied  by  him  to  the 
ittost  difficult  questions  of  geometry  and  me- 
chanics ;  he  calculated  the  loxodromic  and  cate- 
nary curve,  the  logarithmic  spirals,  the  evolutes 
of  several  curved  lines  and  discovered  the 
'numbers  of  BemouilH,"  as  they  are  called. 
Unquestionably  the  most  original  and  able  rep- 
resentative of  the  second  generation  of  eminent 
mathematicians  in  this  family  (see  Beknouilu 
01  Bernoulu),  he  probably  outranks  also  all 
the  other  Bemouillis  of  the  17th  and  18th  cen- 
turies in  that  quality  of  intellectual  venturing 
that  jmpears  in  the  posthumous  work  entitled 
'Ars  Conjectandi'  (1713).  Noteworthy  are 
also  his  'Conamen  Novi  Systematis  Com- 
etarum'  (Amsterdam  1682) ;  'Dissertatio  de 
Gravitate  .Athens'  (Amsterdam  1683)  :  and 
the  two-volume  edition  of  his  works,  'lacotn 
Bernoulli  Basileensis  Opera'   (Geneva  1744). 

BERNOUILLI,  Johann,  Swiss  madiema- 
tician:  b.  Basel  1667;  d.  1  Jan.  174a  He  was 
one  of  the  greatest  mathematicians  of  his  time 
and  the  worthy  rival  of  Newton  and  Leibniti. 
He  was  destined  for  commerce,  but  his  incli- 
nation led  him  to  the  sciences,  and  from  the 
year  16S3  he  principally  devoted  himself  to 
medicine  and  mathematics.  To  him  and  his 
brother  James  we  are  indebted  for  an  excel- 


:,  Google 


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BBRNOUILLI  —  BERNWARD 


lent  treatise  on  the  differential  calculus.  He 
also  developed  the  method  of  proceeding  from 
infinitely  small  numbers  to  the  finite,  of  which 
the  former  are  the  elements  or  differences,  and 
called  this  method  the  integrai  calailiu.  In 
1690-92  he  made  a  joumev  to  France,  where 
he  instructed  the  Maiquis  oe  I'liaiHtal  in  math- 
ematics.  At  this  time  he  discovered  the  ex- 
ponential calculus,  before  Leibnitz  had  made 
any  communications  reipecting  it,  and  made  it 
known  in  1697.  In  1694  he  became  doctor  of 
medicine  at  Basel,  and  in  1695  went,  as  pro- 
fessor  of  mathematics,  to  Groningen,  where  he 
discovered  the  mercurial  phosphorus  or  lunu- 
nous  barometer,  for  whiiJi  he  received  from 
King  Frederick  I  of  Prussia  a  gold  medal  and 
was  made  a  member  of  the  Academy  in  Berlin, 
afterward  of  that  of  Paris.  After  the  death 
of  his  brother  in  1705,  he  received  the  profes' 
Gorship  of  mathematics  at  Basel,  which  he  held 
until  his  death.  His  collected  works  were  pub- 
lished at  Geneva  in  1742. 

BBRNOUILLI,  Nicolu,  nei^ew  of  Jo- 
hann  Bemouilli,  Swiss  mathematician :  b.  Basel 
1687;  d.  1759.  He  studied  Uw  but  more  par- 
ticularly devoted  himself  to  mathematics;  in 
1705  went  to  Groningen  to  Johann  Bemouilli; 
returned,  however,  with  him  to  Basel  toward 
the  close  of  the  year  and  became  there  profes- 
sor of  madiematics.  He  traveled  through 
Switzerland,  France,  Holland  and  England,  and 
in  1713  became  a  member  of  the  Academies  of 
Science  in  London  and  Berlin.  On  the  recom- 
mendation of  Leibnitz,  be  went  as  professor 
of  mathematics  to  Padua  in  1716,  but  returned 
to  his  native  dty  in  1722  as  professor  of  logic. 
In  1731  he  became  professor  of  the  Roman  and 
feudal  law  in  that  place. 

BERNSTEIN,  Eduard.  leader  of  the  Ger- 
man social  democracy ;  b,  Berlin,  6  Jan,  1850. 
As  a  young  man  he  edited  socialistic  news- 
papers in  Berlin  until  the  vehemence  of  his 
opposition  to  the  government  of  Bismarck  made 
it  desirable  for  him  to  leave  Germany.  After 
the  publication  of  his  criticism  of  Marxist  doc- 
trines he  was  permitted  to  return  to  Germany, 
where  in  1901,  he  became  editor  of  Vorwarts. 
In  1902  he  became  editor  of  Dokvmente  det 
Soeialiimus.  He  contends  that  every  movement 
for  the  advancement  of  the  people  should  be 
encouraged  and  taken  advantage  of  by  the  com- 
mon people,  whom  he  urges  to  take  an  active 
part  m  pohfics.  He  regrets  the  materialistic 
conception  of  history  as  inadequate  to  explain 
modem  social  evolution.  He  was  elected  to 
the  Reichstag  in  1902,  failed  at  the  elecrions  of 
1907,  but  was  returned  in  1912.  His  published 
works,  besides  an  edition  (1891-93)  of  the 
speeches  and  writings  of  Lasalle  (translated 
into  English,  1893,  by  E.  Aveling),  include  'Die 
Voraussetzungen  des  Soiialismus  und  die  Auf- 


(1904)  ;  'Die  heiitige  Sozialdemokratie  in 
Theoric  und  Praxis*  (1905);  <IMc  Geschichte 
der  Berliner  Arbeiterbewegung*    (1907-10). 

BERNSTORPP,  Andreas  Peter,  b«m'- 
storf.  Count  von,  Danish  statesman:  b.  1735: 
d,  1797.  He  was  Foreign  Minister  1773-80,  and 
1784-97.  He  introduced  a  new  system  of 
finance,  prepared  the  abolition  of  vilianage  in 
Schleswig  and  Holstein.  He  was  instrumental 
in  making  an  exchange  of  territory,  by  which 


the   King   ( 
1772.     He 


the  Gottorp  part  of  Holstein  was  ceded  to 
Russia  (or  Oldenburg  and  Delmenhorst.  He 
was  a  pronounced  Liberal,  and  contended  for 
the  freedom  of  the  press. 

BERNSTORFF,  Joha  Hartwia  Bnut, 
Count  von,  Danish  statesman  in  service  of 
of  Denmark:  b.  Hanover  1712;  d 
was  employed  in  divers  embassies, 
.  _  jfterward  filled  with  consummate  abilitv, 
the  office  of  Foreign  Minister  to  Frederick  V 
for  about  20  years,  resigning  in  1770,  He  was 
called  by  Frederick  the  Great  'the  oracle  of 
Denmark.* 

BERNSTORFF,  Jobaim  Heinrich  A„ 
Count  von,  German  diplomat:  b.  London,  14 
Nov.  1862.  He  received  his  early  education  ia 
England,  where  bis  father  was  the  German 
ambassador  — before  1871,  Prussian  minister. 
During  the  Franco^Pmssian  war  be  acted  aj 
a  press  agent  in  London  for  his  government, 
transmitting  to  Berlin  ail  the  news  that  migtit 

Crove  useful  to  his  country.  -Knowing  French, 
e  read  the  indiscreet  revelation  by  a  Paris 
newspaper  of  MacMahon's  sudden  change  of 
march  just  before  Sedan,  which  news  be  wired 
to  Berlin.  He  entered  the  German  army 
(artillery)  in  1681,  was  made  attache  at  Con- 
stantinople in  1889,  served  in  the  Foreign  Office 
in  1890,  secretary  of  Legation  at  Belgrade  1892, 
Dresden  1894,  Saint  Petersburg  1896;  and 
Munich  1898.  In  1902  he  was  appointed  advisor 
to  the  embassy  in  London,  and  in  1906  was 
transferred  to  Egypt  as  German  Consul-Gen- 
erBl.  On  14  Nov.  1908  he  was  appointed  Am- 
bassador and  Plenipotentiarv  Extraordinary  to 
the  United  States.  From  tne  outbreak  of  the 
European  War  he  carried  on  a  strenuous  press 
campaign  throughout  America  with  the  object 
of  enlisting  sympathy  for  the  German  cause. 
During  1915  the  United  States  Department  of 
Justice  unearthed  a  conspiracy  carried  on  in 
New  York  by  Hans  von  VVedell  and  Carl 
Ruroede  to  forge  passports  to  enable  German 
reserve  officers  to  return  home.  Ruroede  was 
arrested  and  sentenced  to  three  years'  impristui- 
ment;  von  Wedell  escaped  on  a  Norwe^an 
vessel,  but  was  taken  oft  by  a  British  cnnser 
which  was  shortly  afterward  sunk  tnr  a  sub- 
marine. Correspondence  seized  by  the  secret 
service  implicated  Count  BemstorfTs  naval  and 
military  attachis,  Captains  Boy^Ed  and  von 
Papen,  who  were  dismissed  from  the  United 
States.  Later  various  checks  for  large  sums 
to  spread  pro-German  propaeanda  were  traced 
to  Count  Bemstorff,  who  had  telegraphed  home 
for  authority  to  spend  $50,000  'in  order  .  .  . 
to  influence  CJ>ngress.*  Consult  World's  fVork 
(March  1918).     See  Was,  Eusopean. 

BERNWARD,  Saint,  bishop  of  Hilde*- 
heim :  b.  about  950 ;  d.  20  Nov.  1022.  He  w^i 
equally  distinguished  in  theolo^  and  art,  de- 
voting himself  to  painting,  gold  and  mosaic 
work.  About  988  he  was  charged  by  the  Em- 
press Theophania,  widow  of  Otno  II,  to  under- 
take the  education  of  her  seven-year-old  son 
(3tho  HI,  in  conjunction  with  Gerbert  (after- 
ward Pope  Sylvester  II).  Bemward  taugbi 
the  young  king  mathematics ;  the  aotual  man- 
ual which  he  composed  for  these  lessons  is  still 
preserved  in  the  cathedral  at  Hildesheim.  The 
Empress  Regent  had  some  years  before  brrn^ 
a  colony  of  Byzantine  artists  and  craftsmen  from 
Constantinople,    These  were  settled  in  Germanr, 


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BEROALDO  —  BBRSUOUSTE 


677 


some  building  churcliea  and  others  engaging  in 
painting  ana  enameling.  Boroward  industri- 
ousiy  studied  tbeir  methods  and,  from  the  time 
he  WM  consecrated  bishop  (7  Dec  992)  he 
divided  his  labors  between  the  administration 
of  his  diocese  and  of  converting  his  episcopal 
town  into  a  flourishing  artistic  and  literary 
centre.  One  of  his  predecessors  had  begun 
rhc  construction  of  the  cathedral,  and  a  large 
stock  of  golden  ingots  and  predons  stones  had 
been  accumulated.  These  the  bishop  proceeded 
to  utilize  for  the  ornamentation  of  his  church; 
he  melted  the  gold  and  fashioned  it  into  decora- 
tions,    set     the    stones    himself,    painted    and 

meled,  and  drew  architectural  designs.  He 
"y    cultivated    Hterature ;    he    founded    a 

f  for   copyists   and  himself   prepared  the 

original  manuscripts  for  them  to  work  from. 
He  also  traveled  in  France  and  Italy,  often 
talcing  parties  of  his  pupils  with  him  for  their 
enli^tenment.  This  versatile  prdatc,  whose 
life  MS  aptly  been  described  as  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  biographical  monuments  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  combined  the  functions  of  priest, 
teacher,  artist  and  diplomat.  He  even  built 
the  fortifications  of  Hildesbeim,  and  on  at  least 
one  occasion  accompanied  a  military  expedition 
in  war.  He  was  canonized  in  1194,  or  172 
years  after  his  death. 

BEROALDO,  bfi-rd-il'da^  Filippo,  Italian 
scholar:  b.  Bologna  1453;  d.  1505.  He  gave 
instruction,  chiefly  by  lectures,  at  Parma,  Milan 
and  Paris;  finally,  m  response  to  the  wish  of 
his  fellow-townsmen,  returning  to  Bologna, 
where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  fife  as 

Erofessor  of  belles-lettres.  He  is  now  chiefly 
nown  as  the  editor  of  some  good  editions  of 
the  classics,  and  the  author  of  a  curious  tract 
entitled  'Dedamatio  Ebnosi,  Scortatoris  et 
Aleatoris,'  in  which  the  drunkard,  rake  and 
gambler,  represented  as  three  brothers,  debate 
which  of  them,  as  being  the  most  vicious, 
should  be  excluded  from  snaring  in  his  father's 
inheritance. 

BEROS,  daughter  of  Oceanus;  also  the 
name  of  several  women  connected  with  Thrace, 
liiyria  etc. ;  also  a  genus  of  animals,  the  typical 
one  of  the  family  Berouix.  The  heroes  are  oval 
or  globular-ribbed  animals,  transparent  and 
gelatinous,  with  cirri  from  pole  to  pole,  and 
two  long  tentacles  fringed  with  cirri,  which  aid 
them  in  breathing  and  in  locomotion.  They 
have  a  mouth,  a  stomach  and  an  anal  aperture. 
They  are  free  swimming  organisms  inhabiting 
tiie  sea,  sometimes  rotating,  and  at  night  i^s- 
pjiorescent. 

BBROSU8,  according  to  some  a  Gialdsean 
fay  Inrth,  and  a  priest  of  the  temple  of  Belus  at 
Babylon,  and  according  to  others  a  contempo- 
rary of  Alexander  the  Great,  is  celebrated  both 
MS  an  historian  and  an  astronomer,  though  it 
lias  been  alleged  that  his  name  merely  has  been 
used  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  reputation  to 
-what  others  had  written.  His  history,  giving 
an  account  of  the  Babylonian  Chaldseans  and 
their  kings,  consisted  of  three  books  written 
in  Greek,  and  professed  to  be  founded  on  the 
ancient  archives  of  the  temple  of  Belus.  It 
has  been  preserved  only  in  fragments,  con- 
tained in  uie  writings  of  Josephus,  Syncellus, 
Etnetnus  and  others.  He  was  also  the  author 
of  a  treatise  on  Chaldiean  astrology.  Accord- 
ing to  PUny  the  astronomical  observations  oon- 

VOL.3  —  3J 


tained  in  the  works  of  Berosus  extended  over 
a_period  of  480  years. 

BBRQUIN,  Amaud,  bir-kaA,  ar-n5,  French 
writer:  b.  1749;  d.  1791.  He  first  attracted 
notice  by  poems  and  translations  from  the  Ejig- 
lish  but  IS  best  known  by  his  work  entitled 
'L'Ami  des  Enfants>  (1^2-83),  crowned  by 
the  Academy  and  repeatedly  translated.  His 
complete  works  (20  volumes)  were  published 
in  Paris  in  18Q3. 

■  BERQUIN,  ber-kan',  Lonia  de,  the  first 
Protestant  martyr  m  France:  b.  1490;  d  Paris, 
■17  April  1529.  He  was  a  gentleman  of  Artois, 
a  friend  of  Badius,  the  savant.  When,  in  1523, 
the  police  began  to  seize  Luther's  works  with  a 
view  to  suppressing  Protestantism,  they  found 
among  Berqtiin's  books  some  manuscripts  of 
his  own  writing  that  were  pronounced  heretical. 
As  he  refused  to  retract,  he  was  ihrown  into 
prison.  Francis  I,  whose  counsellor  he  was,  ob- 
tained for  him  his  freedom ;  and  Erasmus,  al- 
ways his  friend,  tried  in  vain  to  prevent  him 
from  exposing  his  life  in  a  useless  stru^le.  His 
fixed  opinions  and  intrepid  nature,  however, 
having  thrown  him  into  prison  three  times, 
caused  him  to  be  condemned  to  death,  and  he 
was  burned  alive. 

BERRBDO  E  CASTRO,  Mr-rft'dA  i 
kash'trd,  Portuguese  soldier  and  historian :  b. 
Sen^,  about  l6B0;  d.  Lisbon,  13  March  174S. 
Having  entered  the  army  he  fought  at  the  battle 
of  Saragossa  (1710),  so  distinguishing  himself 
on  thai  occasion  that  he  was  made  governor- 
general  of  the  province  of  Maranhao,  Brazil, 
and  in  1718  he  became  captain-general  of  Mata- 
eao.  The  rest  of  bis  life  was  spent  upon  his 
history,  which  is  of  great  value  as  an  original 
source  of  information  for  the  period  of  which 
it  treats.  It  is  entitled  'Annaes  Historicos,  do 
estado  do  Maranhao'  (1749). 

BERRBTTA.    See  Birctta. 

BERRIEN,  John  Hacphersoo,  American 
lawyer  and  politician:  b.  New  Jersey,  23  Aug. 
1781;  d.  Savannah,  Ga.,  1  Jan.  1856.  He  was 
the  son  of  an  officer  in  the  war  of  the  American 
Revolution,  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1796, 
wa<  admitted  to  the  bar  of  (Borgia  at  the  age 
of  18,  and  gradualN^  rose  in  reputation  till  he 
was  elected,  in  18W,  solicitor  of  the  eastern 
district  of  Georgia.  He  became  judge  of  the 
same  district  the  ne«t  year,  retaining  the  latter 
office  till  1822,  when  he  entered  the  Georgia 
senate,  from  which  he  was  transferred,  in 
1824.  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States.  He 
established  in  that  body  a  high  reputation  as  an 
orator  and  statesman,  was  appointed  Altomey- 
General  of  the  United  States  in  1829,  resigned 
thb  office  In  1831  when  General  Jackson's  Cabi- 
net became  inharmonious,  resumed  the  practice 
of  his  profession  in  Savannah  till  1840,  when 
he  was  elected  again  to  the  national  Senate,  and 
was  re-elected  in  1S46. 

BERRUGUBTE,  bCr-roo-ga'tf,  Alonzo, 
Spanish  sculptor,  painter  and  architect:  b. 
Paredez  de  Nava.  Spain,  about  1486;  d.  Tolodo 
1561.  He  went  in  or  soon  after  1504  to  Flor- 
ence, studied  in  the  school  of  Michelangelo, 
and  became  intimate  with  Bandinelli,  and  other 
celebrated  artists.  In  1523,  three  years  after 
his  return  to  Spain,  he  was  appointed  painter 
to  Charles  V.  His  skill  as  a  sculptor  is  seen 
to  great  advantage  in  the  choir  of  the  catho- 
dral  of  Toledo.    Berruguete's  work  there  was 


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BBKSinrEK  —  BXS&T 


be^n  in  1539  and  finished  In  1548.  Authentic 
paintings  by  him  (and  it  is  to  be  said  that 
those   are    few   the    authenticity  o£    which   is 

above  dispute)  have  been  preserved,  in  the  sur- 
roundings for  which  they  were  painted,  at  Sala- 
manca, and  in  the  old  capital,  Vailadolid,  where 
Berniguete  built  a  house  for  himself  in  1528. 
See  Spain— Spanish  Painting,  Akchitecture 
AiJD  Sculpture. 

BBRRUYER.  Joseph  Isaac,  French  Jes- 
uit: b.  Rouen  1681;  d.  Paris  1758.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  'History  of  God's  People,'  1728^58, 
written  in  a  strong,  secular  vein.  It  created  a 
scandal  when  the  first  part  appeared,  and  the 
Jesuit  General  ordered  (he  writer  to  prepare  an 
expurgated  edition,  which  he  did,  though  the 
second  version  was  little  i>elter  than  the  first, 
whidi  was  devoted  to  the  Old  Testament  The 
work  was  censured  at  Rome  in  1734;  the  second 
part,  'The  Gospel,'  printed  in  Paris  1753,  was 
prohibited  by  me  Frendi  clergy.  When  the 
third  part  ^Epistles'  appeared  in  Lyons  In  1758, 
Pope  Clement  XIH  declared  that  the  measure 
of  scandal  had  overflowed,  and  ordered  special 
praters  to  the  Holy  Trinity  for  the  outrage 
inflicted  by  the  works  o£  Berruyer. 

BERRY,  ba-re,  Carolina  Perdmanda 
Loniaa,  DucheSM  «,  widow  of  the  second  son 
of  Charles  X  of  France;  daughter  of  Ferdinand 
I,  of  the  Two  Sicilies;  b.  5Nov.  1798:  d.  17 
April  1870.  Her  futile  attempt  at  insurrection 
in  1832,  to  place  her  son  on  the  French  throne, 
caused  her  imprisonment  and  subsequent  with- 
drawal to  Sicily.  That  son,  called  by  his  parti- 
sans Henri  V,  died  without  heirs  in  1883. 

BBKRY,  Charles  Ferdinand,  Dnc  de,  sec- 
ond son  of  the  Count  d'Artois  (afterward 
Charles  X)  and  Maria  Theresa  of  Savoy :  b. 
Versailles,  24  Jan.  1778;  d.  14  Feb.  1820,  He 
was  educated  along  with  his  elder  brother,  the 
Duke  of  Angouleme.  In  1792  he  fled-  with  his 
father  to  Turin,  served  under  him  and  Cond^  on 
the  Rhine,  and  early  learned  the  art  of  winning 
the  love  of  Ih'e  soldiers.  Subsequently  he  lived 
alternately  in  London  and  Scotland,  continually 
occupied  with  plans  for  the  restoration  of  the 
Bourbons.  Landing  at  Cherbourg,  13  April 
1814,  he  passed  through  the  cities  of  Bayeux, 
Caen,  Rouen,  etc.,  gaining  over  the  soldiers  to 
the  cause  of  the  Bourbons,  distributing  Kims, 
Lnd     delivering    prisoners.       When     Napole: 


around  Paris.  All  his  eiTorts  to  secure  their 
fidelity  proving  ineffectual,  he  was  obliged  to 
retreat  on  the  night  of  19  March,  with  the 
troops  of  the  household,  to  Ghent  and  Alost, 
where  the  Kin^  then  was.  The  battle  of  Water- 
loo enabled  him  to  return  to  Paris,  where  he 
arrived  8  July,  and  surrendered  his  command 
over  the  troops  of  the  household  into  the  hands 
of  the  King.  At  the  opening  of  the  chambers 
in  Paris  he  took  the  oath  to  maintain  the  Con- 
stitution, and  was  appointed  president  of  the 
fourth  bureau ;  but  soon  retired  from  public 
hfe.  He  died  of  a  blow  .inflicted  by  a  political 
fanatic  named  Louvel.  The  Duke  left  a  daugh- 
ter Louise  Marie  ThirJse,  afterward  Duchess 
of  Parma;  and  a  posthumous  son,  subsequently 
known  as  Comte  de  Chambord. 

BERRY,  Hiram  Qeorgc,  American  sol- 
dier, b.  Thomaston,  Me.,  27  Aug.  1824;  d. 
Chancellorsville,  2  May  1663.     He  was  promi- 


nent in  local  parties,  bedding  office  as  repre- 
sentative in  the  State  legislature  and  as  mayor 
of  Rockland.  He  entered  the  Union  army  as 
colonel  of  the  4th  Maine  Infantry  and  was  pres- 
ent at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  the  siege  of  Yoik- 
town,  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  battles 
of  Williamsburg,  Fair  Oaks,  Chantilly  and  the 
second  Bull  Rim  campaign.  President  Lincoln 
nominated  him  a  tnajor-general  of  volunteers, 
January  1863,  and  he  succeeded  General  Sidkles 
in  command  of  the  2d  division  of  the  3d  arnqr 
corps.  At  a  critical  point  in  the  battle  of  Qiati- 
cellorsvitle,  1  May  1863,  Hooker  ordered  Gen- 
eral Berry  to  charge  with  the  bayonet  the  ad- 
vancing enemy.  He  did  so,  and  for  three  houn 
bis  division,  almost  alone,  withstood  the  enemy's 
assault  and  regained  for  the  Federal  forces  a 
portion  of  their  lost  ground.  He  was  killed  a1 
the  head  of  a  inccexsful  bayonet  charge  upon 
thd  renewal  of  the  battle  the  following  day. 

BERRY,  Joseph  Flintoft,  MethodiK 
bishop ;  b.  Canada  18S6.  Ordained  1874,  elected 
bishop  1904;  editor  Michigan  Christian  Advo- 
cate 1884-90;  of  Epworth  Herald  1890-1904. 

BBRRY  Mary,  English  author:  b.  Kiri^ 
bridge,  Yorkshire,  16  March  1763;  d.  Londoi^ 
20  Nov.  1852.  She  and  her  sister  Agnes  were 
intimate  friends  of  Horace  Walpole,  who  in 
his  letters  spoke  of  them  in  terms  of  the  strongs 
est  affection.  For  their  amusement  he  wrote 
'Reminiscences  of  the  Courts  of  Georges  1  and 
IP  (1789).  He  established  the  sisters  at  Ted- 
dington  in  1789.  In  his  will  he  bequeathed 
$4,000  to  each  and  to  both  the  house  and  prop- 
erty at  Little  Strawberry  Hill,  where  they  had 
made  their  home  after  1791.  In  179S  Mary 
edited  the  'Works  of  Horace  Walpole.*  Her 
most  ambitious  work  was  her  ^Social  Life  in 
England  and  France'    (1844). 

BERRY,  Richard  Jamea  Arthur,  Anglo- 
Australian   author  and   educationalist ;   b,   Lan- 


,    ...    the  School    of    Medicine  of  the 

Royal  College  of  Edinburgh  (1894-1906);  ex- 
aminer in  anatomy  in  the  University  of  Saint 
Andrew  (1898-1901),  in  the  University  of  Ab- 
erdeen (1901-05)  and  in  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeoiis  (1896-1905).  In  the  latter  y^at  he 
became  professor  of  anatomy  in  the  Universi^ 
of  Melbourne.  He  at  once  thorou^ly  identi- 
fied himself  with  the  life  and  interests  of  Aus- 
tralia. Among  his  published  works,  which  are 
all  of  a  scientific  nature,  are  'The  Cotcai  Folds 
and  Fossae'  (1897) ;  'Regional  Anatcany' 
(1900);  'Surface  Anatomy'  (1906);  and  'A 
Clinical  Adas  of  Sectional  and  Topographical 
Anatomy. ' 

BBRRY,  or  BSRRI,  a  former  province  and 
dukedom  of  France,  of  which  Bonrges  was  the 
capital.  With  the  exception  of  the  arrondisse- 
ment  Saint  Amand,  which  belonged  lo  the 
Bourbonnais,  it  now  forms  the  d^rtmeitts 
Indre  and  Cher.  In  ancient  times  it  forniw 
part  of  the  Roman  province  of  Aquitania  and 
passed  under  the  domination  of  the  Franks  in 
the  6th  century.  Later  it  enjoyed  its  independ- 
ence under  a  hne  of  hereditary  counts.  In 
1360  it  was  made  a  duchy  and  in  1601  annexed 
by  the  French  Crown.  It  gave  title  at  various 
times  to  French  princes,  the  younger  son  of 


=y  Google 


HKKR  V  —  BBRTHBLOT 


Charles  X  betne  dK  last  to  hold  them.  George 
Sand,  in  her  'Ligcndeg  Rustiques*  and  others 
of  her  iater  novcli,  gives  very  good  pictures  of 
die  cotmtry  and  life  of  Berry. 

BERRY,  Canal  de,  one  of  the  important 
canals  in  France.  It  be^ns  at  MontluQon  on 
the  Cher,  the  chief  trading  centre  of  the  coal 
fields  of  the  Allier;  descends  tne  Cher  valley 
to  Saint  Amand,  and  ultimately  enters  the 
Cher  itself  near  Saint.  Aignan,  below  which 
point  the  canaliaed  Cher  coniinuet  the  line  of 
□av^tion  to  Tours.  Length  of  navigation  200 
miles,  of  which  36^  miles  belong  to  the  canal- 
iied  Cher.     Constructed  1807-41. 

BERRYBR,  bar-yft,  Antoine  Plane, 
French  advocate  and  orator:  b.  Paris,  4  Jan. 
1790;  d.  29  Nov.  1868.  In  1814  he  prodaimed 
at  Rennes  the  deposition  of  Napoleon  and  re- 
mained till  his  death  an  avowed  Legitimist  of 
liberal  principles.  He  assisted  his  father  in  the 
defense  of  Ney,  secured  the  acquittal  of  Gen- 
eral Cambronne  and  defended  Lamennais  from 
a  charge  of  atheism.  His  eloquence  was  com- 
pared with  that  of  Mirabeau.  and  after  the 
dethronement  of  Charles  X  (1830J  be  remained 
in  the  Chamber  as  the  sole  Legitimist  orator. 
In  1840  be  was  one  of  the  counsel  for  the 
defense  of  Louis  Napoleon  after  the  Boulogne 
fiasco.  In  1843  he  did  homage  to  the  Comte 
de  Chambord  in  London,  adhering  to  him 
through  the  revolution  of  1848  and  voting  for 
the  deposition  of  the  prince-president  the  morn- 
ing after  the  coup  fitat  of  1851.  He  gained 
additional  reputation  In  1858  by  his  defense  of 
Montalembert,  and  was  counsel  for  the  Pat- 
terson-fionapartes  in  the  suit  for  the  recogni- 
tion of  the  Baltimore  marriage.  In  1863  he 
was  re-elected  to  the  Chamber  with  Thiers. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Academy  in  1854. 

BERSACLIBRI.  b(r-s«'lyt'r^,  a  corps  of 
liflemea  or  sharpshooters,  introduced  into  the 
Sardinian  annv  by  General  Delia  Marmora 
about  1849.  lliey  took  part  in  the  Crimean 
War  and  assisted  at  the  battle  of  the  Tchemaya, 
16  Ang.  1855.  They  were  likewise  employed 
in  the  Italian  wars  of  1859  and  1866.  They 
wear  cocks'  feathers  in  their  hats.  They  are 
not  big  men  but  are  noted  for  their  marching 
powers  aiid  endurance.  They  regularly  march 
at  four  miles  an  hour,  with  a  step  of  34  inches. 
The  nth  Bersaglieri  in  the  Tripolitan  campa«n 
made  two  wonderful  desert  marches  —  oae  of 
50  miles  in  26  hours  and  one  of  33  miles  in  1? 
hours.  At  the  entry  of  Italy  into  the  Great 
War  in  1915  there  were  12  re^ments  of  Ber- 
saglieri  in  the  regular  army,  with  about  3^X10 
men  in  each,  and  20  battalions  in  the-  mcAile 
militia,  with  1,000  men  to  the  battalion. 

BBRSBRKBR,  a  descendant  of  the  eight- 
handed  starlcader  and  the  beautiful  Alfhilde 
and,  according  to  the  Scandinavian  mytholop", 
a  famous  warrior.  He  disdained  the  protection 
of  armor,  whence  he  received  his  name,  which 
signifies,  according  to  Vigfusson  and  Frit^ner 
and  "The  Oxford  English  Dictionary'  (Oxford 
1888),  probably  'bear-sack,"  that  is,  "bear- 
coat."  He  raged  like  a  madman  in  battle.  He 
killed  King  Swafurlam  and  married  his  daugh- 
ter, bv  whom  he  bad  12  sons  as  untamable  as 
himself.  They  were  also  called  Berserker,  and 
after  tbeir  time  the  name  was  given  to  wild 
and  fierce  Scandinavian  warriors. 


rfc 


BBRSBZtO,  ber-sets'yS,  Vlttorlo,  Italian 
novelist  and  playright ;  o.  Peveragno,  Pied- 
mont. 1830;  d.  1900.'  He  was  long  active  as 
an  editor  and  was  a  voluminous  writer  of  fic- 
tion, drama  and  works  of  history.  .Both  as  a 
writer  of  tales, and  of  comedies  he  is  con- 
spicuous for  vivid  and  faithful  delineation  of 
Piedmontese  life,  especially  in  his  dialect  come- 
dies, among  which  'The  Misfortunes  of  Monssji 
Travett'  is  considered  to  be  his  masterpiece. 
He  also  wrote  an  excellent  historical  worl^ 
'The  Reign  of  Victor  Emmanuel  II'  (1878-93). 
Consult  Orsi,  D.,  'Piedmontese  IMalect  and  the 
Theatre'  (1890). 

BBKSIBK,  bit-syA.  Sugim  Attbnr  Pru. 
sia,  a  French  Protestant  pulpit  orator  of  note: 
Morses,  near  Geneva,  l&l;  d  Paris,  19  Nov. 
lOflJ.  He  became  in  1855  a  preacher  in  Paris, 
where  he  was  much  admired  and  his  sermons 
were  translated  into  several  languages.  Among 
his  writings  are  'Coligny  avant  les  guerres  de 
religion'  (1884);  'Histoire  d'une  petite  fille 
heureuse'  (IffiW) ;  in  English,  'Scmions' 
(London  1881-1901).  Consult  Tinling.  J.  F.  B., 
'Bersier's  Pulpit:  An  Analysis  of  the  Pub- 
lished Sermons  of  Pastor  Eugine  Bersier* 
(1901). 

BBRTHBAU,  b<!r-tA'  Bmst,  German  tbe- 
ok^an  and  orientalist:  b.  Hamburg  1812;  d. 
(^ttingen  1888.  Most  of  his  active  life  as 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  and  Scripture 
exegetii  was  spent  at  Gottingen.  His  fame 
rests  mainly  upcwi  his  theological  woilts,  of 
whtck  the  more  important  are:  'The  Seven 
groups  of  Mosaic  Laws'  (1840);  'History  of 
the  Israelites'  (1842) ;  'Exegetlc  Handbook  to 
die  Old  Testament>  (1845)  ;  'Commentaries  on 
the  Books  of  Jndges  and  Ruth* ;  'Proverbs  of 
Solomon';  'Books  of  the  Chronicles,'  and  a 
'Syriac  Grammar.' 

BERTHBLOT,  bar-tio,  Pierre  Eugtoe 
Marcellin,  French  chemist  and  politician:  b. 
Paris,  25  Oct.  1827;  d.  there,  18  March  1907. 
He  ear{y  studied  chemistry,  and  was  brou^t 
into  notice  in  1854  by  his  thesis  for  a  doctor's 
decree,  in  which  he  gave  an  account  of  his  arti- 
ficial reproduction  of  natural  fats.  In  1859  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  organic  chemistry 
"-   the  Superior  School  of   Pharmacy;   and  in 


In  1870  he  was  elected  president  of  the  scien- 
tific committee  of  defense,  and  during  the  siege 
of  Paris  was  entrusted  with  the  manufacture 
of  ammunition  and  ^ns,  and  especially  dyna- 
mite and  nitro-glycenne.  In  1873  he  became  a 
member  of  the  Institute,  and  in  1878  he  became 
president  of  the  committee  on  explosives,  whidi 
miroduced  smokeless  powder.  His  labors  also 
led  to  the  discovery  of  dyes  extracted  from 
coal  tar.  He  received  the  decoration  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  in  1861;  was  made  eom- 
Utander  in  1879,  and  grand  officer  in  1886.  In 
1889  he  was  elected  permanent  secretary  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  He  contributed  to  the 
knowledge  of  synthetical  processes  and  to  the 
relations  between  the  phenomena  of  heat  and 
of  chemistry,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the 
founder  of  synthetic  chemistry  and  ihenno- 
chemistfy.  In  public  life  he  held  a  prominoit 
Itlace,  became  in  1876  inspector-general  of  edu- 
cation, in  1881  a  life  member  of  the  Scnat^ 


Google 


BESTHIBK  —  BBSTHOLLBTI A 


in  1886-87  was  minister  of  public  

and  in  I89S-96  foreign  secretary.  His  worics 
include  'Chimie  organique  fond^  sur  la 
synthese'  (1860) ;  'Lemons  »ur  les  prin- 
cipeg  sucr6s'  (1862)  ;  Lc(onB  sur  I'isomirie' 
<186S)  ;  'Traitc  aouentaire  de  chimie  organi- 
que'  and  'Sur  la  force  de  la  poudre  ct  des 
matieres  explosives'  (1872  and  1889);  Esui  de 
in&aniq.ue  chimique'  (1879) ;  'Les  origines  de 
t'akfaimie'  (1685)  ;  'Collection  des  anciens 
aJchimistes  grecs'  (1888)  ;  'Chimie  des  anciens' 
(1889) ;  'Trait*  pratique  de  calorimitrie 
cbimique'  (1893);  'Recherches  cxperimentales' 
(1901),  . 

BERTHISR,  tKir-tya,  Louk  Alexandre, 
marshal  of  France,  Prince  and  Duke  of  Neu- 
chatel  and  Valengin,  Prince  of  Wagram :  b. 
Versailles,  20  Nov.  1753;  d.  Bamberg,  1  June 
1615.  In  the  American  war  of  indepenoence 
he  served  under  Lafayette.  In  the  early  days 
of  the  Revolution,  he  aided  in  the  escape  of 
some  members  of  the  royal  family.  He  served 
with  distinction  in  Vendean  War,  1793-95.  In 
1795  was  appointed  chief  of  the  staff  to 
Kellermann,  and  by  causing  the  French 
army  to  take  up  the  tines  of  Borghetto, 
contributed  to  arrest  the  i  advance  of  the 
enemy.  In  October  1797  Bonaparte  sent 
him  to  Paris  to  deliver  to  the  directory 
the  treaty  of  Carapo-Fonnio.  In  1798  he 
received  the  chief  command  of  the  army  of 
Italy,  and  in  the  beginninK  of  February  made 
his  entrance  into   Rome,  abolished  the   papal 

favemment,  and  established  a  consular  one. 
n  1799  be  was  appointed  Minister  of  War, 
He  afterward  became  General'in-Chief  of  the 
army  of  reserve,  accompanied  Bonaparte  to 
Italy  in  1800,  and  contributed  to  the  passage  of 
Saint  Bernard  and  the  victory  of  Uarengo.  He 
signed  the  armistice  of  Alessandria,  formed  the 
provisional  government  of  Piedmont,  and  went 
on  an  extraordinary  mission  to  Spain.  He  ac- 
companied Napoleon  to  Milan,  June  1805,  to  be 
present  at  his  coronation,  and  in  October  was 
appointed  chief  of  the  general  staff  of  the 
grand  army  in  Germany.  He  distinguished  him- 
self at  Austerlitz  and  Jena,  and  for  his  services 
after  the  battle  of  Wagram  (1809)  he  was 
given  the  title  of  Prince  of  Wagram.  In 
1810,  as  proxy  of  Napoleon,  he  received  the 
hand  of  Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  the  Emperor 
Francis  I,  and  accompanied  her  to  France. 
Somewhat  later  Napoleon  made  him  colonel- 
g^n^ral  of  the  Swiss  troops.  In  1812  he  was 
with  the  army  in  Russia  as  chief  of  the  genera! 
staff,  which  post  he  also  held  in  1813.  After 
Napoleon's  abdication  he  lost  his  principality 
of  Neucbatel,  but   retained  his   other  honors. 


BBRTHOLD     VON      RBGENSBURO, 

bir'tolt  fon  ra'gens-boorg,  CJerman  Franciscan 
preacher;  b.  about  1210;  d.  13  Dec,  1272,  and 
DUried  in  the  Franciscan  convent  at  Ratisbon, 
of  which  he  was  a  member.  From  1250  to  the 
close  of  his  life,  he  preached  to  immense  con- 
Rregations  in  Switzerland,  Hungary,  Austria, 
Moravia,  Bohemia,  Saxony,  Swabia,  etc.,  gen- 
erally in  the  open  air,  as  the  churches  were  not 
large  enough  to  hold  the  audiences.     In  tiie 


Heidelberg  University  library  some  USS,  of 
his  sermons  are  preserved.  Near  Glatz,  in 
Silesia,  a  teal  under  which  he  had  preached  was 
exhibited  long  after  his  deaUi,  and  revived  the 
feelings  of  affection  and  reverence  in  which 
*  '     name  is  held  by  the  people.     His   sermons 


BERTHOLET,  Alfred,  Swiss  thcolorian: 
b.  Basel  1868.  He  was  educated  at  Basel, 
Strassburg  and  Berlin.  In  1904  he  was  chosen 
secretary  of  the  Second  International  History 
of  Religious  Congress  at  Basel.  He  has  pub- 
Itdied  'Die  StcIIung  der  Israeliten  tmd  der 
Juden  zu  den  Fremden*  (1896) :  'Kommentare 
EU  Leviticus,  Deuteronomiura,  Hesekiel.  Ruth, 
Esra,  und  Nehcmia'  (1897-1902);  'Die  Gefilde 
der  Seligen'  (1903)  ;  'Seclen  wan  de  rung' 
(1904);  "Daniel  und  die  Grieche  Gefahr' 
(1907)  ;  'Aeathetische  und  Christenliche  Leben- 
sauHassung'    (1910);    'Die  judaiscbe  Religion 


Zeitalter  Chnsti' 


>   bis  ) 


re,Sa     ,. 

1822.  He  studied  medicine  at  Turin ;  went  ti 
Paris,  where  he  became  connected  with  La- 
voisier, was  admitted  in  1780  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  that  city;  was  made  in 
1794  professor  in  the  normal  school  there,  and 
was  sent  to  Italy  in  1796,  in  order  to  select  the 
plunder  that  was  to  be  carried  to  Paris.  He 
followed  Bonaparte  to  Egypt,  and  returned 
with  him  in  1799.  After  the  18th  Brumaire  he 
was  made  a  member  of  the  settat-conservalnir; 
afterward  count  and  grand-officer  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor.'  In  1804  Napoleon  appointed  him 
Senator  for  the  district  of  Uontpellier.  In 
1613  he  received  the  grand  cross  of  the  Order 
of  the  Reunion.  He  voted,  however,  for  the 
establishment  of  a  provisional  government  and 
the  dedironement  of  Napoleon,     Louis  XVIII 


took  his  seat  again  in  the  chamber  of  peers. 
Among  the  inventions  and  new  processes  with 
which  the  sciences  and  the  arts  were  enridied 
by  him,  the  most  important  are  those  for  Ac 
charring  of  vessels  to  preserve  water  in  ships, 
for  the  stiffening  and  glazing  of  linen,  for  die 
artificial  production  of  nitre,  etc.,  but  princi- 
pally that  for  the  bleaching  of  vegetable  sub- 
stances by  means  of  chlorine,  which,  since 
1766,  has  been  in  general  use  in  France.  Be- 
sides different  essays  in  the  collections  of  the 
Academy  and  the  Institute,  he  wrote  several 
larger  works,  among  which  his  'Essai  de  Stati- 

Sie  Oumique'  (1803;  translated  into  Enghsh. 
erman  and  Italian)  must  be  considered  as  the 
most  important.  The  complicated  phenomcoa 
of  chemistry  were  here  treated  as  under  the 
strict  and  simple  laws  of  mechanics.  He  had 
also  a  large  share  in  the  reformatiou  of  the 
chemical  nomenclature,  as  well  as  in  the  publica- 
tion of  the  work  that  appeared  on  tlus  subject 
in  Paris,  1787— 'M^tbode  de  Nomenclature 
Oiimique.*  Consult  Cuvier,  'Eloge  de  Claude 
Louis  Berthollet'    (Paris  1826). 


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BBRTH»UD  — BRRTILLON    SY8TIU 


BBKTHOUD,  bir-too,  Fnrdliiaad,  Swiss 
mechaniciaii,  celebrated  far  his  marine  chrononi' 
eters:  b.  Flancemont,  Neuchatel,  19  March 
1727;  d  20  Jnne  1807.  His  father  caused  him 
to  be  instmcted  in  the  art  of  watchmaking,  and, 
to  afford  him  an  opportunity  of  perfecting  his 
knowledge,  sent  him  to  Paris.  He  resided  in 
this  dty  from  1745,  and  there  made  his  first 
marine  chronometers,  which  have  been  used  by 
P'rencb  nav^tors  on  so  many  occasions  for  ex- 
tendiiw  and  correcting  geographical  knowledge. 
He  left  several  woilcs  relating  to  bis  art.  His 
nephew,  Louis  Berthoud,  his  pupil  and  the  heir 
of  his  talents,  extended  his  improvements  still 
further.  His  cbronomelers  came  to  be  very 
widely  used  by  French  navigators,  and  were 
t  than  those  of  his  uncle. 


BBRTIB,  WilloaiEhby,  fourth  Earl  of 
Abingdon,  English  politician:  b.  16  Jan.  1740; 
d.  26  Sept  1799.  He  was  a  vigorous  opponent 
in  the  House  of  Lords  of  llie  policy  of  England 
toward  the  American  colonies  that  culminated 
in   the   Revolution;   wrote   a   famous   and  very 

Eipular  tract  called  'Thoughls  on  lii.  Burke's 
etter  on  the  Affairs  of  America,*  was  active  in 
promoting  favorable  l^^httion  (or  Ireland,  and 
sympathised  with  the  French  Revolution. 

BERTIER,  bai^tyfi,  PrandHne  Bdoiurd, 
French  painter;  b.  Paris,  1641.  He  was  a  pupil 
of  Cabanel,  and  among  his  many  portraits  of 
notaMes  are  those  of  De  Lesseps,  Grand 
Duchess  Olga,  Countess  of  Warwick,  Prince  of 
Wales  and  Max  O'Rcll.  He  has  several  times 
visited  the  United  States  in  order  to  paint  the 
portraits  of  prominent  Americans. 

BBRTILLON,  bar-le-y6fi,  Alphocse, 
French  anthropologist:  b.  Paris  1853;  i.  there, 
13  Feb.  1914.  He  is  widel>;  noted  as  the  founder 
of  a  system  of  identification  of  criminals.  In 
1880,  while  chief  of  the  burean  of  identification 
in  the  prefecture  of  police,  he  established  his 
system  of  measurements  which  has  given  re- 
sults marvelous  for  their  precision.    The  system 


States.  The  French  method  of  ■reconstructing 
a  crime  by  phot<^;raphy  and  'rehearsing*  it  m 
the  way  it  was  probably  perpetrated,  is  also  his 
invention,  though  the  idea  was  no  doubt  bor- 
rowed from  Gaboriau.  He  was  one  of  the 
expert  witnesses  in  handwriting  in  the  trial  of 
Captain  Dreyfus  in  1899^  and  soon  after  its  close 
was  removed  from  office.  He  is  author  of 
numerous  works  bearing  npon  his  system, 
includii^  '  Identification  anthropom^trigue' 
(1893}  ;  'La  comparison  des  feritures  et  I'iden- 
tification  granhique'  (1897) ;  'Anthropolog^e 
metrique  el  photographique'  (1909).  See  Ber- 
TIIXON  System. 

BBRTILLON  SYSTBH.  a  scientific 
method  of  identifying  suspected  male  criminals, 
invented  March  1879,  and  set  forth  in  1885  by 
Dr.  Ali^onse  Bertillon  of  Paris.  As  now  in 
use  it  is  not  a  »ngle  system,  but  a  combination 
of  the  one  invented  by  himself  with  two  others 
approved  by  use.  It  rests  on  three  prindples: 
(1)  Simple  Snd  exact  measurement  of  certain 
parts  of  the  body  in  a  living_  subject ;  (2)  eit- 
rreme  diversity  of  the  relative  dimensions  in 
different  subjects,  no  two  correlations  ever 
closely  approximating  each  other;  (3)  almost 
absolute  Imty  of  the  male  skeleton  after  20. 


The  measurements  arc  taken  with  calipers  and 
include:  Height,  standing  and  sitting,  reach  of 
outstretched  arms;  len^  and  width  of  head; 
length  and  width  of  right  ear ;  and  length  of 
left  foot,  forearm,  middle  and  little  fingers. 
The  descriptive  elements  are  color  of  eyes  (the 
most  important  detail  of  all,  as  it  never  changes 
and  is  impossible  to  disguise),  hair,  beard  and 
complexion;  deformities  and  peculiarities  of 
shape  j  marks  on  body,  as  moles,  scars,  the 
tattooings  frequent  among  criminals,  etc.,  care- 
fulk-  localed  —  as  *mole  six  centimetres  to  left 
of  nfth  vertebra,'  or  'horizontal  scar  on  back 
of  second  phalanx  of  right  forefinger,  three 
millimetres  below  middle.^  A  photograph  of 
full  face  and  one  of  profile  are  taken  when 
thought  desirable,  from  a  fixed  chair  and  a 
fixer  camera.  Toe  entire  process,  by  a  meas- 
urer and  a  secretary  who  writes  from  dicta- 
tion, takes  five  to  seven  minutes,  and  the 
measurements  are  planned  (o  be  accurate 
within  one  thirW-second  of  an  inch.  De- 
scriptions and  photograph  are  put  together 
on  cards  of  uniform  size.  The  cards  are 
divided  into  three  equal  sections  accordir^ 
to  length  of  head:  short  heads,  of  1S7 
millimetres  and  less ;  medium  187  to  194 ; 
long,  194  and  above.  Experience  proves  that 
these  divide  very  closely  into  nearly  equal  num- 
bers; and  their  cards  are  placed  in  three  tiers 
of  drawers,  the  short  heads  uppermost  Each 
of  these  is  subdivided  into  three  sections  ac- 
cording  to  width  of  head,  without  further  ref- 
erence to  length ;  each  of  these  into  three  sec- 
tions, according  to  lei^th  of  middle  finger;  each 
of  these  into  three  sections,  by  length  of  foot: 
these  are  subdivided  successively  by  length  of 
forearm,  full  hught,  length  of  little  finger,  and 
color  of  ejres.  Tnese  last  groups  contain  from 
12  to  14  individual  cards,  and  are  classed  by 
length  of  ear.  Thus  any  new  measurement 
can  be  compared  with  its  duplicate  in  this 
enormous  mass,  or  the  absence  of  such  record 
shown,  with  marvelous  celerity  and  almost  in- 
fallible accuracy.  Its  index  value  alone  is  of 
the  first  order.  Under  the  old  systems,  the 
entire  mass  of  descriptions  and  photographs 
had  to  be  searched  and  compared  with  any 
given  arrested  person,  and  with  the  immense 
number  accumulating  in  great  cities  it,  became 
physically  impossible  to  proceed  with  any  cer- 
tainty. The  system  was  (or  some  years  also 
of  great  value  in  distinguishing  new  crim- 
inals from  old  offenders :  it  not  merely 
registered  identity,  but  the  fact  of  a  first  of- 

In  European  cities,  tbe  Bertitlon  system  has 
been  almost  entirely  superseded  by  the  finger- 

?rint  system.  The  great  weakness  o(  the 
nrmer  was  that  the  clement  o(  personality 
affected  the  measuremerts  upon  which  the 
identifications  depended,  hardly  any  two  meas- 
urers getting  exactly  the  same  dimensions  from 
the  same  subject.  The  delicate  instruments 
used  were  often  injured  so  that  they  gave  in- 
correct readings.  Moreover,  the  system  abso- 
lutely failed  as  to  women  and  children,  v^ose 
physical  dimensions  are  subject  to  constant 
change.  On  the  other  hand,  the  finger-print 
records  are  made_  without  any  intervening 
agency,  are  as  readily  classified  and  indexed  as 
the  Bertitlon  cards,  and  retain  their  distinctive 
characteristics  from  childhood  to  old  :^e,  re- 


Google 


BEfiTIN  —  BERULLS 


^dless    of     sex.       (See     Finger- PutiTiHc). 
Consult   Bertilloni   A,,    'Identification   Anthro- 

gjtnetrique*  (Paris  1893);  Boies,  'Science  of 
enology>  (1901);  McClaoghry,  R.  W-,  'The 
Bertillon  System  of  fdentification'  (Chicago 
1896). 

BERTIN,  bar-taA,  Antoine,  French  poet: 
b.  Isle  of  Bourbon,  1752;  d  San  Domii^io, 
1790.  He  was  much  admired  by  his  contem- 
poraries, who,  somewhat  extravagantly,  styled 
him  the  French  Propertius.  He  nas  a  fnend 
of  Famy,  and  like  him  excelled  in  elegiac  and 
epistolary  verse.  His  principal  works  are 
'Voyage  in  Burgundy'  (1777) ;  and  'The 
Loves*  (1780). 

BERTIN,  Louis  Pran{olB  (jcalled  Bertin 
L'ASufe),  French  journalist:  b.  Paris  14  Dec. 
1766;  d.  13  Sept.  1841.  The  Revolution  made 
him  a  journalirt,  and  in  1799  he  started  the  fa- 
mous Jourtiai  des  Dibals.  His  fo^list  princi- 
ples o^ended  Napoleon,  and  cost  him  imprison- 
ment and  banishment  to  Elba ;  thence,  however, 
he  escaped  to  Rome,  where  he  formed  a  friend- 
ship with  Chiteaubriand.    In  1805  he  returned 


placing  it  under  police  supervision  and  causing 
It  to  be  styled  'Journal  de  i'Empire.'  The  sec- 
ond restoration  of  the  Bourbons  restored  once 
mare  to  Bertin  the  free  control  of  his  journal, 
and  hencefijrward  he  gave  almost  constant 
support  to  the  ministerial  party.  He  supported 
the  July  monarchy,  and  edited  the  Dibals  till 
his  death. 

BERTIN,  Louise  Angelique,  French  musi- 
cian and  composer,  b.  Les  Roches,  near 
Bievres,  15  Feb.  1805;  d.  Paris,  26  April  1877. 


(1831),  'Esmeralda'  (1836),  and  other  operas. 
She  published  volumes  of  verse,  'Lcs  Glanes' 
(1842)  and  ' Nou veil es  Glanes'   (1876). 

BERTIN,  Nicolas,  French  artist :  b.  Paris, 
1668;  d.  1736.  His  picture,  'The  Building  of 
the  Ark,'  obtained  Hie  srand  prize,  in  1685,  and 
'Prom<ethcus  Liberateif  by  Hercules'  brought 
him,  in  1703,  membership  in  the  Academy, 
where  he  became  professor  in  1715.  His  paint- 
ings will  he  found  in  the  galleries  of  Dresden, 
Stockholm,  Saint  Petersburg,  Antwerp,  Am- 
sterdam, (Orleans  and  Toulouse. 


Milan  Academj;  awarded  him  the  priac  for 
the  best  historical  picture  in  1845,  and  his 
painting  on  glass  of  'Dante  and  the  Divine 
Comedy,'  ei£ibited  in  London  in  1853,  has 
been  greatly  admired.  He  became  professor  of 
painting  at  the  Academy  in  1860.  Among 
notable  pictures  by  him  are :  'The  Vision  of 
Saint  Francis  of  Assisi';  *Death  of  Saint 
Joseph' ;    'Tasso  Introduced  to  the  Duke  of 

BERTRAND,  Henri  Gmtien,  hart  ran,  An- 


He  accompanied  Napoleon's  expedition  to 
^ypt,  distinguished  himself  at  Austerliiz  and 
became  his  adjutant;  and.  after  the  battle  of 
Aspem,  in  1809  for  his  share  in  saving  the 
French  army  In-  bridges,  was  created  ■ 
governor  of  Illyria.      '  " 


[llyria.    After  serving  with  credit 


in  the  tubsequent  campaifpis,  and  saving  the 
French  army  after  the  battle  of  Leipzig,  be 
retired  with  the  j&npcror  to  Elba,  was  his  con- 
fidant in  cariying  out  his  return  to  France,  and 
iiaally  shared  his  banishment  to  Saint  Helena. 
On  Napoleon's  death,  Bertrand  returned  to 
France,  where,  though  sentence  of  death  had 
been  pronounced  upon  Eum,  a  sentence  which 
Louis  XVni  had  wisel^r  recalled,  he  was  re- 
stored to  all  his  dignities,  and,  in  183D,  ap- 
pointed commandant  of  the  Polytechnic  SdwcJ. 
In  1840,  he  formed  part  of  the  expedition  wUch 
brooght    back    the    remains    of    Napoleon    to 

BERTRAND,  JamCs,  French  historical 
paimer:  b.  Lyons,  1825;  d.  1887.  He  studied 
in  Rome,  and  his  'Saint  Benedict  taking-  Com- 
munion,' exhibited  at  the  Sakin  in  1899,  was 
hi^ly  approved.  He  worked  in  the  classical 
style,  ana  his  paintines  are  as  notable  for 
their  careful  finish  as  for  their  relicdoiis  tone. 
They  have  been  frequently  engraved.  Among 
them  are  'Death  oi  Virginia'  (1869);  'Char- 
lotte Cordays  Last  Day'  (1883);  'Calvary' 
(1884). 

BERTRAND,  Jos^  Lonii  Pnogoia, 
bar-tran,  jO-scf  loo-?  froA-swa,  Frendi  mathe- 
raaUciaji:  h.  Paris,  1822;  d.  1900.  He  Uu^ 
at  the  Polytechnic  and  Normal  schools,  and 
the  College  dc  France  and  in  1884  became  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy.  He  wrote 
treatises  on  arithmetic,  algebra,  calculus,  ther- 
modynamics, and  probabilities,  and  in  1881  was 
appointed  commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 

BERTUCHj  Friedrich  JurtltL,  German 
translator,  publisher  and  author:  b.  Weimar, 
30  Sept.  1747:  d.  there.  3  April  1822  He 
studied  at  Jena,  first  theology,  then  law,  gradu- 
ating in  1769,  then  became  private  tutor  in 
Altenburg,  during  which  penod  he  made  a 
thorouf^  study  of  Spanish  literature.  In  1775 
he  became  cabinet-secretary  at  Weimar  and 
Councillor  of  Legation  in  1785.  He,  Wieland 
and  Schiiltz  founded  the  Jeaauche  allgememe 
Litteralurteitung,  to  which  he  was  a  very  fre- 
auent  contributor.  He  was  also  an  editor  of 
the  Journal  <Us  Liuruj  und  dtr  Moden,  One 
of  his  most  popular  works  was  a  compilation 
for  children,  'Bilderbuch  fiir  Kinder'  (12 
vols.,  1790-1822).  But  it  was  as  a  publisher 
of  maps  and  geographical  works  that  he  at- 
tained a  world-wiae  reputation.  Consult  Feld- 
roann,  'F.  J.  Bertuch'   (Saarbriicker  1902). 

BBRULLE,  b&-ral,  Pierre  de,  French 
cardinal :  h  near  Troycs,  4  Feb,  1575 ;  d.  Paris, 
2  Oct.  1629.  He  early  showed  remarkable  men- 
tal acuteness  and  knowledge,  and  became  dis- 
tinguished for  skill  in  controversy.  He 
instituted,  and  was  the  first  superior  of,  the 
order  of  Carmelites  in  France,  and  also  founded 
the  congregation  of  the  Oratory  notwithstand- 
ing the  opposition  of  the  Jesuits.  He  was 
statesman  as  well  as  priest,  as  Ambassadoi  to 
Spain  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Moncon  (1636), 
and  was  for  a  time  secretary  of  state.  He  was 
often  opposed  to  Richelieu,  whose  jealously  he 
excited,  and  who  could  not  conceal  his  satis- 
faction at  the  news  of  his  death.  He  accom- 
panied the  Princess  Henrietta  to  England,  on 
her  marriage  with  the  Prince  of  Wales.  He 
shunned  elevated  positions,  and  was  veryun- 
willipgly  obliged  to  accept  the  bat  of  a  caronaL 


Google 


BBRVIC  — BBRYL. 


This  elevation  nude  bo  dtStretice,  honever,  in 
his  bumble  way  o£  life,  and  did  not  prevent 
him  from  taking  part,  as  he  had  always  done, 
in  the  servile  work  of  the  religioiis  eomnnuiity 
to  which  he  belonged.  He  was  also  a  man- 
of  letters,  and  was  the  first  to  appreciate  and 
encourage  the  genius  of  Descartes,  urging  hira, 
by  his  sense  of  obligation  to  his  Creator,  to 
make  known  to  the  world  his  discoveries.  The 
most  noted  of  his  writings  is  <Les  grandeurs 
de  Jesus.  > 

BBRVIC,  bar-yek,  Charles  CICment. 
French  engraver;  b.  Paris,  1756;  d.  1822.  The 
works  of  Bervic  are  among  the  best  of  the 
French  school,  but  are  not  numerous.  The  most 
celebrated  of  them  is  the  full  length  figare  of 
Louis  XVI,  after  a  picture  of  Callet.  The 
copies  are  very  rare  and  dear,  because  the  plate 
was  broken  to  Mecca  in  the  revolutionary 
tttmults  oi  1793.  The  exactness  of  bis  drawing, 
the   firmness   and   brilliancy  of   his   toiich    the 

Cri^  and  correctness  of  his  design,  and  the 
ppiness  with  which  he  transferred  to  his  plate 
the  beauties  of  the  original,  gave  a  hig^  char- 
acter to  his  productions. 

BERWICK,  Tames  Fitz-James,  Duke  of 
French  marshal ;  b.  Moulins,  1670;  d.  1734.  He 
was  the  natural  son  of  the  Duke  of  York,  after- 
ward King  Jatncs  II,  and  Arabella  Churchill, 
sister  of  tne  Duke  of  Marlborough;  and  first 
went  by  the  name  of  Fitz-James.  He  received 
iris  education  in  France,  and  served  his  first 
campaigns  in  Hungary  under  Charles,  Duke  of 
Lorraine,  general  of  Leopold  I.  He  returned  to 
England  at  the  age  of  17,  and  received  from  his 
father  the  title  of  duke.  On  the  landing  of  the 
Prince  ot  Orange  in  1688  be  went  to  France 
with  his  father,  whom  be  afterward  accom- 
panied on  the  Irish  expedition.  He  took  part 
in  the  siege  of  Dcrry  and  was  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  the  Boyne,  1  Jul:f  1690.  He  afterward 
served  in  the  low  countries.  In  1705  he  sop- 
pressed  the  rising  of  the  Camisards  of  Lan- 
guedoc,  and  was  naturalized  in  France,  In 
1706  he  took  Nice,  was  made  marshal  of  France, 
and  sent  to  Spain,  where  he  gained  the  battle 
of  Almama,  which  rendered  King  Philip  V  again 
master  of  Valencia,  In  1709  he  went  to  take 
the  command  in  Dauphinf,  and  the  measures 
which  he  took  to  cover  this  and  the  neighboring 
provinces  against  the  superior  forces  of  the 
Duke  of  Savoy  gained  him  a  great  reputation. 
In  1718  and  1719  he  was  obliged  to  serve 
against  Philip  V,  who  from  gratitude  to  the 
marshal  had  taken  a  son  of  his  into  his  service. 
On  his  entrance  into  the  Spanish  dominions  he 
wrote  to  his  son,  the  Duke  of  Liria^  admonish- 
ing him  to  do  his  duty  to  his  soverei^.  At  the 
siege  of  Philipsburg,  on  the  Rhine,  his  life  was 
terminated  by  a  cannon-ball.  He  had  served 
in  29  campaigns.  His  memoirs  were  published 
in  French  in  1778  and  have  gone  through 
English  editions.  Consult  Wilson,  *Duke  of 
Berwick,  Marshal  of  France'    (1883). 

BBRWICK-ON-TWEED,  England,  sea- 
port town,  once  forming  a  county  of  itself,  but 
now  incorporated  in  Northumberland,  on  the 
north  or  Scottish  side  of  Che  Tweed,  within  half 
a  mile  of  its  mouth.  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
complete  series  of  ramparts,  which  are  well  pre- 
served, and  along  which  is  an  agreeable  prome- 
nade. The  ramparts  are  in  the  main  of  EUm- 
bethan  cMistniction,   with   parts  dating    from 


Edward  I.  The  streets  are  for  the  most  part 
narrow,  steep,  straggling  and  irregular,  though 
some  of  tfae  principal  ones  are  wide  and  open. 
The  Tweed  is  crossed  at  the  town  by  an  old 
bridge  of  IS  arches,  1,164  feet  long  and  only 
17  wide,  and  by  a  magnificent  railway  viaduct 
of  stone,  667  yards  long  and  184  feet  in  ex- 
treme height  with  28  semicircular  arches  built 
W  Robert  Stephenson  in  1850,  The  chief  in- 
dustries are  iron- founding,  the  manufacture 
of  engines  and  boilers,  agricultural  implements. 
feeding-cake,  manures  of  various  kinds,  ropes, 
twine,  etc.  The  chief  exports  are  grain,  arti- 
ficial manures,  and  herrings.  A  dock  affording 
accommodation  for  large  vessels  was  opened 
in  1876.  but  its  sliipping  remains  unimportant. 
In  the  Leginiiing  of  the  12th  craitury,  during  the 
reign  of  Alexander  1,  Berwick  was  part  of  hia 


became  populous  and  wealthy,  was  the  chief 
seaport  of  Scotlatid,  contained  a  strong  castle, 
churches,  hospitals  and  monastic  buildings, 
and  was  created  one  of  the  four  royal  burgns 
of  Scotland.  In  1216  the  town  and  castle  were 
stormed  and  taken  by  King  John.  During  the 
competition  between  Batliol  and  the  elder  Bruce 
for  the  Scottish  throne  the  English  Parliament 
sat  in  Berwick;  and  in  the  hall  of  the  castle 
Edward  1  pronounced  judgment  in  favor  of 
Balliol.  King  Robert  Bruce  retook  the  town 
and  castle  in  1318 ;  but,  after  undergoing 
various  sieges  and  vicissitudes,  both  were  sur- 
rendered to  Edward  IV  in  14^,  and  have  ever 
since  remained  part  of  the  soil  of  England. 
From  1482  to  1885  the  borough  sent  two  mem- 
bers to  the  English  Parliament,  when  it  was 
merged  in  the  Berwick  division  of  Northumber- 
land. The  borough  includes  the  watering  places 
of  Tweedmouth  and  Spittal,  situated  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Tweed,    Pop.  (1911)  13,075. 

BERWICKSHIRE,  Scotland,  maritime 
and  border  county,  nominally  divided  into  the 
three  districts  of  Lauderdale.  Lammermoor, 
and  the  Merse  or  March.  The  principal  rivers 
of  the  cotmty  are  the  Tweed,  the  Leader,  the 
Eye,  the  Whiteadder  and  the  Blackadder;  and 
all  except  the  last  contain  salmon,  of  which 
great  quantities  are  shipped  for  London.  Vast 
quantities  of  agricultural  produce  are  shipped 
from  the  ports  of  Berwick  and  Eyemouth,  and 
much  is  also  sent  to  Edinburgh,  Dalkeith,  Had- 
dington and  Dunbar,  Very  few  manufactures 
are  established  in  this  county,  the  principal  one 
which  it  supplies  beyond  domestic  consumption 
being  that  of  paper.  The  North  Sea  fisheries 
are  of  great  importance.  Berwick  formerly 
abounded  in  strong  castles  and  fortified  places 

'  ily  on  the  high  and  r^    '  n-.         , 

_.    Fast  Castle,  the  <Wc 

'Bride    of    Lammerraoor,*    _..    _    .__ 

cipitous  headland  four  miles  northwest  of  Cold- 
ingham.  In  the  Tweed  Valley  the  land  is 
highly  cultivated ;  otherwise  the  county  is  mainly 
pastoral.  The  county  town  is  Greenlaw.  Other 
small  towns  are  Duns  and  Eyemouth.  The 
county  has  ao  area  of  292,535  acres;  its  popu- 
lation (1911)  was  29,643;  and  it  returns  one 
member  to  Parliament, 

BERYL,  a  nativa  silicate  of  aluminum  and 
the  rare  metallic  element  glncinum  (or  'beryl- 
lium"), having  the  formula  3G10.Ati0..6Siav 


BSRYLLIUH  —  BS8ANC0N 


commonly  has  a  specific  gravity  of  270,  and  a 
hardness  of  from  7.5  to  8.    A  portion  of  the 

S'ucjnum  is  sometimes  replaced  by  lithium,  so- 
um  or  csesimn,  and  chemically  combined  water 
is  also  occasionally  present.  In  the  latter  case 
the  formula  of  the  mineral  appears  to  be 
H/jUAUSIuOii.  Beryl  is  usually  transparent 
or  trauslucenl,  and  in  color  may  be  green,  blue, 
yellow,  white,  or  li^ht  red.  A  variety  which  is 
transparent,  and  bngbt  ^een  from  the  presence 
of  oxide  of  chromium,  is  known  as  'emerald,* 
and  is  highly  esteemed  as  a.  gem  (see  GsifS)  ; 
the  'Oriental  emerald*  (see  Sapphire),  how- 
ever, is  not  a  variety  of  beryl,  but  a  greeo 
variety  of  sapphire.  A  bluish-green  variety  of 
the  common  beryl,  known  as  'aquamarine,*  is 
also  used  as  a  geih.  Beryl  occurs  in  all  parts  of 
the  world,  being  commonly  associated  with 
granite.  Its  crystals  are  sometimes  enormous 
in  size,  and  two  s^edments  from  Grafton,  N. 


BERYLLIUM,  a  rare  metallic  element, 
called  "beryllium*  from  the  fact  that  it  was  first 
found  in  the  beryl.  Its  salts  have  a  sweetish 
taste,  and  from  this  circumstance  the  element 
itself  has  received  the  name  glucinum   (q.v.). 

BEKYTUS^  School  of,  a  funous  Greek 
I-aw  school  which  existed  in  the  3d  century  A.R 
and  probably  for  some  time  previous.  When 
Justinian  closed  the  schools  of  philosophy  and 
law  at  Athens,  in  529,  he  confined  the  study  of 
juris^udence  in  the  East  to  Constantinople 
and  Berytus.  He  reorganized  the  course  of 
study,  making  his  new  codification  the  Tiasis 
of  the  curriculum,  to  be  pursued  in  its  logical 
sequence  for  five  years.  Berytus  was  destroyed 
by  earthquake  in  554. 

BERYX,  berlks,  the  desipation  of  a  goiiu 
of  deep-sea  fishes  in  tropical  waters  belonging 
to  the  division  Ptrciformet  of  the  Acanthof- 
lerygii  and  the  family  Btrycida.  B.  ipletidens, 
deep  red  with  bright  streaks,  is  one  of  th«  most 
beautiful  of  the  Cuban  fishes. 

BBRZBLIUS,  bcr-tsi'll-iis,  JSns  Jakob 
Baron,  Swedish  chemist  of  distinction :  b. 
Westerlosa,  East  Gothland,  Sweden,  29  Aug. 
1779;  d.  Stockholm,  7  Aug.  1848.  The  first 
fruit  of  his  studies  and  of  a  year's  residence  as 
assistant  to  a  physician  at  the  famous  watering- 
place  of  Medewi,  was  the  'Nova  Analysis 
Aquarum  Medeviensium'  (1800).  After  tak- 
ing his  doctor's  degree,  he  was  appointed  by  the 
board  of  health  in  1802  adjunct  of  medicine  and 
pharmacy  in  Stockholm.  In  180?  he  became 
professor  of  medicine  and  pharmacy  in  Stock' 
holm.  In  1808  he  was  admitted  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Stockholm,  in  1810 
one  of  its  directors,  and  in  1818  its  perpetual 
secretary.  In  1818  the  King,  while  allowing 
him  to  retain  his  own  name,  made  him  a  noble; 
and  in  18J5,  on  the  occasion  of  his  marriage 
with  a  daughter  of  Poppius,  a  Councillor  of 
state,  he  was  named  a  baron. 

The  existing  state  of  chemistry  is  founded 
in  a  great  measure  on  the  discoveries  and 
views  of  Berzelius,  thou^  by  the  rapid  devel- 
opment of  the  science,   the   edifice  whidi  be 


erected  has  undergone  many  alterations,  notable 
defects  have  been  discovered  in  it  Hence  bis 
views  in  regard  to  atomic  weights,  his  electro- 
chemical theory,  and  iiis  mode  of  procedure  in 
organic  chemistry,  have  met  with  many  oppo- 
nents. He  discovered  selenium  and  dionum, 
first  exhibited  calcium,  barium,  strontium,  tan- 
talum, silicium  and  zirconium  in  the  elemental 
state,  and  investigated  whole  classes  of  com- 
pounds, as  those  of  fluoric  acid,  the  metals  in 
the  ores  of  platinum,  tantalum,  molybdenum, 
vanadium,  sulphur  salts,  etc.  He  introduced  a 
new,  or  at  least  a  wholly  altered  nomen- 
clature and  classification  of  chemical  com- 
pounds. In  short,  there  is  no  branch  of  chem- 
istry to  which  he  did  not  render  essential  ser- 
vice; and  his  labors  were  so  numerous  that, 
when  the  accuracy  with  which  they  ha.ve  been 
executed  is  kept  in  view,  it  becomes  almost  in- 
comprehensible how  one  man  should  have  been 
able  to  perform  them.  It  ought  to  be  espcoallT 
mentioned  that  he  never  rested  satisfied  witli 
the  bare  investigation  of  isolated  facts,  but 
alw^'s  extended  his  investigations  over  a  vride 
field,  so  as  to  contribute  to  the  advancement  of 
chemistry  as  a  whole.  In  addition  to  his  numer- 
ous communications  to  the  journals  and  period- 
icals of  the  period,  may  be  mentioned,  among 
his  separate  works,  his  *View  of  the  Compo- 
sition of  Animal  Fluids,'  'New  System  of  Min- 
eralogy,' 'Essay  on  the  Theory  of  Chemical 
Proportions,'  and  above  all  his  'Text-book  of 
Chemistry,'  which  has  been  translated  into 
most  European  languages.  As  secretary  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  he  published  an  an- 
nual account  of  the  progress  of  chemistry  and 
mineralogy,  which,  having  been  continued  dur- 
ing 27  years,  extends  to  as  many  volumes-  Con- 
siut  Soderbaum,  <  Berielius,  Werden  und 
Wachsen'    (Leipzig  1899). 

BBRZSfiNYI,  b«r'zhi-n 
garian  poet:  b.  Heyte,  1776;  . 
thoritea  version  of  his  'Versei'  appeared  in 
1813  and  in  1816  was  reprinted  with  his  consent 
and  speedilv  became  classic  in  Hungarian  lit- 
erature. The  poems  received  a  hearty  acclaim 
from  the  younger  patriots.  The  best  edition  is 
that  by  Toldy  (2  vols..  Pcsth  1864). 

BES,  an  Eg^tian  god,  represented  clad  in 
a  lion's  skin,  with  the  head  and  skull  of  the 
animal  concealing  his  features,  and  with  a 
dwarfish  and  altogether  grotesque  appearance. 
He  was  supposed  to  preside  over  art,  music, 
the  dance  and  childbirth.  He  was  former^ 
identified  with  Typbon.  He  was  of  foreifm 
orii^n  and  appears  chiefly  after  1500  B-C 

BBSANCON,  bS-zaft-soft,  France,  fortified 
town,  capital  of  the  deparimenl  of  EJoubs,  206 
miles  southeast  of  Paris.  The  town  is  sur- 
rounded by  hills,  covered  with  vineyards.  The 
isthmus  or  peninsula  on  which  it  is  built  is 
composed  of  a  mass  of  rocks  crowned  by  the 
citadel,  which  commands  the  country  toward 
the  north,  but  the  citadel  itself  is  commanded 
by  several  eminences,  on  which  forts  have  been 
erected  for  the  purpose  of  securing  die  ap- 
proaches, Besan^on  is  one  of  the  strongest 
towns  in  France,  and  also  one  of  the  best  Iniilt. 
The  streets  are  spacious  and  well  laid  out.  and 
the  squares  are  adorned  with  fountains.  Tbe 
citadel  is  one  of  Vauban's  finest  works  There 
arc  here  a  theatre,  a  large  and  valtiaMe  poblic 


.  BB8ANT  —  BH6N ARD 


library,  cotitaining  over  130,000  volumes,  a.  mu- 
seum, 3  botanic  gardcii,  school  of  artilleiy, 
lyceum,  etc.  The  trade  and  manufacture;  are 
extensive.  The  latter  comprise  linen,  cotton, 
woolen  and  silk  eoods,  ironmongery,  etc. :  but 
the  principal  industry  is  watch-  and  clock- 
making.  It  employs  about  12,000  work  people. 
Tliere  are  also  extensive  foundries,  brewenes, 
sawmills  and  tanneries.  Besangon  is  the  an- 
cient Vesontio  Besontium,  or  Bisontium,  which 
is  mentioned  by  Julius  Oesar,  who  drove  the 
Sequani  from  it  in  58  B.C.,  as  a  place  of  great 
natural  strength.  Several  of  the  streets  and 
places  stUl  bear  their  old  Roman  names,  and 
there  are  numerous  Roman  remains,  especially 
a  triumphal  arch  of  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aure- 
lius,  an  aqueduct,  an  amphitheatre  and  a  large 
theatre.    Pop.  (1911)  57,978l 

BBSANT,  b«s-int,  Annie,  English  theoso- 
phist  and  author:  b.  London,  1  Oct  1847.  She 
was  married  in  1867  to  the  Rev.  Frank  Besant, 
brother  of  Sir  Walter  Besant,  but  was  legally 
separated  from  him  in  1873.  She  early  mam- 
fested  an  earnest  interest  in  social  and  political 
topics,  and  in  1874  became  connected  with  the 
National  Secular  Society.  Owing  to  the  publi- 
cation of  'Fruits  of  Fbiloso^by,'  Mrs,  Besant 
was  prosecuted,  in  conjunction  with  Charles 
Bradlau^  (June  1877),  but  the  prosecution 
failed  Mrs.  Besant  has  since  stated  her  dis- 
agreement with  the  sentiments  expressed  in  this 
book.  In  1883  she  announced  her  adhesion  to 
Socialism.  For  three  years  she  was  a  member 
of  the  school  board  of  London.  She  was 
prominently  connected  with  various  socialistic 
movements  and  a  frequent  speaker  at  meetings 
for  worldngmcn.  In  1899  she  tmderwent  a 
complete  change  of  mind  when  she  joined  the 
Theosophical  Society,  and  in  1907  she  was 
elected  president  She  visited  the  United  Statts 
in  1891  and  1892-93  and  lectured  on  Madam 
Blavatsky  and  reincarnation  and  on  theosophy 
and  occultism.  Among  her  numerous  publica- 
tions are  'Reincarnation' i  'Seven  Principles  of 
Man';  'Autobiography';  'Death  and  After'; 
'Building  of  the  Kosraos' ;  'In  the  Outer 
Court' ;  'Karma' ;  'The  Self  and  Its  Sheaths' ; 
'Path  of  Discipleship'  ;  'Man  and  His  Bodies'  ; 
'Four  Great  Religions' ;  'The  Ancient  Wis- 
dom' ;  'Three  Paths  to  Union  with  God' ; 
'Evolution  of  Life  and  Form' ;  'Dharma' ; 
'Avataras' ;  'Ancient  Ideals  in  Modem  Life'; 
'Esoteric  Christianity';  'Thought- Power'  ; 
'The  Religious  Problem  in  India' ;  'Theosophy 
and  the  New  Psycholc«y';  'The  Wisdom  of 
the  Upanishats.'  In  July  1916  she  was  re- 
fused admission  into  India  by  the  British 
authorities. 

BESANT,  be-£&nt'.  Sis  Walter,  EngUsh 
novelist:  b.  Portsmouth,  England,  14  Aug.  1836; 
d.  London,  9  June  1901.  He  was  educated  in 
London  and  at  Christ's  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  graduated  with  mathematical  honors. 
He  was  for  a  time  professor  in  the  Royal  Col- 
lege, Mauritius.  His  first  work,  'Studies  in 
Early  French  Poetry,'  appeared  in  1868,  and 
to  the  field  of  French  literature  also  belong 
his  'French  Humorists'  (1873),  and  his  'Rabe* 
lais'  (1877  for  the  Foreign  Classics  series). 
He  was  for  years  secretarj^  to  the  Palestine  Ex' 
^ration  Fund  and  published  a  'History  of 
Jcrtisaiem'  (1871)  in-  conjunction  with  Fro- 
fcMOi  Palmer,  the  life  of  whom  he  also  wrote. 


The  'Survey  of  Western  Palestine'  was  edited 
by  him.  He  is  best  known  by  his  novels,  a  num- 
ber of  which  were  written  in  partnershin  with 
James  Rice,  including  'Ready- Money  Morti- 
boy'  (1872)  ;  'This  Son  of  Vulcan' ;  'The  Case 
of  Mr.  Lucraft';  'The  Golden  Butterfly' 
(1876):  'The  Monks  of  Thelema,'  etc  After 
Mr.  Rice's  death  (1882)  Sir  Walter  wrote: 
'All  Sorts  and  Conditions  of  Men'  (1882),. 
which  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  People's 
Palace  in  London;  'All  in  a  Garden  Fair' 
(1883)  ;  'Dorothy  Foster'  (1884),  which  in  his 
own  estimation  was  his  best  work;  'The  World 
Went  Very  Well  Then'  (1887);  'The  Ivory 
Gate'  (1892);  'The  Rebel  Queen'  (189^); 
'Beyond  the  Dreams  of  Avarice'  (1895) ;  'The 
Orange    Girl'     (1899);    'The    Alabaster    Box' 


of  lUcfaard  Jefferies'  (1888).  He  labored  for 
many  years  to  promote  the  interests  of  all 
members  of  the  literary  profession,  and  was 
editor  of  the  monthly  The  Author.     In  1894  he 


projected  a  great  survey  of  London,  which  was 
intended  to  bring  the  historv  of  the  dty  from 
the  earliest  times  down  to  tne  end  of  the  20th 


centnry,  and  wrote  four  volumes  of  preliminary 
studies  with  that  end  in  view,  but  he  did  not 
live  to  complete  the  undertaking.  He  was 
knighted  in  1895. 

BBSHOW,  the  Alaskan  polbck.  See 
Pollack, 

BESIDE  THE  BONNIE  BRIEK  BUSH, 
a  novel  by  Ian  Maclaren  (the  Rev.  Dr.  John 
Watson),    delineating    Scottish    character         ' 


plot,  but  interest  attaches  to  the  well-drawn 
characters.  It  is  one  of  the  best  examples  of 
what  has  been  styled  the  *  kail-yard'  school  of 
fiction,  whose  principal  exponents  are  Crockett, 
Barrie  and  Watson,    It  was  stKcessfuUy  dram- 

BBSIKA  BAY,  an  inlet  of  the  >Cgean  Sea 
on  the  northwest  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  oppodte 
Tenedos,  to  the  south  of  the  entrance  of  die 
Dardanelles.  The  English  Reet  was  stationed 
here  durii%  crises  in  the  Eastern  question  in 
1853-54  and  1877-78.  See  Wab,  Eubopeaw, 
Dardanelles  Campaign. 

BESKOW,  bislcSv,  Bemhard  von,  Swed- 
ish dramatist:  b.  Stockholm,  19  April  1796;  d. 
17  Oct  1868,  He  was  ennobled  in  1826  atid 
appointed  marshal  of  the  royal  household  in 
1833.  He  officiated  for  some  time  as  director 
of  the  rcnral  theatre,  and  is  the  author  of  sev- 
eral excellent  tragedies,  which  were  translated 
into  Danish  and  German  by  Oehlenscblager, 
and  of  which  'Torkel  Knutsson' 


s  considered 


Oscar  composed  the  music.  His  literary  repu- 
tation was  increased  by  his  books  of  travel,  by 
his  poetical  works,  and  by  his  contributions  to 
the  press.  The  great  prize  of  the  academy  was 
awarded  in  1824  to  his  poem  'Sveriges  anor.' 
Other  tragedies,  which  were  very  popular,  are 
'Erikden  Fjortonde,'  and  'BifBCr  och  Lans 
Alt.'  His  poem  'Karl  XII'  has  also  been  very 
widely  known. 

BESNARO,      <Panl>      Albert      biHur', 
French  fainter:   b.   Paris,  2  June  1849.  -JIls 

CiOOglC 


BBSSARABIA — BBSSBL 


parents  were  both  artists,  his  father  having 
studied  under  Ingres.  The  yoUQK  Besnaro, 
with  such  influences,  showed  an  early  aptitude 
for  art-study  and  went  into  Cabanel's  private 
studio  at  the  age  of  seventeen.  He  studied  un- 
der Br^ond  tu  well.  His  first  salon  picture 
was  received  in  1868.  In  1874  he  received  the 
Prix  de  Rome  brinc^ne  with  it  the  uijoum  in 
Italy  at  the  Villa  Medicis.  From  1879  to  1881 
be  practised  portrait  painting  in  London.  In 
1884  he  exhibited  at  me  salon  his  decorations 
for  the  Ecole  de  Pharmacie  in  Paris  which,  fol- 
lowed (in  1899)  by  his  'Femme  oui  se  ciaufTe' 
now  in  the  Luxembonrg,  raisea  considerable 
outcry  against  him  in  orthodox  circles.  It  was 
asserted  that  he,  designated  by  his  training  to 
carry  on  the  traditions  of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux- 
Arts,  was  surrendering  to  the  allurements  of 
impressionism.  In  reality  there  was  little  need 
for  the  academic  group  to  take  alarin,  for  de- 
spite his  extreme  virtuosity  and  bis  learning 
certain  i)rindples  from  the  advanced  painters, 
he  remains  a  school  man,  though  a  brilliant 
one.  The  idea  is  corroborated  as  his  work 
advances,  later  productions  being  'Life  Re- 
born  from  Death,'   at  the  Sorbonne;    'Truth 


Happy  Isle,'  at  the  Mus^  des  Arts  Dccoratifs 
anJ  the  Petit  Palais,  portraits  like  the  'Por- 
trait de  Femme,'  at  tae  Diisseldorf  Museum, 
and  genre,  like  his  pictures  of  India.  He  has 
received  many  honors  and  is  represented  in  the 
Brussels  Gallery  Iw  'Les  Cariatides*  and  the 
Luxembourg  by  the  'View  of  Algiers,'  the 
'Portrait  of  an  Engraver'  and  the  'Femme 
qui  se  chaut!e,'  before  mentioned.  Besnard  is 
a  great  traveler  and  brought  from  Spain  and 
Algiers  admirable  specimens  of  his  art;  but  his 
greatest  Undertaking  was  his  journey  to  India 
m  1911.  He  brought  back  incomparable  pic- 
tures of  the  exotic  color  and  the  interesting  life 
of  that  county.  They  are  masterpieces  of  in- 
tense color,  often  in  a  single  tone ;  such  as  his 
^Weeping  Woman,*  painted  entirely  in  red, 
Odier  excellent  examples  are  the  'Steps  at 
Benares';  'Indian  Dancing  Girl';  'The  Brace- 
let Merchant'  The  exhibition  of  his  Indian 
'works  in  Paris  in  1912  attracted  interna- 
tional attention.  A  large  and  representative 
exhibition  of  his  works  was  held  in  1913  in  the 
Boston  Musnim  of  Fine  Arts  and  afterward 
in  other  American  museums.  He  was  engaged 
in  1914  to  execute  mural  paintings  for  the 
Peace  Palace  at  The  Hague.  He  is  also  a  pas- 
tellist  and  engraver  of  note.  Besnard  has  suc- 
cessfully' united  the  achievements  of  the  im- 
pressionists in  light  and  color  with  whatever  it 
really  sublime  and  permanent  in  classic  tradi- 
tion; he  has  resumed  the  historic  mission  of 
French  paintinjs  to  express  in  form  and  color 
the  intellectual  and  ^ritual  achievements  of 
the  nation.  A  good  example  of  his  unconven- 
tionality  is  his  portrait  of  Madame  R^jane. 
Consult  Uarx  'The  Painter  Albert  Besnard' 
(Paris  1893),  and  Mourey,  'Albert  Besnard' 
(ih,  1906),  with  100  illustrations  and  Uierary 
contributions  by  the  artist 

BESSARABIA,  a  government  in  the  iouih- 
west  of  RusFiia,  on  the  borders  of  Rumania,  tt 
extends  in  a  northwesterly  direction  from  the 
Black  Sea,  between  the  Protfa  and  the  Zhdester; 
area,  16,181   square  miles.     PouessioN  of  the 


territory  was  stubbonity  contested  between  the 
Turks  and  Russians  at  different  times  from 
early  in  the  ei^tcenth  century;  in  1812  it  was 
definitely  annexed  to  Russia.  A  portion  at  the 
southeast  eittremity  was  given  to  the  princi- 
pality of  Moldavia  (now  incorporated  m  the 
Idagdom  of  Rumania)  in  1856,  but  the  greater 
part  of  this  (3,580  square  miles)  was  re- 
stored in  1878.  Agriculture  is  chiefly  developed 
in  the  north,  pasturage  is  most  largely  carried 
on  in  the  south,  in  the  middle  porti on  arc  exten- 
sive forests.  It  is  watered  by  the  Ehiiester, 
the  Pruth  and  the  Danube.  The  inhabitants 
indude  Russians,  Poles,  Rumanians,  Bul^- 
rians,  Gennans,  Armenians,  Jews,  etc  The 
capital  is  Kishenef.  The  products  are  salt, 
wool,  tallow,  leather,  soap,  etc.    Pop.  2,490,200. 

BBSSARION,  Johwmea,  or  BuUhu, 
Greek  monk:  b.  Treoieond,  1389;  d.  Ravenna, 
19  Nov.  1472.  He  was  titulaj-  patriarch  of 
Constantitxqile,  archbishop  of  Nicsea,  afterward 
cardinal  and  legate  to  France,  in  the  time  of 
Louis  XL  After  having  spent  21  years  in  a 
monastery  of  Greece,  devoted  to  theology  and 
literature,  be  left  it  to  follow  the  Emperor 
John  Paueologus  to  Italy,  with  the  intention  of 
being  present  at  the  Council  of  Ferrara,  in  the 
hope  of  uniting  the  Gre^  and  Latin  churches. 
They  were  accompanied  by  many  Greeki,  dis- 
tinguished bv  thetr  talents  and  dignity.  Bes- 
sanon  seconded  with  so  much  seal  the  projects 
of  Paheologus  that  be  became  odious  to  the 
Greek  Church,  while  Pope  Eugenius  IV  re- 
warded him  for  his  devotion  to  that  of  Rome, 
by  the  dignity  of  cardinal -priest  He  was  sent 
to  France  by  Sixtus  IV  to  reconcile  Louis  XI 
with  the  Didce  of  Burgundy  and  obtain  aid 
against  the  Turks.  He  did  not  succeed,  and  it 
i*  pretended  that  he  received  a  personal  insult 
from  the  king,  which  humiliation  some  suppose 
to  have  been  the  cause  of  his  death. 

BESSBL,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  German  as- 
tronomer: b.  Minden,  Prussia,  22  July  1784;  d. 
17  March  1846.  An  astronomical  tract  which 
he  had  drawn  up  brought  him  into  communica- 
tion with  Olbers,  who  encouraged  him  in  his 
labors  and  procured  for  him  the  appointment 
of  inspector  of  astronomical  instruments  to  the 
University  of  Gottingen.  In  1810  he  removed 
to  KSnigsberg,  and  in  1812-13  superintended  the 
construction  of  the  observatory  of  this  town. 
From  1824  to  1833  he  completed  a  series  of 
75,011  observations  on  the  celestial  zone  cott- 
tained  between  IS*  N.  and  15°  S.  declination. 
These  observations  included  all  the  stars  in  the 
zone  as  far  as  the  ninth  magnitude.  A  disserta- 
tion which  he  published  in  -1844  contains  im- 
portant investigations  on  the  variability  of  the 
movements  of  the  fixed  stars.  An  important 
share  in  the  discovery  of  the  new  planet  Nep- 
tune belongs  to  him,  as  in  a  paper  read  in  1840 
he  called  attention  to  the  existence  of  a  plane- 
tary mass  beyond  Uranus,  founding  on  consid- 
erations which  were  afterward  hapiHly  proved 
to  be  correct.  Few  contributed  as  much  to  the 
advancement  of  astronomy  in  the  first  half  of 
the  19th  century.  He  was  the  inventor  of 
'Bessel's  Functions.'  His  principal  works  are 
an  'Essay  on  the  Path  Traversed  by  the  Comet 
of  1807';  'Astronomical  Observations'  during 
various  years;  'Determination  of  the  l.cngtS 
of  the  Penduhmi  Which  Beats  Seconds  at  Ber- 
lin';  'InrestigatioBs  and  Measurements  m»de 


.gle 


SIR  HBIfRT  BBSSBICBR 


tizcdbyGooi^Ie 


DijilizcdbyGoOl^le 


BESSBLS  —  BStSSBNYBl 


with  a  View  to  Establish  a  Uetrical  Unit  for 
Prussia';  'Measure  of  the  Diatance  of  the 
Sixty-first  Star  of  the  Constellation  of  the 
Swan,'  and  'Popular  Lectures  on  Scientific 
Questions.'  Consult  Herscbel's  'Brief  Notiee 
of  F.  W.  BesscP  {Undon  1847),  and  Durige, 
'Bessels  Lcben  und  Wirken'    (Zurich  1861). 

BESSBLS,  Etnil,  German  naturalist:  b. 
Heidelberg,  2  June  1847 ;  d.  Stutt^rt,  30  March 
1888.      He  was   educated  in   the  University  of 


subject  of  Arctic  research.  In  18W  he  was  a 
member  of  Petermann's  expedition  that  sailed 
into  the  sea  between  Spitzbergen  and  Nova 
Zembla.  In  1871  he  came  to  the  United  States 
and  was  appointed  both  naturalist  and  sniycon 
to  the  expedition  under  Capt.  Charles  F.  Hall, 
United  States  navy,  most  of  his  collection  being 
lost  in  the  wreck  of  the  Polatia.  Most  of  the 
scientific  results  of  this  expedition  were  ^th- 
ered  by  his  personal  efforts,  and  published 
under  ttie  title  of  'Report  on  the  Scientific  Re- 
sults of  the  Polaris  Expedition'  (1S76).  In 
1879  he  published  a  German  narrative  of  the 
expedition,  illustrated  with  his  own 
Later  he  returned  to  Germany. 

BESSBHBR,  Sia  Henry,  Eneltsh 
b.  Charlton,  Hertfordshire,  19  Jan.  1813;  d. 
London,  15  March  1898.  He  received  mechani- 
cal training  at  an  early  age  in  the  tyl>e  foundry 
of  his  father,  a  French  artist,  and  going  to 
London  at  18  began  his  career  as  a  modeler  and 
designer.  His  earliest  invention  was  an  im- 
proved method  of  stamping  deeds  which  the 
revenue  of&ce  straightway  adopted  without 
giving  bin  any  compensation  therefor.  Late 
in  life  he  brought  the  matter  to  the  attention  of 
tbe  government  and  was  then  knighted  pS79) 
in  acknowledgment  of  bis  services  in  this  par- 
ticular. His  inventive  ability  was  next  turned 
to  the  production  of  a  new  method  of  makinir 
bronze-powder  or  'gold'  jpaint,  as  it  was  called, 
which  proved  a  commercial  success,  and  subse- 
quent inventions  of  his  were  machines  for 
making  Utrecht  velvet  and  improvements  in 
type-casting  machinery.  At  the  time  of  the 
war  in  die  Crimea  he  designed  a  projectile  in- 
tended to  revolve  in  its  flight,  but  as  the  cannon 
of  that  day  were  not  strong  enough  to  permit 
of  its  use,  he  went  on  experimenting  in  Paris 
under  the  patronage  of  Lonis  Napoleon  tilt  he 
had  secured  a  muc£  improved  kind  of  cast  iron. 
This,  however,  did  not  fully  satisfy  him  and  he 
continued  at  work  refining  the  iron  until  steel 
was  produced.  He  took  out  patents  for  this 
invention  in  1S55,  but  persevered  in  experiments 
till  at  his  London  bronze  factory  steel  ingots 
had  been  manufactured  which  could  be  rolled 
toto  rails  without  hammering.  When  this  pro- 
cess had  became  fully  developed  the  Bessemer 
Steel  Works  were  built  in  Sheffield,  where,  be- 


for  similar  work  in  factories  all  over  the  worU. 
On  13  Aug.  1^6,  he  read  before  the  British 
Association  at  Cheltenham  a  paper  dealing  widi 
the  invention  which  has  made  his  name  famous, 
'Hie  Manufacture  of  Malleable  Iron  and  Steel 
without  FueL*  This  was  a  new  and  cheap 
process  of  rapidly  making  steel  fnun  pig-iron 
by  blowing  a  blast  of  air  throu^  it  when  in  a 
state  of  fusion.  M  as  to  clear  it  of  all  carbon. 


and  then  adding  }ust  the  requisite  quantity  of 
carbon  to  produce  steel  —  a  process  which  has 
introduced  a  revohition  in  the  steel-making 
trade,  cheap  steel  being  now  made  in  vast  quan- 
tities and  used  for  many  purposes  in  whiut  its 
price  formerly  prohibited  its  appUcation.  At 
the  Birmin^lam  meeting  in  1865  he  read  a' 
second  paper  'On  the  Manufacture  of  Cast 
Steel,  Its  Progress  and  Employment  as  a  Sub- 
stitute for  Wrought  Iron."  The  Bessemer  pro- 
cess not  only  stimulated  the  growth  of  the  steel 
industry  but  greatly  reduced  the  cost  of  manu- 
facture and  rendered  steel  available  tor  rails 
and  general  engineering  work.  Bessemer  was 
also  the  originator  of  a  method  still  i: 


paper,  and  of  miprovcments  in  telephones.  In 
18S9  he  received  the  Telford  Medal  of  the  In- 
stitute of  Civil  Engineers,  and  in  1872  the  Al- 
bert Medal  of  the  Society  of  Arts.  He  was 
peerident  of  the  Iron  and  Steel  Institute  of 
Great  Britain,  1871-73,  and  in  1879  became  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  In  the  United 
States  eight  localities  and  one  railway  bear  his 
name.  Bessemer  was  an  honorary  member  of 
many  foreign  scientific  and  engineering  so- 
cieties, among  which  was  the  American  Society 
of  Mechanical  Engineers.  Before  the  latter,  in 
December  1896,  he  presented  a  paper  entitled 
•The  Origin  of  the  Bessemer  Process.*  printed 
in  its  'Transactions.' 

BBSSBHSR,  Ala.,  a  dty  in  Jefferson 
County,  on  several  trunk  railroads;  12  miles 
southwest  of  Birmingham,  the  county-seat.  It 
was  founded  in  1887  as  a  manufacturing  place 
because  of  the  valuable  iron  and  coal  mines  in 
its  immediate  vicinity.  It  contains  iron  foun- 
dries, coke  ovens,  a  number  of  blast  furnaces, 
machine  ^ops,  planing  mills,  iron  pipe  works, 
fire  bride  works,  and  other  works  connected 
with  the  iron  and  steel  industry.  The  United 
States  census  of  manufactures  for  1914  re- 
corded 47  industrial  establishments  of  factory 
grade,  employing  1,999  persons,  of  whom  1,772 
were  wage  earners  receiving  annually  $1,069,000 
in  wages.  The  capital  invested  aggregated  $6,- 
659,000  and  the  year's,  output  was  valued  at 
£&Q23,0{»:  of  this,  $2,185,000  was  tbe  value 
added  by  mamifactiire.  It  has  four  banks,  sev- 
eral weekly  newapapers,  electric  lights,  water- 
works, a  Carnegie  library,  the  Elizabeth  Duncan 
hospital,  and  a  property  valuation  of  $3,000,000. 
It  is  governed  by  a  mayor  elected  biennially  and 
a  board  of  aldermen  elected  on  a  general  ticket 
Pop.  (1910)  10,864;  (1914)  15,000. 

BESSEMER  STEEL  PROCESS.  See 
Besseuer,   Sir  Henry;    Steel  Manufactuse. 

BESSENYEI,  GySrgy,  Hungarian  dram- 
atist: b.Berezel  1747;  d.  1811.  Bein^  of  a  noble 
family  he  spent  his  earlier  years  m  idleness, 
until,  in  his  18th  year,  he  became  a  member  of 
the  court  bodyguards.  It  was  then  that  he  be- 
gaa  his  serious  studies,  applying  himself  espe- 
cially to  foreign  languages  and  literature,  which 
led  on  to  his  first  attempts  at  writinfc.  His  lirst 
work  was  a  tragecbf,  'Agis,'  portraying  a  period 

-     -  ■  L.t /\tT. 10'71\      M I 


3gle 


BBSSBY  —  BBSTUZHBV-RYUHIN 


Hungarian.  Chief  of  these  is  'The  Philosopher* 
(1777),  Among  his  other  works  are  'Life  of 
John  Hunyadi*  and  a  'Philasophic  History  of 
Hungary.'  He  has  been  considered  the  father 
of  modem  Hungarian  literature. 
.  BESSEY,  Charles  Edwin,  Ajnerican  bot- 
anist: b.  Milton,  Ohio,  21  May  1845;  d.  Lin- 
coln, Neb.,  25  Feb.  1915.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  Michigan  Agricultural  College  18£0,  studied 
at  Harvard  under  Asa  Gray  1872  and  187S- 
76,  and  was  professor  of  botany  at  the  Iowa 
Agricultural  College  1870-84;  professor  of  bot- 
any at  the  University  of  Nebraska  in  18S4,  and 
head  dean  of  the  university  1Q09.  He  published 
'The  Geography  of  Iowa'  (1876)  :  'Botany  for 
High  Schools  and  Colleges'  (IffeO)  ;  'The  Es- 
sentials of  Botany'  (1881);  'ElemenUry  Bot- 
any' (1904) ;  'Plant  Migration  Studies' 
(1905);  'Synopsis  of  Plant  Phyla'  (1907); 
'Outhnes  of  Plant  Phyla'  (1909)  ;  and  with 
others,  'New  Elementary  Agriculture'   (1911), 

BESSlfiSBS,  b£s-yir,  Jewi  Bsptiste, 
DuKB  OF  ISTKIA,  French  marshal:  b.  Preissac, 
5  Aug.  1768;  d.  Liitzen,  1  May  1813.  Entering 
the  anny  in  1792  as  a  private  soldier,  in  less 
than  two  years  he  had  attained  the  rank  of  ca4>- 
tain.  After  maldng  the  Spani^  campaign,  he 
passed  into  the  army  of  Italy  and  soon  at* 
tracted  the  notice  of  Napoleon  who  took  him 
to  Egypt  in  1798,  where  his  conduct  at  St.  Jean 
d'Acre  and  Aboukir  covered  him  with  glory. 
At  the  accession  of  Napoleon  to  the  throne,  he 
became  marshal  of  France.  He  showed  his 
usual  conspicuous  courage  at  Austerliti  Jena, 
Eylau  and  Friedland,  aniC  raised  to  the  rank  of 
Duke  of  Istria,  commanded  in  Spain  in  1806- 
09.  In  the  Russian  campaign  he  led  the  cav- 
alry of  the  Guard,  and  did  much  by  his  sleep- 
less courage  and  presence  of  mind  to  save  the 
wreck  of  the  army  in  the  disastrous  retreat 
from  Moscow.  On  the  morning  of  the  battle 
of  Liitien  he  fell  mortally  wounded  by  a  can- 
non ball.  He  was  a  great  cavalry  leader,  cool 
and  dauntless,  and  beloved  by  his  troops. 

BEST,  WilUam  Thomas,  Endish  mu- 
sician: b.  Carhslc,  13  Aug.  1826;  d.  Ltvnpool, 
10  May  1897.  In  1849  he  was  appointed  or- 
ganist of  the  Philharmonic  Society  in  Liver- 
pool; in  1853  he  went  to  London  and  became 
organist  of  the  Panopticon  of  Science  and  Art 
an^  also  of  the  Church  of  Saint  Marti n-in-the- 
Fields ;  in  1854  he  was  organist  of  Lincoln's  Inn 
Chapel  and  in  1855  organist  of  Saint  (Urge's 
Hall,  Liverpool  He  was  the  author  of  'The 
Modem  School  for  the  Orran'  (1853);  'Thes 
Art  of  Organ  Playing'  (ISW)  :  'Arraagemeots 
from  the  Scores  of  the  Great  Masters'  (1873), 
and  was  well  known  as  an  editor. 

BESTIARIES,  the  name  given  to  certain 
extremely  popular  books  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
In  the  written  volumes,  sometimes  with  copious 
illustrations,  were  pven  descriptions  of  ani- 
mals, real  and  imaginary,  which  was  which 
being  left  to  the  discretion  or  knowledge  of  the 
readers.  They  were  composed  in  verse  or  prose 
or  a  mixture  of  both,  and  were  designed  not 
only  as  hand-books  of  loolow,  but  as  teachers 
of  morals  as  well.  It  was  the  fashion  to  at- 
tach spirrtual  meanings  to  the  animals  or  their 
actions,  until  every  quality  of  good  or  evil  in 
the  soul  of  man  had  its  ^pe  '-  ■*•-  ' ' '■' 


explanation  of  the  strange,  grotesque  c  

which  are  found  sculptured  on  uie  churches 
and  other  buildings  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
oldest  Latin  bestiaries  had  an  early  Greek  or- 
iginal, the  well-known  '  Physio! ogus,'  under 
which  name  about  50  such  allegories  were 
^□uped.  The  Greek  text  of  this  famous  woHc 
IS  found  only  in  manuscript  There  are  old 
Syriac,  Armenian,  Ethioptc,  AraUc,  Icelandic 
and  numerous  Latin  versions.  Editions  of  the 
Latin  have  been  issued  — Mai,  Hodcr  and 
Cahier.  An  Old  Hi^  German  version  was 
made  earlier  than  the  Uth  century;  in  the  12lh 
century  versions  in  French  were  made  by  PUl-  . 
ippe  de  Thaun  and  Guillaume,  a  priest  of  Nor- 


earlier  form  of  such  books.  The  !ollowii%  is 
a  characteristic  extract  from  the  'Divine  Bes- 
tiary' :  'The  Unicom  has  but  one  hom  in  die 
middle  of  its  forehead.  It  is  the  only  animal 
that  ventures  to  attack  the  elephant;  and  so 
sharp  is  the  nail  of  its  foot,  that  with  one  blow 
it  rips  up  the  belly  of  that  most  terrible  of  all 
beasts.  The  hunters  can  catch  the  unicorn  onhr 
by  placing  a  young  virein  in  the  forest  which 
it  haunts.  No  sooner  <ioes  this  marvelous  ani- 
mal descry  the  damsel  than  it  runs  toward  her, 
lies  down  at  her  feet,  and  so  suffers  itself  to' 
be  taken  bv  the  hunters.  The  unicom  repre- 
sents our  Lord  Jesus  Christj  who,  taking  our 
humanity  upon  him  in  the  Virgin's  womb,  was 
betrayed  by  the  wicked  Jews  and  delivered  into 
the  hands  of  Pilate.  Its  one  hom  signifies  the 
goq>el  truth,  that  Christ  is  one  with  the  Father,* 
etc. 

BESTUZHEV,  b«-atoo'zh«f,  Alcunder 
Alexandrovitch,  Russian  novelist  and  soldier: 
b.  Saint  Petersburg,  3  Nov.  1797;  d.  19  July 
1837.  Of  his  nnmerous  novels,  the  most  cele- 
brated are  'Ammalat-fieg' ;  'The  Nadeshda 
Frigate' ;  'The  Terrible  Prophecy.'  His 
'Private  Correspondence'  is  highly  priaed  He 
was  killed  in  battle  in  the  Caucasus. 

BESTUZHEV-RYUUIH,  b£-stoo'ihef 
ryoo'men.  Alexei  Petrovitch,  Count,  Rus- 
sian statesman:  b.  Moscow  1693,  of  a  family 
of  English  origin,  and  of  ^e  second 
class  of  nobles  in  Russia;  d  Saint  Petersburg, 
21  j^ril  1768.  He  entered  the  civil  service  un- 
der Peter  the  Great,  and  became  a  diplomatist 
Under  the  Empress  Anne  he  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Cabinet,  and  the  Empress  Elizabc^ 
whose  fullest  confidence  he  possessed,  created 
him  count,  great  chancellor  of  the  empire,  and 
his  infiuence  in  the  government  became  almost 
boundless.  He  was  strongly  ^iposed  to  tht 
Prussian  atid  FrencJi  diplomatic  infiuence,  and 
was  disliked  on  this  account  b^  Peter  III, 
nephew  and  presumptive  heir  of  ^nbeth.  He 
concluded  several  treaties  with  England,  Swe- 
den and  Denmark,  favorable  to  English  policy. 
By  a  treaty  concluded  in  1747.  he  paved  the  wav 
for  the  union  of  Schleswig  and  Hoi  stein  with 
the  kingdom  of  Denmark,  By  his  influence,  the 
Russian  troops  supported  Austria  against  Fred- 
eridt  the  Great  in  the  Seven  Years'  War.  But 
their  commander,  Apraxin,  retired  to  Russia, 
and  this  occasioned  the  fall  of  Bestttxhev.  He 
was  banished  to  his  country  seat,  but  Catharine 
11,  in  1762,  restored  him  to  liberty  and  made  hint 
a  field  marshal.    He  is  re^rdcd  as  the  inventor 


Google 


BESTOZHEV.RYUHIH  —  BSTH-ZUR 


of  a  diemkal  preparation  known  in  medicine 
under  the  name  of  tmctura  lonica  Bestitcheffi. 

BKSTUZHEV-RYUMIN,  Konatantin 
Nikolayevitch,  Russian  historian:  b.  Kud- 
resh,  government  of  Ni/hni  Novgorod,  1829; 
d.  1897.  After  graduating  from  the  University 
of  Moscow,  where  he  had  studied  law,  he 
taught  S(iiool.  In  1856  he  became  associate 
editor  of  the  Moscow  Case  tie.  Later  he 
removed  to  Saint  Petersburg,  where,  in  1865, 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  Russian  histoiy 
at  the  university.  In  1890  he  was  elected  to 
membership  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of 
Science.  He  and  Tiblin  collaborated  in  trans- 
lating Buckle's  'History  of  Qvilication'  into 
Russian.  Among  the  more  important  of  his 
works  are  <The  Girislianixation  of  Russia' 
(1864)  ;  'The  Black  Days  of  Tatarism*  (1864)  ; 
'Biographies  and  Characteristics'  (1882).  Of 
greatest  importance  was  the  'History  of  Rus- 
sia,* which  he  did  not  complet^  of  which  only 
two  volumes  were  published,  the  first  in  1872 
and  the  second  in  1885.  The  last  volume  con* 
eludes  with  the  rdgp  of  Ivan  the  TerriUe. 

BBTAIN,  or  BETAINE,  an  organic  baae, 
having  the  diemical  composition  CiHiiNOi,  ob- 
tained from  the  juice  of  the  common  beet,  or 
from  beet-root  molasses.  It  is  not  present 
in  the  beet-root  in  nature,  but  is  obtained  from 
it  by  the  action  of  baryta  or  hydrochloric  add 
The  hydrochloride  is  one  of  its  most  important 
salts,  and  numerous  others  are  also  known. 

BETANZOS,  bi-tan'thos,  Jtian  Josi  de, 
Spanish  historian  of  the  16th  century.  His 
biographers  tell  little  of  him,  other  than  that 
he  was  among  the  first  to  accompany  the  nine 
expeditionaries  to  the  Indies,  that  he  remained 
a  long  time  in  the  New  World  and  there  studied 
the  customs,  usages  and  language  of  the  abor- 
igines and  at  his  death  left  the  manuscript  of 
the  well-known  and  very  interesting  work  en- 
titled 'Historia  de  Indorura  Moribus.' 

BETEL,  BBTLE,  FAWN  or  PINANG, 
popular  Oriental  names  for  various  species  of 
Chavica  (see  Pepper),  especially  C.  hetle,  and 
C.  liriboa,  clitnlHna;  shrubs  cultivated  in  the 
East  for  their  leathery  leaves  which  are  used 
to  a  prodipious  extent  with  bits  of  areca-nut 
and  snell  lime  for  chewing,  particularly  by  the 
Malay  races.  The  plants  are  trained  upon  trel- 
lises, poles,  etc.,  in  shady  but  hot  and  moist 
places,  irfiich  in  northern  India  are  secured  by 
means  of  sheds.  Europeans  do  not  take  readily 
to  the  habit  because  tne  mixture  is  hot,  acrio, 
astringent,  abraids  the  moutk  temporarily  de- 
stroys the  sense  of  taste,  reddens  the  lips  as  if 
they  were  covered  with  blood  and  blackens  the 
teeth,  which  are  sooner  or  later  destroyed.  At 
25  years  of  age,  habitufs  are  often  toothless. 
Among  East  Indian  races  the  habit  dates  back 
more  than  2,400  years  and  at  the  present  time 
is  as  general  as  was  the  habit  of  using  snuff 
among  Europeans;  ihe  betel  box  is  carried  by 
old  and  young,  men  and  women,  and  presented 
ujKm  all  occasions.  Opinions  aifTer  as  to  the 
utility  or  pemiciousness  of  this  habit,  some 
-writers  claiming  advantages  which  in  the  face 
of  the  above-mentioned  facts  seem  as  far- 
fetched as  like  arguments  in  defense  of  the  sim- 
ilar use  of  tobacco.  Sir  James  Emerson  Ten- 
rient  is'of  opinion  that  the  habit  is  beneficial  to 
^  people  of  whose  food  flesh  forms  no  part,  as 


it  is  the  antacid,  the  tonic  and  carminative 
they  require.  Chavica  is  the  genua  into  which 
the  old  genus  Piper  has  been  divided. 

BETELGKUSE,  bet-el-g^ri',  the  star 
Alpha  Ononis  the  bright,  reddish  star  in  one 
of  the  shoulders  of  Orion.  It  varies  some- 
what in  brightness,  but  in  no  regular  period. 

BETH-AVEN,  "house  of  idolatry,"  men- 
tioned in  Joshua  and  Samuel,  lay  northwest 
of  Michmash  near  Ai  and  on  the  way  to  Aija- 
lon.  The  place  was  still  inhabited  during  the 
8th  century  B.C.  The  "calves  of  Beth-aven» 
were  probably  those  at  Bethel  nearby. 

BETH-DAGON,  or  HOUSE  OF  DA- 
GON,  the  name  of  two  Biblical  cities  whose 
location  has  not  been  determined.  About  four 
miles  southeast  of  Jaffa  stands  a  village  named 
Beit  Dejan,  which  has  arisen  in  comparatively 
recent  times.  Khurbet  Dajun,  a  Roman  site,  is 
close  by.  The  other  Beth-Dagon  was  a  dty  of 
the  tribe  of  Asher. 

BETH-HORON,  in  Bible  history,  two 
important  towns  of  Palestine,  supposed  to  have 
been  built  b^  Sheerah,  a  daughter  of  Ephraim. 
In  the  neighborhood  Joshua  defeated  the 
Canaanites ;  under  Solomon  both  towns  were 
Strongly  fortified;  the  Egyptian  King  Sbisbak 
passed  along  the  high  road  to  invade  Judah, 
and  here,  also,  the  Syrian  commander  Scron 
defeated  by  Judas  Maccabseus.    At  a  later 


BETH  PEOR,  beth  pe'or  (Hebrew,  house 
of  Peor,  i.e.,  the  god  of  Baal-Peor),  a  city  where 
the  Israelites  are  said  to  have  received  the  laws 
of  Deuteronomy,  and  the  supposed  localiW  of 
Moses'  burial.  The  precise  locality  of  Beth 
Peor  is   undetermined,   however,  and  various 

Eoints  have  been  suggested  as  probable  sites, 
ut  the  only  theory  which  seems  reasonably 
sure  is  that  it  stood  somewhere  among  the 
Nabo-Pisgah  Mountains.  It  belonged  to  the 
tribe  of  Reuben.  Some  geographers  have  sug- 
gested Ain  el-Minyeh,  on  the  northern  side  of 
the  ridge,  as  the  location  of  the  city. 

BETH-SHAN,  or  BETH-SHEAN,  in 
ancient  times  a  fortified  town  of  Palestine,  on 
the  site  of  which  stands  the  modern  village  of 
Beisan,  inhabited  Inr  Circassians,  and  lies  about 
20  miles  south  of  Tiberias,  on  the  route  of  the 
Acre-Damascus  railroad.  It  is  believed  that 
the  stronghold  was  included  in  King  Solomon's 
domains,  but  it  belonged  to  the  Philistines  at 
the  time  of  Saul,  for  it  was  there  that  they  dis- 
honored the  bodies  of  Saul  and  his  sons.  The 
place  was  known  as  Scythopolis  during  the 
Greek  period,  and  after  the  Maccabxan  strug- 

Jlc  it  rose  to  prosperity  as  a  member  of  the 
)ecapolis,  or  league  of  10  Greek  cities.  It  re- 
tained its  Canaan  it  e  population  for  a  while 
during  the  Israelite  occupation  after  submission 
to  Manasseh. 

BETH-ZUR  or  BBTHSURA,  <house  of 
rock,"  a  town  of  Judah  in  the  Hebron  Moun- 
tains. Rehoboam  built  the  fortifications.  The 
Greeks  under  Lysias  were  here  defeated  by 
Judas  Maccabxus  (165  b.c).  The  rains  still 
exist  on  a  cliff  near  the  Hebron  road;  Ihe  site 
is  called  Bdt  Sur. 


tizcdbyGoOl^Ie 


BBTHABARA  -^BSa^IBSDA 


BBTHABARA,  the  scene  o£  Saiat  John's 
baptism.  This  name  occurs  only  once  (^ohn  i, 
28),  whereas  the  revised  version,  following:  the 

principal  codices,  reads  Bethany  (q.v.). 


BETHAM-SOWARDS,  Matilda.  Eng- 
lish author :  b,  Suffolk  1836.  She  was  privately 
educated  and  has  published  numerous  works  in 

Keiry,  fiction  and  on  French  rural  life.  Among 
r  works  arc  'The  Dream  Giarlotte' ;  'France 
of  To-day';  'A  Romance  of  Dijon';  'The 
Lord  of  the  Harvest';  'Anglo-French  Remi- 
niscences'; "A  Suffolk  Courtship';  'Literary 
Rambles  in  France';  'French  Men,  Women 
and  BooIm' ;  'In  French  Africa';  mree  vol- 
umes of  Doems,  and  an  edition  of  Arthur 
Young's  'Travels  in  France.' 

BBTHANY,  a  village  of  Palestine,  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  Olivet,  on  the  eastern  side,  about 
two  miles  east  of  Jerusalem,  where  Lazarus 
dwelt  and  was  raisea  from  the  dead  and  where 
the  ascension  o£  Christ  is  related  to  have  taken 
place.  The  house  and  grave  of  Lazarus  uid 
the  house  of  Mary  b^gdalene  are  still  shown 
to  travelers, 

BETHANY,  Mo.,  city  and  county-seal  of 
Harrison  County,  64  mites  northwest  of  Saiat 
Joseph,  on  the  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy 
Railroad.  It  has  flour  mills,  brickyards  and 
canning  factories.  The  district  is  ridi  in  asri- 
cuitunu  and  stock  raising  products.  Building 
slone  is  quarried  nearby.  "The  city  is  the  seat 
of  Heilbron  Sanatorium.  The  electric  light  and 
power  plant  is  municipal  property.  Pop.   1,931. 

BBTHANY  COLLEGE,  American  co- 
educational institution  at  Lindsborg,  Kan.,  un- 
der the  auspices  of  the  Swedish  Lutheran 
Church,  (ounded  in  1881,  In  1384  arrangements 
were  made  for  the  training  of  teachers  for  the 
parochial  and  public  schools;  the  name  was 
accordingly  changed  to  Bethany  Normal  Insti- 
tute. In  1S86  the  school  was  invested  with  the 
power  to  confer  academic  degrees.  It  nowhas 
preparatory,  normal,  commercial,  collegiate, 
model  school,  art  and  music  departments,  with 
47  instructors  and  a  student-body  of  792,  and  a 
library  of  over  10,000  volumes, 

BETHANY  COLLEGE  a  co-educational 
institution  at  Betham-,  W.  Va.  The  college  was 
chartered  by  the  Legislature  of  Virginia,  2 
March  1840.  The  total  number  of  graduates  is 
1,448.  Prominent  alumni.  Champ  Clark,  United 
States  senator  George  T.  Oliver,  associate 
justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  Joseph  R.  Lamar, 
John  C.  New  and'  governor  B.  B.  Odell.  The 
endowment  is  $420,000;  property  assets  $500,- 
000;  students  enrolled  447;  professors  and  in- 
structors 30;  courses  offered  classical,  scien- 
tific, philosophical,  ministerial,  agricultural, 
domestic  science,  normal,  music. 

BETHEL,  a  village  of  Palestine,  about 
ID  miles  from  Jerusalem,  now  called  Beitin  or 
Belteen.  It  is  situated  at  a  point  of  strategic 
importance  on  which  three  roads  converged 
and  is  mentioned  frequently  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Here  Abraham  reared  an  altar  and 
called  on  the  name  of  the  Lord  (Gen.  xiii,  4), 
and  here  Jacob,  weary  with  travel,  fell  asleep 
and  had  a  vision  of  angels,  in  commemoration 
o[  which  he  bnilt  an  altar  and  called  the  place 
Bethel  («the  house  of  God^).  It  is  memorable 
in  the  story  of  the  apostasy  of  Rehoboim  and 
the  miracle  of  the  withered  hand,  when,  instead 


of  &e  house  of  God.  it  became  Betbaven,  the 
place  of  idols,  until  every  memorial  of  the 
idolatty  was  deatroyed  by  Josiab.  Consult 
1  Kings  xii,  xiii;  2  Kings  xxiii,  IS-^20).  In 
this  neighborhood  the  two  she-bears  came  out 
of  the  wood  and  tore  forty  and  two  of  the 
children  that  had  mocked  at  Elijah  (2  Kings 
iii,  23,  24).  It  became  a  royal  residence  after 
the  secession  of  the  northern  kingdom,  and 
was  one  of  the  border  fortresses.  Il  was  cap- 
tured by  Vespasian  on  his  march  to  Jknisaletn. 
It  is  not  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament. 
Pop.  about  500. 

BETHEL  Maine,  town  in  Oxford  County 
situated  on  tne  Androscoggin  River  and  the 
Grand  Trunk  Railroad,  70  miles  northwest  of 
Portland,  It  is  a  popular  summer  resort  and 
is  noted  for  its  beautiful  scenery.  Being  the 
centre  of  a  lumbering  region,  it  has  a  number 
of  wood- working  estabhshments,  which  pro- 
duce chairs,  spools,  bobbias,  etc.  A  large  fish 
cannery  is  also  located  in  the  town.  It  con- 
tains Gould's  Academy.     Pop.  1,930, 

BETHBLL.  Sir  Richard,  first  Lord  West- 
bury,  Eaglisfa  jurist :  b.  Brad  ford-on- Avon 
1£00;  d.  20  July  1873.  The  son  of  a  Bristol 
physician,  he  natriculated  at  Wadbam  College, 
Oxford,  at  14,  gained  a  scholarship  the  succe^- 
ing  year  and  tocdc  his  degree  in  his  18th  year. 
He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1823  and  raixdly 
rose  in  his  profession ;  was  returned  to  the 
Hottae  of  Commons,  as  member  for  Ayles- 
bury, in  1851 ;  became  solicitor-general  in  1852 
atMl  attorney-general  1856-57,  rendering  con- 
spicuous service  to  Mr.  Gladstone  in  carrying 
through  the  complicated  Succession  Duty  Bill; 
and  became  Lord  Chancellor  in  1861,  taking 
the  title  of  Baron  Westbury.  As  Lord  Chan- 
cellor he  carried  through  important  reforms. 
Owing  to  scandals  associated  with  the  admin- 
istration of  a  protege  of  his  in  Leeds  Bank- 
ruptcy Court,  he  was  forced  to  resign.  After 
his  fall  he  did  excellent  work  as  one  of  the  law 
lords, 

BETHEHCOURT,  Jean  de,  U-toh-koor, 
zfadu  di,  king  of  the  Canary  Islands:  d.  1425. 
He  was  chamberlain  to  Charles  VI  of  France, 
but  being  ruined  in  the  war  with  England,  he 
sought  to  repair  his  fortunes  in,  foreign  coun- 
tries and  made  a  descent  from  Spain  on  the 
Canary  Islands  in  1402.  Not  having  sufficient 
force,  however,  he  returned  and  obtained  rein- 
forcements from  Henry  HI  of  Castile,  with 
which  he  was  successful  and  was  crowned  king 
ill  1404,  under  the  title  of  Louis.  He  converted 
the  greater  portion  of  the  Canaries  to  Christi- 
anity and  in  1405  received  from  the  Pope  the 
appointment  of  bishop  to  the  islands.  The  fol- 
lowine  year  he  went  to  Kormant^,  where  be 
passed  the  remainder  of  his  days. 

BETHESDA,  bJ-thCi'da,  a  pool  in  Jera- 
salem,  the  name  of  which  signifies  'house  of 
the  stream.*  In  the  five  halls  or  porticos  near 
il  many  patients  lav  wailing,  according  to  the 
account  of  John  (cn.v),-  for  the  moving  of  the 
waters  to  bathe  in.  According  to  the  beKef  of 
the  Jews,  an  angel  descended,  at  a  certain  lime, 
into  the  pool  and  troubled  the  water,  and  who- 
ever first  entered  the  water  after  this  agitation 
was  cured.  It  was  near  the  Sheep  Gate,  nordi 
of  the  temple.  The  traditions  as  lo  Bcihesda 
have  varied.    It  was  variously  placed  at  ififfer- 


tizcdbyGoOl^Ie 


fiBTHLraaH  —  BBTHLBHBlimS 


5S1 


ent  times.  A  probable  site  for  Bethesda  is  the 
Virgin's  Pool,  the  only  natural  spring  of  Jeru- 
jalem,  which  still  presents  the  pheDomenott  oi 
intermittent  'troubling  of  the  wat«r,"  which 
overflows  from  a  natural  siphon  under  the 
cave  and  in  which  the  Jews  continue  to  bathe, 
when  this  overflow  occurs,  for  the  cure  of 
rheumatism  and  of  other  disorders.  Consult 
Hasting,  'Dictionary  of  the  Bible.' 

BETHLKHKM,  beth-le-em,  or  -hem,  (Bert 
Lahm,  "house  of  bread*  ;  also  Imown  as  Ephra- 
tab,  "the  fruitful*),  Palestine,  a  village  five 
miles  from  Jerusalem  and  only  second  to  Jeru- 
salem in  sacred  interest.  It  lies  at  the  foot  of 
a  hill  covered  with  vines  and  olive-trees,  and 
is  of  surpassing  interest  to  the  Christian  world 
as  the  birthplace  of  Jesus  Christ.  It  is  of  fre- 
quent mention  in  both  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments. It  was  the  scene  of  Rachel's  death 
(Gen.  XXXV,  19)  and  of  the  romance  of  Ruth. 
It  is  the  <My  of  David,  the  scene  of  his  early 
exploits  ana  the  home  of  his  kindred.  Here 
he  was  anointed  by  Samuel  to  be  long  of 
Israel  (1  Sam.  xvi,  13),  and  from  Bethlehem 
he  was  sent  for  by  Saul  to  rainijier  to  him  with 
his  harp  (1  Sam.  xvi,  19).  It  was  one  of  the 
stron^olds  built  by  Rehoboam.  After  the 
Captivity  a  small  band  of  Bethlehemites  re- 
turned to  their  old  dwelling-place.  As  the 
birthplace  of  Christ  it  is  one  of  the  great 
Christian  shrines  of  Palestine.  The  Church  of 
the  Nativity  erected  by  the  Empress  Helena 
in  327,  120  feet  lon§  by  110  broad,  is  divided 
into  nave  and  four  aisles  by  ranges  of  Corinth- 
ian columns  with  crests  of  the  Crusaders  on 
some  of  the  stones.  The  nave  is  the  oldest 
monument  of  Christian  architecture  in  the 
world.  The  mosaics  date  from  1169.  The  site 
is  held  in  common  by  Latins,  Greeks  and  Ar- 
menians, and  the  greater  part  of  the  buildinw 
is  occupied  by  converts  of  those  churches.  In 
this  church  Baldwin  I  was  crowned.  The  roof 
was  renewed  in  English  oak  by  Edward  IV. 
Below  the  church  is  the  grotto  of  the  Nativity, 
33  feet  long  by  U  wide,  furnished  with  silver 
and  crystal  lamps,  where  a  marble  trough  is 
showii,  traditionally  believed  to  be  the  manger 
in  which  Christ  was  born.  Other  objects  of 
interest  are  the  Altar  of  the  Innocents,  mark- 
ing the  burial  place  of  the  20,000  children  slain 
by  Herod,  the  tomb  of  Saint  Eusebius,  the 
chapel  and  tomb  of  Saint  Jerome  and  (some 
distance  off)  the  grotto  where  the  shepherds 
watched  by  night  when  the  angels  appeared  to 
them  (Luke  ii,  8-18).  In  order  to  prevent  con- 
fusion with  another  place  of  the  same  name. 
1  miles  northwest  of  Nazareth, 


It  i 

estine.  Agriculture  and  the  rearing  of  cattle 
are  the  chief  ocrupations  of  its  inhabitants,  and 
the  making  of  rosaries,  crucifixes,  etc.,  for  pil- 
grims to  the  sacred  shrines.     Pop.  8,000. 

BETHLEHBM,  Pa.,  borough  of  North- 
ampton and  Lehigh  Counties,  on  the  Lehigh 
river  and  canal,  and  on  the  Lehigh  Valley,  me 
Central  of  New  Jersey,  the  Pennsylvania  and 
the  Lehigh  and  New  England  railroads,  57 
miles  north  of  Philadelphia.  It  is  proininent 
both  as  a  manufacturing  centre,  the  seat  of  im- 
portant steel  and  other  works,  and  as  a  mu»- 
cal  centre,  sometimes  referred  to  as  the  "Amer- 


ican Bayreuth"  and  the  'Airfeiican  Oberam- 
mergau."  Ainong  its  prominent  buildings  are 
those  of  the  Moravian  college  and  theological 
seminary,  the  Moravian  seminary  for  girls, 
the  Church  of  the  Nativity,  Saint  Luke's  Hos- 
intal  and  a  public  library,  while  on  Church  and 
neighboring  streets  are  notable  dwellings  built 
in  the  ]7th  century  style  of  domestic  architecture 
of  eastern  Germany.  On  the  opposite  side  of 
the  river,  here  spanned  by  three  bridges,  is 
South  Bethlehem  (a.v),  the  seat  of  Lehi^ 
University,  of  the  Leni^  Valley  Railroad  Com- 
pany, of  the  famous  Bethlehem  steel  works 
and  other  important  manufactnring  establish- 
ments. Uonocacy  Creek  separates  Bethlehem 
from  West  Betnleheoi,  formerly  a  separate 
borougli  but  since  1904  consolidated  with  Beth- 
lehem' borough.  Bethlehem  was  founded  in 
1741  by  Moravians  or  United  Brethren  under 
Count  Nikolaus  Ludwig  Zinzendorf,  shortly 
before  (Hirbtmas,  which  suggested  its  name, 
and  it  has  remained  ever  since  the  chief  centre 
of  the  Moravian  sect  in  the  United  States. 
The  old  (»loma1  hall  in  the  seminary,  built  in 
1748,  was  used  as  a  ^neral  hospital  for  the 
Continental  army  during  the  Revolutionary 
War,  and  over  500  soldiers  lie  buried  in  V^est 
Bethlehem.  On  festival  and  funeral  occasions, 
the  old  European  custom  of  trumpet  playing 
from  the  tower  was  early  established  and  Beth- 
lehem soon  l>ecame  recognized  as  a  musical 
centre,  Benjamin  Franklin  recording  his  im- 
'  pressions  of  the  £ne  orchestral  music  rendered 
in  the  church.  In  modem  days,  under  the 
directorship  of  J.  Frederick  Wolle,  a  pupil  of 
Rheinberger  and  organist  of  the  Moravian 
Church,  Bethlehem  attained,  a  conspicuous  po- 
sition in  the  musical  world  from  the  institution 
of  an  annual  festival  largely  devoted  to  the 
compositions  of  Johann  Sebastian  Bach.  The 
first  organized  festival  was  held  in  1901  and 
attracted  considerable  attention,  lasting  for 
tiree  days.  During  Mr.  WoUe's  absence  in 
California,  from  1906  to  1911,  when  he  gave 
annual  Bach  festivals  at  Berkeley,  the  Bethle- 
hem  festivals  were  discontinued,  but  were  re- 
sumed on  his  return  in  191^  Pop.  (1900) 
7,293;  (1910)  12337.  See  also  Mokavian 
Chuhch  and  Moraviaw  Seminary. 

BKTHLEHEHITES.  (1)  An  order  of 
monks  somewhat  like  the  Dominicans,  who  set- 
tled in  England  .in  1257.  They  were  so  named 
because  they  wore  on  the  breast  a  five-pointed 
star  in  commemoration  of  the  star  that  ap- 
peared at  the  birth  of  Jesus.  The  order  was 
comparatively  insignificant  and  had  only  one 
convent  in  England  (at  Cambrit^).  (2)  Aii 
order  of  American  Bethlehemites,  sanctioned 
bf  Innocent  XI  in  1687,  was  established  in  the 
aty  of  Guatemala  by  a  Franciscan  monk  named 
Pedro  de  Bethencourt  (1619-67),  a  native  of 
the  island  of  Teneriffe,  about  1655,  and  was 
specially  devoted  to  the  nursing  of  the  sick  and 
the  education  of  children.  It  became  extinct 
about  1850.  A  female  order  of  Bethlehemites 
also  was  founded  by  Maria  Anna  del  Galdo, 
who  belonged  to  the  Tcrtiaries  of  Saint  Fran- 
cis. Twenty  years  later  the  privileges  of  the 
order  were  enlarged  to  an  equality  with  those 
of  the  Augusttnians,  Dominicans  and  Francis- 
cans. (3)  The  followers  of  Huss  are  some- 
timcB  called  Betbleliemites,  from  the  name  of 
the  church  in  Prague  in  which  Huss  preadicd. 


,  Google 


BETHLBN-^ABOR  —  BBTHMANN-HOLLWBO 


vania"  b.  1580;  d.  1629.  He  was  a  member  of 
a  prominent  Protestant  family  of  upper  Hun- 
gary, which  also  held  laVsc  estates  in  Transyl- 
vania. At  the  affe  of  17  be  entered  the  service 
of  Gabriel  Bathori,  prince  of  Transylvania, 
fought  under  his  orders  and  then  repaired  to 
Constantinople,  where  his  courage  gained  him 
the  esteetn  of  the  Turks.  Prompted  by  ambi- 
tion, he  became  ungrateful  to  his  first  benefac- 
tor, and  after  bringing  Bathori  into  bad  odor 
with  both  the  Transylvamans  and  the  Turkj, 
managed  to  make  tbe  latter  declare  war  and 
actually  headed  a  Turkish  army  a^inst  him. 
His  treachery  was  successful  and  in  1613  he 
was  proclaimed  prince  of  Transylvania  in  de- 
fiance of  the  Emperor.  Shortly  after,  having 
succeeded  in  stirring  up  the  Hungarians  against 
the  Emperor  Frederick  li,  he  took  several 
towns  and  in  1620  was  chosen  idng  of  Hun- 
gary. Thereafter,  sii]^>orted  by  Turks  and  Tar- 
tars, he  entered  Austrian  territory,  laid  waste 
Moravia,  hemmed  in  the  imperial  army  and  was 
on  the  eve  of  gaining  a  complete  victory  when 
the  refusal  of  the  Turks  to  undergo  a  winter 
campaign  defeated  all  his  hopes.  The  approach 
of  Tilly  compelled  him  to  withdraw.  The 
Protestants  of  Germany  were  his  alhes, 
and  when  they  were  worsted  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Pr^ue  Bethlen-Gabor  concluded  peace 
with  Ferdmand  H,  receiving  Kaschau,  seven 
Hungarian  counties  adjoinmg  Transylvania," 
the  principalities  of  Oppcln  and  Ratibor  in 
Silesia  and  the  rank  of  Prince  of  the  Emnire. 
In  1625  he  married  Catharine  of  Brandenburg 
and  became  again  involved  in  the  Thirty  Years 
War.  He  at  length  retired  from  the  strife  and 
gave  his  attention  to  the  internal  affairs  of 
Transylvania.  He  was  one  of  "the  three  great 
Magyars*  of  his  time,  was  an  able  administra- 
tor and  a  promoter  of  sciences  and  literature. 
While  preparing  for  a  new  war  a^inst  the 
imperialists  he  died  of  dropsy.  He  is  said  to 
have  participated  in  42  battles. 

BETHHANN-HOLLWBG,  Horitz  An- 
taat,  German  jurist  and  statesman:  b.  Frauk- 
fort-on-the-Main,  10  April  1795;  d.  Andernacb, 
14  July  1877.  Having  graduated  from  his  law 
studies  at  Gottingen  and  BcrUn,  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  civil  law  at  the  latter  in- 
stitution. 'In  1829  he  was  appointed  to  a  similar 
position  at  Bonn,  which  he  held  until  1842. 
Three  years  later  he  was  made  a  cotmcillor  of 
state  and  in  1852  he  became  a  member  of  the 
First  Chamber  of  the  Prussian  Parliament  In 
1858  he  was  appointed  Minister  of  Public  In- 
struction,  which  oflice  he  held  for  four  years. 
He  was  a  strong  supporter  of  the  Moderate 


of  the  German  laws  following  the  enactment 
of  the  German  Civil  Code  in  1896.  Among 
his  works  are  'Grundriss  m  Vorlesungen  iiber 
den  semeinen  und  preussischen  Civilproiess' 
(1821);  'Ursprung  der  lombardischen  Stadte- 
freiheit'  (1846) ;  'Der  Civilproiess  des  ge- 
meinen  Rechts  in  geschichtlicher  Entwickelung' 
(6  vols.,  1864-74}  ;  <Ueber  Gestezgebung  und 
Rechtswissen shaft  als  Aufgabe  unsercr  Zett' 
(1876). 

BBTHHANN-HOLLWBO,        Theobald 
Theodore    Ptiedrich    Alfred    tod,    (merman 


statesman:  b.  Hohenfinowt  Brandenburg,  S 
Nov.  1856.  Descended  from  one  of  the  oldest 
patrician  families,  who  were  engaged  as  bank- 
ers at  Frankfort-on-Main,  he  was  educated  at 
the  Universities  of  Strassbut^,  Ldpag,  BerUn 
and  Bonn.  At  the  last  named  he  was  a  fellow- 
student  of  the  future  Kaiser  Wilhebn  11;  a 
close  friendship  was  formed  between  them. 
Bethmann-Hollweg  entered  the  dvil  service  in 
1879,  was  appointed  Landiat  of  Ober-Bamim 
in  Brandenburg  in  1885  and  thence  tox  in 
rapid  succession  to  provincial  president  oi 
PotsdatiL  president  of  die  government  of  Bram- 
berg  and  president  of  the  jprovince  of  Branden- 
burg. He  became  Prussian  Minister  of  ilie 
Interior  in  1905,  introduced  numerous  import- 
ant social  reforms  and  in  1907  was  ap- 
pointed Imperial  Home  Secretary  and  wee- 
president  of  the  Prussian  Council  On 
14  July  1909  the  Kaiser  conferred  the 
greatest  office  of  the  state  u(>on  Doctor 
Bethmann-Hollweg  by  making  him  Imperial 
German  Chancellor  in  succession  to  Prince 
Buelow.  Two  notable  incidents  of  his 
chancellorship  were  the  ^joi'T  crisis  of  1911 
and  the  famous  Zabem  ^affair,  which  resalted 
in  the  censure  of  the  imperial  and  militao' 
executives  by  a  large  majority  in  die  Reich- 
stag. But  it  was  the  European  War  and  its 
diplomatic  connections  that  made  the  Chancel- 
lor a  prominent  actor  in  the  drama.  He  was 
the  author  of  the  now  famous  phrase  describ- 
ing the  Treaty  of  183?,  which  guaranteed  the 
neutrality  of  Belgium,  as  'a  scrap  of  paper.* 
Much  has  been  written' concerning  his  personal 
share  in  the  events  of  July  and  August  1914; 
that  part  of  history  remains  for  the  futurt 
In  his  speech  in  the  Reichstag  on  4  Aug.  1914, 
when  the  violation  of  Belgian  neutrality  »ai 
already  in  progress,  he  said;  "We  are  now  in  a 
state  of  necessity,  and  necessity  knows  no  law. 
Our  troops  have  occupied  Luxemburg  and  per- 
haps have  already  entered  Belgian  territory. 
Gentlemen,  this  is  a  breach  of  international  law. 
It  is  true  that  the  French  government  decbred 
at  Brussels  that  France  would  respect  Belgian 
neutrality  as  long  as  her  adversary  respected 
it.  We  kneWj  however,  that  France  stood  ready 
for  an  invasion.  France  could  wait,  we  could 
not.  .  .  .  Thus  we  were  forced  to  ignore 
the  rightful  protests  of  the  governments  of 
Luxemburg  and  Belgium.  The  wrong — 1 
speak  openly  —  the  wrong  we  thereby  commii 
we  will  try  to  make  good  as  soon  as  our  mili- 
tary aims  have  been  attained.  He  who  is  men- 
aced as  we  are  and  is  fighting  for  his  higfaesi 
possession  can  only  consider  how  he  is  to  hack 
nis  way  throng  (wie  er  sich  durcbhauen 
kann).»  Later  in  the  evening  the  British  Am- 
bassaflor  called  upon  him  for  a  final  interview. 
Sir  W.  E.  Goschen  reported:  •!  found  the 
Chancellor  very  agitated.  .  .  .  He  at  once 
tKgan  a  harangue,  which  ^ted  for  about  20 
minutes.  .  .  .  Just  for  a  word  —  ntulrolily 
—  a  word  which  in  war  time  had  so  often  been 
disre^rded  —  just  for  a  scrap  of  paper  (Jreal 
Britain  was  going  to  make  war  on  a  kindred 
nation  who  desired  nothing  better  than  to  be 
friends  with  her.  ...  He  held  Great  Brit- 
ain responsible  for  all  the  terrible  events  that 
might  happen.*  (See  Was,  Eobopean  — Diiw- 
MATic  HiStoby).  On  the  eighth  anniversary  of 
Doctor  Bethmatm-HoUweg's  assuming  the  office 


:,  Google 


BETHNAL   GRBBN  — BBTLIS 


o(  Chancellor,  the  following  was  sent  out 
dirough  the  wireless  stations  of  the  German 
government:  The  Kaiser  has  accepted  the 
resignation  tendered  by  the  Imperial  Chancel- 
lor, Hen-  Ton  Bethmanc-Hollweg,  and  has  ap- 
pointed as  his  successor  the  Prussian  Under- 
Secretary  of  Finance,  Heir  Michaelis*  (14  July 
1917).  The  Chancellor  fell  as  a  result  of  the 
powerful  opposition  he  encountered  from  the 
military  par^..  He  has  the  reputation  of  being 
a  man  of  peace,  a  scholar  and  a  philosopher, 
yet  he  has  been  identified  throughout  his  offi- 
cial career  with  the  agrarian  and  militaiy  caste 
known  as  Junkers  (q.v.).  He  had  never  served 
in  the  army,  but  since  the  war  he  was  appointed 
to  an  honorary  rank  which  carried  wiu  it  the 
wearing  of  a  general's  uniforai.  The  Kaiser 
has  more  than  once  offered  him  a  title,  which 
he  has  steadily  refused.  His  activities  as  Chan- 
cellor are  spread  over  a  wide  field,  not  the 
least  important  being  the  various  peace  man- 
oeuvres conducted  under  his  official  patronage. 
See  Germanv  — History;  Morocco;  Peace 
Pkoposals;  Wit-liak  II. 

BETHNAL  GRBEH,  England,  a  metro- 
politan and  parliamentary  borol^h  in  the  east 
end  of  London,  Middlesex  County.  Area  759 
acres.  It  was  formerly  a  great  centre  of  the 
weaving   industry.     The   chief    industries    are 


9  signifi- 
of  the 


BBTHPHAGE.  bfth'fij  (Hebrew.  <house 
of  fig3»),  a  place  of  Scriptural  interest,  of 
which  no  trace  is  left.  Its  name 
cant   of   its   general   location   but 

t articular  site.  *The  place  of  f^s,'  it  must 
ave  been  situated  somewhere  on  the  eastern 
slope  of  that  range  of  hills  extending  north 
and  south  between  Jerusalem  and  Bethany,  at 
the  foot  of  which  in  the  western  valley  flowed 
the  KedrotL  The  principal  points  of  this 
range  are  the  Mount  of  Offence  and  the  Mount 
of  Olives.  The  fig-tree  still  abounds  both  on 
the  eastern  and  western  sIoiks  of  the  range 
and  even  beyond  Bethany  toward  Jericho. 
Some  travelers  have  been  disposed  to  place 
Bethphage  on  the  site  of  the  modem  villaKc 
of  Abu  Dis,  lying  south  and  a  little  to  the 
east  of  Bethany.  Robinson  thought  this  could 
not  have  been  its  position  and  gave  little  credit 
to  the  tradition  of  the  monks  of  the  country, 
who  place  it  between  Bethany  and  the  sum- 
mit Of  the  Mount  of  Olives,  since  there  is  no 
trace  that  a  village  of  any  description  ever 
existed  there.  Light  foot  thought  it  was  a 
district  extending  from  the  Mount  of  Olives  to 
Jerusalem  and  embracing  a  village  of  the  same 

BETHSAIDA,  b*th-sa1-d»,  Palestine,  vil- 
lage on  the  west  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Galilee, 
a  little  east  of  where  the  Jordan  enters  and 
near  the  newer  Greek  city,  which .  was  some 
distance  back  from  the  shore.  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  Peter  and  Andrew  and  Philip. 
Its  site  has  been  identified  with  a  heap  of 
^rass-grown  ruins.  At  the  northeast  extrem- 
ity of  the  lake  was  another  Bethsaida,  a  vil- 
lage  near  which  the  5,000  were  ted.     PhiKp 

vet.  3— 38 


the  Telrarch  raised  it  to  the  dignity  of  a  town 
and  renamed  it  Julias,  in  honor  of  the  Em- 
peror Augustus'  daughter. 

BETHSHEUBSH,  beth-she'mesh  (He- 
brew, "house  of  the  sun"),  a  dty  of  ancient 
Palestine,  which  probably  occupied  the  site  oi 
the  modern  village,  Ain  Shems,  about  15  miles 
west- southwest  of  Jerusalem,  where  extensive 
ruins  are  still  remaining.  The  exploits  of 
Samson  were  mainly  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Bethshemesh. 

BETHUNB,  Alexander  Neil,  Canadian 
clergyman:  b.  Glengarry,  Ont.,  28  Aug.  1800; 
d.  3  Feb.  1879.  He  was  ordained  to  the  priest- 
hood in  1824,  became  archdeacon  of  York  in 
1846,  coadjutor  to  Bbhop  Strachan  of  To- 
ronto in  1867  and  succeeded  to  the  bishopric 
in  the  same  vear.  He  wrote  the  biography  of 
Bishop  Stracnan. 

BETHUNE.  George  Wkshington,  Amer- 
ican Dutch  Reformed  clergyman  and  poet :  b. 
New  York,  18  March  1805;  d.  Florence,  Italy, 
27  April  1862.  He  was  educated  at  Dickinson 
College  and  at  Princeton  Theological  Semi- 
nary. He  had  charges  at  Rhinebeck  and  Utica, 
N.  v..  Philadelphia,  Brooklyn  and  New  York 


he  died  of  apoplexy.     He  was  noted  as  a 

tor,  wit,  poet,  scholar  and  angler.  Besides  re- 
ligious works,  he  wrote  'British  Female 
Poets';  'Lays  of  Love  and  Faith>  (1847); 
several  of  the  hymns  which  are  widely  used; 
'Orations  and  Discourses'  (1850);  'Memoirs 
of  Joanna  Bethune'  (1864).  He  also  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  Izaak  Walton's  'Complete 
Angler'  (1846),  etc  Consult  the  life  W  A. 
R.  Van  Nest  (New  York  1867). 

BETHUNE,  ba-tun,  FranctL  town  in  the 
department  of  Pas  de  Calais,  19  miles  north- 
northwest  of  Arras,  It  stands  on  a  rode 
washed  by  the  Brette  and  is  a  place  of  con- 
siderable strength.  The  appearance  of  the 
town  is  not  prepossessing.  Tnere  is,  however, 
one  fine  square,  the  centre  of  which  is  occu- 
pied by  an  anaent  belfry  of  remarkable  con- 
struction, while  the  hotel-de-ville.  among  the 
best  edifices  in  the  town,  forms  one  of  its 
sides.  The  chief  manufactures  are  oil,  soap 
and  cloth.  There  are  also  distilleries,  tan- 
neries and  salt  and  sugar  refineries.*  The  trade 
is  greatly  favored  by  the  canals  of  Lawe  and 
Bass^  which  meet  here.  The  family  of  the 
lords  of  Bethune  is  very  celebrated  and  ■ 
branch  of  it  was  established  in  Scotland  about 
the  end  of  the  12th  century.  To  this  branch 
the  celebrated  Cardinal  Beaton  belonged.  Dur- 
ing the  great  European  War  Bethtme  formed 
part  of  the  'debatable  land*  in  which  German 
and  British  forces  faced  each  other  in  the 
trench  warfare  of  1915  and  1916.    Fop.  15,309. 

BETLIS,  or  BltUa,  Turitish  Armenia,  a 
town  about  20  miles  west  from  Lake  Van.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  Kurdistan, 
situated  in  a  wide  ravine  traversed  by  a 
stream  on  whose  steep  banks  the  town  is  ^ilt 
The  houses  are  of  red  stone,  generally  two 
stories  in  heic^t,  with  grated  windows  to  the 
streets.  In  the  centre,  on  a  high  rock,  is  an 
ancient  castle,  formerly  the  residence  of  the 
Khans  of  Betlis.  The  country  around  is  fer- 
tile,   well    cultivated    and    produces    excellent 


.Google 


884 


BETOY  AN  —  BBTROTHHENT 


crops  of  grain,  cotton,  hemp,  rice,  olives,  to- 
tecco  of  the  best  description  and  excellent 
fruits  and  vegetables.  The  principiil  manufac- 
tures of  the  town  are  coarse  cotton  cloth  and 
tobacco.  In  February  1916,  during  the  great 
Russian  drive  in  Armenia,  Betlis  was  occupied 
by  the  Russians  following:  on  the  capture  of 
Erzcnim.     Pop.  about  30.000. 

BBTOYAN,  a  primitive  but  widely-ei- 
tended  branch  of  the  South  American  Indians, 
between  67°  and  73°  west  longitude,  coverins 
parts  of  eastern  and  southern  Columbia  and 
the  neighboring  regions  of  Venezuela  and  Bra- 
insult    Koch-Grunb  erg's     *Zwei    Tahre 


BETROTHED,  The.  (1)  A  famous  ro- 
mance by  Alessandro  Manzoni  —  'I  Proroessi 
Sposi.'  (See  below).  (2)  A  novel  by  Sir 
Walter  Scott  (1825),  the  scene  of  which  is 
laid  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  (3)  An  opera 
by  Petrella,  first  sung  in  1869  at  Lecco. 

BETROTHED,  The  (<I  Promessi  Sposi'). 
There  are  three  redactions  of  this  masterpiece 
of  Alessandro  Manzoni.  The  first  (1821-23) 
bore  the  title  'Fermo  e  Luda'  and  constituted 
a  vast  historical  canvas,  rich  in  digressive  epi- 
sode of  Milanese  life  around  1630,  the  year  of 
the  great  pestilence,  In  the  second,  entitled  in 
manuscript   'Gli  sposi  promessi'  and  published 


the  story  proper  are  made  

proportionate  to  the  imaginative  content,  while 
the  ethical  purpose  of  the  novel  more  rigidly 
controls.  In  preparation  for  the  third  and  final 
edition  (184(M2)  Manzoni  bad  'washed  his 
duds  in  tne  Amo,"  as  he  modestly  avers.  It  ex- 
presses the  Manzonian  theory,  now  triumphant, 
of  the  national  Italian  language.  'I  promessi 
sposi>  in  this  form  is  the  leading  classic  mode) 
of  modern  Italian  s^ch.  This  romance  is  the 
best  Italian  effort  in  prose  of  the  Romantic 
period.  It  substituted  sound  historical  scholar- 
ship and  studied  psychological  portraiture  for 
the  sentimentality  of  the  mat  du  iiicit  and  the 
purposeless  adventures  of  the  old  romanesque 
novels.  It  gave  a  typ\a\  and  evolved  interpre- 
tation of  Italian  middle-class  idealism,  demo- 
cratic (in'vi'i^)  in  outlook,  Roman  Catholic  in 
inBpiTa.tion,  '  conservative  and  evolutionary  in 
tactic.  In  artistic  mood,  it  shows  a  kindly, 
ironical  scepticism  toward  human  nature,  ex- 
pressed subtly  in  the  conception  of  the  plot  and 
more  openly  in  frequent  epigrammatic  flashes. 
The  conviction  that  man's  efforts  are  powerless 
to  win  happiness  leads  Manzoni  to  a  pessimism 
essentially  passive  and  inactive;  save  that  this 
feeling  is  but  the  groundwork  for  something 
more  ^itire.  Through  faith  in  God  and  in 
the  triumph  of  righteousness  we  may  take 
refuge  in  a  peaceful  and  secure  optimism. 
"When  troubles  come,  deserved  or  undeserved, 
trust  in  God  softens  them  and  makes  them 
useful  to  a  belter  life."  In  lifting  the  veil 
delicately  from  the  ludden  vanities  of  his  char- 
acters to  reveal  ihcir  helplessness  in  their  pride, 
Manzoni  finds  a  source  of  a  rich  humor,  dis- 
cerning but  free  from  bitterness.  The  plot, 
baldly  summarized,  is  amusingly  melodramatic. 
Rento  and  Lucia,  two  naive  and  simple  peasants, 
by  the  wickedness  of  a  bold,  bad  baron,  and 


the  delidousl^  human  weakness  of  a  priest: 
Don  Ahbondio  —  the  most  popular  figure  of 
the  novel^are  prevented  from  marrying;  and 
compelled  to  flee  from  their  homes,  they  are 
caught  up  in  the  turmoil  ofgreat  events  occur- 
ring in  their  province.  This  review  of  17th 
century  society  is  accurate  and  sound.  Its 
various  traits  and  tendencies  are  incarnated  in 
characters  elaborated  in  detail.  Hardly  one  of 
them  but  has  become  in  some  aspect  or  phrase 
proverbial ;  for  belonging;  exactly  to  their  own 
ancient  jjeriod,  they  reflect  Manzoni's  charac- 
teristic view  of  life,  and  are  universally  typical 
of  humanity.  The  sagaciously  worldly  saint. 
Padre  Cristotoro;  the  unwilling  nun  (monoi^a 
f areola')  Gertrude ;  the  converted  reprobate 
called  flittiomitiato ;  the  officious  and  wisely 
blundering  mother,  Agnese,  are  all  famous  and 
engaging  personages.  Perhaps  the  best-known 
section  of  the  book  is  the  lurid  description  of 
the  pestilence  at  Milan,  with  its  weird  super- 
slitioiis  terrors.  In  the  portrayal  of  feudal 
Italy,  crushed  by  foreign  oppression,  modem 
Italian  patriotism  has  always  found  much  stim- 
ulus. Nevertheless,  the  complexity  and  deU- 
cac^  of  Manzoni's  humorous  touch  makes  the 
full  richness  of  <I  promessi  sposi'  accessiUe 
only  to  maturer  minds.  It  seemed  disappoint- 
ingly oppressive  and  quiescent  to  the  more  tur- 
bulent sinrits  even  of  its  own  ag:e.  Forced,  l^ 
its  linguistic  prestige,  upon  Itahan  children,  it 
presents  to  them  the  conventional  ret^uisites  of 
the  textbook:  dullness  and  subhmity.  <I 
promessi  sposi*  is  not  only  the  'Ivanhoe;'  bat 
the  'Vicar  of  Wakefield'  of  Italians.  A  dis- 
tinguished American,  Andrew  D.  White,  has 
called  it  the  best  novel  ever  written;  which 
means  simply  that  it  can  be  read  over  and  over 
again  with  increasing  pleasure,  due  to  ever  new 
discoveries,  though  it  will  never  have  for  Amer- 
icans the  glamour  of  sanctity  with  whidi  the 
Italian  scholastic  tradition  surrounds  it  as  the 
principal  model  of  the  mother  tongue. 

Abthur  Lxvingston, 
WesUm  University,  London,  Ont. 
BBTROTHHENT,  or  BETROTHAL,  a 
mutual  promise  or  compact  between  two  par- 
ties, by  which  they  bind  themselves  to  mar^. 
The  word  imports  giving  one's  troth,  that  is^ 
true  faith  or  promise.  Formal  ceremonies  of 
betrothment  are  not  the  custom  in  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain,  as  on  the  Continent, 
where  the  betrothment  is  either  solemn  (made 
in  the  face  of  the  church)  or  private  (made 
before  witnesses  out  of  the  church).  As  be- 
trothments  are  contracts,  they  are  snbjeci  to 
the  same  rules  as  other  contracts;  for  instance, 
that  they  are  valid  only  between  persons  whose 
capacity  is  recognized  by  law;  and  the  use  of 
fiaud,  violence  or  intimidation  vitiates  the 
contrnct.  The  consent  of  both  parties,  of 
course.  Is  required.  TTiis  may  be  expressed 
either  verbally,  or  by  writing,  or  by  action. 
In  Germany  the  consent  of  the  parents  is  al- 
ways necessary,  if  the  parties  are  under  ag& 
not  yet  Jiti  juru.  But  if  the  parents  withhold 
their  consent  unreasonably^  the  permission  of 
a  judge  is  allowed  to  sanction  the  contract.  If 
the  opinions  of  the  parents  are  diverse,  the  Uw 
gives  effect  to  that  of  the  father.  Betroth- 
ments  contracted  thus,  according  to  law,  ire 
called  sbonsalia  publico;  others  are  called  ifoit' 
salia    ctandfstiiw.      The    latter    are,    in   seat 


digitized  byGoOt^Ie 


BETSY  AND  I  ARE  OUT  —  BBTTBRTOH 


Bd6 


places,  utterly  invalid;  in  others,  only  punish- 
able. By  the  common  Gerinaa  law,  however, 
tfaey^  are  valid  in  every  case  in  which  consutn- 
mation  or  consecration  by  the  priest  has  taken 
place.  The  parents,  in  these  case^  ate  not 
allowed  to  apply  for  a  dissolution  of  the  con- 
tract, nor  can  they  refuse  their  consent,  except 
Cor  highly  important  reasons.  Public  betroth' 
ment  induces  the  obligation  to  marry.  In  case 
of  refusal  to  complete  the  contract  by  mar- 
riaee,  the  injured  party  is  allowed  an  action 
at  law  lo  compel  its  performance;  but,  since 
unhappy  marriages  are  among  the  greatest 
misfortunes,  the  means  of  compulsion  applied 
by  the  law  are  never  great,  amounting  only  to 
a  small  fine  or  a  short  imprisonment  If  cir- 
cumstances take  place  which  if  happening  be- 
fore the  betrothment,  would  have  necessarily 
prevented  it,  the  par^  affected  by  them  is  al- 
lowed to  recede  from  the  engagement,  and 
modem  laws  allow  only  an  action  for  damaces. 
In  Germany  betrothment  generally  takes  place 
in  a  small  company  of  relations  and  friends. 
In  Russia  it  was  once  binding  and  indissoluble, 
like  marriage,  but  is  now  a  mere  form  accom- 
pan3ang  the  marriage  ceremony.  The  contract 
IS  called  by  the  Jews  thenaim  rischonim^  In 
the  laws  of  Moses  there  are  certain  provisions 
respecting  the  state  of  the  virgin  who  is  be- 
trothed. Selden's  'Uxor  Hebraica'  gives  the 
schedule  of  Hebrew  contracts  of  betrothment. 
With  the  Jews,  a  young  woman  is  rarely  al- 
lowed to  enter  into  an  engagement  without 
the  cognizance  of  her  relatives,  who,  in  fact, 
in  most  cases,  arrange  matters  for  her  ana 
generally  avail  themselves  of  the  services  of 
marriage  brokers,  who  receive  a  percentage 
upon  the  amount  of  die  dowry,  beside  a  ^T3- 
tuity.  In  continental  cities  these  Jew  marriage 
brokers  have  matches  ahvays  on  hand,  with 
dowries  varying  from  $5,000  to  $200,000,  and 
as  soon  as  the  betrothment  has  taken  place 
they  look  upon  the  bargain  as  concluded;  but 
cases  frequently  occur  in  which  on  the  day 
of  the  wedding  the  bridegroom  breaks  the 
■natch  because  the  Austrian  metalliques  or 
Spanisfa  Ardoins,  tendered  in  payment  for  the 
dowry,  have  fallen  in  vahie.  and  reduced  the 
dowry  perhaps  to  the  extent  of  20  or  25  per 
cent.  Amon^  the  ancient  Greeks,  the  father 
made  a  selection  for  his  daughter.  The  young 
couple  kissed  each  other  for  the  first  time  in 
the  presence  of  their  friends,  and  it  was  cus- 
tomary for  the  bridegroom  to  bring  flowers 
daily,  until  the  wedding  day,  to  the  house  of 
Jiis  bride.  The  Arab  sends  a  relative  to  nego- 
tiate about  his  intended  bride  and  the  price  at 
iwhich  she  is  to  be  had.  The  bridegroom  of 
Kamchatka  has  to  serve  in  the  house  of  his 
prospective  father-in-law  before  an  engage- 
ment is  allowed  to  take  place.  With  the  Letts 
and  Esthonians  no  engagement  is  considered 
valid  until  the  parent  and  relatives  of  the 
brfde  have  tasted  of  the  brandy  which  the 
bridegroom  presents.  Among  the  Hottentots, 
the    would-be  bride^^om    is   not   allowed   to 

?ropose  withont  being  accompanied  by  his 
ather.  Fadier  and  son  walk  arm  in  arm, 
-vvith  pipes  in  their  mouths,  to  the  house  of  the 
bride,  where  the  engagement  takes  place. 
.Among  some  of  the  indigenous  tribes  of 
.America  it  was  customary  to  keep  the  be- 
trothed^ tady  in  durance  for  40  days,  as  the 
superstition  prevailed  that  she  would  exert  an 


occuU  in6uence  upon  anything  she  touched  or 
anybody  with  whom  she  came  into  contact- 
During  these  40  days  the  lady  was  kept  on 
starvation  fare,  so  that  when  the  day  of  the 
wedding  came  she  looked  more  Uke  a  skeleton 
than  a  bride-  Consult  Pollock  and  Maitland, 
'HUlory  of  English  Law'  (2d  ed.,  1899)  ;  Hut- 
chinson, H.  N.,  'Marriage  Customs  in  Many 
Lands'  (1897);  and  Miln,  L.  J.,  'Wooings 
and  Weddings  in  Many  Lands'    (1900). 

BETSY  AND  I  ARE  OUT.  the  title  of 
a  popular  American  poem  by  Will  Carleton 
(q-v.),  first  printed  in  the  Toledo  Blade  in 
Iffi^.  It  was  followed  by  'Betsy  and  I  Made 
Up.' 

BETTBLHEIM,  Anton,  Austrian  author: 
b.  Vienna,  18  Nov.  1851.  Having  graduated 
from  the  universities  at  Vienna  and  Munich 
he  immediately  devoted  himself  to  a  literary 
career.  Most  of  his  writings  have  been  bio- 
graphicaL  He  edited  the  collection  of  bicw- 
raphies  'Fiihrende  Geister,'  to  which  he 
contributed  a  biography  of  Anzengruber 
(1891,  2d  ed.,  1897).  He  was  editor  of  the 
'Allgemeine  Deutsche  fiiographie.'  Among 
his  notable  biographies  are  'Deutsche  Geistes- 
helden'  (1895)  ;  "Louise  von  Francois  und 
Conrad  F.  Meyer'  (1905)  ;  'Auerbach'  (1907)  ; 
<Prince  Hohenlohe'   (1910). 

BETTERTON,  Thomas,  English  actor: 
b.  August  1635 ;  d.  London,  28  Apnl  1710.  He 
was  the  son  of  an  under-cook  in  the  service  of 
Charles  I,  and  was  apprenticed  to  a  bookseller 
in  London.  His  master,  Mr,  Rhodes,  obtained 
a  license  for  a  company  of  players  in  1659,  and 
with  him  Betterton  commenced  his  career.  He 
was  engaged  by  Davenant  in  1661  for  Lincoln's 
Inn  Fields  theatre.  He  was  sent  by  royal  com- 
mand to  visit  Paris  with  a  view  to  the  adoption 
of  French  methods  of  staging,  etc,  in  England. 
For  his  performance  of  Alvars  in  'Love  for 
Love,'  Cliarles  II  lent  him  his  coronation  siut. 
His  position  was  pre-eminent.  He  seems  to  have 
had  no  personal  graces  from  nature  to  second 
his  rare  talents,  if  the  following  account  be 
true:  *Mr.  Betterton,  though  a  superlatively 
good  actor,  labored  under  an  ill  figure,  being 
clumsily  made,  having  a  great  head,  a  short 
thick  neck,  stooped  in  the  shoulders,  and  had 
fat,  short  arms,  which  he  rarely  lifted  higher 
than  his  stomach.  His  left  hand  frequently 
lodged  in  his  breast  between  his  coat  and  waist- 
coat; while  with  his  right  he  prepared  his 
speech;  his  actions  were  few  bvit  just;  he  had 
httle  eyes  and  a  broad  face,  a  little  pockf rctten ; 
a  corpulent  body,  and  thick  legs,  with  large 
feet ;  tie  was  better  to  meet  than  to  follow,  for 
his  aspect  was  serious,  venerable,  and  majestic. 
In  his  latter  time,  a  little  paralytic ;  his  voice 
was  low  and  grumbling,  yet  he  could  tune  it 
by  an  artful  climax  wniui  enforced  universal 
attention  even  from  the  fops  and  orange  girls. 
He  was  incapable  of  dancing  even  in  a  country 
dance,  as  was  Mr.  Barry,  but  their  good 
qualities  were  more  than  equal  Co  their  defi- 
ciencies." Betterton  had  the  rare  faculty  of 
identifying  himself  with  his  part.  He  married 
Mrs.  Sanderson,  an  actress  of  almost  equal 
merit  with  himself,  whose  Lady  Macbeth  was 
reckoned  a  perfect  piece  of  acting.  He  was 
prudent  and  saving,  but  he  lost  his  small  means 
m  a  commercial  speculation,  and  a  theatre  which 
he  afterward  opened  was  not  successful.    After 


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SOS 


BBTTIHSLLI  —  BSTZ 


t  from  the  stage,  he  reappeared  ui 
his  old  age  a  few  times  to  take  a  benefit,  his 
last  appearance  being  13  April  1710.  He  was 
the  au&or  of  three  plays.  He  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey.  Consult  Howe,  'Thomas 
Betterton'  (1801) ;  'Life  and  Tunei  of  Thomas 
Betterton'  (1888). 

BBTTINBLLI,  bet-t«-nei'l<;  Saveiio, 
Italian  author:  b.  Mantua,  1718;  d.  1808.  He 
studied  under  the  Jesuits;  entered  in  1736,  the 
novitiate  of  this  order,  and  taught  from  1739 
to  1744,  belles-lettres  at  Bresda,  where  he  made 
himself  known  by  some  poems  composed  for 
the  use  of  schools.  In  Bologna,  where  he 
studied  theology,  he  continued  to  cultivate  bis 
poetical  talents,  and  wrote  for  die  theatre  of 
the  college  his  tra^^dy  of  Jonathan.  In  1751 
•*-  — s  entrusted  with  the  direction  of  the  eol- 


letre  of  nobles  at  Parma,    After  the  suppression 

_r.i.-  I— uits  in  1773  he  returned  to  his  native 

e  he  resumed  his  literary  labors.    Hit 


of  the  Jesuits  in  1773  he  returned  to  Ws 

dtv,  where  he  resumed  his  literary  labori.     _    . 

chief  work  is  his    '  Risorgimento   negli  stud). 


netie  Arti  e  ne'  Costumi  dopo  i!  Uille^  (1775). 
The  'Lettere  died  di  Virgilio  agli  Arcadi*  at- 
tracted great  attention,  and  its  critidsm  of  the 
older  poets,  particularly  Dante,  involved  him 
in  many  controversies.  The  best  of  his  poems 
are  his  'Vers  sdolti,'  which  though  they  do  not 
show  any  ^eat  poetical  power,  are  always  ele- 
gant and  ingenious.  His  collected  wons  ap- 
peared in  24  vols.,  1799-1801. 

BETTING,  the  staldi^  or  pledgfeig  of 
money  or  property  uiKin  a  contingency  or  issue. 
The  processes  of  betting  may  be  best  illustrated 
in  connection  with  horse-racing^  which  fur- 
nishes the  members  of  the  betting  fraternity 
with  thdr  best  markets.  Bettors  arc  divided 
into  two  classes  —  the  backers  of  horses,  and 
the  bookmakers,  or  professional  bettors,  who 
form  the  belting  ring,  and  make  a  living  by  bet- 
ting against  horses  according  to  a  methodical 
plan.  By  the  method  adopted  by  the  profes- 
sional bettor  the  element  of  chance  is  as  far  as 
Kssible  removed  from  Us  transactions,  so  that 
can  calculate,  with  a  reasonable  prospect  of 
having  his  calculations  verified,  on  making  more 
or  less  profit  as  the  result  of  a  season's  engage- 
ments. Instead  of  backing  any  particular  horse, 
the  professional  bettor  lays  the  same  sum 
against  every  horse  that  tuces  the  field,  or  a 
certain  number  of  them,  and  in  doing  so  has 
usually  to  give  odds,  which  are  greater  or  less 
according  to  the  estimate  formed  of  the  chance 
of  success  which  each  of  the  horses  has  on 
which  the  odds  are  given.  In  this  way,  while 
in  the  event  of  the  race  being  won  (as  is  usually 
the  case)  by  any  of  the  horses  entered  in  the 
betting-book  of  a  professional  bettor,  the  latter 
has  always  a  certain  fixed  sum  (say  $1,000)  to 
pay,  he  recdves  from  the  backers  of  the  losers  - 
sums  which  va^  in  proportion  to  the  odds 
siven.  Thus,  if  a  bookmaker  is  making  a 
j|l,000  book,  and  the  odds  against  some  horse 
IS  four  to  one,  he  will,  if  that  horse  wins,  have 
to  pay  $1,000,  while,  if  it  loses,  he  will  recnve 
^50,  It  usually  depends  upon  which  horse  it 
IS  that  wins  a  race  whether  the  bootmiaker 
gains  or  loses.  If  the  first  favorite  wins  it  is 
evidently  the  worst  thing  that  could  happen 
for  the  bookmaker,  for  as  he  is  bound  to 
recdve  the  sum  of  the  amounts  to  which  all 
the  horses  except  one  have  been  backed,  the 
largest  deduction  must  be  made  from  his  total 


recdpts  on  account  of  the  first  favorite.  Very 
frequently  the  recdpts  of  the  bookmaker  are 
au^ented  by  sums  paid  on  account  of  horses 
which  have  been  backed  and  never  run  at  all 
Sometimes,  although  not  often,  the  odds  are 

g'ven  upon  and  not  against  a  particular  horse. 
Doks  may  also  be  made  up  on  the  prindple 
of  betting  against  any  particular  horse  ^ting 
a  place  among  the  first  three.  The  odds  in  this 
case  are  usually  one-fourth  of  the  odds  given 
against  the  same  horse  winning.  Another  mode 
of  betting  is  that  called  a  sweepstake,  in  which 
a  number  of  persons  join  in  contributiiig  a  cer- 
tain stake,  after  which  each  of  those  takiog 
part  in  the  sweepstake  has  a  horse  assigned  to 
nim  (usually  by  lot),  which  he  backs,  and  (he 
backer  of  uie  winning  horse  gains  the  whole 
stakes.  If  there  are  more  persons  taking  part  in 
the  sweepstake  than  there  are  horses  running 
some  of  them  must  draw  blanks,  in  which  case 
of  course  their  stakes  are  at  once  lost. 

Al  common  law,  wagers  are  not  per  n,  void, 
but  statutes  prohibiting  betting  have  been 
passed  by  many  of  the  States.  When  one  who 
loses  a  wager  p:ets  another  to  pay  the  money 
for  him,  an  action  lies  for  the  recovery  of  ihe 
money.  Wagers  on  the  event  of  an  election  laid 
before  the  poll  is  open,  or  after  it  is  closed,  are 
illegal.  In  horse-racing,  simple  bets  upon  a  race 
are  unlawful  both  in  England  and  die  United 
States.  In  the  case  even  of  a  legal  wager,  the 
authority  of  a  stakeholder,  like  that  of  an  arbi- 
trator, may  be  rescinded  by  either  party  before 
the  event  Happens,    See  Wageh. 

BETTS,  Bamnel  RoHitar,  American  ini^ 
i)t;  b.  Richmond,  Mass.,  8  June  1787;  A  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  2  Nov.  186a  He  practised  law 
in  Sullivan  County,  N.  Y.;  served  in  the  War  of 
1812  and  first  became  prominent  when  appointed 
judge  advocate.  He  w«s  a  member  of  Congress 
1815-17;  Circuit  Court  judge,  1823-%;  and 
United  States  district  judge,  1827-^.  As  codi- 
fier  of  the  maritime  laws  of  the  United  States 
he  exerdsed  a  clarifying  influence  upon  sncb 
questions  as  salvage,  wages,  diarters,  insurance, 
seamen's  wages,  etc.,  ana  the  formulation  of  the 
neutrality  and  patent  laws.  Despite  the  enor- 
volume  of  business  brought  to  him  over 


Emmet  and  Choate  were  among  the  eminent 
lawyers  who  conducted  cases  belore  him.  He 
published  'Admiralty  Practice'    (1838). 

BBTULA,  die  generic  name  of  lurch  (q.v), 
BETWA,  HindusUiL  a  river  which  takes 
its  rise  in  the  Vini^^  Mountains,  near  Bhopal, 
and  flowing  nearly  340  miles  in  a  northeasterly  , 
direction  through  the  provinces  of  Malwa  and 
Allahabad,  finally  joins  the  lumna  below 
Kalpee.  Near  Erech  a  slight  fall  occurs.  The 
country  throu^  which  it  flows  ii  hi^ly  culti- 
vated The  nver  at  times  is  said  to  rise  to  a 
great  height  and  in  a  portion  of  its  course 
flows  through  beds  of  iron  ore.  The  towns 
Bhilsa  and  Jhansi  are  located  on  its  banks. 

BETZ,  Fraax,  German  opera  singer;  b, 
Maini,  19  March  1835;  d.  Berlm,  11  Aug.  l«a 
He  made  his  first  appearance  in  1855  and  four 
years  later  became  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Opera  House  Company  at  Berlin,  where  be 
first  appeared  in  Verdi's  'Emani.'  Wagner 
chose  htm  to  create  the  part  of  Hatis  Sachs  at 


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BEULAH  —  BEUTHBN 


Munich  in  1868  and  of  Wotui  at  Bwreutb  in 
1876,  after  which  he  devoted  himself  entirely 
to  Wagnerian  opera. 


nothing  to  annoy  and  all  sounds  are  ain'^eable. 

BEULB,  Charles  Eroeat,  French  archte- 
ologist  and  politician:  b.  Sauinur,  29  June  1826; 
d.  4  April  1874  Having  graduated  from  the 
&»le  NomuU  in  Paris,  he  was  for  a  time  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric.  In  1849  he  accMnpanied 
an  expedition  of  French  archcologists  to  Greece, 
where  he  discovered  the  propylaea  of  the  Acro- 
polis. On  hia  return  to  Pans  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  arcliKology  at  the  Bibliotheque 
Nationalc.  In  1858  he  undertook  on  bis  own 
account  a  trip  to  the  site  of  Carthage.  The 
latter  part  of  his  life  was  devoted  to  politics. 
In  lS7t  he  was  elected  to  the  National  Assem- 
bly, where  he  showed  himself  an  ardent  royal- 
ist. In  1873  he  was  for  a  brief  peHod  Minister 
of  the  Interior  under  MacMahon.  Among  his 
works  are  'L'acropole  d'Athines'  <2  vols., 
1854) ;  'Etudes  sur  le  PelMwnnese'  (1855)  j 
'Les  monnaies  d' Atfacnes  >  ( 1858) ;  '  His toire 
de  I'art  grec  avant  Piriclis'  (1868;);  'Le 
proces  de  Cisars'    (4  vols.,  1870). 

BBURHANN,  Karl  Horitz  von,  German 
African  explorer;  b.  Potsdam,  28  July  1835;  d. 
Mao,  Africa,  February  1863.  In  1853  he  began 
his  studies  at  the  Military  Engineering  School 
at  Berlin,  from  which  he  graduated  and  became 
an  ofHcer  in  the  engineer  corps  of  the  German 
Army.  In  1860  he  left  the  military  service 
and  accompanied  an  exploring  expedition  to 
the  Nile  and  the  Nubian  Desert.  Two  years 
later  he  set  for  A  on  an  exploring  expedition 
on  his  own  account  to  seek  traces  of  Eduard 
Vogel  (q.v.)  who  had  pine  into  the  inferior 
of  Africa  and  had  not  smce  been  heard  from. 
Beurmann  had  as  his  objective  WadaL  He 
proceeded  to  Kuka.  the  capital  of  Bomu,  thence 
southwest  to  Yakoba,  capital  of  Bautshi. 
Thence  he  set  out  for  Wadai,  but  was  com- 
pelled to  return  on  account  of  the  desertion  of 
1,  who  also  robbed  him  of  his  outfit. 


-     --  -    -tart,  re , 

ihe  frontier  of  Wadai,  where,  like  VoKel.  he 
was  murdered  at  the  command  of  the  Sultan. 
Hia  one  work  is  'Glossar  der  Tigrfsprache' 
(Leipzig  1868)  which  was  also  published  in 
English  (Halle  1868).  A  biographical  sketch, 
by  A.  Men,  appears  in  'Janresbericht  des 
Leipriger  Vereins  fiir  Erdltunde'  (1866). 
BEURNONVILLE,  ber-nofi-vSl.  Huqnia 


1752:  d.  23  April  1821.  He  served  in  the  east 
until  1789.  Arriving  in  Paris  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Revolution,  he  identified  himself 
at  once  with  it,  and  in  1792  commanded  on  the 
Moselle;  in  1793  he  became  minister  of  war. 
Sent  in  1793  to  arrest  Dumouriez,  he  was  him- 
self arrested  by  Dumouriez,  and  confined  until 
1795,  when  he  was  exchanged,  and  became  suc- 
cessively general- in-chief  of  the  army  of  the 
north,  inspector-general  of  infantry.  Ambas- 
sador to  Berlin  In  1800,  to  Madrid  in  1802,  and 
count  of  the  empire.  In  1814  he  was  commis- 
sioned by  Napoleon  to  organiie  means  of  de- 
fense upon  the  frontier,  and  on  the  Emperor's 
abdication  was  named  Minister  of  State  and 


Peer  of  France  by  Lonis  XVIIl.  On  the  re- 
turn of  Naooleon  to  Elba,  he  was  proscribed  by 
a  special  ilecree  but  was  reinstated  in  all  his 
dignities  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  He  be- 
came marshal  of  France  in  181^  and  marquis 
in  1817. 


d.  Altenbere,  24  Oct  1886.  He  adopted  the 
career  of  diplomacy,  and  as  member  of  em- 
bassies or  ambassador  for  Saxony  resided  at 
Berlin,  Paris,  Munich  and  London.  He  was 
successivdy  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  (1849) 
and  of  the  interior  for  Saxony  (1853).  At  the 
London  conference  regarding  the  Schleswig. 
Holstein  difiiculty  he  represented  the  (lerman 
Bund.  He  lent  his  influence  on  the  side  of 
Austria  against  Prussia  before  the  war  of 
1866,  was  on  its  conclusion  forced  out  of  office 
by  Bismarck.  He  entered  the  service  of  Austria 
as  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  became  presi- 
dent of  the  ministry.  Imperial  Chancellor,  and 
in  ISffl  was  created  count  He  rendered  excel- 
lent service  in  the  reorganization  of  the  diul 
monardiy.  In  1871-78  he  was  Ambassador  in 
London,  and  in  1878-82  in  Paris.  An  English 
translation  of  his  memoirs  appeared  in  1882. 

BBUTBNHULLER,  boi'tin-mul-Ur,  Wil- 
liam, American  entomologist :  b.  Hoboken, 
N.  J.,  31  March  1864.  Educated  in  the  public 
schools.  From  1889~1910  he  was  curator  of  the 
department  of  entomology  in  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History.  He  has  written 
admirable  works  on  butterflies  and  moths, 
especially  on  those  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York 
and  contributed  voluminously  to  scientific  and 

Kpular   magazines.     He  was   president   of   the 
tw    York   Entomological    Society    (1900-01) 
and  editor  of  its  Journal. 


.  red  the  service  of  the  government  In 
1810  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  Board  of 
Inland  Revenue  at  Berlin:  three  years  later 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Ministry  of  Finance, 
to  which  he  was  promoted  on  account  of  the 
reforms  he  had  effected  in  the  financial  manage- 
ment of  the  revenue  department  In  \S2l  ne 
became  a  member  of  the  Council  of  State.  In 
1844  he  was  raised  to  the  position  of  acting 

frivy  councillor.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
ndustrial  Institute  in  Berlin  and  of  similar 
institutions  in  the  provincial  cities.  A  statue 
was  erected  in  honor  to  his  memory  before  the 
Architectural  Academy. 


sian  Poland.  It  has  steam  and  electric  tram- 
ways, and  among  buildings  of  note  are  the 
Rrnnan  Catholic  church  oi  Saint  Man-  (13th 
century),  Protestant  parish  church  (I5th  cen- 
tury), sjmagogue,  royal  Catholic  gymnasium, 
higier  girls  school,  etc.  It  is  an  important 
centre  of  mining  and  metallurgy,  having  iron- 
works, zinc-works,  lead-works,  coal  mines  and 
various  industrial  establishments.  The  town 
passed  from  the  Kingdom  of  Bohemia  inb) 
that  of  Prussia  in  J74Z    Pop.  67,718. 


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BEVBLAND  —  BEVERAQBS 


BEVELAND,  U'v^lSnt  North  and 
South,  Netherlands,  two  islanas  in  the  province 
of  Zealand,  and  formed  by  the  mouths  of  the 
Scheldt.  North  Beveland  lies  east  of  the 
island  of  Walcheren,  from  which  it  is  sep- 
arated by  a  narrow  channel.  South  Beveland, 
22  miles  long  and  10  miles  wide,  the  la:^er  and 
more  fertile,  contains  Goes,  the  capital,  and 
several  forts  and  villages.  The  united  area  of 
the  islands,  which  have  suffered  much  from 
inundations,  is  120  square  miles. 

BEVERAGES.  Beverages  are  those  drinks 
to  which  mankind  resorts  in  order  that  he  may 
relieve  the  pangs  of  thirst  or  supply  some  other 
demand  of  the  system.  In  the  beginning  tnan's 
hfe  was  marked  by  its  simplicity.  Our  first 
parents  were  content  to  eat  the  fruits  that  they 
found  so  convenient  for  their  needs  and  it  is 
doubtful  if  they  knew  any  other  beverage  than 
the  pure  water  coursing  through  the  streams 
that  irrigated  the  ground.  It  was  not  tintil  they 
began  to  eat  the  flesh  of  beasts  and  searched 
the  soil  for  delicacies  to  gratify^  their  newly 
awakened  appetite  for  a  variety  in  foods  that 
they  felt  the  craving  of  unnatural  thirst.  But 
the  eating  of  strong  meats  required  the  drinking 
of  stronger  drinks  than  water  and  in  this  fact 
we  find  the  origin  of  the  history  of  beverages. 
It  would  be  intensely  interesting  if  we  could 
know  in  just  what  way  prehistoric  man  first 
satisfied  his  unnatural  thirst  for  drink.  It  is, 
of  course,  more  than  probable  that  ifae  second 
beverage  discovered  by  man  was  the  milk  of  the 
animals  he  slaughtereid  to  gratify  his  taste  for 
meat.  From  a  temperate  and  hygienic  point  of 
view  it  was  not  a  long  stride  from  the  waters 
of  the  brooks  to  the  milk  of  cows  and  asses  and 
yet  it  stands  out  as  a  landmark  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  demand  for  variety,  the  demand 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  tendency 
toward  civilization.  It  is  also  quite  probable 
that,  in  the  beginning,  man  drank  his  milk 
soon  after  It  was  drawn  or  white  it  was  still 
fresh,  but  finally  there  came  a  day  when  some 
prehistoric  investigator  was  bold  enough  to  take 
a  drink  of  the  milk  of  mares  that  had  been  set 
aside,  and  from  this  fermented  liquid  teamed 
the  sensations  of  intoxication,  for  kumyss,  still 
the  favorite  tipple  of  the  Tartar,  is  unquestion- 
ably the  most  ancient  of  all  intoxicating  bever- 
ages. 

To  mankind,  next  to  water,  milk  is  still  a 
favorite  beverage,  for  it  possesses  the  double 
advantage  of  being  both  food  and  drink.  To 
the  civilized  taste  the  milk  of  cows  is  the  most 
desirable  hut  more  barbaric  taste  calls  for  a 
stronger  beverage  and  is  best  gratified  by  the 
milk  of  mares,  asses,  camels  or  even  rein- 
It  is  undoubtedly  true  that  if  we  ate  only 
wholesome  foods  in  such  qiiantities  only  as  our 
system  requires;  performed  our  work  with  reg- 
ularity; enjoyedj  at  proper  intervals,  requisite 
rest  and  recreation,  and  avoided  all  such  dele 
terious  distractions  as  excitement  and  worry, 
water  would  be  the  only  beverage  that  nature 
would  demand. 

While  it  is  the  primary  object  of  all  bever- 
ages to  relieve  thint  nearly  all  of  them  also 
possess  other  properties  that  exercise  more  or 
less  effect  upon  the  body.  For  example,  those 
drinks  which  contain  the  largest  quantities  of' 
water  pass  most  rapidly  into  die  circulation, 


Increasing  the  volume  of  blood.  £Hliiting  the 
food,  they  not  only  assist  digestion  but  also 
aid  in  eliminating  waste  matter  from  the  body 
throu^  the  ordinary  channels.  There  are 
beverages  that  soothe  and  beverages  that  irri- 
tate, but  all  have  their  purpose.  The  former 
find  their  scope  of  usefulness  in  times  of  fever 
and  cold,  while  the  latter  are  stimulating  irri- 
tants of  great  medicinal  value. 

Among  the  most  useful  bevera^s  are  those 
that  best  relieve  the  cravings  of  thirst,  the  sour 
lii^uids  prepared  from  the  lemon,  or  other  fruit 
jmces,  which,  while  perhaps  not  add  in  them- 
selves, have  been  rendered  acidulous  by  charges 
of  carbon  dioxide.  While  the  carbonated  and 
mineral  waters  have  the  greatest  effect  in  elimi- 
nating waste  matter  from  the  system  they  are 
not  so  useful  In  this  regard  as  the  hot  drinks, 
like  tea,  coffee  or  even  hot  water,  for  they  not 
only  play  their  part  in  the  elimination  of  waste 
but  also  cool  the  body  by  increasing  the 
perspiration. 

Particularly  soothing  are  such  mucilaginous 
or  gelatinous  liquids  as  barley  water,  flaxseed 
tea  and  Irish  moss.  The  mineral  waters,  mall 
liquors  and  light  wines  act  with  a  toutc  effect; 
the  more  common  beverages,  like  tea  and  coffee 
and  the  milder  alcoholic  liquors  are  stimulating 
to  the  nerves  while  tea  and  coffee,  if  milk  and 
sugar  are  adaed,  as  well  as  chocolate,  cocoa  and 
the  malt  liquors  may  be  classified  as  the  nutri- 
tious drinks. 

Next  in  popularity  to  milk  are  those  unfer- 
mented  beverages  which  are  made  from  pro- 
ducts of  the  vegetable  world  such  as  tea,  coffee, 
cocoa  and  chocolate.  Although  cocoa  is  by  far 
the  most  ancient  of  these  dnnks,  having  been 
in  use  long  before  the  stimulating  qualities  of 
either  tea  or  coffee  were  discovered,  coffee 
.has  long  been  in  greatest  demand.  In  fact,  it 
has  been  estimated  that  about  500,000,000  peo- 
ple drink  coffee  daily,  as  against  the  100.000.000 
who  drink  tea,  and  the  60,000.000  who  panake 
of  chocolate  and  cocoa.  In  the  United  States 
alone  some  500,000.000  pounds  of  coffee  are 
consumed  annually,  as  aguitst  90,000,000  pounds 
of  tea,  and  some  20,000,000  pounds  of  the  vari- 
ous preparations  of  cocoa  and   chocolate. 

There  are  several  points  of  resemblance  be- 
tween all  these  table  drinks  dissimilar  as  they 
are  in  appearance  and  fiavor.  In  each  case 
they  exercise  a  stimulating  effect,  the  caffeine 
of  coffee  and  theine  of  tea  being  almost  iden- 
tical, while  the  thcolronsine  of  chocolate  and 
cocoa  is  but  a  slightly  different  principle.  Each 
also  contains  the  same  bitter_  principle,  tannin, 
and  each  owes  its  characteristic  odor  and  flavor 
to  an  essential  oil. 

Coffee,  which  must  be  considered  first,  be- 
cause of  Its  great  popularity,  is  die  berry  from 
the  several  species  of  the  genus  Coffto,  of 
which  C.  arafnca  is  the  most  important.  First 
used  in  Abvssinia  during  the  9th  century,  it  was 
later  introduced  into  Arabia,  and  from  diere  to 
Constantinople,  where  it  had  become  popular- 
ized by  the  middle  of  the  16th  centutj'.  Ii  is 
supposed  that  it  was  Leonhard  Rauwolf,  a  Ger- 
man physician,  who  introduced  coffee  into 
Europe  in  1573.  A  few  y«irs  later  Prosper 
Alpinus  brought  some  of  the  beans  to  Venice 
to  use  them  as  a  drug,  but  it  was  many  years 
before  it  was  drunk  to  any  extent  outside  of 
Constantinople.  In  1652,  however,  a  coffee 
house  was  opened  in  London  by  fte  Greek  serv- 


Googlc 


BBVBRAQBS 


yicrd 


ant  of  a  merchant  named  Edwards,  whose 
ships  sailed  to  the  Levant,  and  vnce  that  time 
the  popularity  o£  the  beverage  has  never  waned. 
In  Its  preparation  as  a  drink  coffee  should 
not  be  boiled  in  water,  but  instead,  should  be 
covered  with  water  that  has  previously  been 
boiled.  Here  it  should  be  allowed  to  infuse  for 
fully  10  minutes,  at  a  teT«)erature  little  below 
the  boiling  point    As  coffee  does  not  contain 

Seat  a  quantity  of  tannin  as  tea  and  does  not 
it  so  readily,  it  ma^  infuse  longer  without 
lecoming  bitter  and  mdigestible,  the  effect 
■  which  tannin  exerts  if -it  is  boiled  or  left  for 
too  long  a  time  over  the  fire. 

Like  many  other  beverages  coffee  exercises 
both  good  and  evil  effects  upon  the  system. 
Stimabting  the  muscles,  heart  and  nerves,  its 
tendency  is  to  overcome  the  ills  of  fatigue, 
while  its  strengthening  effect  upon  the  heart's 
action  makes  it  a  most  valuable  stimulant  At 
.the  same  time  its  action  upon  the  tMrvous 
system  is  so  marked  that  over-indulgence  in 
the  drink  is  certain  to  be  attended  by  sacfa  ill 
effects  as  insomnia,  and  nervous  headaches,^  if 
not   inlpitation   and  general  nervous  disability. 

Tea,  which  stands  next  to  coffee  as  a  table 
beverage;  is  a  native  of  Qiina  where  these 
shrufu  of  the  CameUia  family  have  been  culti* 
vated  for  more  than  a  thousand  years.  It  was 
once  a  genei^  belief  that  there  were  many 
kinds  of  tea  plants,  but  Robert  Fortuoe,  the 
botanist,  exposed  ihe  myth  by  his  thorough  in- 
v«stigaton  of  the  various  methods  of  cultiva- 
tion and  manufacture  in  use  in  the  tea  dis- 
tricts of  China  and  India.  It  is  now  known, 
therefore,  that  while  there  are  many  variations 
in  the  tea  plant  the  varieties  are  all  the  same 
plant  cultivated  under  different  conditions,  while 
the  two  distinctive  varieties,  the  green  and  the 
black  tea,  are  the  results  of  different  methods 
of  manufacture.  Green  tea,  for  example,  is  pre- 
pared bv  steamins  the  leaves  before  they  have 
been  rolled  and  dried,  a  method  of  procedure 
which  produces  a  greater  quantity  of  tannin. 

As  the  Bavor  of  tea  as  a  beverage  depends 
as  much  upon  the  quality  of  the  water  in  which 
it  is  infused  as  umm  the  method  of  infusion, 
care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  water  is 
neither  too  soft  nor  loo  hard,  and  that  it  Has 
been  well  boiled  before  it  is  poured  over  the 
tea.  The  period  of  infusion,  which  is  then  con- 
tinued at  a  lower  temperature,  should  not  last 
more  than  a  few  minutes,  for  the  longer  (he 
infusion  the  greater  the  quantity  of  tannin  that 
will   be  extracted. 

Like  coffee,  tea  has  its  good  and  evil  effects. 
If  infused  too  lone  it  becomes  bitter  unwhole- 
some and  indigestible.  If  drunk  too  freely  it 
not  only  induces  insomnia  and  kindred  nervous 
disorders  but  irritates  the  stomach,  producing  a 
serious  kind  of  catarrh.  At  the  same  time  it 
is  a  mild  stimulant  which  refreshes  the  body 
and  prepares  the  brain  for  intellectual  energy. 
It  is  also  beneficial  in  aiding  one  to  withstand 
the  ill  effects  of  cold,  fatigue  and  hunger.    By 

E reducing  perspiration  it  cools  the  body  when 
eated,  and,  tty  means  of  its  action  upon  the 
heart,  it  warms  the  body  when  cold. 

While  tea  has  been  consumed  in  China  and 
other  parts  of  Asia  since  the  latter  part  of  the 
6th  century  it  was  not  introduced  in  European 
countries  for  more  than  1,000  years.  Pepys 
mentions  having  tasted  it  for  the  first  time 
in    IMO,    but   the  novel   beverage   nnist  have 


met  with  ahnost  instant  recognition  for,  less 
tnan  18  years  later,  it  was  in  general  use  in 
every  part  of  England. 

As  both  cocoa  and  chocolate  contain  starch 
and  fat  in  considerable  quantities  they  are 
among  the  most  nutritious  of  the  stimulating 
table  beverages.  Both  are  obtained  from  a 
small  evergreen  tree,  native  to  tropica!  coun- 
tries, for  while  the  cocoa  of  commerce  is  pre- 
pared by  grinding  the  seeds  themselves,  the 
commercial  chocolate  cakes  contain  the  better 
parts  of  the  berry,  usually  mixed  with  sugar 
and  some  distinctive  flavoring.  The  prepara- 
tion of  the  drink  is  a  simple  process,  the  cocoa 
or  chocolate  merely  being  dissolved  in  milk  and 
boiling  water. 

Although  by  no  means  so  popular  as  tea  or 
coffee  the  drinking  of  mineral  waters  has  be- 
come so  general  during  the  past  century  that 
they  must  now  be  regarded  as  among  the  most 
important  temperance  beverages.  Early  in  the 
16th  century  an  attempt  was  made  to  produce 
artificial  mineral  waters,  but  it  was  not  until 
the  18th  century  that  chemistry  had  made  suffi- 
cient progress  to  enable  the  experimenters  to 
K3Ve  the  elementary  compounds  of  the  waters 
th  as  to  quality  and  quantity.  In  fact,  the 
first  unqualified  success  in  this  line  of  investi- 
gation was  made  by  Dr.  Frederick  Adolphus 
Augustus  Slruve,  a  Dresden  druggist,  who 
celebrated  his  achievement  by  opening  an  arti- 
ficial  mineral  water  pavilion  in  that  city,  in 

isao. 

The  alkoline  and  mineral  waters  which  are 
so  much  in  use  to-day  owe  their  distinctive 
characteristics  to  the  prepotideiance  of  car- 
bonate and  bicarbonate  of  sodium  as  well  as  to 
the  Larbonate  of  potassium,  lithium,  calcium 
and  magnesium  which  they  contain,  all  of  which 
tend  to  make  them  useful  aids  to  the  physician 
in  the  treatment  of  disease.  The  Vichy  of 
France,  for  example,  or  the  Ems  of  Germany, 
are  extensively  used  in  the  dietetic  treatment, 
correcting  disorders  of  the  stomach  and  acting 
as  alkaliniKrs  of  the  blood,  bile  and  urine. 
In  cases  of  gout,  gall  stones,  rheumatism, 
dyspepsia,  constipation,  etc.,  they  have  proved 
of  invaluable  service  and  have  also  been  u.sed 
successfully  in  the  treatment  of  obesity.  In 
many  instances  their  value  as  medicinal  agents 
is  enhanced  by  the  addition  of  carbon  dioxide, 
while,  in  other  cases,  they  arc  made  more 
palatable  and  easy  of  digestion  by  being  served 
with  milk.    Among  the  natural  mineral  Tt 


all  of  which  are  well  and  favorably  known  to 
those  who  make  use  of  such  beverages. 

Another  class  of  drinks,  the  popularity  of 
which  is  beyond  question,  are  those  beverages 
which  contain  alcohol  as  an  active  principle: 
beer,  ale,  wine,  cider  and  the  many  kinds  of 
spirituous  liquors  that  are  now  manufactured 
in  almost  every  part  of  the  world.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  alcohol  these  beverages  also  contain 
such  properties  as  tannin,  sugar,  carbon  diox- 
ide, or  various  acidulous  substances,  any  or  all 
of  which  exert  an  influence  over  the  flavor  of 
the  liquid.  As  to  alcohol  itself  it  has  so  long 
been  a  bone  of  contention  that  it  would  be  folly 
to  attempt  to  review  a  century-long  contest  in 
a  single  article.  Originally  used  exclusively  as 
a  medicine,  and  admittedly  a  valuable  agi^t  in 

I  .Google 


eOO  BBVB] 

the  tpeatfflcnt  of  certain  dtscaset  it  is  to  be 
doubted  if  even  the  moderate  use  of  such 
liquors  as  beverages  is  not  productive  of  far 
more  evil  than  good,  while  the  efiect  of  im- 
moderate indulgence  in  such  liquid  stimulants 
is  too  well  known  to  require  furuier  discussion. 
In  spite  of  all  the  warnings  of  science,  how- 
ever, man  continues  to  gratKy  his  ciaving  for 
alcoholic  preparations.  Even  in  countries 
where  the  ordinary  beverages  of  commerce  are 
unknown,  savage  taste  has  learned  to  delight 
in  the  flavor  of  fermented  liquors,  and  wis 
desire  even  the  most  barbaric  people  have  had 
ingenuity  enough  to  gratify. 

Beer,  or  lager,  as  it  is  more  generally  known 
in  this  country,  is  bv  no  means  a  modem  inven- 
tion and  no  drink  has  continued  to  maintain  a 
more  steadfast  hold  upon  the  taste  of  man  since 
the  earliest  days  of  civilization.  The  Egyptians 
manufactured  beer  from  barley  many  hundred 
years  before  the  Christian  Era.  Archilochus, 
700  B.C.,  shows  that  the  Greeks  bad  learned  the 
art  of  brewing,  while  we  have  such  eminent 
authorities  as  Sophocles  and  £sch^lus,  Dio- 
dorus  and  Pliny  to  prove  that  the  Greeks  and 
Rcnnans  both  made  beer  and  loved  it.  IJke  the 
Gauls,  the  Romans  called  it  Cerevisia,  from 
Ceres,  the  goddess  of  field  fruits,  and  there  is 
ample  history  to  prove  that  the  art  of  making 
this  beverage  was  known  to  man  fully  as  early 
as  the  art  of  making  wine  from  the  grape.  Prior 
to  the  invasion  by  the  Romans  the  Britons  were 
drinkers  of  milk  and  water  although  they  occa- 
sionally drank  mead,  an  intoxicatmg  beverage 
made  from  honey.  As  Tacitus  tells  us  that  beer 
was  the  ordinary  drink  of  the  Romans,  and  beer 
and  vinegar  the  favorite  beverage  of  the  soldiers 
of  Julius  Caesar,  it  is  not  dimcult  to  imagine 
why,  so  soon  after  his  invasion,  the  Britons  be- 
1  of  beer- drinkers.     Unlike  the 


beer  was  introduced  at  a  very  early  date. 
Charlemagne  loved  it  dearly  and  not  only  com- 
pelled the  best  brewers  in  the  land  to  become 
attach^  of  his  court,  but  gave  his  personal  at- 
tention to  the  subject  so  conscientiously  that 
he  was  able  to  tell  them  how  to  improve  their 
brew.  As  early  as  1482  the  monasteries  of  that 
country  began  to  make  beer  and,  by  the  16th 
century,  that  beverage  had  become  one  of  the 
chief  exports  of  the  country.  In  fact,  the  Ger- 
man brewer  has  always  been  recognized  as  one 
of  the  best  beer  makers  of  the  world  and  it  has 
only  been  within  the  past  century  that  the  suc- 
cess of  their  Austrian  rivals  has  had  a  tendency 
to  somewhat  eclipse  their  glory.  Centuries  ago 
beverages  known  as  beer  were  made  in  Eng- 
land t^  tapping  such  trees  as  the  birch,  maple, 
spruce  and  ash  for  their  juices,  or  by  rcsortmg 
to  the  properties  contained  in  ginger  and  other 
roots,  a  practice  which  not  only  still  prevails 
in  that  country,  but  that  was  brought  to  America 
by  the  first  colonists,  who  loved  these  humble, 
harmless  drinks  too  well  to  leave  their  recipes 
in  the  motherland. 

Ale  and  porter,  the  heavier  malted  linuors 
which  are  so  much  used  in  England  and  the 
United  States,  cannot  boast  such  ancient  lineage 
as  beer,  but  still  there  is  reason  to  believe  dat 
it  was  a  beverage  like  ale  on  which  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  and  the  Danes  loved  to  become  drunken, 
and,  fully  as  earl^  as  the  reign  of  Henir  JI, 


the  monks  of  England  bad  becwne  famous  for 
their  wondrous  brews.  In  fact,  it  was  due  to 
the  investigations  of  some  of  these  fathers  of 
the  monasteries  that  the  superior  quality  of  the 
waters  of  Burton-on-Trent  for  brewing  pur- 
poses was  discovered,  a  discovery  that  has  made 
the  ales  and  porters  of  England  world  cele- 
brated. 

Win^  whose  history  is  as  old  as  that  of  dvil- 
iiation,  is  the  most  aristocratic  of  drinks.  As- 
cribed to  the  gods  by  the  ancients — to  Dionysus 
tv  the  Greek^  Bacchus  by  the  Romans  and 
Osiris  by  the  ^yptians,—  there  can  be  no  ques- 
tion but  that  the  use  of  the  juice  of  the  grape  as 
a  beverage  was  one  of  the  first  discoveries  of 
civilized  man.  It  is  true  that  the  very  ancient 
Romans  did  not  know  it  at  the  time  when  even 
the  Israelites  had  learned  the  secret  of  its  pro- 
duction, but,  later,  wine-maldng  in  Rome  be- 
came such  a  general  enterprise  that  Emperor 
Domitian  ordered  half  of  the  vineyards  de- 
stroyed that  the  more  necessary  wheat  migjit  be 
raised  in  the  place  of  the  grape. 

According  to  the  best  audiorities  Asia  was 
the  countnr  in  iriiicb  the  vine  first  grew  with- 
out the  aid  of  man,  while  Armenia  and  eastern 
Fontus  were  the  lands  in  which  the  cultivation 


lands  of  andent  civilization.  Among  the  best 
known  Asiatic  wines  was  that  of  Chalybon,  near 
Damascus,  the  beverages  with  which  the  mbles 
of  the  Persian  kings  were  constantly  supplied, 
while  the  most  famous  Gred  wines  came  from 
such  places  as  Chios  and  Lesbos. 

In  andent  India  and  in  Egypt  priests  were 
forbidden  to  drink,  while  the  Jewish  priests  were 
only  forbidden  on  days  of  religious  services.  In 
fact,  the  Hebrews  were  by  no  means  as  strict 
about  the  use  of  the  wine  cup  as  were  some 
other  nations  and  the  fact  that  vine-culture  was 
one  of  their  favorite  occupations  is  proved  by 
history,  both  biblical  and  profane.  Traditions 
state  that  it  was  the  Phtemcians,  the  earliest  of 
vine-growers,  who  carried  the  secret  of  wine 
making  to  Spain,  Italy  and  France.  They  also 
established  large  vineyards  on  the  islands  of 
Chios,  Mitylene  and  Tenedos. 

As  early  as  5S0  B.C.  the  process  of  blending 
selected  wines  was  known  to  the  Cartha^nians, 
while  the  ancient  practice  of  adding  turpentine 
to  the  wine  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  it  was 
probably  an  invention  of  Italy.  France,  Spain, 
and  Portugal  are  now  the  chief  centres  of  vine- 
culture  although  the  grape-growers  in  many 
parts  of  the  United  States,  and  particularly  in 


American  industry.  Champagne,  however,  one 
of  the  most  popular  of  wines,  is  a  beverage  □( 
extremely  modern  invention  when  compared  to 
other  makes.  Invented  by  Dom  Perisnon  of 
Hautvitlers  about  the  beginning  of  Ue  18th 
centuiy  its  use  has  become  more  and  more 
general  until  it  is  now  consumed  by  wine-lovers 
in  all  parts  of  the  world.  If  wine  is  the  most 
aristocratic,  whisky  ma^  be  designated  as  the 
most  democratic  of  dnnks.  Thoroughly  cos- 
mopolitan in  character,  in  various  countries  it  is 
distilled  from  various  substances,  but  always, 
whether  it  is  made  from  barley,  com,  wheat, 
lye,  or  even  from  ^tatoes,  it  bears  the  same 
name  and  usually  enjoys  the  same  pn^ortioii  of 


Google 


BSVBRAGES 


«01 


popularity.  The  word  *wlusky*  is  a  name  that 
was  bestowed  upon  this  beverage  by  the  Celts  of 
Ireland  and  Scotland  who  b^an  to  make  it 
about  the  middle  of  the  17tb  century.  The 
word  itself  is  a  corruption  of  the  Gaelic  'uisge* 
(water),  and  closely  interpreted  means  'strong 
water,*  In  the  beginning  this  drink  was  used 
almost  exclusivety  as  meoidne  but  as  soon  as 
it  had  become  introduced  as  a  beverage  it  be- 
came a  favorite  drink  throughout  Great  Britain, 
and  while  the  word  'whisky*  once  referred  only 
to  the  Scotch  and  Irish  drinks  of  that  name,  the 
rye  and  Bourbon  whiskies  of  American  manu- 
facture are  now  consumed  almost  as  generally 
as  those  made  from  recipes  that  have  been 
handed  down  from  the  days  of  the  ancient  Celts. 
Almost  as  strong  as  whisky,  brandy^  the 
'brande-vic*  or  burnt  wine,  is  a  drink  which  is 
often  used,  both  for  medicmal  purposes  and  as 
a  beverage.  Its  name,  as  is  indicated,  was  de- 
rived from  the  method  of  its  manuiacture,  a 
formula  for  liquor  making  that  has  been  fol- 
lowed for  many  generations  and  in  many  parts 
of  the  world.  In  Morocco  the  Jews  use  the 
refuse  of  the  grape  as  well  as  such  fruits  as 
raisins,  figs,  dates  and  pears  in  its  distillation, 
and  they  nave  become  strongly  attached  to  their 
strange  drink  because  they  believe  that  their 
freedom  from  that  terrible  disease,  elephan- 
tiasis, always  so  common  among  the  Moham- 
medans in  that  countiT,  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
they  partake  so  freely  of  this  unique  spirit 
Moliere,  in  his  travels,  discovered  a  tribe  on 
the  Barbary  coast  which  made  excellent  brandy 
from  honey;  in  Persia  it  is  the  lees  of  the 
weaker  sorts  of  wines  that  are  distilled,  and  al> 
most  every  country  has  its  particular  method  of 
maldng  this  beverage.    None  of  them,  however. 


properly  bears  the  name  of  *brandy.' 

Gin  is  another  distilled  liquor.  It  is  made 
from  rye,  grain  and  malted  barley,  flavored  with 
juniper-berries  and  sometimes  with  turpentine. 
It  is  also  known  as  Hollands,  and  as  Holland 
gin,  these  names  being  a  relic  of  the  days  when 
ue  beverage  was  called  Holland-Geneva,  the 
word  *gia^  being  a  corruntion  of  the  word 
■Geneva.*  Although  ori^nally  made  in  Holland 
it  was  soon  introduced  into  England  where  it 
immediately  became  one  of  the  most  popular  of 
drinks.  Easily  manufactured  and  always  strong 
it  could  be  sold  so  cheaply  that  it  was  finally 
found  necessary  to  adopt  strict  legislative  meas- 
ures restricting  its  sale  and  consumption. 
Hc^arth's  horribte  picture^,  'Gin  Lane,'  which 
was  one  of  the  influences  in  bringing  about  the 
much  needed  reform,  is  said  to  nave  been  but 
slightly  an  exaggeration  of  the  actual  condi- 
tions which  existed  in  all  the  large  English 
cities  during  die  reign  of  gin. 

Rum,   formeHy   spelled  as   the   French  still 


of  the  juice  from  the  boiling  house,  or  from  the 
molasses  mixed  with  the  lees  of  former  distilla- 
tions. Although  not  so  commonly  used  as  some 
of  the  other  strong  liquors  nun  has  been  known 
both  for  its  medicinal  value  and  as  a  beverage 
ever  since  its  introduction  from  the  West 
Indies,  more  than  a  century  ago. 

The  following  are  among  the  drinks  which 
are  not  so  generally  known  but  which  are  in 


among  the  people  of  other  coun- 

Arrack,  a  drink  manufactured  widely  in  the 
East  and  West  Indies,  is  much  used  by  the 
natives.  In  making  it  it  is  sometimes  distilled 
from  the  fermented  juice  of  the  palm  tree,  and 
sometimes  from  a  combination  of  rice  and  mo- 
lasses used  in  connection  with  the  j^m-tree 

Vodka,  which  is  the  chief  source  of  intoxica- 
tion in  Russia,  is  a  liquor  which  may  be  dis- 
tilled either  from  rye  or  from  potatoes. 

In  several  parts  of  the  world  the  sap  of  trees 
it  called  into  rraisition  to  satisfy  tlie  thirst 
for  intoxicants.  Pulque,  for  example,  the  bev- 
erage most  commonly  used  in  all  Spanish- 
American  countries,  is  made  from  the  fermented 
sap  of  the  aloe,  while  a  somewhat  different 
dnnk,  called  Tepache,  is  made  by  n      ~ 


only.      In   Tasmania   the   so-called   '     

furnishes  the  bushmen  with  a  means  of  intoxi- 
cation. In  this  case  the  sap  is  of  such  a  char- 
acter that  it  may  be  drunk  as  soon  as  it  is  drawn 
from  the  tree,  in  which  state  it  is  both  refresh- 
ing and  harmless,  but  when  it  is  allowed  to 
stand  for  some  time  it  becomes  an  intoxicant 
of  great  potency. 

The  Soma  of  the  Hindus  is  supposed  by 
some  to  have  been  the  original  intoxicant  of  the 
human  race.  The  Persians,  who  accept  this 
tradition,  revere  the  beverage  as  Haoma,  while 
in  India  it  is  looked  upon  as  the  beverage  of  the 
mighty  god,  ever-giving  new  strength  and  new 
vigor.  It  is  a  milky  fluid  which  is  found  in  the 
climbing  bindweed,  and,  when  properly  fer- 
mented, is  extremely  *heady.* 

Sake,  the  commonly  used  distilled  liquor  of 
JapaiL  ts  made  entirely  from  rice,  as  also  is 
Samshee,  a  drink  used  by  the  lower  classes  in 
China, 

Kvass  is  the  name  of  a  sour  beer  much  fa- 
vored by  the  Russian  peasantry.  It  is  made 
from  barley  and  rve,  by  a  similar  malting  proc- 
ess as  that  applied  to  the  manufacture  of  Deer. 

The  natives  of  South  America  have  a  drink 
which  they  call  Guarapo,  which  is  made  from 
the  fermented  juice  of  the  sugar-cane. 

Chi-chi  is  the  name  of  a  peculiar  kind  of 
cider  which  is  made  by  the  natives  of  Patagonia. 
In  brewing  it,  in  the  autumn  when  the  apples 
are  ripe,  they  dig  large  pits  which  they  line  and 
interline  most  carefully  with  hides  in  order 
that  none  of  the  juice  may  soak  into  the  earth. 
Into  these  hides  they  throw  the  ripe  apples 
which  are  left  to  decay  and  ferment  until  mey 
are  ready  for  use.  It  is  then  extremely  intoxi- 
cating. 

A  drink  called  Kephir  is  drunk  by  the  natives 
of  the  Caucasus.  It  is  an  effervescing  milk- 
like liquid,  the  effervescence  being  caused  by 
the  introduction  of  hom^,  yellowish-brown 
masses  called  "Kephir- grains,"  Kem,  who 
made  a  scientific  examination  of  these  grains, 
discovered  that  they  were  made  of  a  rod-like 
bacterium  and  a  yeast-like  substance  that  was 
entirely  unknown  to  him.  Not  unlike  Kumyss 
in  appearance  and  in  taste,  Kephir  is  far  more 
intoxicating. 

Kava,  or  ava,  is  a  Polynesian  drink  which 
is  made  by  macerating  in  water  a  portion  of  the 
root  and  stem  of  one  of  the  piperacese. 


Google 


BBVERIDGE  —  BEVERLEY 


There  are  several  substitutes  for  tea  in  use 
in  various  parts  of  the  world  In  some  of  the 
Pacific  Islands  there  are  'tea-trees,"  while  the 
natives  of  Tibet  are  very  fond  of  their  "brick 
tea,'  which  is  made  from  the  offscourings  and 
dust  of  the  leaves  and  stems  of  the  tea  plants. 
It  derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  the  dust 
is  pressed  into  hard,  solid,  brick-shaped  lumps, 
from  which  pieces  arc  chipped  off  as  they  are 
to  be  used. 

BBVERIDGE,  Albert  Jeremiah,  Ameri- 
can lawyer :  b.  Highland  County,  Ohio,  6  Oct. 
1862.  He  was  brought  up  on  a  farm  in  Ohio ; 
■was  graduated  at  De  Pauw  University  in  1885, 
and  engaged  in  law  practice  in  Indianapolis. 
He  entered  political  life  in  1883,  and  soon  won 
a  reputation  as  an  effective  orator.  On  17 
Jan.  1899,  he  was  elected  United  States  senator 
for  Indiana,  as  a  Republican.  Soon  after  his 
election  he  went  to  the  Philippine  Islands: 
made  a  thorough  study  of  political  and  material 
conditions  there ;  and,  on  the  assembly  of 
Congress  in  December  following,  delivered  a 
diriuing  speech  in  the  Senate  in  support  of  the 
administration's  policy  concerning  the  new 
possessions  in  the  East.  In  1906  he  introduced 
1  amendment  to  the  Agricultural   bill  provtd- 


I  Progressive  party  in  1912.  He  wrote 
•The  Russian  Advance'  (1903)  ;  'The  Young 
Man  and  the  World'  (1905);  'The  Meaning 
of  the  Times'  (1907);  'Americans  of  Today 
and  Tomorrow'  (1908);  'Pass  Prosperity 
Around'  (1912)  ;  <What  b  Back  of  the  War' 
(1915). 

BEVERIDGE.  Williun.  English  divine: 
b.  Barrow,  Leicestershire,  1637;  d.  Westminster 
1708.  He  studied  at  Saint  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, devoting  bis  attention  particularly  to 
Oriental  literature.  In  1656  be  published  a 
work  on  Eastern  tongues,  especially  Hebrew, 
Chaldee,  Syriac,  Arabic  and  Samaritan,  accom- 
panied with  a  Syriac  Krammar.  In  1660  he  took 
orders,  and  obtained  the  vicarage  of  Ealing 
in  Middlesex  where  he  wrote  a  useful  'Intro- 
duction to  Qironology.'  In  1672  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  rectory  of  Saint  Peter,  Comhill, 
London,  and  the  same  year  published  his  "Syn- 
odicon'  in  two  folio  volumes,  containing  the 
Apostolic  canons,  decrees  of  the  councils  re- 
ceived by  the  Greek  Church,  and  the  canonical 
epistles  of  the  early  Fathers.  This  work  called 
forth  an  opponent,  to  whom  Beveridge  replied 
in  a  'Vindication.'  In  1674  he  obtained  a  pre- 
bend in  Saint  Paul's,  and  in  1681  was  appointed 
archdeacon  of  Colchester.  In  1684  he  became 
prebendary  of  Canterbuiy,  and  in  1688  was 
appointed  chaplain  to  William  and  Mary. 
Shortlv  after,  the  see  of  Bath  and  Wells  was 
offered  him;  but  as  it  had  become  vacant  by 


dined  to  accept  it.  The  episcopal  dignity,  how- 
ever, was  only  delayed;  in  1704  he  became 
bishop  of  Saint  Asaph.  Among  his  best-known 
works  are  'The  Church  Catechism  Explained'  ; 
'Private  Thoughts  upon  a  Christian  Life' ;  and 
'The  Great  Necessity  and  Advantage  of  Public 
Prayer  and  Frequent  Communion.'  Collective 
editions  of  his  works  were  published  in  1824 
and  in  1842-46.  Consult  Burnet's  .'Own 
Times';  and  the  'Life'  by  Home. 


BEVERLEY,  Constance  de,  in  Scott's 
poem  'Marmion,'  a  nun  who  for  love  of 
Marmion  follows  him  in  the  disguise  of  a 
proom,  and  on  bcinp  thrown  over  by  Marmion 


BEVERLEY,  Robert,  American  historian: 
b.  Virginia  1675 ;  (L  I7l6.  He  was  educated  in 
England  and  about  1C97  became  clerk  of  the 
Council  of  Virginia  and  had  charge  of  the 
records  of  the  colony.  He  vms  the  author  of 
a  'History  of  the  Present  State  of  Virginia,' 
published  in  1705,  a  most  interesting  account  of 
the  details  of  the  daily  life  in  colonial  Virginia. 
A  reprint  was  published  in  Richmond  in  1855. 

BEVERLEY,  Saint  John  of,  English 
divine:  b.  about  the  middle  of  the  7th  centuiy 
at  Harpham,  Yorkshire;  d.  Beverley  721.  He 
was  educated  at  Canterbury  under  Archbishop 
Theodore,  and  became  a  monk  under  Hilda  in 
the  monastery  founded  by  her  at  Whitby.  In 
687  he  was  appointed  to  the  see  of  Hexham, 
and  in  705  was  transferred  to  York.  He 
founded  a  convent  of  nuns  at  Beverley,  and 
built  the  choir  of  the  church  there.  He  re- 
signed bis  bishopric  and  retired  to  Beveriey 
in  718.  Bedc,  who  is  said  lo  have  been  his 
pupil,  speaks  of  him  with  great  veneration. 
He  was  canoniied  in  1037,  and  his  remains 
were  placed  in  a  costly  shrine,  in  Beverley 
Minster.  His  fame  was  so  widespread  that 
when  William  the  Conqueror  led  his  array  to 
the  north  and  ravaged  the  country  he  saved 
tjie  town  of  Beverley  out  of  respect  to  the 
memotr  of  the  bishop.  In  1416  Archbishop 
Chicheley  ordered  the  anniversary  of  his  death 
to  be  celebrated  as  one  of  the  festivals  of  the 
Church,  and  special  privileges  were  conferred 
on  his  church  at  Beverley  by  several  English 
soverei^s.  He  is  said  to  have  written  an 
'Exposition  of  Luke'  and  'Homilies  on  the 
Gospels, ' 

BEVERLEY,  England,  municipal  borou^ 
and  the  principal  town  in  the  East  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  eight  miles  north-northwest  of  the 
city  of  Hull  and  a  mile  from  the  river  Hull.  It 
stands  on  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Wolds,  and 
on  a  branch  of  the  Northeastern  Railway,  aiid 
consists  of  a  principal  street  above  a  mile  in 
length,  and  several  minor  streets,  all  spacious 
and  tolerably  well  built.  Its  most  remarkable 
edifice  is  the  minster  of  Saint  John  the  Evan- 
gelist, in  the  early  English,  Decorated  and  Per- 
pendicular styles,  and  one  of  the  finest  st*ri- 
mens  of  ecclesiastical  architecture  in  the  king- 
dom, its  west  front  in  the  opinion  of  excel- 
lent authorities  surpassing  in  magnificence  that 
of  York  Minster.  The  choir  contains  the  eeif- 
brated  Percy  shrine,  of  chaste  and  exquisite 
workmanship.  Other  churches  are  Saint 
Mary's  and  Saint  Nicholas.  The  grammar 
school  is  so  old  a  foundation  that  its  date  is 
unknown.  Among  the  other  chief  buildings  are 
the  guildhall  and  com  exchange.  The  chief 
manufactures  are  leather,  iron  castings^  agri- 
cultural implements,  whiting,  linseed  oil  and 
cake,  manures,  wagons  and  ale.  Its  environs 
abound  with  beautiful  walks.  It  sent  two  mem- 
bers to  Parliament  until  merved  in  one  of  the 
dirisions  of  Yorkshire  in  1885.  Pop.  13,654. 
Consult  Hialt,  'Beverley  Minster'  (1900), 


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BB  VSKL  Y — BBYBR 


BEVKRLY,  Mass.,  city  in  Essex  County, 
on  the  Boston  &  M.  Railroad,  two  miles  norUi 
of  Salem.  It  was  founded  14  Oct  1668;  was 
incorporated  as  a  city  23  March  1S94;  con- 
tains  severa]  villues ;  and  is  connected  by 
trolley  lines  with  Salem,  Peabody,  Glouceater 
and  Wenhatn.  It  is  a  popular  summer  resort 
It  is  the  distributing  station  for  the  products 
of  the  Texas  oil  fields,  a  regular  line  of 
steamen  plyinR  between  Beverly  and  Port 
Arthur,  Tex.  The  government  is  vested  in  a 
mayor  and  council.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  New 
England  Institute  for  the  Deaf  and  E>umb; 
is  principally  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
women's  boots  and  shoes,  and  leather;  has  con- 
siderable shipping  and  fishery  interests;  con- 
tains high  ana  graded  schools,  a  public  library, 
a  national  bank,  a  number  of  handsome  resi- 
dences belonging  to  Boston  business  men;  and 
has  a  property  valuation  exceeding  $16,000,000. 
Pop.  20,000. 

BEVERLY'S  FORD,  Va.,  scene  of  a 
sharp  cavalry  fight  during  the  Ovil  War,  be- 
tween Buford,  Pleasanton  and  Gregg,  com- 
manding 9,000  Federals,  and  Stuart  leading 
12,000  Confederates.  Hooker  had  sent  Pleasan- 
ton to  find  Siuart,  who  was  said  to  be  near 


Stuart  was  fully  prepared  for  him.  Pleas- 
anton was  badly  beaten.  This  action  is  also 
known  as  the  battle  of  Brandy  Station. 

BEVIS  OP  HAMPTON,  Sir.  a  legendary 
English  knight  who  has  been  made  the  hero  of 
medieval  romances  by  both  English  and  Con- 
tinental writers.  He  was  the  son  of  Sir  Guy, 
Earl  o(  Hampton,  who  was  treacherously  mur- 
dered by  Divoim,  Emperor  of  Almayne,  and 
was  given  by  his  false  mother  to  some  heathen 
merchants  to  be  sold  for  a  slave  among  the 
Payaim.  By  th«o  he  was  carried  to  Ermony, 
where  he  soon  became  dear  to  King  Ennyn, 
and  dearer  still  to  his  only  daughter,  the  lovely 
Josian.  His  chief  exploits  were  the  overthrow 
of  Brademond  of  Danuscus,  of  a  monstrous 
boar,  of  the  giant  Ascapard,  whom  he  spared  to 
become  his  squire,  and  of  a  dreadful  dragon 
near  Colt^ne.  His  famous  'sword  "Morglay' 
he  won  in  battle;  his  horse  *  Arundel"  was  the 
^ift  of  Josian.  Still  more  romantic  episodes 
in  his  story  are  bis  carrying  his  own  death- 
warrant  in  a  sealed  letter  to  the  vassal  Brade- 
mond ;  his  escape  from  his  noisome  dungeon 
after  seven  years'  imprisonment;  and  recovery 
of  his  wife. 

BEWICK,  bii'Ik,  Thonaa,  English  wood- 
engraver  :  b.  Cherrybum,  Northumberland,  12 
Aug.  17S3i  d.  Gateshead.  8  Nov.  1828.  He 
early  flowed  a  great  talent  for  drawing,  and 
was  apprenticed  to  an  engraver  in  Newcastle. 
The  celebrated  Dr.  Hutton,  of  Woolwich,  then 
a  schoolmaster  in  Newcastle,  was  preparing 
his  great  wort  on  mensuration^  and  having  em- 
ployed Bewick's  master  in  gettmg  up  the  wood- 
cuts tor  illustrating  it,  the  execution  of  these 
was  entrusted  to  the  young  apprentice.  Bew- 
ick performed  the  work  so  admirably  that  his 
master  advised  him  to  turn  his  attention  to 
wood-engraving,  and  accordingly  with  this 
view  he  proceeded  to  London.  He  returned, 
however,  to  Newcastle  after  a  short  time,  and 
establbhed  himself  there  in  partnership  with 
his  former  master.    His  tuna  of  mitid  led  him 


appeared 

<Gay's  Fables>!  m  1784  'Select  Fable3>;  in 
1789  his  large  wood  cut  the  'Chillingham  Ball,* 
one  of  his  most  ambitions  works:  and  in  1790 
appeared  his  'History  of  Quadrupeds,'  the 
beau^  of  the  illustrations  of  which  attracted 
universal  attention,  so  supenor  were  tbey  to 
anything  hitherto  produced  by  the  art  of  wood- 
engraving.  In  1797  appeared  the  first,  and  in 
18&t  the  second  volume  of  his  'British  Birds,' 
generany  regarded  as  the  finest  of  his  works. 
Bewick  has  never  been  surpassed  in  his  spirited 
delineations  of  animals  and  the  admirable 
naturaltiess  with  which  the  accessories  and 
backgrounds  of  the  drawit^s,  such  as  foliage, 

¥'ass,  and  other  rural  objects,  are  represented, 
he  tail-pieces  to  chapters  throughout  his 
works  are  of  the  highest  excellence,  and  often 
display  a  rich  vein  of  humor.  His  illustrated 
edition  of  'JEsop's  Fables'  appeared  in  1818. 
He  was  the  reviver  of  the  art  of  wood-eu- 
graving;  he  was  one  of  the  earliest  to  cut  upon 
the  end  of  the  wood  insteadof  along  it-  and 
he  invented  what  is  technically  called  the 
•white  line"  in  wood -engraving.  Consult  his 
'Memoir'  (London  1846)  ;  Clement,  'Painters, 
Sculptors,  Architects,  and  Engravers'  (Boston 
1899)  ;  Dohson,  'Thomas  Bewick  and  Hb 
Pupils';  Linton,  'Masters  of  Wood  Engrav- 
ing>  (London  1899);  and  Thomson,  D.  C, 
'Life  and  Times  of  Thomas  Bewick'  (ib. 
1882). 

BBWLEY,  Anthony,  American  abolition- 
ist: b.  Tennessee,  22  May  1804;  d.  Fort  Worth, 
Tex.,  13  Sept.  1860.  A  Methodist  clergyman 
opposed  to  slavery  in  1843  he  entered  the  Mis- 
souri Conference.  When  the  slavery  question 
rent  die  Church,  he  adhered  at  first  to  neither 
side,  but  earned  his  livelihood  at  manual  labor. 
He  re-entered  the  Church  in  1848  and  at  once 
launched  forth  against  slavery.  In  1858  he  was 
driven  from  Texas  for  preaching  according  to 
his  convictions.  Against  the  advice  of  friends 
he  returned  in  I860,  but  remained  only  a  few 
weeks,  being  again  obliged  to  flee  for  his  life. 
A  reward  of  $1,000  was  offered  for  his  appre- 
hension; he  was  seized  in  Missouri,  carried  to 
Port  Worth,  and  there  hung  by  the  mob,  the 
oafy  reason  for  whose  act  was  that  he  had 
maintained  human  slavery  to  be  unjust. 

BEY,'ba,  among  the  Turks,  signifies  a  Kov- 
emor  of  a  town,  seaport  or  small  district  The 
Turks  write  the  word  beg  (q.v.).  It  is  often 
applied  to  superior  military  officers,  sea  captains 
and  to  distinguished  foreigners. 

BEYER,  bt-er,  Samuel  Walker,  American 
geologist :  b.  Oearfield,  Pa.,  IS  May  1865.    He 

fraduated  at  Iowa  Stale  College,  1889,  and  at 
ohns  Hopkins  University  189S.  He  is  pro- 
fessor of  geology  and  mining  engineering  in 
Iowa  State  College  since  1898,  and  vice-dean  of 
the  engineering  division  since  1908.  As  special 
assistant  on  the  Iowa  Geological  Survey  he  has 
prepared  reports  on  the  geology  of  Boone,  Mar- 
shall, Story  and  Hardin  counties,  and  annual 
reports  on  the  mineral  productions  of  the  State. 
In  1897  he  was  a  delegate  to  the  International 
Geologic  Congress  at  Saint  Petersburg.  He 
is  assistant  geologist  of  the  United  Sutes  Geo- 
logical Survey  since  1901,  spedatiring  in  eco- 
nomic geology.    He  ts  the  author  of  'Clays  and 


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aoA 


BEYBRLEIN  —  BSY8CHLAG 


Oay  Products  of  Iowa>  (1903);  'QuarriH 
and  Quarry  Products  of  Iowa*  (1906);  'Road 
and  Concrete  Materials  in  Iowa*  (1907)  ;  'Peat 
Deposits  in  Iowa*  (1908),  all  published  in  Iowa 
Geological  Survey  reports. 

BEYBRLEIN,  Franz  Adam,  German 
novelist  and  playwright:  b.  Meissen,  22  March 
1871.  He  is  a  graduate  of  Freiburg  and  Leip- 
zig. He  became  suddenly  famous  in  1903  on 
the  production  of  his  play  'Zapfenstreich,* 
which  dealt  with  conditions  in  the  German 
army  and  caused  a  strong  sensation.  It  was 
translated  into  English  and  produced  in  the 
United  States  under  the  title  'Taps.'  His  other 
works    are    "Jena    Oder    Sedan*     (1903,    Eng. 


(1905);     'Stirb    und    werde*     (1910);     'Das 
Wunder  des  heiligen  Tereni*   (1911). 

BEYBRS,  Christian  Frederick,  South 
African  general:  b.  1869;  d.  8  Dec  1914.  A 
lawyer  by  profession,  he  enlisted  as  a  private 
solflier  in  the  Boer  army  during  the  South  Af- 
rican War  (1899-1902)  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
assistant  commandant-general  for  the  northern 
district.  His  principal  achievement  was  the 
capture  of  the  British  camp  at  Nooitgedacht ; 
he  was  also  chairman  of  the  congress  that  met 
at  Vereeniging  to  draft  the  peace  terms.  He 
afterward  Tiecame  speaker  of  the  legislative 
assembly  of  the  Transvaal  and  appeared  to 
have  become  reconciled  to  the  incorporation  of 
the  republics  by  Great  Britain  and  the  estab- 
lishment in  1906  of  the  Union  of  South  Africa. 
He  had  also  visited  Germany  and  been  received 
l^  the  Kaiser;  'from  that  honor  he  had  never 
recovered.*  At  the  outbreak  of  the  European 
War  Beyers  was  commandant-general  of  the 
Defense  Forces  of  the  Union,  a  post  he  re- 
signed early  in  September  1914.  Together  with 
General  Kemp,  a  former  lieutenant  of  Delarey's 
and  a  good  soldier,  he  proceeded  to  stir  up  dis- 
affection in  the  western  Transvaal.  He  was 
joined  by  Gen.  Christian  De  Wet,  Col.  S.  G. 
Haritz  and  General  Delarey.  A  certain  local 
preacher.  Van  Rensburg,  had  "prophesied"  that 
Germany  was  the  agent  appointed  of  God  to 
purify  die  world;  he  "beheld  visions"  and  saw 
an  angel  perched  on  the  Paardekraal  monument 
and  announced  that  Delarey,  De  Wet  and  Bey- 
ers were  the  leaders  destined  to  restore  the  old 
republic-  A  number  of  irreconcilables  flocked 
around  (he  plotters,  all  determined  to  throw  in 
their  lot  with  Germany.  On  the  night  of  IS 
Sept.  1914  Delarcy  and  Beyers  were  speeding  in 
"I   automobile   from  Johannesburg  when   they 


off  the  car  and  killed  Delarey,  whose  intentions 
with  regard  to  the  proposed  rebellion  have 
never  become  known.  Beyers  formed  a  com- 
mand and  threatened  Pretoria,  while  De  Wet 
operated  in  the  Orange  Free  State.  General 
Botha,  the  Premier,  qmckly  raised  30,000  burgh- 
ers and  fell  upon  Beyers  and  Kemp  so  fiercely 
that  their  forces  were  scattered  in  all  directions. 
Beyers  fled  across  the  Vaal  into  the  Orange 
Free  State,  lost  400  men  in  a  fif^t  and  just 


taken  prisoner;  Kemp  and  the  *prophet» 
preacher  crossed  into  German  SouUiwest  Af- 
rica, and  Beyers  was  defeated  at  Biilfontcia. 


On  the  morning  of  8  December  he  encountered 
a  body  of  Union  troops  and  was  driven  toward 
the  Vaal  River.  Beyers  and  some  companions 
attempted  to  cross;  midway  in  the  stream  his 
horse  failed  and  he  slipped  from  its  back  to 
swim.  He  tried  iu  vain  to  get  rid  of  his  heavy 
coat,  which  hampered  bis  movements.  One  of 
those  with  him  heard  him  ciy,  "I  can  do  no 
more*  as  he  disappeared  beneath  the  nrollcn 
flood.  Two  days  after  his  body  was  re- 
covered 

BEYLE,    Marie-Henri,    b&l,    ma-r£-AA-re 

S>seudonym  Db  Stendhal),  French  author:  b. 
rcnoble,  23  Jan.  1783;  d.  23  March  1842-  He 
was  educated  at  Grenoble  and  at  Paris,  and  for 
a  time  gave  much  attention  to  painring,  study- 
ing under  Regnault.  He  held  civil  andmiUtary 
appointments  under  the  empire;  took  part  in 
the  Russian  campaign  of  1812;  thence  until 
1821  lived  at  Itfilan,  cliiefly  occupied  with  works 
on  music  and  painting.  After  nine  years'  resi- 
dence in  Paris  he  became  in  1830  consul  at 
Trieste,  and  in  1833  at  Ovita  Vecchia.  In  1841 
he  returned  to  Paris,  and  during  the  foUowii^ 

('ears  made  several  excursions  in  France,  Eng- 
and  and  Italy.  He  wrote  under  various  pseu- 
donyms articles  which  appeared  in  French  and 
En^ish  periodicals.  The  distinguishing  feature 
of  nis  works  was  the  application  of  acutely 
analytic  faculties  to  sentiment  in  all  its  varieties, 
his  best  books  being  the  treatise  'On  Love' 
(1822);  'The  Red  and  the  Black'  (1830); 
'History  of  Painting  in  luly*  (1817)  ;  ^Racine 
and  Shakespeare*  (1827),  and  'Life  of  Na- 
poleon,* etc  A  collective  edition  of  his  works 
appeared  in  IS  volumes  in  1855-56,  and  his 
'Correspondance  Inidite'  in  two  volumes  in 
1855.  Consult  Colomb,  'Notice  sur  la  vie  de 
M.  Beyle'  and  the  article  t^  Mirinee  in  Rente 
des  deux  MoHdet  (IS  June  1843). 

BEYSICH,  Hdtuich  Enut,  German  geo^ 
ogist  and  paUeoi^tologist :  b.  Berlin,  31  Aug. 
1815;  d.  there,  9  tuly  1896.  He  was  appointed 
professor  of  geofo^  and  paleontology  at  the 
University  of  Berlin,  also  serving  as  assistant 
director  of  the  Prussian  Geological  Survey. 
While  in  the  latter  position  he  supervised  the 
preparation  of  the  'Geolo^cal  Chart  of  Prus- 
sia and  the  Thuringian  States.'  Aside  from 
that  he  did  much  original  research  work. 
Among  his  important  works  are  'Beitrii^  mr 
Kenntnis  der  Versteinerungen  des  rheimschen 
Uebei^ngsgebirges*  (Berlin  1837) ;  'Untei^ 
suchungen  tiber  die  Trilobitcn*  (2  vols.,  Ber- 
lin 1846) ;  'Konchylien  des  norddeutschen  Tei^ 
tiargebirges'  (Berlin  1853-57);  'Uber  dntge 
Cephalopoden  au9  dem  Muscbelkalk  der  jU- 
pen'  (Berlin  1867).  His  wife  was  also  a  weli- 
kntAvn  writer  of  children's  stories  under  the 
pen  name  Klementine  Helm. 

BEYROUT.    See  BEiHtrr. 

BEYSCHLAG,  Adolf,  German  musician: 
b.  Frankfort  1845.  Orchestral  conductor, 
Treves  and  Cologne  1868-80;  director  of  the 
Philharmonic  Society  in  Belfast  and  Leeds. 
Appointed  royal  professor,  Berlin  1907.  Com- 
posed songs,  pianoforte  dances,  and  wrote  'Die 
OmamentSc  der  Musik'  (Leipzig  1908). 

BBYSCHLAG,  Vmiibald,  German  theo- 
logian :  b.  Frankfort  1823 ;  d.  1900.  He  studied 
iheoloc^  at  Bonn  and  Berlin,  became  minister 
in  CoUens  1850;  vicar  at  Treves  in  1S56  and 


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BEZA  —  BEZBORODKO 


eo6 


court  chaplain  at  Karisruhe.  In  the  last-named 
place  he  took  an  active  part  as  a  defender  of 
ecclesiastical  regime  aeainst  the  liberal  Sta- 
tion. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Deitttckeinmgefische  Blitter  and  a  prominent 
ot^nizer  of  the  EvanKelical  Alliance  for  the 
protection  of  German  Protestant  interests.  In 
1860  he  was  appointed  professor  of  practical 
theology  at'  Halle.  During  a  long  career  of 
politico-religious  controversy  he  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  Protestant  theological  worics,  among 
them  a  'Life  of  Jesus,'  'Christology  of  the 
New  Testament,'  'Melancthon  and  the  Ger- 
man Refotmatton,'  and  published  a  collection 
of  sermons. 

BBZA,  bi'zf  or  DE  BEZB,  de  b&i, 
Theodore,  Calvinistic  divine:  b.  of  a  ncAAc 
family  at  Vezelay.  in  Burgundy,  24  June  1519; 
d.  13  Oct.  1605.  He  was  educated  in  Orleans 
under  Melchior  Volmar,  a  German  philologer 
devoted  to  the  Reformation;  and,  early  famil- 
iar with  the  ancient  classical  literature,  he  be- 
came known  at  the  age  of  20  years  as  a  Latin 
poet  by  his  petulant  and  witty  'Juvenilia*  (a  col- 
lection of  poems  of  which  he  was  afterward 
ashamed).  In  1539  he  was  made  a  licentiate  of 
law,  and  went  to  Paris.  He  received  from  his 
uncle  the  reversion  of  his  valuable  abbey  Froid- 
mond,  and  lived  on  the  income  of  two  Senetices 
and  on  pro^rty  which  he  inherited  from  a 
brother.  Wit,  suiolar  and  poet,  his  habits  were 
dissipated,  but  a  clandestine  marriage  in  1543 
recalled  him  from  his  excesses,  and  a  danger- 
ous illness  confirming  the  intention  which  he 
had  formed  at  Orleans  of  devoting  himself  to 
the  Reformed  Church,  he  went  to  Geneva  with 
his  wife  in  1547.  He  accepted  a  Greek  pro- 
fessorship at  t^ausanne  in  1549.  During  his 
10  years  in  this  office  he  wrote  a  tragi-comic 
drama  in  French,— 'The  Sacrifice  of  Abra- 
ham' (1550) — which  was  received  with  much 
approbation ;  delivered  lectures  (which  were 
numerously  attended)    on  the   Epistle  to  the 


the  New  Testament,  of  which  he  afterward 
published  several  editions^ ;  finished  Marot's 
translation  of  the  Psalms  in  French  verse,  and 


embassy  to  the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany 
to  obtain  their  intercession  at  the  French  court 
for  the  release  of  the  Huguenots  imprisoned  in 
Paris.  In  the  following  year  he  went  to  Geneva 
as  a  preacher,  and  soon  after  became  a  profes- 
sor of  theoloey  and  the  most  active  assistant  of 
Calvin,  to  whom  he  had  already  recommended 
himself  by  several  works,  in  which  many  of  the 
views  of  that  eminent  theologian  were  advo- 
cated with  great  leal  and  no  small  measure  of 
ability,  so  that  he  was  generally  regarded  as 
Calvin's  ablest  coadjutor  and  the  person  des- 
tined to  be  his  successor.  His  talents  for  nego- 
tiation, which  were  distinguished,  were  now 
often  put  in  requisition  by  the  Calvinists.  He 
was  sent  to  the  court  of  Anthony,  King  of 
Navarre,  at  Nerac,  to  obtain  toleration  for  the 
French  Huguenots;  and  at  his  desire  he  ap- 
peared, 1561,  at  the  religious  conference  at 
Poissy,  where  he  spoke  in  behalf  of  his  party 
with  a  boldness,  presence  of  mind  and  enerf^ 
which  ^ined  him  the  esteem  of  the  Fren^ 
court.    He  often  preached  in  Paris  before  the 


Sueen  of  Navarre  and  the  Prince  of  Cond^; 
so  in  the  suburbs.  At  the  conference  of  Saint 
Germain,  in  1562,  he  spoke  strongly  against 
the  worship  of  images,  and  after  the  com- 
mencement of  the  civil  war  accompanied  the 
Prince  of  Cond£  as  chaplain,  and  on  the  cap- 
ture of  the  Prince  joined  Admiral  Coligny. 
After  the  restoration  of  peace  he  returned  to 
Geneva  in  1563,  where,  braides  discharging  the 
duties  of  his  offices,  he  continued  to  engage  in 
theological  controversies  in  support  of  the  Cal- 
vinists; and  after  Calvin's  death  in  1564  became 
his  successor,  and  was  considered  the  first  theo- 
logian of  this  Church.  He  presided  in  the 
synods  of  the  French  Calvinists  at  La  Rochelle 
(1571)  and  at  Nimes  (1572),  whet«  he  opposed 
Morel's  proposal  for  the  alteration  of  clerical 
discipline;  was  sent  by  Condi  (1574)  to  the 
court  of  the  Elector  Palatine;  and  at  the  re- 
ligious conference  at  Montpcllier  (1586)  op- 
Esed  the  theologians  at  Wurtemberg,  particu-  - 
■ly  James  Andreas.  At  the  aae  of  W  years 
he  married  his  second  wife  (1588),  and  still 
continued  to  repel,  with  the  power  of  truth  and 
wit,  the  attacks  and  calumnies  which  his  ene- 
mies, apostatized  Calvinists  (such  as  Bolsec), 
Lutherans  and  Jesuits,  heaped  upon  him. 
They  reported  in  1597  that  he  had  died,  and  re- 
turned before  his  death  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
faith.  Beza,  now  78  years  old,  met  his  assail- 
ants in  a  racy  poem  full  of  youthful  enthu- 
Masm,  and  resisted  in  the  same  year  the  at- 
tempts of  Saint  Francis  de  Sales  to  convert 
him  and  the  alluring  offers  of  the  Pope.  In 
1600  he  visited  Henry  IV  in  the  territory  of 
Geneva,  who  presented  him  with  500  ducats. 
Among  his  many  works,  his  exegetic  writings 
are  now  very  little  read,  but  the  able  and  cor- 
rect 'History  of  Calvinism  in  France  from  1521 
to  1563,>  which  ,is  ascribed  to  him,  is  still 
much  esteemed,  Bcza's  name  is  associated 
with  the  Codex  which  he  presented  to  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  for  an  account  of 
which  see  Bible.  Consult  the  'Life*  of  H.  M. 
Baird  (New  York  1899). 

BBZALEL,  in  lMl>licaI  histoiy,  a  son  of 
the  lewiah  cbn  Pahath-Moab  (tx.  x,  30). 
AnoUier  bearer  of  that  name  was  the  chief 
architect  of  the  Tabernacle,  expressly  called  by 
Jehovah  to  superintend  the  work  of  erection, 
decoration  and  furnishing  of  the  *tent  of  meet- 
ing." He  taught  the  arts  of  his  craft  to  his 
assistants,  the  chief  of  whom  was  Aholiab. 

BEZANT,  a  round,  flat  piece  of  pure  gold, 
without  any  impression,  supposed  to  nave  oeen 
at  one  time  the  current  coin  of  Byzantium. 
Bezants  are  frequently  employed  as  one  of  the 
charges  in  heraldry,  a  custom  supposed  to  have 
been  introduced  by  the  Crusaders.  Its  value  was 
about  $2.  For  a  long  time  after  the  Crusades 
it  was  current  in  England  and  on  the  Continent 
Bezants  are  common  in  the  arms  of  banks  and 
of  individuals  who  have  been  connected  with 
money.  Figures,  similar  to  bezants,  when  not 
colored,  are  in  heraldry  known  as  roundds. 

BEZBORODKO,  Alexander  Andrvye- 
vitch.  Prince,  Russian  soldier  and  statesman: 
b.  Little  Russiaj25  March  1747;  d.  St.  Peters- 
burg, 17  April  1/99.  Haying  graduated  from  the 
theological  seminary  at  Kiev,  he  decided  to 
devote  himself  to  a  military  career  and  en- 
tered the  army,  where  he  rose  rajndly  in  rank. 


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9oe 


BBZIER8  —  BBZOBRAZOV 


In  the  Russo-Turidsh  Wax  lie  was  second  in 
command  to  the  field  marshal  In  1774  he  en- 
tered the  civil  service.  Six  years  later  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  council  on  foreign 
anairs.  His  abilities  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  Empress  Catherine  II,  whose  private 
adviser  he  became.  In  this  unofficial  position 
he  acquired  a  strong  influence  in  matters  of 
state  poUcy.  After  the  coronation  of  Paul  in 
1796  he  was  appointed  to  the  highest  office  in 
the  empire.  Imperial  Chancellor.  Two  years 
later  he  was  instrumental  in  effecting  an  Anglo- 
Russian  alliance  against  France.  He  was  also 
larsely  responsible  for  the  third  partilion  of 
Poland.  He  was  one  of  the  very  few  men 
who  were  able  to  retain  the  favor  of  Tsar  Paul 
throu^iout  that  capricious  monarch's  entire 
reign. 

BEZIERS,  bi'Ze-a,  France,  town  in  the 
department  of  Hirault,  38  miles  southwest  of 
'Montpellicr ;  situated  on  a  height  above  the 
Orb,  and  on  the  Canal  du  Midi,  a  few  miles 
from  the  Mediterranean,  to  which  there  runs  a 
tramway  line.  It  is  surrounded  by  old  walls, 
and  though  its  streets  are  narrow,  it  is  tolerably 
well  built.  Its  most  conspicuous  edifice  is  the 
cadiedral,  a.  Gothic  structure,  crowning  the 
height  on  which  the  town  stands,  and  possess- 
ing a  fine  semi-cicular  choir  surrounded  by 
columns  of  red  marble.  The  city  has  a  com- 
munal college,  a  museum,  a  library,  and  a 
society  of  economics  and  archeology.  Its  man- 
ufactures consist  chiefly  of  woolens,  silks, 
hosiery,  chemicals,  spirits,  parchment,  gloves, 
glass,  soap,  leather  and  confectioneries,  etc 
It  has  also  extensive  brandy  distilleries  and  is 
the  centre  of  most  of  the  trade  of  the  district 
Beziers  was  from  immemorial  times  a  fortress 
town,  first  Gallic,  then  Roman.  It  was  during 
the  Roman  occupation  named  first  Beterrs, 
then  Beterra  Septimanorum,  and  was  the  sta- 
tion of  the  7th  Legion,  and  slilt  contains  Ro- 
man remains.  It  is  historically  interesting  in 
connection  with  the  massacre  of  the  Albigenses, 
when  its  inhabitants  were  indiscriminately  put 
to  the  sword  to  the  number  of  over  20,000  by 
Simon  de  Montfort  and  the  papal  legate,  for 
having  afforded  protection  to  the  fugitives  in 
1209.  It  suffered  also  in  the  religious  wars  of 
the  16th  century.     Pop.  51,042. 

BBZIQUB,  a  card  game  which  crystallized 
into  officiid  form  in  1887.  Two  packs  of  cards 
are  used,  two  players  participate  and  the  cards 
rank,  ace  high,  then  ten,  king,  queen,  knave, 
nine,  eight  and  seven.  All  cards  below  that 
are  discarded  from  both  packs.  Eight 
cards  are  dealt  to  each  player.  Trumps  may 
be  determined  either  by  turning  up  the  first 
card  of  the  stack  or  by  the  suit  of  Che  first 
marriage.  The  non-dealer  leads  for  the  first 
trick,  and  the  winner  of  each  trick  has  the  suc- 
ceeding lead.  After  each  trick,  each  player 
draws  one  card  from  the  top  of  the  slade,  the 
winner  of  the  trick  taking  the  fop  card.  The 
playing  is  as  in  whist,  the  leader  taking  the 
trick  unless  his  opponent  plays  a  higher  card 
of  the  same  suit  or  a  trump.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  follow  suit  until  the  stack  is  exhausted, 
when  one  must  do  so  and  take  each  trick,  if 
possible.  Counting  is  done  by  means  of  the 
values  of  the  cards;  each  ace  or  ten-spot  taken 
ui  a  trick  counts  10,  the  winner  of  the  last  trick 


of  each  hand  scores  lOt  and  if  Ac  tmmp  is 
turned,  both  sevens  count  10  for  the  turner, 
and  if  one  exchanges  from  his  hand  a  seven 
of  trumps  for  anouur  turned  trump  or  if  one 
declares  the  other  seven  of  trumps  10  n 


has  not  made  500  the  game  counts  double. 
There  are  certain  combinations  of  cards  other 
than  the  above,  which,  when  declared,  count  as 
follows :  Double  beziquc  (both  queens  of 
spades  and  both  knaves  of  diamonds),  500; 
sequence  of  five  highest  trumps,  250;  any  4 
aces,  100;  any  4  kings,  80;  any  4  queens,  60; 
any  4  knaves,  40;  bezique  (queen  of  spades 
and  knave. of  diamonds),  40'  royal  marriage 
(king  and  queen  of  trumps),  "ft);  marriage 
(king  and  queen  of  same  suit),  20.  A  declara- 
tion is  made  by  placing  the  declared  cards  face 
up  on  the  table  where  they  remain  till  played 
or  the  Stack  is  exhausted,  except  in  the  case 
of  the  seven  of  trumps.  To  score,  a  declaration 
can  only  be  made  after  winning  a  trick  and  be- 
fore drawing,  and  but  one  declaration  can  be 
made  at  a  time.  After  a  card  has  been  used 
in  one  combination  it  may  be  used  to  form 
another,  excepting  when  used  to  form  an  equal 
or  inferior  combination  in  the  same  class  as 
before.  A  player  need  not  declare  a  combina- 
tion which  he  holds  and  only  before  the  stack 
has  been  exhausted  can  a  declaration  be  made. 
Consult  A.  Howard  Cady's  treatise  for  details 
and  rules. 

BBZOAR,  concretions  found  in  the  fourth 
stomach  of  many  of  the  herbivora,  notat^ 
goats,  at  one  time  held  in  high  repute  because 
of   fancied  miraculous  healing  properties. 

BBZOBRAZOV,  Vladunir  Fa^lovid^ 
bie-zo'bra-zof,  Russian  political  economist  and 
publicist:  b.  3  Jan.  1828;  d.  29  Aug.  1889.  He 
received  his  education  in  the  Imperial  Aleks- 
ander  College.  In  the  covernmental  service  he 
spent  a  few  years  in  almost  every  dnuftment 
and  finally  became  a  senator.  In  recosnition 
of  his  activities  in  the  field  of  political  ecoiv- 
omy  the  Academy  o£  Science  awarded  him  the 
honor  of  regular  membership.  He  became  a 
lecturer  in  political  economy  at  the  Imperial 
Aleksander  College  and  gave  also  private  in- 
struction, in  that  subject,  to  Grand  Duket 
Aleksyd  and  Sei^  AJeksandrovich,  Nikolay 
and  Ronstantin  Konstantinovich.  In  recogni- 
tion of  these  services  he  was  awarded  the  order 
of  Alexander  Nevsld.  In  the  course  of  many 
years  the  imperial  government  availed  itself 
of  Bezobrazov's  practical  knowledge  of  finance 
and  political  economy.     In  these  fields  he  had 


Smith.  In  his  pamphlets  on  'Inspections  of 
Factories'  he  severely  critized  the  established 
order  of  things  in  the  industrial  institutions  of 
the  empire.  As  a  sbtesman  and  a  ^litician  he 
was  a  moderate  Liberal.  Disregarding  constitu- 
tional problems  he  severely  attacked  the  form- 
alism and  bureaucratic  methods  then  common 
in  Russian  home  affairs.  In  his  noteworthv 
treatise  on  'Government  and  Society'  (1882) 
he  laid  stress  on  the  indispensability  of  an  or- 
ganic link  between  the  local  governments  and 
the  central  power.  It  was  upon  his  initiative 
and  under  his  supervision  that  the  Sbomik 
Gorudarstv    Znania     iUagatint    of    Poltlital 


,y  Google 


BBZOLD  —  BHAGAVADGITA 


studies  in  the  universities  of  Leipxig,  Munich 
and  Stjaasboiv,  after  which  he  became,  in  1883, 
lecturer  at  Munich.  In  1888  he  received  an 
appointment  in  London  to  lecture  at  the  British 
Museum.  This  position  he  held  until  1393, 
when  he  was  appointed  professor  and  director 
of  the  Oriental  seminars  at  the  University  of 
Heidelberg.  In  1908  he  became  privy  coun- 
cillor. Amoiyt  his  original  works  are  'Cata- 
logue of  the  Cuneiform  Tablets  in  the  Kouyun- 
jik  Collection  of  the  British  Museum'  (London 
1889-99) ;  <The  Tell  el-Amama  Tablets  in  the 
British  Museum*  (1892)  ;  'Oriental  Diplomacy' 
(1893)  ■  'Nineve  und  Babj;Ion'  (3d  ed..  1909)  ; 
*Dic  Balnrlonischen-assyrischen  Keilschriften 
und  ihre  fiedeutung  fur  das  Alte  Teslament' 
(19CM)  :  'Festschrift  fiir  Ignati  Goldziher*  (in 
'Zeitschrift  fur  Assyriologie  und  Verwanote 
Gebiete,>  1912). 

BBZOLD,  Wilfaelm  von,  German  meteor- 
ol(^st:  b.  Munich,  21  June  1837;  d.  1907. 
After  graduating  from  the  University  of  Got- 
lingen  be  was  appointed  professor  at  the  Uni- 
versit);  of  Munich,  later  shifting  over  to  the 
Technical  Institute  in  the  same  city.  In  1885 
he  was  appointed  prof essor  of  meteorology  at 
the  University  of  Berlin,  where  he  at  the  same 
time  became  director  of  the  Meteorological  In- 
stitute, lately  established.  He  has  conducted 
some  valuable  and  original  researches  in  the 
lield  of  thermodynamics.  Among  his  writings 
are  'Die  Farbenlehre  im  Hinblick  auf  Kunst 
und  Kunstgewerbe'  (1874) ;  'Die  Kalteruck- 
falte  im  Mai>  (1883);  'Ziindende  Blitze  im 
Konigreich  Bayem»  (1884);  'Zur  Theorie  des 
Erdmagnetismus>  (1897);  'Ergebnisse  der 
Meteorologischen  Beobachtungen'  (48  vols., 
1885-1902J.  Consult  Helhnan^  'WiOielm  von 
Bezold,  Gedacfatnissr^de'    (1907). 

BEZOUT,  Bdenne,  French  mathemati- 
cian: b.  Nemours  1730;  d.  Paris  1783.  His 
writings,  which  attracted  much  attention  ia  his 
time,  contained  im^rtant  contributions  to  the 
theo^  of  elimination.  He  was  also  one  of 
the  first  mathematicianE  to  recognize  the  value 
of  detenninants.  His  best  known  works  are 
'Theorie  ginirale  des  Equations'  (Paris  1779)  ; 
<Cours  coraplet  de  mathimatique'  (Paris 
1780). 

BBZSONOV,  Peter  AlexeycTitch,  Rus- 
sian writer  on  Slavic  folklore :  b.  Moscow  1828 ; 
d.  1898l  He  studied  at  the  Univer^ty  of  Mos- 
cow, where  he  devoted  five  years  to  ancient 
and  modem  languages.  In  1864.  he  was  ap- 
pointed supervisor  of  the  Vtlna  Museum  and 
Public  Library,  becoming  at  the  same  time  d^ 
rector  of  public  education  in  the  same  dty. 
This  position  he  lield  three  years,  after  wtdch 
he  became  librarian  at  the  University  of  Mos- 
cow. In  1879  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
the  Slavic  bnguages  at  the  University  of  Khar- 
kov, where  he  remained  for  the  rest  of  his 
life.  His  works  include  'Bulgarian  Songs' 
(1855);  ^Serbian  Folk  Songs'  (1857);  'Rus- 
sUn  Folk  Songs'  (1861). 

BBZZENBBRGSR,  Adalbert.  German 
philologist:  b,  Cassel,  14  April  1851.     Gradu- 


ating from  the  University  of  Munich,  where 
he  had  made  a  special  study  of  Indo-Germanic 
languages,  he  became  lecturer  at  the  University 
of  Gottin^en.     In   1879  he  was  appointed  ^ro- 


Cber  der  Sprache  der  Preussien  Letten' 
(1888);  'Die  Kurische  Nehrung  und  ibre  Be- 
wohner'  (1889)  ;  'Sitzungsbencht  der  Alter- 
tumsgeschichte  Prussia'  (1892) ;  'Analysen 
Vor^schichte    Bronzen    Ostprussia'     (1904); 

'Beitrage  zur  Kunde  der  Indogermanischen 
Sprachen'   (1877-1906). 

BHAGALPUR,  Vha-gSl-poor*,  city  of  Hin- 
dustan, in  Bengal,  capital  of  a  district  and 
division  of  the  same  name,  situated  on  the 
(jai^es,  113  ntiles  northwest  of  Moorshedabad 
and  265  miles  northwest  of  Calcutta  b^  rait. 
The  situation  is  unhealthy ;  malaria  is  en- 
demic and  cholera  is  epidemic.  Teinarayan 
Jubilee  College  (established  in  1887)  is  main- 
tained almost  wholly  by  fees.  The  city  is  the 
headquarters  of  the  troops  for  keeping  in 
dwck  the  Sonthal  tribes.  In  the  town  and 
neighborhood  are  some  interesting  Mohsm- 
medan  shrines;  and  there  are  here  also  two 
monuments,  one  erected  (in  1780)  by  natives 
and  the  other  erected  by  government  in  mem- 
Diy  of  Augustus  Cleveland,  the  conciliator  of 
the  formerly  turbulent  and  marauding  hill 
tribes  of  Sonthals.  There  are  several  mdigo 
works  in  the  neighborhood.  Pop.  about  75,- 
275.  The  division  of  Bhagalpur  lies  between 
that  of  Rajshahi  on  the  east  and  that  of  Pat- 
na  on  the  west.  It  has  an  area  of  19776 
square  miles.  Pop.  (l^H)  8,144,821.  The 
district  of  Bhagalpur  is  fertile,  well  watered 
and  highly  cultivated.  Cereals,  pulses,  tobacco, 
cotton,  indigo,  opium,  flax,  hemp  and  sugar- 
cane are  the  principal  products  and  there  is  .a 
large  trade  b^  river  and  rail  with  lower  Ben- 
gal. It  is  divided  into  two  unequal  portions 
by  the  Ganges.  Area,  4,226  square  miles;  pop. 
2,139,318. 

BHAGAVADGITA,  bha'g3-vld-ge't9  (San- 
skrit, 'the  Divine  Sone"),  the  title  of  a  re- 
ligious-philosophical didactic  poem  interwoven 
as  an  episode  in  the  great  Indian  epic  of 
the  Mahabhirata  (q.v.).  The  leading  theme  of 
the  poem  which  is  divided  into  three  sections, 
is  the  exaltation  of  the  god  Vishnu  in  his  hu- 
man form  or  avatar  of  Krishna,  and  throughout 
the  god  speaks  in  his  own  person.  In  the  in- 
carnation Vishnu  became  the  character  of 
Arjmia,  a  chief  of  the  Pandus,  who  were  then 
at  war  with  their  kinsmen  the  Kurus.  On  the 
eve  of  battle,  when  Arjuna  is  appalled  at  the 
thought  of  slaughtering  his  own  kindred. 
Krishna  sets  before  him  the  duties  demanded 
of  him  as  a  member  of  the  warrior  caste,  and 
at  the  same  time  propounds  an  eclectic  system 
of  philosophy  of  an  ethical  pantheistic  type, 
laying  especial  emphasis  on  the  doctrine  of 
bhakli,  or  faith  in  the  Supreme  Being,  whom 
he  declares  himself  to  be.  There  are  transla- 
tions in  English  by  Davies  (1882) ;  TeUng  in 
'Sacred  Books  of  the  East,'  Vol.  VHI  (Ox- 
ford 1898);  Thompson  (1855),  and  Wllkins 
(1875J. 


Digitized  by  GOOI^IC 


BH  AIRAVA  —  BHAVABHUTI 


BHAIRAVA,  bTirrava,  a  Sanskrit  word 
signifying  'fear*  and  'lerrible,*  one  of  the 
many  names  applied  to  Siva.  Though  the 
naflw  as  applied  in  this  sense  is  of  ancient 
origin,  the  worship  of  Siva  under  the  separate 
form  of  Bhairava  is  a  later  development  in 
Hindu  mythology,  and  some  10  or  12  forms  are 
regarded  as  objects  of  worship  chiefly  by  the 
Mahrattas.  There  are  various  designations  of 
Bhairava,  the  most  popular  apparently  being 
•Bhairava  the  Dog>  "Bhairava  the  Black"  and 
Svasva,  the  latter  having  a  female  consort 
named  Bbairavi.  This  modern  character  is  not 
connected  with  Siva,  but  is  derived  from 
fihairon,  the  village  god,  ori^nally  a  "peasant 
godling,'  who  rose  through  successive  stages 
and  became  the  only  form  of  Siva  recogniied 
by  some  communities  in  northern  India.  The 
confusion  over  the  two  distinct  gods  arose  from 
the  accidental  resemblance  of  their  names  and 
the  attributes  of  the  greater  were  transferred 
to  the  smaller  deity  by  his  worshippers,  with 
the  result  that  it  is  now  impossible  to  dis- 
tinguish the  attributes  or  characteristics  of  one 
from  the  other.    See  Siva. 

BHAHO,  bh^-mO',  India,  town  of  Burma, 
on  the  upper  Irrawaddy,  about  40  miles  from 
the  Chinese  frontier  and  180  nor^-northwcstof 
Mandalay,  with  which  it  has  railway  communi- 
cation. About  20  miles  above  Bhamo  the  river 
suddenly  narrows  from  1,000  to  ISO  yards  and 
flows  throu^  a  rocky  gor^e  subject  to  eddies 
and  back-waters.  Navigation  is  at  that  point 
very  difficult  and  at  times  impossible.  It  was 
formerly  the  capital  of  a  Shan  prindpality  and 
was  a  large  and  fiourishing  city,  but  fell  into 
decay.  It  is,  however,  important  as  the  chief 
mart  of  the  trade  with  China,  through  western 
Yun-nan.  A  British  consulate  at  Manwyn^ 
Yun-nan,  since  1693,  has  greatly  facilitatea 
commercial  intercourse.  The  imports  are 
woolens,  cottons  and  silks,  which  are  brought 
chiefly  hy  caravans.  It  has  a  considerable  trade 
with  the  tribes  of  the  neighborhood,  who  ex- 
change their  native  produce  for  salt,  rice  and  a 
sauce  made  of  dried  fish.  It  is  at  the  head  of 
navigation  on  the  Irrawaddy,  and  st 

t  it  with  Rangoon.     Pop,  9,762. 


BHANG,  ban^,  (1)  an  Eastern  name  for 
_ommon  hemp  (Cannabis  Indica).  ^  A  nar- 
cotic   made    from    Indian    hemp.     The    large 


leaves  are  smoked  with  or  without  tobacco, 
are  chewed  or  made  into  a  drink  by  the  addi- 
tion of  cold  water. 

BHARTPUH,  bhert-pooi',  or  BHURT- 
FORB.  (1)  A  native  sUte  of  India  with  an 
area  of  1,%1  square  miles.  The  surface  is  gen- 
erally low  and  the  state  is  scantilv  supplied  with 
water;  soil  generally  light  anci  sandy;  chief 
productions,  corn,  cotton,  sugar  and  salt.  It  has 
been  under  British  protection  since  1826.  Pop. 
(1911)  558,785.  (2)  A  town,  the  capital  of  the 
above  state,  on  an  extensive  and  fertile  plain, 
IIQ  miles  south- southwest  of  Delhi.  It  covers 
an  area  about  four  miles  in  circuit,  and  was  so 
strongly  fortified  that  in  1805  it  stood  a  siege  by 
Lord  Lake  of  14  weeks  and  cost  the  besiegers 
3,100  men.  In  a  second  siege,  in  1826,  its  re- 
sistance to  Lord  Combermere  was  less  success- 
ful. The  fortifications  have  been  demolished, 
but  the  fort  still  exists,  and  is  enclosed  b)[  a 
wet  ditch  and  a  wall  of  hewn  stone,  which 
taken  together  are  60  feet  high.     Within  the 


fort  is  the  Rajah's  palace,  built  of  red  and  yel- 
low freestone  in  the  Mogul  style,  and  pictur- 
esquely crowning  an  eminence  surroimded  by 
flower-gardens  and  fountains.  The  population 
(1911)  was  33,918,  about  one-half  that  for  1881, 
the  decrease  in  that  period  having  been  4&7 
per  cent,  due  to  many  causes,  such  as  pover^, 
famine  and  emigration. 

BHARTRIHARI,  bhar-trt-ha'r^,  Indian 
poet,  author  of  a  book  of  apothegms.  Accord- 
ing to  the  legend  he  was  the  brother  of  King 
VUcramidil^,  who  lived  in  the  1st  century  «.c 
The  collection  of  300  apothegms  (short  po«ms) 
bearing  his  name  is  divided  into  three  parts,  and 
present  us  with  graceful  descriptions  of  nature, 
charming  pictures  of  love,  shrewd  remarks  on 
everyday  life  and  profound  thoughts  on  the 
Deity  and  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  Bhartri- 
hari  was  the  first  Indian  writer  who  became 
known  in  Europe,  200  of  the  apothegms  having 
been  translated  by  the  missionary  Abraham 
Roger  and  published  at  Leyden  (1653).  Hii 
actual  personality  has  been  much  discussed 
without  any  very  satisfactory  conclusion  having 
been  reached  The  weight  of  oinnion  inclines 
to  belief  in  his  existence,  and  that  he  was  a  poet 
of  a  philoso^ical  cast,  possiblv  a  grammarian 
also,  and  very  likely  of  royal  descent.  Consult 
Von  Bohlen,  'Bhartrihari's  Sententi3e>  (1833); 
Tawney,  "Two  Centuries  of  Bhartrihari' 
(1877);  Wortham,  'Translation  of  the  Satakas 
of  Bhartrihari>  (1886);  More,  'A  Century  of 
Indian  Epigrams,  Chiefly  from  the  Sanskrit  of 
Bhartrihari>  (1898) ;  Kale  and  Gurjar,  'Nitisa- 
taka  and  Vairagysataka^  with  Notes  and  ao 
English  Translation>    (1898). 

BHASKARA,  sumamed  Achakta.  the 
Learned,  Hindu  astronomer  and  roathesnatician: 
b.  1114;  date  of  death  unlmown.  He  was  the 
sixth  successor  of  Brahmagupta,  at  the  head  of 
the  college  of  astronomy  of  Ujjain.  His  chief 
work  was  the  'Siddhanta5ifx>mani*  ("Crowning 
of  the  Star  Svstem'),  which,  like  all  his  woria 
and  those  of  his  contemporaries,  was  written  in 
verse.  He  differed  from  them  in  adding  prose 
comments  and  explanations. 

BHATTI,  hhit'tt^  Indian  ei»c  poet  of  the 
6th  or  the  7th  century.  His  poem,  named  after 
him,  'Bhattikiivyam,*  is  in  22  cantos.    Its  theme 


rules  of  grammatical  and  rhetorical  composi- 
tion. It  was  published  with  a  two-fold  com- 
mentary at  Calcutta  (1828). 

BHAVABHUTI,  bha-v^-Uioo'tc,  sumamed 
Sat-KAHTHA,  Indian  dramatist,  of  the  latter  part 
of  the  7th  and  first  part  of  the  8ih  centuir.  He 
wrote  at  least  three  plays,  the  'Mahaviracnarita* 
("life  of  the  great  hero')  and  the  'Uttarari- 
macharita'  ('later  life  of  Rima*),  forming  to- 
gether, in  seven  acts  each,  a  dramatized  version 
of  the  story  of  the  Ramayana,  and  the 
'Malati-madtiava'  (tile  Hindu  Romeo  and 
Juliet),  a  domestic  drama  in  10  acts.  Bhava- 
bhuti  is  often  compared  with  Kalidisa,  whom 
he  equalled  in  vigor  and  variety,  but  hardly  in 
genius.  All  three  plays  have  been  translated 
mto  English.  Consult  Frazcr,  "Literary  His- 
tory of  India'  (London  1907);  Horwitt,  'The 
Irnfian  Theatre'  (ib.  J912),  and  Levi,  'Le 
theatre  indien>  (Paris  1890). 


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BHIL&— BHUTAN 


BHILS,  bels,  or  BHSBLS,  a  Dravidic 
race  inhabifing  the  Vindhya,  Sat^ura  ani  Sal- 
mala  Hills,  a  relic  of  tae  Indian  aborigines 
driven  from  the  plains  by  the  Aryan  Rajputs. 
They  appear  to  have  been  orderly  and  indus- 
trious under  the  Delhi  emperors,  but  on  the 
transfer  of  the  power  in  tie  18th  century  from 
the  Uognls  to  ue  Mahattaa  they  averted  their 
independence,  and  beii^  treated  as  outlaws  toc^E 
to  the  hills.  Various  attentpts  to  subdue  them 
were  nude  by  the  Gaekwar  and  by  the  British 
in  1818  without  success.  A  body  of  tltem  was, 
however,  aubsequently  reckumeo.  and  a  Bheel 
corps  formed,  which  stormed  the  retreats  of 
the  rest  of  Ae  race  and  reduced  them  to  com- 
parative order.  The  hill  Bheels  wear  little 
clothing  and  live  precariously  on  erain,  wild 
roots  and  fruit,  vermin,  etc.,  but  the  lowland 
Bheels  are  in  many  respects  Hinduized.  Their 
total  numbers  are  about  1^50,000.  Their  re- 
ligion contains  much  superstition,  including  the 
worship  of  Mother  Amba  Bhavani,  Their  lan- 
guage helongs  to  the  Kolarian  stock  of  Indian 
tongues,  but  many  of  them  speak  a  dialectic 
Aryan.  Consult  Rowney,  <Wifd  Tribes  of  In- 
dia' (1882);  Reclus,  'Primitive  Folk>  (1891); 
Crooke,  'Natives  of  Northern  India.> 

BHIHA,  be'm4,  BEBUAH,  or  BIMAH, 
(1)  a  god  in  Hindu  mythology,  the  son  of 
Pntha  (or  Kunti)  by  Vayu,  ihe  god  of  the 
wind,  remarkable  for  his  great  size  and 
strength;  (2)  the  name  of  a  river  of  India  ris- 
ing in  the  Poona  district  of  Bombay  and  flow~ 
in^  southeast  to  the  Kistna  Rivei,  about  400 
miles  in  iengUi. 

BHIWANA,  bhc-wa'-n«,  India,  a  town  in 
the  Punjab,  district  of  Hissar,  S5  miles  west  of 
Delhi.  It  is  the  trading  centre  of  its  district, 
exporting  metals,  sugar,  salt  and  spices.  Pop. 
31,100. 

BHOPAL,  bho-p^r,  India.  1.  A  native 
state  of  central  India,  with  an  area  of  6,874 
square  miles.     The  country  is  full, of  jungles 


yielding  wheat,  maite,  millet,  pease  and  other 
vegetable  productions  peculiar  to  central  In- 
dia. Sugar,  tobacco,  ginffer  and  cotton  are 
the  chief  exports.  The  district  is  well  watered 
by  the  Nerbudda,  Betwa  and  other  minor 
streams.  The  stale  of  Bbopat  was  founded 
by  an  Afghan  adventurer  named  Dost  Mo- 
hammed Khan,  who  in  1723  succeeded  m  es- 
tablishing himself  here  by  the  ccwntenance  of 
Aurungzebe;  on  whoM  death  he  assumed  the 
title  of  nabob,  which  was  retained  by  his  suc- 
cessors. Bhopal  has  all  along  been  frieiidly 
in  its  relations  with  the  British.  In  1818  the 
state  was  placed  under  British  protection. 
Pop.  1,375,317;  (2)  a  town,  capital  of  the 
above  state,  on  the  botmdary  between  Matwah 
and  Gundwana,  108  miles  east  of  Oojeio.  It 
was  defended  successfully  in  1813  against  the 
farces  of  Scindia  and  the  Rajah  of  Nagpore. 
It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  two  miles  in  cir- 
cuit and  contains  a  fort.  Outside  is  another 
fort  on  a  targe  rock,  the  residence  of  the  ruler 
of  Bhopal.  Among  other  buildings  of  note 
are  two  mosques,  arsenal,  mint  and  the  palace 
of  the  Begum.  Large  artificial  lakes  siVPly 
good  water.  The  town  is  clean,  has  fine  prom- 
enade gardens  and  is  well  lif^ted.  Pop.  5&- 
000. 


BHRIGU,  a  San^rit  word  ngnifying 
■radiant,*  "sparkling,"  A  mythical  race  of 
men  or  demigods  mentioned  in  the  'Rig  Veda*' 
(q.v,).  They  are  connected  with  fire,  which 
is  brought  to  them  and  first  kindled  by  Ma- 
tari-svan  and  afterward  given  by  the  Bhrigu- 
lo  men.  They  are  also  said  to  fabricate 
chariots.  Bhrigu  is  likewise  the  name  of  one 
of  the  chief  Brahmanical  families  and  also  of 
Varuni,  author  of  one  of  the  Rig  Veda,  being 
enumerated  among  the  10  Maharshis  created 
by  the  first  Manu.  The  name  of  Bhrigu  is 
furthermore  borne  by  one  of  the  Praj^atis 
produced  from  Brahma's  skin ;  by  one  of  the 
seven  sages;  by  the  father  of  Cyavana;  by 
the  author  of  a  Dharma  shastra ;  hy  an  ancient 
astronomer,  a  physician,  of  the  planet  Venus 
and  a  number  of  other  persons  and  thioffs. 
The  Bhrigu  myths  of  the  Big  .Veda  and  the 
Mahabharata  are  believed  to  be  merely  a  more 
developed  form  of  the  tradition  re^rding  the 
descent  of  fire  and  some  authorities  identify 
Bhrigu  with  Agni.  Consult  Monier-Williams, 
Sir  M.,  'Sanskrit- English  Dictionary'  (Ox- 
ford 1899).     See  Sanskrit  Literaiube, 

BHUJ,  or  BHOOT,  India,  chief  town  of 
Cutch  in  India,  Bombay  presidency,  at  the 
base  of  a  fortified  hill  with  military  canton- 
ments,  high  tciiool  and  school  of  art,  mauso- 
lewna  of  the  Raos  or  chiefs  of  Cutch,  pago- 
das, etC;,  including  a  temple  dedicated  to  the 
cobra  di  capello.  Bhui  is  famous  for  its  man- 
ufacturu  of  gold  and  silver.     Pop.  21,579, 

BHUTA  WORSmP.  in  Indian'  (Hindu) 
mythology :  bhuta  (the  word  is  plural)  are 
evil  spirits  or  goblins  who  kil!  the  living  and 
breathe  life  into  the  dead.  The  myth  has  ex- 
isted from  the  earliest  aees  and  in  later 
periods  the  god  Siva  (q.vj  was  reco^ieed 
as  die  chief  of  the  bhuta.  Hence,  Siva  is 
also  called  Bhutapatj — *Lord  of  the  Bhuta.* 
These  spirits  are  worshipped  and  prooitiated 
bv  many  non-Aryan  tribes  in  India,  in  tem- 
ples and  bouses,  under  the  forms  of  animals, 
sudi  as  boars,  tigers,  iMgs ;  of  human  beings, 
in  gaudy  dress  or  of  stones  and  pyramidal 
mounds  of  earth.  Blood  sacrifices  are  offered 
to  the  bhuta,  especially  gray  pigs,  black  he- 
goats  or  fowls ;  also  rice  soalcea  in  blood. 
The  ceremony  is  perfornied  with  wild  dances 
accompanied  by  tam-toms.  Id  the  south  of 
India  the  people  recognise  the  amiable  Bhuta 
Kanninar,  or  virgin  spirits.  Bhut-Bali  are 
otierings  to  malignant  spirits;  Bhuta-Devata 
is  an  evil  being  worshipped  as  a  divinity ; 
Bhut-khet  is  a  piece  of  land  granted  for  the 
cost  of  sacrifices.  A  Hindu  purificatory  rite 
is  called  Bhuta  Shuddhi;  in  this  connection, 
however,   Bhuta  signifies  the  four  elements. 

BHUTAN,  bhoo-tSn',  an  independent  state 
in  the  eastern  Himalayas,  with  an  area  of 
about  16,800  square  miles,  lyine  between  Tibet 
on  the  north  and  Assam  and  the  Jalpaiguri 
district  on  the  south  and  consisting  of  rugged 
and  lofty  mountains,  abounding  in  sublime 
and  picturesque  scenery.  Pop.  (estimated) 
250,060.  The  climate  varies  with  the  eleva- 
tion and  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  may  be  ex- 
perienced in  a  day's  journey.  Some  portions 
of  the  territory  are  fertile  and  produce  com, 
rice,  wheal,  bnckwheat,  mustard  and  carda- 
moms.   Cattle  and  considerable  numbers  of  a- 


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«io 


IBIAPRA  —  BIANCHINI 


)>eculiar  breed  of  pontes  itrc  raised.  The  man- 
ufactures, which  are  primitive  and  intended 
-for  hopie  consumption,  include  coarse  blan- 
kets, cotton  cloth,  swords,  daggers  and  other 
weapons    bnd    aoriculttiral    implements.     The 

fhutanes*  are  a  Itardy  and  vigorous  race,  of 
ibetan  stock,  and  their  language  is  a  dialect 
of  Tibetu.  They  profess  to  be  Buddhists, 
but  their  religion,  like  that  of  Tibet,  partakes 
largely  of  the  old  Bom-po,  which  preceded 
Buddhism  and  consists  chiefly  of  devil  wor- 
ship and  propitiatoiy  sacrifice.  The  admin- 
istration of  the  state  is  divided  between  the 
secular  Deb  rajah,  who  is  elected  for  a  term 
of  three  years  by  the  penkjps,  or  magnates, 
from  iheir  midst,  and  the  Dharma  raj^,  the 
presumed  reincarnation  of  Buddha,  who  is 
suMOSed  to  interest  himself  solely  with  the 
spiritual  control  of  the  state.  The  winter  cap- 
ital is  Punaka,  or  Dosen,  a  strong  natural 
fortress  96  miles  east-northeast  of  Darjeeling; 
Trashichodion^  is  the  summer  capital.  Bhu- 
tan formerly  included  considerable  tracts  of 
territory  now  included  in  Bengal  and  Assam, 
which  were  annexed  in  1864  and  1866  by  the 
British  government  in  retaliation  for  outrages 
committed  by  the  natives.  In  1865  they  drove 
the  English  out  of  Dewangiri  and  a  punitive 
expedition  was  sent  against  them.  A  treaty 
concluded  with  the  Bhutan  government  pro- 
vided for  the  payment  by  the  Indian  govern- 
ment of  an  annual  subsidy  in  return  for  for- 
mal cession  of  the  annexed  territory.  This 
subsidy  b^n  at  ^,500  and  was  gradually 
increased  to  i3,333;  it  is  conditional  upon  the 
to^intenance  of   peaceful   relations. 


of  Guinea,  between  Capes  Fonnosa  and  Lo- 
pez. Its  breadth  is  about  190  miles.  The 
principal  rivers  flowing  into  it  are  the  Niger, 
the  New  and  Old  Calabar  rivers,  the  Rio  del 
Rey,  the  Kamerun  and  the  Gaboon;  its  islands 
are  Fernando  Po  (Spanish)  and  Saint  Thom- 
as' and  Prince's  (Portuguese).  Opposite 
Fernando  Po  are  the  Karaeruns. 

BIALYSTOK,  byal-^-stok',  Russian  Po- 
land or  BIELOSTOK,  town  in  the  province 
of  Grodno,  on  the  Bialy  45  miles  south-soutb- 
west  of  Grodno,  with  wtiich  and  Warsaw  it  is 
connected  by  rail.  It  is  a  well-built,  handsome 
town,  with  a  spacious  market,  gymnasium  and 
several  churches  and  has  among  its  edifices  a 
palace  which  belonged  to  the  counts  of  Bran- 
iski  and  was  once  known  as  the  Polish  Ver- 
sailles. Its  manufactures  are  woolen  goodSr 
leather,  hats,  soap,  etc.  The  town  was  found- 
ed in  1320  and  became  part  of  Russia  after 
the  third  partition  of  Poland.  Pop',  about 
80,000. 

BIANCXVILLA  byan-k»-ven»  (Italian 
bianco,  white,  and  villa,  town),  a  city  of  Sicily 
situated  on  tne  slope  of  Mount  Etna,  20  miles. 
northeast  of  Catania,  founded  in  1480  as  an 
Albanian  colony.  Lava  is  employed  for  pav- 
ing its  streets  and  in  its  neighborhood  are  the- 
noted  grottoes  of  Scila  and  Archi,  the  former 
basaltic  the  latter  in  the  lava  of  1607  wilh  a 
tunnel  naif  a  mile  in  extent.  Wine  and  grain 
are  produced  in  the  district  and  all  the  cotton, 
in  this   portion  of   Sicily  is   called  Biancavilla. 

BIANCHI,  byanlce.  Francesco  (called 
1l  Frari),  Italian  painter:  b.  Uodcna  1447;  d> 


1510.  He  wU  the  ii^trudor  of  Corf^po, 
according  to  Vidriani,  and  his  works  were  es- 
teemed lor  graceful  design  and  agreeable  col- 
ormg.  Hb  works,  however,  have  all  the  tra- 
ditional dryness  of  the  period  and  the  eyes  are 
painted  in  a  manner  somewhat  grotesque. 
Among  his  few  works  extant  are  a  'Madonna 
with  Saints,'  now  in  the  Louvre:  He  must 
not  be  confounded  with  Federigo  Biaachi,  a 
Milanese  artist,  born  about  the  end  of  the  IMh 
century.  The  paintings  of  the  latter  arc  nu- 
merous in  northern  Italy  and  are  held  in  high 
esteem.  He  wrote  a  volume  of  biogr^ihies  of 
painters.  Consult  Lancilotti,  *Crooaca  Mo- 
dencse' ;  Vedriani,  'Scultori  ed  ArchiCetti 
Modcnesi' ;   Winckelmann,    'Neties    Malerlcw- 

BIANCHI-GIOVINI,  Anrello,  Italian 
journalist  and  historian :  b.  Como,  25  Nov. 
1799;  d.  Naples,  16  May  1862.  His  early 
studies  were  adapted  to  the  purpose  of  fol- 
lowing a  commercial  career,  but  he  took  up 
the  profession  of  journalism  in  Switzerland 
where  he  had  gone  to  escape  the  persecutions 
of  the  Austrian  police.  For  some  years  he 
was  editor  of  various  Swiss-Italian  newspa- 
pers. In  1841  he  began  his  more  serious  work, 
writing  a  number  of  historical  worics  in  Mi- 
lan and  Turin.  During  this  time  he  became 
a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  His 
principal  works  are  'Biografia  di  fra  Paolo 
Sarpi'  (1834);  an  incomplete  history  of  the 
Popes  (12  vols.,  1850-64);  <L' Austria  in 
Italia'  (2  vols.,  1854).  His  biography  has 
been   written  by  Montazio   (Turin   1862), 

BIAMCHI  AND  NSRI,  Italian.  WkUt 
and  Black:  Parties  or  factions  in  the  Floren- 
tine Republic  in  the  14th  centur:^.  Dante  be- 
longed to  the  Bianchi,  and,  being  banished, 
wrote  his  great  *Divina  Commedia*  in  exile. 

BIAKCHINI,  be-4n-ke'ne,  Francesco, 
Italian  antiquarian  and  astronomer ;  b.  Verona, 
13  Dec,  1662;  d.  Rome,  2  March  1729,  He  was 
intended  for  the  clerical  profession  and  to  this 
end  stuped  theology,  jurisprudence,  language^ 
mathematics  and  botany  in  Padua.  Afterward 
he  repaired  to  Rome  and  applied  himself  to 
jurisprudence  and  continued  the  study  of  ex- 
perimental physics,  astronomy,  etc.,  as  well  as 
of  Greek,  Hebrew  and  other  languages.  Pope 
Alexander  Vlll  bestowed  on  Bianchini  a  riA 
benefice,  with  the  appointment  of  tutor  and 
librarian  to  his  nephew,  the  Cardinal  Pieiro 
Ottobonl  Pope  Clement  XI  also  patronized 
him  and  appointed  hiin  secretary  to  the  com- 
mission employed  in  the  correction  of  the  cal- 
endar. Being  on  a  tour  through  France,  Hol- 
land and  En^nd,  be  formed  the  idea  of  draw- 
ing a  meridian  in  Italy,  from  one  sea  to  'Hm 
other,  in  imitation  of  that  which  Cassini  bad 
drawn  through  Prance.  He  was  occupied  eisfat 
'years  at  his. own  expense  in  that  work;  Mt 
other  employments  withdrew  his  attention  from 
it.  and  it  remained  unfinished.  He  concluded 
his  career  with  two  important  works  (1727)  on 
the  planet  Venus,  and  on  the  sepulchre  of  Au- 
gustus. He  is  the  author  of  several  memoirs 
and  dissertations  on  antiquarian  and  astronont- 
ical  subjects,  including  'Istoria  universale  pro^ 
vataco  momcnti,  e  figurata  co'  simboli  degU 
anticbi*  (Rome  1697),  and  'AstmnomicjE  et 
Geographicac  Observationes  Selects*  (edited  by 


Google 


BIANCO  — BIAS 


eii 


bis  nephew,  Verona  1737).  An  edition  of  An- 
asOsius,  'De  Vitis  Romanonim  Pontificum' 
was  begun  b^  him  and  completed  by  his  nephew, 
Guiseppc  Bianchini  (4  vols.,  Rome  1718-34). 
There  ia  a  monument  to  the  memory  of  Fran- 
cesco Bianchini  in  the  cathedral  of  Verona, 

BIANCO,  Andrea,  Italian  cartogtaplier 
who  lived  in  Venice  in  the  beginnins  of  the 
ISth  centunr.  It  has  been  asserted  that  he  had 
a  knowledge  of  America  previous  to  Columbus, 
for  amoni;  his  charts  is  ouq  dated  1436^  in 
which  are  indicated  two  islands,  one  'Andllia,* 
the  other  'De  lamao  Saianaxio,*  located  in  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  west  of  the  Azores.  His  maps 
are  now  rare  and  are  valued  as  illustrating  the 
knowledge,  or  ignorance,  of  geography  then 
prevalent. 


1786;  d.  Tipperary,  September  1876,  At  15  or 
16  he  was  bound  for  18  months  to  a  country- 
man, who  took  him  to  Dublin,  where  he  was 
sent  out  to  vend  cheap  prints.  Soon  be  re- 
moved to  Waterford  and  started  on  his  own 
account  as  itinerant  vendor.  In  his  long  pedes- 
trian journeys  he  was  led  to  envy  those  of  his 
own  calling  who  could  aSord  to  drive.  He 
engaged  in  other  enterprises,  all  of  which  were 
successful,  and  in  July  18IS  he  started  a  one- 
horse,  two-wheeled  car  to  carry  passengers, 
goods  and  the  mail-bags  from  and  to  Qonmel 
and  Cahir,  a  distance  of  aboM  10  miles.  The 
experiment  succeeded  and  grew  apace,  so  that 
in  1S45  Bianeoni  was  conveying  passengers  and 
freight  over  1,633  miles  and  working  daily  3,266 
miles  of  road.  His  cars  were  palroniied  by  all 
classes  and  were  of  great  benefit  in  opening 
np  communications  with  remote  districts.  Be- 
tween 1846  and  1865  the  growth  of  railways 
forced  the  discontinuance  of  the  Bianeoni  serv- 
ice on  4,S34  miles,  but  during  the  same  period 
it  was  extended  over  3.594  miles  in  routes 
crossing  the  nulways  and  reaching  districts 
'  remote  from  the  new  mode  of  conveyance  by 
rail.  Bianeoni  was  the  friend  and  supporter 
of  O'Connell,  and  on  the  occasion  of  a  visit  to 
Rome  he  erected  at  his  sole  cost  the  mcmuRient 
over  O'Connelt's  heart  in  the  church  of  Ae 
Irish  College.  In  1863-65  he  disposed  of  his 
vast  interests  on  liberal  terms  to  his  agents  and 
others  employed  hy  him  and  then  retired  to 
his  estate  at  Longfield,  near  Cashel,  Th^erary. 
Consult  O'Connell,  Mrs.  Morgan  John,  'Charles 
Bianeoni:  A  Biography'   (Dublin  18^). 

BIARD,  Fransois  Aii|pMte,  byar,  a-giist 
f roii-swa,  French  genre  painter :  b.  Lyons,  30 
June  1799;  d.  near  Fontamebleau,  20  June  1882. 
He  traveled  extensively,  visiting  Spain,  Greece, 
Syria,  Egypt,  Mexico,  Greenland  and  Spitz- 
bergen,  Brazil,  etc.  Among  his  best  known  pic- 
lures  are  the  'Babes  in  the  Wood'  (1828)  ;  the 
'Beggar's  Family'  (1836):  the  'Combat  with 
Polar  Bears'  (1839),  and  'The  Strolling  Play- 
ers,* now  in  uie  Luxeinbourg.  A  strong  ele- 
ment of  caricature  runs  throi^  most  of  bis 

BIARD,  Wmm,  French  misstonaiy  in 
America:  b.  Grenoble  1565;  d.  17  Nov,  1622. 
He  was  one  of  the  first  two  missionary  priests 
sent  to  New  France.  With  his  companion, 
Masse,  be  arrived  at  Port  Royal  22  May  1611, 


and  on  II  June  wrote  the  eariiest  letters  sent 
by  the  Jesuit  order  from  Canada.  He  at  once 
began  a  study  of  the  Indian  languages  with  a 
view  to  their  ctKiversion, —  a  task  of  extraor- 
dinary diHiculty,  as  the  Indians  had  no  sym- 
bols which  could  express  either  moral  or  re- 
ligious ideas.  He  established  frieiMUy  relations 
with  the  Indians  on  the  Kennebec  in  1612,  and 
in  the  same  year  composed  a  Mictnac  catechism. 
Owing  to  the  hostility  of  the  colonists  to  the 
Jesuits,  the  missionaries  left  Port  Royal  and 
founded  a  settlement  on  Mount  Desert  Island, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Penobscot.  The  colony- 
was  soon  destroyed  by  the  forces  of  Argat^ 
depu^  governor  of  Virginia,  and  Biard,  being 
capture^  was  sent  to  England.  This  enterprise 
of  Argall's  marks  the  actual  beginning  of  hos- 
tilities between  the  French  and  English  in 
North  America.  Biard  was  Ubcrated  after  a 
short  time,  and  returning  to  Lyons,  became  a 
professor  of  theology  and  afterward  chaplain 
of  the  King's  forces.  He  pubUshed,  in  1616^ 
'Relation  de  la  Nouvelle  France,  et  du  voyage 
des  peres  Jesuites  dans  cette  contree.'  This 
is  the  earliest  of  the  40  volumes  of  'Jesuit  Re- 
lations' (1632-'72},  which  are  such  valuable 
storehouses  of  material  for  early  American  his- 
tory. Consult  Hughes,  "History  of  the  Society 
of  Jesus  in  North  America'   (Clevdatid  1910). 

BIAHRITZ,  by^-rSts,  France,  a  fashion- 
able watering  place,  draartment  of  fiasses- 
Pyr^n^s^  five  miles  souu  of  Bayonne.  It  is 
a  favorite  of  bathers  and  other  persons  who 
come  from  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  especially 
of  the  Basque  mountaineers,  who  deem  it  an 
obligation  to  drink  of  the  mineral  waters  once  a 
year,  as  well  as  to  bathe  in  the  sea  of  Biarritx. 
In  1856,  the  place  acquired  additional  imoort- 
ance  from  bnng  made  the  summer  residence 
of  Napoleon  III  and  his  court  Since  then  its 
popularity,  both  in  winter  and  summer,  has 
steadily  increased.  It  has  no  industries,  and  is 
composed  almost  entirety  of  hotels  and  lodging- 
houses.  Pop.  18,260l  Consult  Laborde,  'Encore 
le  vieux  Biarriti'  (1909). 

BIAKT,  byar,  Lnclen,  Frendi  novelist, 
poet  and  writer  of  travels:  b.  Versailles,  21 
June  1829.  He  published  a  number  of  novels, 
containing  masterly  descriptions  of  Mexican 
nature  and  customs.  Among  his  works  are 
'Les  Mexicaines,'  'La  Terre  Oiaude,'  'A 
travers  I'Am^rique,'  and  (in  1885)  'Les 
Azt^ues,'  an  interesting  historical  study.  He 
died  in  Paris  18  March  1897. 

BIAS,  be'^s,  one  of  the  seven  wise  men  of 
Greece:  b.  Priene,  one  of  the  principal  cities  of 
Ionia,  about  570  b.c.  He  was  the  son  of 
Teutames,  was  a  practical  philosopher,  studied 
the  laws  of  his  country,  and  employed  Ids 
knowledge  in  the  service  of  his  friends,  defend- 
ing them  in  the  courts  of  justice  or  settling 
their  disputes.  He  is  said  to  have  died  at  an 
advanced  age  immediately  after  successfully  . 
defending  in  court  one  of  his  friends.  The  in- 
habitants of  Priene  having  resolved  lo  aban- 
don the  city  with  thdr  property,  Bias  replied  to 
one  of  his  fellow-cilizens,  who  expressed  his 
astonishment  that  he  made  no  preparations  for 
his  departure  —  •!  carry  all  thai  is  mine  with 
me.*  Many  of  the  stories  attributed  to  him 
are  of  doubtful  authenticity.  A  number  of  his 
short,  pithy  sayings  have  come  down  to  us. 


t,zcd=y  Google 


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BIBAUO  — BIBLB 


Consult  Mulladi.  F.  W.  A.,  'Fragmenta  Phi- 
losophorum  GrKConim.* 

BIBAUO,  Michel,  French-Canadian  poet 
SUkI  historian :  b.  near  Uanireal  1782 ;  d.  1857. 
He  published  in  1830  a  volume  of  poems, 
'Epitres,  Satires,  Chansons,  Epigrammes,* — 
the  first  miscellany  of  poems  in  the  history 
of  French- Canadian  literature.  He  afterward 
published  in  three  volumes  the  'Histoire  du 
Canada.'  This  work,  however,  was  not  well 
received  by  his  compatriots,  being  written  from 
the  British  rather  than  the  French-Canadian 
standpoint. 

BIBB,  George  H.,  American  jurist :  b. 
Virginia  1772;  d.  Georgetown,  D.  C,  19  April 
1859,  He  was  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1792 
and  took  up  the  practice  of  law  in  Kentucky. 
He  was  twice  chief  justice  of  the  Slate  Court 
of  Appeals;  served  two  years  in  the  State  sen- 
ate and  was  chancellor  of  the  Court  ot  Chan- 
i  senator  in  Congress,  1814-19 
of    the  " 

^latel 
ington,  D.  C 
[e  compiled  'Reports  of  Cases  at  Common 
Law  ana  in  Chancery  in  the  Kentudn  Court 
of    Appeals>    (1806-11). 


biena,  4  Aug.  1470;  d.  9  Nov.  1520.  For  many 
years  secretary  to  Cardinal  Giovanni  de  Medi- 
ci, in  whose  election  as  Pope  Leo  X  he  is  said 
to  have  had  a  considerable  share,  he  was  ap- 
pointed treasurer  and  soon  after  raised  to  the 
dignity  of  cardinal  (1513).  He  conducted  a 
successful  campaign  against  Urbino  and  in 
1518  was  legate  to  France  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  concerted  action  of  the  Christian  na- 
tions against  the  Turks.  He  translated  sever- 
al plays  of  Plautus,  which  were  performed  be- 
fore the  Pontifical  court.  He  was  an  ardent 
promoter  of  art  and  science.  His  comedy, 
'Calandria,*  ii  probably  the  earliest  in  Italian 
literature.     Consult  the   biography  by   Bondini 


(Leghorn   1578);   Camerini,   *Nuovi  profiH  let- 

terari'     (Milan    1875);    Flamini,    'History   ot 

iLiterature'    (New  York  1906) ;  Graf, 


'La  Calandria>  (1878) ;  Wendriner,  _  _. 
Quellcn  von  Bernardo  Do  vizis  Calandria' 
(1855). 

BIBBIENA,  Giuseppe,  Italian  painter:  b. 
1696;  d.  1757.  The  most  distinguished  of  the 
Bibbiena  family,  he  was  famed  as  architect 
as  well  as   an  artist.     Not  only  did  he  design 

Sorgeous  decorations  for  a  court  wedding  at 
lunich  in  1722  and  a  dazzling  court  festival 
in  Prague  in  1723,  but  he  built  the  noted  thea- 
tre at  Bayreuth  in  1757  and  remodeled  the 
Opera  house  at  Dresden.  The  'Archiicttura  e 
Prospettirc*  (1740)  contains  several  iltustra- 
tions  of  his  works.  Consult  Nagler,  'Neues 
Allgemeines  Kiinstler-Lexicon.' 


ube,  22  miles  south-southwest  from  Ulm.  It 
is  1,750  feet  above  sea-level,  is  irregularly  buUt 
and  with  its  old  walls,  still  in  part  remaining, 
and  its  old  towers  and  gateways,  has  a  me- 
dieval aspect.  Among  its  buildings  is  a  fine 
church,  dating  from  1100  and  recently  restored. 
The  town  has  important  educational  institu- 
tions   and    a    rich^    endowed    hospital      The 


French,  under  Uoreau,  defeated  the  Austrtani 
near  Biberach  on  2  Oct.  1796;  and  again  9 
May  1800  the  Austrians  suffered  defeat  at  the 
hands  of  Saint-Cyr.  There  is  a  monument  to 
the  poet  Wieland,  who  was  bom  in  the  vicin- 
ity. The  town  b  noted  for  its  bell  foundries 
and  manufactures  of  artificial  flowers,  leather, 
toys  and  machinery.  Its  grain  and  fruit  mar- 
kets are  famous.  The  gas  works  and  water- 
works are  the  property  of  the  town.  Pon 
9,096. 

BIBESCO,  Bubo  Demetriiu,  also  known 
as  Prince  Stirbey,  Wallachian  statesman:  b. 
1801;  d.  Pisa,  Italy,  13  April  1869.  In  1817 
he  went  to  study  in  Paris  where  he  remained 
until  1821  when  he  returned  to  his  native 
land.  He  participated  in  the  uprising  against 
the  Greek  officialdom  establi^ed  in  Romania 
under  the  Turldth  govemmeni.  Under  the 
provisional  governraeut  established  under 
Russian  protection  he  accepted  the  portfolio  of 
Minister  of  the  Interior.  He  is  considered 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  modern  Rumania. 

BIBIKOV,  be-belcof,  VuiU  lUch,  Russian 
actor,  dramatic  critic  and  playwright:  b.  1747; 
d.  1787.  He  was  the  secret  councillor  of  the 
Imperial  court  From  his  earliest  boyhood  he 
manifested  a  passionate  love  for  the  theatre 
as  also  a  remarkaUe  dramatic  verve  which  did 
not  esci^e  the  eye  of  his  future  guide  and 
teacher,  A.  Stunarokov.  It  was  with  the  aid 
of  that  great  master  that  Bibikov  oriKinaied 
the  theatrical  art  in  Russia  by  establishing, 
upon  the  inviiatioo  of  Empress  Catharine  II. 
the  Imperial  Theatre  in  Saint  Petersburg.  He 
was  the  first  director  of  that  company  and  as 
such  has  deserved  an  immortal  name.  But 
he  was  even  more  celebrated  as  founder  of  the 
first  Academy  of  Drama  in  Saiat  Petersburg 
(1779)  which  became  the  nursery-garden  of 
Russian  actors.  No  smaller  fame  did  he  de- 
serve as  author  of  a  comedy  in  five  acts  'Likhoi- 
meti'  (The  Usurer)  which  was  performed  with 
immense  success  in  all  the  theatres  in  Saint 
Petersburg.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  he 
had  been  familiar  with  Moli^re's  master- 
piece, 'L'Avare,'  but  the  elaboration  and  the 
dialogue  ate  essentially  Russian  in  charaicter. 
The  subject  matter  of  the  comedy  has  been 
taken  from  the  contemporary  customs  of  the 
metropolis,  which  he  had  satiriied  in  a  pow- 


Usurcr'  was  considered,  and  is  now  to  : 
great  extent,  one  of  the  best  comidit*  dt 
maeurt   ever  written  in   Russian. 

BIBLE,  The.  Introduction.  The  Nune. 
—  The  Phoenician  port  of  Gebal,  the  modern 
Jebel,  famed  as  seat  of  the  Adonis  cult  and  still 
earlier  as  a  mart  for  papyru^was  called  Byblos 
by  the  Greeks,  whence  the  Greek  word  bybloi 
or  biblot  came  to  denote  the  papyrus  plant  (as 
we  say  barege  or  nankin)  and  its  inner  pith, 
then  tne  paper  made  therefrom,  then  a  book  or 
writing  (Matt  i,  1,  first  used  to  denote  a  body 
of  sacred  writ  in  the  Letter  of  Aristeas,  316). 
Thence  the  diminutive  biblion  with  its  plural 
biblia  (often  byblion,  -a),  meaning  papers.  Ut- 
ile books,  books,  documenit,  tcrtptuttt^  library. 
In  the  preface  to  Ecclesiasticus  (written  m 
Hebrew  about  172  ax.  tv  Joshua  Sirach,  turned 
into  Greek  and  prefaced  by  his  grandson  Joshua 
about  117  B.C,)  this  b^lia  is  used  twice    .   .   . 


.Google 


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<of  die  Law  uid  the  Prophets  and  the  other 
Biblia*  .  .  .  'also  the  Law  and  the  Prophe- 
cies and  the  rest  of  the  Biblia*  ...  to  denote 
the  literature  of  Israel,  as  the  equivalent  and 
in  fact  a  translation  of  the  Hebrew  S'farim 
(scr^tures)  used  in  the  same  era  in  the  same 
sense  in  Dan.  ix,  2,  «I  Daniel  understood  from 
the  s'farim.'  From  the  Jews  this  term  passed, 
along  with  so  much  other  freightage  of  tnought 
and  word,  to  early  Christians  (first  in  2  Clem, 
to  Cor.  xiv,2),  by  whom  it  was  at  last  extended 
to  include  all  authoritative  scriptures,  Jewish  and 
also  Christian.  In  the  Middle  Ages  this  Greek 
neuter  plural  was  mistaken  for  a  Latin  fem- 
inine singular  and  so  declined:  biblia,  bibliec, 
etc.  As  such  it  has  passed  over  into  various 
languages  of  modern  Europe  (the  Bible,  lUe 
Bibel,  la  Bible,  ta  Bibbia,  etc.). 

Other  Hamea.— S'farim  or  biblia  was  by 
no  means  the  only  term  applied  by  Jew  or 
Christian  to  the  scrolls  in  question.  At  first  all 
Israel's  literature  was  regarded  as  holy,  if  not 
quite  equally  so,  merely  as  being  written*  — 
such  was  his  preoccupation  with  religion  —  and 
not  till  the  Middle  Ages  do  the  Jewish  ex- 
pounders (never  ihe  Talmud  or  Midrash)  speak 
of  the  "Scriptures  Holy"  {«/re  ha-qodesh) . 
When  other  books  appeared,  they  received  the 
special  sufBx.  'the  outsiders"  (ha-chilsutiim), 
the  Greek  'Afokrypha'  ("hidden  away*), —  per- 
haps aa  not  mcluded  in  Temple  or  Synagogue 
libraries.  As  read  publicly  on  Sabbaths  and 
■  holidays,  the  books  were  named:  (a)  Migra, 
•the  read*;  also  (b)  "writiags  the  holy* 
(kith'be  ha-qodeih),  a  title  reappearing  in  Rom. 
i,  2  {graphhis  hagiais)  and  in  2  Tim.  iii,  15 
(hiera  grammaia).  Again,  the  superflous  "holy* 
omittefC  they  were  called  (c)  simply  Writ 
(kamb'),  and  the  modem  phrase  "the  Scripture 
says"  merely  translates  the  Hebrew  ha-iatub 
'omer,  as  file  'every  scripture*  of  2  Tim. 
iii,  16  translates  kol  ha-katub.  Once  more  (d) 
since  "Law*  (Torah)  was  the  first  and  chief 
division  of  these  "Books,*  the  term  is  applied 
to  the  whole,  as  also  in  John  x,  34,  1  Cor.  xiv, 
21.  (e)  The  name  "Testament*  (Old  and 
New),  translating  the  Greek  diatheke  (cove- 
nant), first  used  in  this  sense  in  2  Cor.  ui,  14, 
the  most  familiar  to  us,  very  naturally  is  rarely 
it  ever  used  by  a  Jew  to  mean  "Scripture*;  the 
•Book  of  Covenant*  or  Testament  {ufer  ha- 
britk)  denotes  the  whole  "Law*  in  Ben  Sirach 
xxiv,  23,  but  properly  only  Ex.  xx,  20-xxiii,  35, 
(f)  Still  other  less  important  designations  are 
found;  as  Cycle  (macAjMr),  'Twenty  and  Four 
Books,*  "Verse*;  often  an  acrostic  was  formed 
with  the  Hebrew  initials  (l-n-k)  of  Law, 
Prophets,  Writings,  and  of  other  designations. 
(k)  Lastly,  in  the  Mishnah  the  mark  of  the 
Holy  Books  is  that  they  "defile  the  hands,* 
which  sounds  like  a  tabu,  but 
"  rase  "defiling  the  hands*  c 
loly  Books'  as  canonical. 
Division  of  the  Subject. —  In  discussing 
this  authoritative  literature,  the  question  is 
first,  What  are  these  various  Scriptures  7 ;  then, 
what  is  their  actual  literal  content?;  and  lastly, 
what  is  its  meaning  (or  interpretation)  ?  The 
first  question,  in  all  its  ramifications,  concerns 
the  Canon;  the  second,  the  Text  and  textual 


criticism;  the  third,  the  History  of  Inlerpreta- 
tion  and  so-called  "Higher  Criticism.*  These 
topics,  then,  will  be  discussed  in  this  order.  As 
is  well  known  and  has  already  been  observed, 
the  whole  literature  falls  into  two  grand  divi- 
sions: the  Old  Testament  and  the  New,  or 
Jewish  and  Christian  Scriptures,  and  these,  be- 
ing wide  apart,  will  require  separate  and  dis- 
tinct treatment 

Canon  of  the  Old  Testament. 
TeiBis.— Both  the  word  and  the  idea  at 
Canon    appear    to    be    Semitic.      The   Assyrian 

SanO,  Heorew  qaneh,  Greek  kanna,  along  with 
le  English  cane  and  many  others,  all  mean 
retd,  whence  the  Greek  kanoH  meant  a  rod  or 
bar  used  to  keep  a  thing  straight  or  right;  thus 
Homer  calls  the  arm-rods  of  Nestor's  shield 
kanonas  (II.  viii,  I92i).*  Thence  kanan  came 
to  mean  a  straight-edge,  thence  rule,  norm, 
standard,  model;  thence  canons  or  canonical 
biblia  came  to  denote  Scriptures  accepted  as 
authoritative,  ss  the  rule  of  faith  and  practice, 
whether  prescribing  or  prescribed.  Al!  this, 
however,  is  Christian ;  the  Jews  employed  no 
such  term,  but  instead  of  it  the  names  al- 
ready mentioned,  to  designate  their  regulative ' 
literature.  This  latter,  of  course,  came  into 
being  gradually,  indeed  very  gradually,  and  for 
many  generations  no  question  was  raised  as  to 
the  authoritative  or  unauthoritative  character  of 
any;^particular  'Writing,*  for  no  such  distinc- 
tion arose  into  consciousness.  Nor  was  there, 
tor  many  years,  perhaps  hundreds,  any  collec- 
tion of  writings  into  a  single  body;  but  in  the 
2d  century  B.C.  there  may  oe  discovered  traces 
more  or  less  distinct  of  such  an  assembling. 
In  2  Maccabees  ii,  13ff  we  read:  "and  there 
were  related  in  the  records  and  the  memoirs  of 
Nehemiah  the  same  things,  and  how  he,  found- 
ing a  library,  collected  the  biblia  concerning  the 
kings  and  the  protects  and  those  of  David  and 
the  letters  of  kings  concerning offerings'(anath- 
emas).  But  especially  this  part  (i,  2-ii,  18) 
of  this  book  (dated  by  Nicse  124  b.c),  namely, 
the  letters  recommending  the  temple-consecra- 
tion, ostensibly  from  Palestinian  Jews  to  their 
brethren  in  Egypt,  is  admittedly  late  and  un- 
trustworthy, and  its  statements  may  be  only 
enlarged  inference  from  the  actual  mention  in 
Nehemiah  of  the  book  of  the  Law  (viii,  8),  the 
book  of  the  Chronicles  (xii,  23),  'the  command- 
ment of  David*  (xii,  24),  and  letters  of  King 
Artaxerxes  to  governors  and  others,  touching 
(among  other  matters)  the  gift  of  timber  for  the 
gates,  etc.  (ii,  7-9),  as  well  as  earlier  alleged 
proclamations  of  Cyrus,  DaHus,  Artaxerxes, 
prescribing  the  offering  of  gifts  tor  restoration 
of  the  temple,  letters  ostensibly  copied  in  E^ra 
(i,  2-4,  vi,  6-12,  vii,  12-26).  (Consult  Well- 
hausen's  'Bleek,'  cd.  iv,  p.  SS9f,  and  Konig's 
"Einleitung,'  442f,  for  opposite  judgments.) 
But  we  may  detect  here  some  faint  hint  of  a 
triple  or  quadruple  segmentation  of  a  body  of 
literature  generally  accepted  but  not  yet  pecu- 
liarly sacred. 

Ben  Sirach.—  Much  clearer  are  the  lines  of 
cleavage  in  the  passage  already  quoted  from  the 
grandson  of  Sirach.  as  well  as  in  this,  from  the 
same  context:  "Whereas  many  things  and  great 

*£v«i  ths  buckler  of  Nctlo',  th*  faiae  whereof  BSto 
bcaven  Resdieth,  at  beinf  <i  gold,  wioacbt  nliid,  itaall  sod 


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have  been  transmitted  unto  us  through  the  Law 
and  the  Prophets  and  the  others  that  followed 
after  them,  wherefore  one  must  needs  praise 
Israel  for  culture  and  wisdom, —  and  since  there 
is  need  not  only  for  such  as  (can)  read  (the 
original)  la  get  understanding  but  also  for 
those  without  to  profit  both  by  the  word  and 
the  writ  of  the  lovers  of  learning  (the  scribes), 
therefore  my  grandfather,  etc."  Here  we  dis- 
cover not  only  the  triple  classification,  Law, 
Prophets  and  die  Others,  but  also  what  impulse 
was  urging  to  recognition  of  literary  values  and 
consolidation  of  a  body  of  authontative  scrip- 
tuxes;  It  was  the  contact  with  Greek  culture, 
in  which  literature  played  such  a  dominant  part, 
that  forced  Israel  to  recoil  and  say  in  self- 
defense,  'But  we  too  have  a  literature,  greater 
even  than  the  Greek,*  and  to  make  it  accessible, 
Israel  proceeded  to  translate  it  into  Greek,  the 
vernacular  of  culture,  as  Ben  Sirach  relates. 
This  contact  with  the  Hellenic  world  started 
Israel  on  the  path  of  self -vindication,  which 
Spread  out  into  the  great  missionary  propaganda 
of  early  Christianity. 

Hea  of  Grmce.— The  authors  that  Bea 
Sirach  names  in  his  'Hymn  of  the  Fathers  of 
01d>  (xliv,  1;  1,  24)  are  these:  Moses,  Joshua, 
Samuel,  David,  Solomon,  Isaiah.  Jeremiah, 
Eliekiel,  Job,  Twelve  Prophets,  Ndiemiah,  but 
there  is  no  clear  indication  of  what  or  how 
much  he  attributes  to  each.  Ecclesiastes,  Daniel 
and  Esther  are  not  mentioned.  Ruth  may  be 
included  in  the  works  of  David  (the  Psalms), 
and  Ezra  in  Nehemiah.  The  substance  of  Ezra 
iii,  2  is  quoted  in  xlix.  12 ;  the  Law  and 
the  Prophecies  are  mentioned  in  xxxix,  1.  Some 
have  thought  to  find  reference  to  Psalms,  Pro- 


I  Israel,  but  to  pagan  worthies,  the 
trast  with  wnose  perishable  fame  b^ns  in  v. 
10:  'But  these  men.  the  pious,  etc.*  Neither 
ia  there  any  hint  in  Ben  Sirach  of  a  closed 
canon,  though  there  may  be  some  faint  allusion 
thereto  at  dose  of  the  book  of  Malachi  (iv, 
4-^:   "Remember  the  Law  of  Moses  .     . 

Behold  I  will  send  yon  EUjah  the  Prophet, 
eta,*  words  doubtless  appended  by  a  later  hand. 
Again,  Qoheleth  (Ecclesiastes)  closes  with  a 
warning  against  making  many  books  and 
wearying  the  flesh  (xii,  12f).  These  verses, 
also  doubtless  inserted  later,  were  understood 
by  Rabbis  to  forbid  not  only  the  addition  of  any 
other  work  to  the  'Twenty- four,'  but  also  the 
study  *to  weariness"  of  any  such,  and  even  in 
later  times  to  read  at  all  any  'outside*  books, 
was  held  to  forfeit  all  *lot  in  the  future  life.* 
First  Canon. —  In  Nehemiah  viit-x  is  found 
an  elaborate  account  of  the  formal  introduc- 
tion, proclamation  and  acceptance  of  the  Law 
on  the  part  of  the  Jews  returned  from  Baby- 
lon. It  was  read  and  expounded  from  mom 
till  noon  for  seven  days :  one  may  say  then  it 
was  canottiged  from  the  l7th  to  the  24th  of  the 
seventh  month  of  the  year  444  B.C.  (the  year 
when  Thucydides  was  ostracized  and  Pericles' 
sway  established  in  Athens).  About  200  years 
l^ter  the  list  of  the  prophets  appears  complete, 
and  over  100  later,  in  the  latter  half  of  the  2d 
century  B.C.,  the  roll  of  the  *Rcst"  was  finished 
and  closed  forever,  and  therewith  the  canoniza- 
tion of  Jewish  Scriptures  was  ended.  Such  at 
least  is  the  face-value  of  the  facts  in  evidence ; 


but  it  must  not  be  di^uised  that  the  trend  of 
deepening  research  is  to  lower  all  the  dates  in 

Suestion,  to  what  extent  it  is  not  yet  possible  to 
eterminc.  Thus  it  is  not  even  certam  whether 
Artaxerxes  I  (Longimanus.  465-425)  or  II 
(Mnemon,  405-359).  is  meant  in  Ezra  vii,  viii, 
and  Nch.  ii,  1,  v.  14,  xiii,  6;  the  whole  Ezra- 
Nehemiah  matter  is  unsettled,  and  there  is  a 
wide  range  between  the  radicalism  of  Torrey 
and  the  conservatism  of  Mejer. 

Text  Open. —  More  important,  however, 
than  any  single  variation  in  date,  is  the  fact 
that  establishment  of  a  Canon  by  no  means  im- 

tHed  cessation  of  literary  process  within  the 
cripturcs  canonized.  The  sacred  lists  of 
Prophets  and  Writings  were  never  formally 
dosed  with  any  such  ceremony  as  honored  the 
Law,  which  to  the  last  retained  its  position  of 
easy  pre-eminence,  but  even  its  majesty  was 
attinged  by  various  hands  for  hundreds  of 
years  after  its  canonization.  Of  this  there  are 
many  clear  indications;  one  may  be  noted  Id 
Ex.  xxv-xxxt  is  a  body  of  regulations  con- 
cerning details  of  worship  and  especially  sacred 
utensils  and  furniture;  in  Ex.  xxxv-xl  the  same 
is  repeated,  often  nearly  verbatim,  but  in  greater 
detail,  by  another  hand ;  in  this  latter  the  Sep- 
tua^nt  (Seventy)  translation  difTers  exten- 
sively from  the  Masoretic  in  arrangement,  iu 
diction  and  in  the  smaller  amount  of  material, 
an  index  pointing  to  the  fact  that  so  tate  as 
250  B.C.  the  text  had  not  attained  a  final  form. 
Jcreiniah. —  Still  more  heavily  must  the 
Prophets  and  the  Writings,  protected  by  far 
less  sacro-sanctity,  have  felt  the  finder  of 
redaction.  This  is  most  clearly  seen  m  the 
book  of  Jeremiah,*  where  the  later  Masoretic 
or  Palestinian  (Hebrew)  tent  exceeds  in  length 
(by  about  one-ei^th  of  the  whole)  the  older 
Egyptian  text  represented  in  tiie  Septuagint 
By  so  much  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  were 
enriched  after  250  b.c  Yet  they  were  rated 
especially  hirfi  b};  the  post-exilic  Jews  (as  ap- 
pears from  Daniel  ix)  ;  indeed,  it  was  just 
oecause  they  were  so  dear  to  the  people's  heart 
that  they  were  edited  and  rc-e(fited  and  en- 
larged and  enlarged  again.  The  interpolator 
was  removed  as  far  as  possible  from  ir- 
reverence. His  interpolations  were  in  truth  the 
answer  of  his  soul  to  the  strong  appeal  of  the 
prophet.  This  holds  quite  as  well  of  the  other 
Scriptures  of  both  Testaments.  Extensive  and 
repeated  revision  and  interjiolatiDn  is  the  sure 
sign  of  esteem  and  affection.  The  notion  of  an 
author^s  rights,  as  we  count  them,  wks  quite 
unknown.  The  worshiper  whose  heart  was 
enkindled  by  the  saintly  chant  did  not  hesitate 
to  add  his  own  voice  to  that  of  the  invisible 
ehmr.  With  respect,  then,  to  every  important 
book  of  the  Bible,  there  is  a  highly  antecedent 
probability,  indeed  almost  a  certainty,  that  it 


. , _ie  Jereini»n  p 

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■■Ivstion,  nevar  pnfaang  to  ba  Jaramko:  A  ki«  lualf  beaa 
radacted.  aod  a  redactor  oompoundKl  tbe  taat  A  B  C  D  bilo 
ttie  preaeot  "  JaitDiuih  "  *am«time  btSon  US  B.C.    Bvcd 

doKii.  or  even  a  kdk  al  Butlwn  hare  conbrilnted  ftatora 


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DijilizcdbyGoOl^le 


iizodsi  Google 


Ezra,  who  as  president  of  the  'Men  of  the 
Great  Synagogue"  (merely  the  shadow  of  a 
mighty  name),*  both  unified  all  the  Jewish 
Scriptures  in  ODC  volume,  restored  the  correct 
text  aad  made  the  three-fold  division  into  Law, 
Prophets  and  Writings,—  this  idea  budded  in 
the  13th  century  aad  developed  amply  400 
years  later  in  the  imi^ination  of  Elijah  Levita 
(1538),  and  to  still  greater  proportions  iu  that 
of     Buxtorf     (1665), —  a    merely    fictive    out- 

Sowth  from  tne  records  that  Ezra  'the  priest, 
;  scribe"  "ready  in  the  law  of  Moses,»  of- 
ficiated as  chief  reader  during  the  work  of 
canonization   o£    the   Law    (Neh.   viii,   1,   2,  6, 


Babylon  (536  B.C.?)t  three  generations  had 
passed  away,  but  affairs  in  Jerusalem  and  Ju- 
dea,  so  far  from  showing  improvement,  had 
grown  even  more  deplsraole.  Not  only  were 
country  and  city  the  prey  of  nejghborin^  free- 
booters, but  far  worse,  a  process  of  miscege- 
nation with  the  heathen  nomads  and  of  conse- 
quent religious  d^eneration  and  decay  had 
set  in,  and  threatened  to  extinguish  Israel  in 
the  South  as  totally  as  (alreadv)  in  the  North. 
Ezra  had  indeed  not  neglected  the  most  dras- 
tic measures  against  this  amalgamation  (Ena 
x),  and  in  the  midst  of  a  drenching  rain  had 
pledged  the  people  to  put  away  all  'strange 
wivws,*  even  those  that  were  mothers.  Never- 
theless the  strong  hand  of  the  governor  Ne- 
hemiab  was  needed  to  lift  up  the  people  from 
their  d^radation,  to  restore  the  walls  that 
were  br^cen  down  and  the  gates  that  wetv 
burned  with  fire.  It  is  the  revival  of  a  na- 
tional consciousness,  the  reanimation  of  a  per- 
ishing people,  that  is  celebrated  in  that  great 
Feast  of  the  Tabernacles  {Chag  Hfy-subboth). 
It  is  the  group-soul  that  comes  back  to  life 
and  the  canonization  of  the  Law  is  the  seal 
and  symbol  of  the  new  career  just  opening. 
No  such  formal  solemnity  marked  the  canon- 
ization of  the  Prophets  and  the  Rest,  ^et  we 
may  be  sure  that  the  significance  was  similar. 
They  were  conservative  measures,  protective 
reactions  of  the  racial  consciousness  against 
an  environment  hostile  or  stilt  more  danger- 
ous in  its  friendship.  Some  such  instinct  of 
self-defense  seems  to  have  dictated  the  for- 
mation of  every  canon. 

What  then  were  the  books  thus  sanctified 
and  baIk)Wed  as  the  guardians  of  the  national 
life?  As  already  indicated,  they  were  the 
■Four-and-Twenly* ;  (genesis.  Exodus,  Levit- 
icus, Numbers,  Deuteronomy  (forming  Toraii, 
the  Law) ;  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings, 
Jeremiah.  Ezekiel.  Isaiah,  the  Twelve  Minor 
Prophets  (forming  the  NebCim,  Prophets); 
Ruth,  Psalms,  Job  and  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes, 
Song  of  Songs  and  Lamentations,  Daniel  and 
the    Roll    of    Esther,    Ezra    (including    Nehc- 


■  Aa  iboim  br  A.  Kmnea  in  'Over  de  mam 
Sriugogc'  (1ST6-,  tr.  into  Gennaa  hy  K.  Budi 

TThe  actuality  o£  which  i«  no*  doubted  or  

highot  quarten.  aiocc  Koster'i  '  HerUd  van  Ivad 
PcTBKbe  l^idvalE  ■  (18BJ),  in   tpite   o£    W  "■ 
cewvc  RbnttsI    (IWS). 


miah)  and  Ouonicles  (forming  the  Kelhubim, 
■Writings*  or  Hagiographa).*  These  familiar 
names  asrec  in  the  main  with  the  Greek, 
whence  the  Latin,  and  denote  the  books  ac- 
cording to  Content  or  Author;  but  the  Hebrew 
uses  instead  the  first  words  of  the  Content; 
thus,  "B'reshith*  (In- the- Beginning),  "(Vel- 
teh)  Sberrtoth"  ( No  w-these-the- names,  Ex. 
i,  1).  "Vayyiqra"  (And-called.Lev.i,  I),  "B'mid- 
bar»  (In  wilderness,  Nu.  J.  1),  «EHeh  Ha-d'ba- 
rim"  (These-the-words,  Deut.  i,  1) :  (but  "TTul- 
lim,»  Psabns),  "Mishle"  (Provcrts-of),  'Qo- 
hileth*  (Words  of  Qoheleih,  Ecc  i.  1),  "Shir 
Ha-shirim'  (Song  ol-the-Songs,  i.  1),  "Ekah" 
(How,  Lam.  i,  1)  (but  'Dibre  Ha-yamim,' 
Words-of  the-days  Chronicles).  Stifl  other 
titles,  as  Book  of  Creation;  of  Patriarchs;  of 
Penalties;  of  Priests;  of  Offerings;  of  Pre- 
cepts^ of  Numbers;  of  Reiteration,  of  Re- 
proofs;  Prayers;  Book  of  Wisdomj  Lamenl»- 
tions  —  which  seem  to  show  later  influence  — 
are  found  in  the  Mishnah. 

Number.— Note  that  our  present  two 
Books  of  Samuel,  two  of  Kings,  two  of  Chron- 
icles are  each  reckoned  as  one  book;  also  the 
Twelve  Minor  Prophets  as  one,  and  Nebemiah 
is  included  in. Ezra,  which  reduces  our  present 
39  by  3  -Hl-l-  1,  i.e.,  by  15,  lo  24.  It  is  perhaps 
not  quite  accidental  that  this  number  is  the 
double  of  the  sacred  Number  Twelve,  the  num- 


small  numbers.  Twelve  justly  reigns  among 
symbolic  and  significant  numbers,  though  Ten, 
as  the  number  of  ^fingers  on  the  hand,  has  very 
unfortunately  displaced  it  as  the  basis  of 
notation. 

Apocrjpha.—  In  IV  Eira  xiv,  37-48 
(written  shortly  before  pomitian|s  death.  06 
A.D.)  we  find  a  purely  imaginative  account, 
with  mytholt^c  elements,  of  the  writing  or 
copying  of  94  books,  by  Ezra  with  five  assistants 
in  40  flays,  at  command  of  God.  Of  these,-  the 
"Four-and-Twenly,  which  thou  didst  first  write, 
thou  shalt  publish,  for  the  worthy  and  the  un- 
worthy to  read;  but  the  last  70  thon  shalt  hold 
bade  and  give  only  unto  the  wise  of  thy  people. 
For  in  them  is  the  vein  of  insight  and  the  well 
of  wisdom  and  the  river  of  knowledge,"  The 
70  books,  regarded  here  and  also  in  wide  circles 
of  the  Jews  as  superior  even  to  the  24,  are  the 
Apocrypha,  of  which  this  IV  Eira  is  itself  a 
^eat  part  The  number  70  is  also  sacred  and 
symbolic  as  in  the  70  (strictly  72)  translators 
(the  Septuagint),  the  70  disciples  (the  univer- 
sal mission,  Luke  x,  1-18),  and  elsewhere. 

Twenty-two^—  The  number  72,  as  six  titles 
12,  was  also  emblematic,  and  22  was  the  number 
of  letters  in  the  Hebrew  alphabet;  hence  Ephi- 
phsnius  divides  the  foregoing  94  into  224-72,  and 
Josephus  actually  gives  22  as  the  number  of  the 
Books  (con,  Ap.  i,  39,  Niese),  and  Origen  also, 
as  quoted  in  Eusebius  'Historia  Ecclesi*'  vi. 


ei«  BIB 

25,  who  omhs  the  Twelve  (Minor)  Prophet^ 
and  leckons  Judges  and  Ruth  together,  as  well 
as  Jeremiah.  Lamentations,  and  his  Epistte  in 
one;  these  three  reductions  leave  only  21,  but 
Origen  adds,  "And  besides  these  are  the  Mac- 
cabees, which  are  entitled  Sarbeth  Sabaniel.* 
Whence  it  might  seem  he  regarded  this  work  as 
canonic,  though  it  is  not  now  lo  reckoned  by 
jews  or  Protestants.  From  a  Mishnafa  (B.  6. 
13b,  14b),  it  appears  that  each  of  the  books 
(after  the  Law)  had  to  be  written  on  a  distinct 
roll,  except  that  Judges  might  be  written  with 
Ruth,  and  Jeremiah  with  Lamentations,  each 
pair  on  one  roll ;  which  would  then  reduce  the 
number  of  rolls,  and  hence  in  the  reckoning  oC 
some,  the  number  of  Books,  to  22.  But  the 
examples  of  Josephus  and  of  OriKen  (who, 
taught  by  Jews,  had  uncommon  knowledge 
of  things  Hebrew)  show  that  the  number  and 
names  of  the  Books  "that  delile  the  hands*  was 
not  absolutely  settled  till  late  in  the  3d  century 

Orders  The  order  of  the  Prophets, 
'Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  Isaiah,*  is  at  first  surpris- 
ing. Fanciful  explanations  have  been  devised 
btrt  soberer  criticism  regards  it  as  merely  that  of 
site,  like  the  orders  "Psalms,  Job.  Proverbs,* 
and  •Ecclesiastes,  Song  of  Solomon,'  the 
largest  leading.  This  explanation  seems  suffi- 
cient, but  is  not  therefore  necessarily  correct; 
deeper  analysis  may  yet  show  that  the  order  of 
time  has  been  roughly  observed.  Ben  Sirach 
gives  the  familiar  scheme,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel,  but  then  inserts  Job  before  the  Twelve 
Prophets  (xlviii,  22;  xlix.  7-10).  The  order  of 
the  historical  works^  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel, 
Kings,  is  chronological  and  fixed,  but  in  the 
Writings  (Hagiographa)  the  greatest  uncer- 
tainty prevails :  Ginsburg  tabulates  at  least 
eight  dilTerent  sequences,  forming  three  grand 
classes;  the  Liturgic  (of  the  Five  Rolls),  the 
Ma^retic  according  to  size,  and  the  Talmudic 
according  to  time.  This  diversity  testifies 
clearly  lo  the  comparatively  late  formation  of 
die  third  part  of  the  canon.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  how  'Nehemiah,  a  man  of  affairs,  Klorified 
by  Ben  Sirach  (xlix,  13)  and  evidently  much 
more  important  than  Ezra,  priest  and  scribe, 
gradually  retires  before  the  latter,  who  rises 
steadily  to  the  highest  pinnacle  in  Jewish  tra- 
dition, following  Hie  waxing  ascendancy  of  the 
priestly  idea  in  the  course  of  Israel's  history 
(though  the  Rabbis  think  it  a  rebuke  to  Nehe- 
miah's  vainglory;  cp.  Levy's  'Worterbuck'  II, 
p.  I84b). 

Joeephiu,— A  closer  determination  of  the 
canonizatioD  of  'Prophets'  and  'Scriptures' 
has  been  repeatedly  attempted  but  with  no  great 
success.  Josephus  (100  a.i>.)  departs  from  the 
ordinary,  both  in  the  number  22  and  in  the 
division  of  the  Books  into  three  classes:  Mosaic 
(5),  historical  (13),  poetic  and  didactic  (4), 
^parently  counting  Ruth  with  Judges  and 
Lamentations  with  Jeremiah.  His  witness  is 
so  important  as  to  deserve  quotation;  after 
m<;ntioiiing  the  measures  taken  to  preserve  the 
purity  of  .ihe  Jewish  blood,  and  that  writing  is 
Confined  to  the  prophets  inspired  of  God,  and 
eye-witnesses,  he  continues  (con.  Ap.  i,  38-41)  ; 
'For  there  are  not  with  «s  myriaas  of  Books 
discordant  and  embattled,  but  only  two  besides 
the  20  containing  the  record  of  all  past  time. 


which  hre  just^  believed  (divine*).  And  of 
these,  five  are  of  Moses,  which  ccmtain  both  the 
Laws  and  the  tradition  of  the  origin  of  man- 
kind, till  his  death,  and  this  period  lacks  little 
of  3,000  years.  But  from  Moses'  death  till  du 
reign  of  Artaxerxes  the  King  of  the  Persians 
after  Xerxes,  the  proiAets  write  down  the 
doings  in  thrir  days  in  13  books;  and  the  other 
four  contain  hymns  unto  God,  and  for  men, 
precepts  of  life.  And  from  Artaxerxes  to  our 
time  details  have  been  written,  but  have  not 
been  esteemed  as  of  like  credence  with  those 
before  them,  because  of  there  not  having  been 
the  exact  succession  of  the  prophets.  And  it  is 
evident  indeed  how  wc  have  believed  in  these 
Scriptures  of  ours,  for  during  so  many  ages 
as  have  already  passed,  none  has  dared  to 
addf  or  subtract  or  to  change  anything  m 
yea,  it  is  inborn  in  all  of  the  Jev 


for  them,  if  need  be,  gladly  die.* 

Other*. —  In  a  passage  of  disputed  genuine- 
ness ( '  De  Vita  Contemplative  *  3) ,  Philo 
names  four  divisions,  'laws,  and  oracles  pro- 
claimed throi^h  prophets,  and  hymns,  and  the 
rest  whereby  knowledge  and  inety  wax  together 
and  are  perfected* — 'the  rest*  referring  ap- 
parently to  Proverbs  and  the  Wisdom- litera- 
ture. The  New  Testament  (Luke  xxiv,  44) 
agrees  with  Philo  in  the  three  divisions.  Law, 
Prophets  and  Psalms,  but  elsewhere  the  con- 
stantly recurring  division  is  twofold,  into  the 
Law  (or  Moses)  and  the  Prophets.  The 
Psalms  are  cited  thrice  (Luke  xx,  2;  Acts  i,  23, 
xiii,  33),  and  David  nine  times  (Matt,  xxii, 
42;  Mark  xu,  35ff ;  Luke  xx,  41ff:  Acts  i,  It^ 
ii,  25,  iv.  2S;  Rom.  iv,  6,  xi,  9;  Ueh.  iv,  7), 
but  the  New  Testament  consciousness  of  the 
other  Hagiographa  seems  exceeding  faint 
Even  Melito,  bishop  of  Sardis,  writing  to  the 
unknown  Onesimus,  speaks  of  the  Law  and  the 
Prophets  only,  in  giving  the  first  detailed  list  of 
'the  ancient  books,*  of  only  21  however,  for  he 
omits  Esther,  separates  Judges  and  Ruth,  but 
unites  Samuel  and  Kings  mto  one.  lerome 
(340-420  A.D.)  in  his  preface  to  Daniel  declares 
that  'all  scripture  is  divided  by  them  (the 
Hebrews)  into  three  parts :  Law,  Prophets, 
Hagiographa,  le.,  into  five  and  eight  and  eleven 
books* ;  but  in  the  preface  to  Samuel  and 
Kings,  the  famous  'helmeted  beginning  to  all 
the  bo<rfcs  which  we  turn  from  Hebrew  into 
L^tin,*  he  is  convinced  there  ^otild  be  and  are 
properly  only  '22  books  of  the  ancient  I^w: 
of  Moses  five,  of  Prophets  eiriit,  of  Hagio- 
grapha nine*  For  there  are  only  22  letters  of 
the  Hebrew  alpliabet4  of  wtuch  'five  are 
double,  Capb,  Mem,  Nun,  Pbe,  Sade,  i 


*  Thii  word  {Ihtia),  ncersDy  given  in  tb*  tixU.  is  u 
rinlatiali.  u  Nine  bu  ihovn,  ind  very  imtrncdn. 
n  their  bcinfl  "b«tiflT«d"  thn  mterpol't'x  tjfnod  ita.t 
•  muit  ba  divine:  later,  friim  thtir  betoa  divoe  it  wa 
ltd  that  thay  inoat  be  believed. 

^EvidentlrJcwphiuwunat  au  content  with  madm 

ie  myiterv  of  the  migin  cA  thii  al^bal  tit  a  kttai 
-tain  order),  the  maths  o(  all  WoUrn  and  certam 
alphabets,  and  bence  in  a  meaaore  rd  the  c 


iS.! 

civiliiationB,  haa  long  fi ._  _.    . 

-^'^  '^  rea^rWfa  spirit  In  tpeecb^ 


Hiddctsd  to  t^l 


even  (o  the  cJd 


lUe-ecnpt.  even  to  tb 
haace.   then,     the   m] 


Kings,  ChromcleS(  Eita,  leremias  with  Gnoth, 
i.e.  his  Lamentations.  Therefore,  just  as  the 
elements  are  22  bv  which  we  write  in  Hebrew 
all  that  we  speak,  and  in  these  primes  the 
human  voice  is  embraced;  so  22  volumes  are 
reckoned  by  which,  as  if  by  letters  and  pre- 
ambles, the  infancy  of  the  righteous  man,  while 
yet  tender  and  fed  on  milk,  is  instructed  in  the 
doctrine  of  God."  This  passage  deserves  quo- 
tation as  perhaps  poiating  to  a  diver uty  of 
judgment  among  tne  Rabbis  at  whose  feel 
Jerome  had  sat,  and  as  throwius  a  vivid  li^ 
on  the  Fathers'  habits  of  thou^t  and  of  ad- 
jtisting  facts  to  a  keen  sense  of  the  eternal 
fitness  of  things,  in  presage  of  the  great  con- 
ception that  truth  is  narmony. 

Propheta. —  We  may  then  sum  up  by  saying 
that  theLaw  or  Pentateuch  was  first  in  Israel, 
by  unaiuroous  consent,  by  universal  preference, 
and  by  hundreds  of  _years.  At  a  long  remove 
came  the  Prophets  m  two  ranks,  the  Joriner 
(historic)  beuie  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel, 
Kings,  and  the  /a((er  Jeremiah,  Kzeldcl,  Isaiah 
and  the  Twelve,  but  all  attained  (in  some  form, 
not  by  any  means  exactly  their  present  form) 
an  undisputed  place  as  authoritative  perhaps  as 
early  as  2D0  b.  c,  possibly  even  earlier,  though 
there  is  some  divergence  of  opinion,  K,  Marti 
holding  that  the  prophetic  canon  was  still  open 
to  the  days  of  HiUcl  the  Old  (7S  B.c.-lO  a.d.). 
That  Daniel  failed  to  find  place  among  the 
prophets  has  been  thought  to  show  that  the  list 
was  closed  before  165  i.e.,  the  supposed  date  of 
his  visions;  but  this  date  is  uncertain;  there  are 
perhaps  much  later  elements  in  Daniel,  which 
descend  far  down  into  the  Roman  penod,  ac- 
cording to  the  trenchant  analysis  of  Eduard 
Hertlem.  In  fact,  there  is  no  exact  date  for  the 
canonization  of  the  prophets,  such  as  is  ap^ai^ 
ently  found  in  the  case  of  the  Law ;  the  feeling 
that  the  list  was  closed  arose  gradually  and  most 
probably  not  for  a  whole  generation  or  more 
did  it  become  general  and  accepted:  and  it  was 
doubtless  felt  long  after  to  be  perfectly  legiti- 
mate to  add  to  a  proijhet's  Book  in  a  prophet's 
spirit  and  to  modify  it      '        '  .  •-  - 

'      Proot ._ 

...  .        r  Ipss  extensively 

long  after  the  last  of  the  name  was  enrolled  in 
the  cauon.  But  insensibly  the  sacred  awe 
spread  itself  deeper  over  the  whole  prophetic 
text,  and  all  such  tamperings,  gradually  grown 
slitter  and  rarer,  now  ceased  altogether;  and 
this  reverence  extended  itself  finally  to  the  veiy 
letters  and  pointings  of  Holy  Writ. 

HagioKTSpha.— With  respect  to  the  third 
division,  the  'Writings,*  all  the  features  of  the 
foregoing  hesitancy  appear  strongly  marked. 
The  question  of  22  or  24  may  have  been  large- 
ly a  matter  of  convenience  in  rolls  (Me^t- 
lolh),  as  already  stated,  but  not  the  admission 
or  rejection  of  Esther,  the  Song  and  Qohtleth. 

inmitiaii  of  lattan?  H^vv  mnild  doivs  h  Izoni  EgvptuB 
hitroglypb*,  Do  Roiai  bosa  hierstic  tcript,  UtHtacb  uid 
Hommel  fnnn  Old  ^byloniui  —  in  Tain.  Thm  HomiDct 
tad  ^uicklst  (m  SeirteTth  already  ui  1840)  turaad  to  tba 
■Icy,^ — foe  in  ua  Oabbila  the  notion  of  the  bBuvenly  nisiB 
lua  been  preserved,  uii  in  Job  (iiiviii,  S3.)  we  read  of  tbe 
Um  o(  the  beavsnl  and  th^  loidghip  over  earth— first  to 
the  II  dgnt  of  tiM  lodiu.  then  ta  the  II  Old  Hebtsic 
lonar  manaioni  itiU  pnmnt  in  lob  nxviii-idi;  and  in 
tbeia  tatta-  it  ia  Bdnud  Stnoken  that  daiau  to  tave  dis- 
oovcndbeTODddoubCtheoriniudtafthenCvusDi  ' 
agndnv  botik  in  «amfl«  and  in  orde*  — '^^  "^  >*>>:'<■<■ 

: .  i_>i.    DrehenrfvulT  i..  .,_.     „ 

'  (1913). 


Against  Ibese  as  not  ■pcJlutine  the  hands* 
many  eloquent  voices  were  raised.  Nay  more, 
among  the  Later  Prophets  even  Ezeluel  had 
not  quite  escaped  opposition;  as  Contradicting 
&e  Law,  some  would  have  put  his  Book 
away,  but  Hananiah  ben  Heiekiah  ben  Garon 
was  Its  successful  champion,  'spending*  three 
hundred  jars  of  oil.»  So,  too,  some  opposed 
'Proverbs'  as  self -contradictory,  but  in  vain. 
However,  regarding  Esther  the  dissent  con- 
tinued   for   centuries.      The    Tannaim    (10-210 


seems  inconclusive.  In  view  of  Haman's  char- 
acter. Rabbi  Samuel  (200  a.d.),  one  of  th« 
last  of  tbe  Tannaiin,  rejeoted  all  such  proofs 
and  declared  that  'Esther  does  not  maks 
bands  unclean.*  Similarly  the  defiling  virtue 
of  die  SoRg  of  Songs  was  questioned  and 
again   it  was  Aqiba  that   rose   up  in   defense^ 


day  when  the  Song  was  ^ven  to  IsraeP ;  *he 
who  sings  from  the  Song  in  the  wine-houses 
and  makes  it  profane  will  not  have  share  in 
the  world  to  come.*  His  great  authority 
seems  to  have  rescued  the  Song  from  the 
Chizunim  (Apocrypha)  to  which  some  would 
have  consigned  it. 

Preacher,— Most  earnest  of  all  was  the 
strife  about  Qohileth  (Ecdesiastes),  which 
Shammai's    school    defended    against    Hillel's. 


inspired  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  but  not  Qohiletb, 
being  produced  only  by  the  wisdom  of  Solo- 
mon."  Gratz  holds  that  the  decision  as  to  the 
canon  dates  from  90  a.d.,  but  as  late  as  150 
A.D.  Simon  declared  Qoheleth  doubtful. 

Many  Scribea.— However,  all  such  objeDr 
titMis  were  finally  overruled,  though  the  so- 
called  additions  of  Danid  and  Esther,  as  well 
as  the  Baruch' Epistle  added  to  Jeremiah,  were 
thruai  aside.  The  critical  movement  made  it- 
self felt  mainly  in  the  exclusion  of  the  nu- 
merous Qunuzim  that  had  begun  to  spring 
up  thick  and  to  throng  die  entrance  to  the 
Canon.  Qoheleth  himsel  I  complains  ( xiL 
12),  *of  making  mao^  books  there  is  no  end.* 
Formerly,  eveiy  'writmg  was  considered  pro-, 
pheticit  the  phrase  Esther  wrote*  (£s.  ix,  29) 
was  held  to  prove  that  she  was  a  prophetess; 
if  this  seems  strange,  let  us  remember  that,  in 
comment  on  Ps.  xlil,  5,  tbe  Rabbis  reckoned 
the  niimber  of  prophets  at  six  (or  twelve)  him- 
dred  thausan<^  only  prophecies  significant 
for  the  future  being  published  Such  views 
are,  of  course,  centuries  later,  but  they  magni- 
fy and  distort  the  real  facts,  that  the  literary. 
production  of  Israel  proceeded  almost  wholl^)l 
from  the  prophets  and  was  hence  religious  in 
aim  though  often  historic  in  content,  and  that 
there  arose  thence  a  strong  presumption  that 
every  writing,  as  the  work  of  a  prophet,  was 
holy.    Nor  must  we  fancy  that  the  list  of  sa- 


llftHi 


S.'S.^^B 


Ev«T  Scijptim  God-incpired,  ei 


gle 


618  .BIE 

cred  writers  was  no  longer  than  the  list  of 
sacred  writings,  since,  as  we  have  seen  and 
shall  see  again,  all  such  are  highly;  composite, 
the  results  of  revision  and  rerevision,  so  that 
each  may  very  well  embody  on  the  average 
the  labors  of  a  dozen  or  even  a  score  of 
scribes.  The  whole  body  of  Hebrew  litera- 
ture m^  be  the  issue  of  hundreds  or  even 
thousands  of  pens.  In  this  connection  it  is 
good  to  bear  m  mind  that  the  scribe  of  that 
elder  day  was  a  person  of  rare  dignity  and 
accomplishment ;  even  in  the  very  advanced 
civilization  of  Egypt  he  figures  very  important- 
ly in  mural  decorations,  and  it  is  not  strange 
uat  he  should  have  been  esteemed  still  more, 
particularly  among  the  Hebrews,  where  his 
culture  was  less  generally  known  and  hence 
more  mysterious. 

We  may  also  recall  that  undoubtedly  the 
main,  if  not  the  exclusive,  interest  of  other 
scribes  was  relWous.  Even  under  the  far 
more  secular  civUization  of  Assyria,  the  great 
library  of  Assur-banipal  was  composed  in 
mtKh  the  larger  measure  of  tablets  that  dealt 
with  religion  in  some  or  other  of  its  phases. 
The  content  is  extremely  varied:  astrologic 
compends,  the  most  important  being  <As  Uie 
Goo  Bel,'  fragments  of  the  annals  of  the  an- 
cient kings,  each  event  connected  with  the 
proper  constellation ;  fragments  of  the  Gil- 
eamesh  epos  (Flood,  Creation,  Conquest  of 
Tiamat  by  Uardul^  Ascension  of  Etatu, 
Hymns,  Prayers,  Psalms,  Rituals  for  Exor- 
cism, the  State  Prayer-book,  historical  texts, 
Letters,  Contracts,  Commentaries  on  older 
difficult  texts,   catalogs   of   words,   and   Ideo- 

f trams  with  interpolation)."  Of  these  only  the 
ast  five  are  secular,  and  the  great  predominance 
of  the  religious  is  apparent.  Neither  should 
we  forget  that  in  the  Middle  A^s,  not  very 
long  over-past,  the  ability  to  write  was  con- 
fined almost  wholly  to  the  clergy.  It  is  then 
W  no  means  strange  that  in  the  very  primitive 
Hebrew  slate,  the  functions  of  scribe  and  of 
prophet  should  almost  coincide,  that  the  writ- 
ings should  deal  almost  wholly  with  some  as- 
pect of  religion  and  ^ould  alt  l>e  regarded  as 
authoritative  and  sacred. 

Helleniara.^  But  when  the  conquests  of 
Alexander  began  to  spread  Greek  civilization 
over  Sie  Orient,  including  Juda,  and  still  mort 
when  the  Jews  of  the  Dispersion  began  to  lead 
a  larger  life^  to  take  an  a  half-pagan  culture 
with  some  knowledge  of  the  Greek  language  and 
■even  of  Greek  literature,  we  may  believe  that  the 
power  of  the  pen  became  far  more  widely  dif- 
fused and  its  products  not  only  greatly  multi- 
(iHed  but  frequently  seculaiued.  It  was  no 
onger  possible  to  identify  even  partially  the 
{irophet  with  the  scribe,  there  arose  a  profane 
iterature  by  the  side  of  the  religious,  and  it 
was  found  necessary  to  discriminate  between 
them.  Then  dawiiM  the  day  of  strife  over 
the  Canon,  over  the  question,  'Does  this  book 
make  the  hands  unclean?* 


"When  Haggai,  Zachariah  and  Malachi  (Ui 
the  Holy  Spirit  left  Israel*  and  even  eariier,  a 
new  form  of  literature,  the  literature  of  Wis- 
dom (Chokmah),  began  to  flourish;  two  illus- 
trious spedraena  are  imiversally  known  and 
received    as    canotuc.    Job    and    Proverbs;    a 


third,  Qohileth  ('Preacher'  or  'Ecdestastes'), 

came  later  and  met  with  less  favor,  but  still,  be- 
ing ascribed  to  Solomon,  made  good  its  place 
among  the  listed.  Also  the  Psalter;  the  Na- 
tional Anthem,  the  lyric  cry  of  suiteriti^  Is- 
rael,* established  itsdf  as  the  book  of  Songs 
for  the  service  of  the  second  Temple,  and 
there  was  no  occasion  to  que&tion  Lamenta- 
tions. Very  different  indera  was  the  'Sotig 
of  Songs,'  a  cento  of  love-lays,  and  we  may 
justly  wonder  why  such  an  erotic  ever  came 
to  rank  with  the  Writings,  among  tbem  but 
not  of  them.  The  answer  appears  to  be  that 
it  was  not  unjustly  popular,  parts  of  it  being 
sung  from  an  early  day  at  yearly  folk-festi- 
vals (Taanith,  48),  that  it  bore  the  illustrious 
name  of  Solomon  and  finally  that  Aqiba  (at  the 
Synod  of  Tamnia,  90  a.d.)  had  recommended 
it  as  an  allegory  of  God's  Love  for  his  Peo- 
ple Israel.  Nevertheless,  as  already  observed, 
It  was  long  doubted  or  rdccted  by  many.  The 
historic  or  quasi- historic  books  of  Ruth,  EznL 
Nehemiah  and  Chronicles  offered  no  grouna 
of  o (Tense  and  seemed  necessary  to  complete 
the  Hebrew  History,  while  Esther,  as  a  glori- 
fication of  the  Jew  in  exile,  made  strong  ap- 
peal to  the  national  consciousness  and  there- 
by established  its  claims,  against  long  and 
strong  opposition.  Lastly,  Danid,  as  both  in- 
tensely national  and  intense^  religious,  was 
admitted  to  the  company  of  Writings,  thouf^ 
not  of  Prophets,  where  would  have  been  its 
natural  place  but  for  its  later  origin  (not  be- 
fore 165  B.c),  and  was  peculiar  in  introducii^ 
a  new  form  of  literature  the  Apocalyptic 
(revelative  or  visionary),  which  afterward 
attained  to  great  dimensions  as  well  as  popu- 

Clotare.— These  works,  then,  at  the  time 
of  the  close  contact  of  Jew  and  Greek,  in  Att 
dawn  of  the  critical  consciousness  of  Israel 
succeeded,  not  without  dissent  widespread  and 
sometimes  vehement,  in  securing  a  permanent 
foothold  among  expressions  of  race-conscious- 
ness before  the  doors  were  shut  in  the  street 
and  no  further  admissions  allowed.  It  was 
indeed  high  time  for  the  cloture;  for  *of  mak- 
ing  many  books  there  was  no  end,*  and  already 
a  great  throng  were  knocking  and  clamoring 
for  admittance.  Such  were  Baruch,  Judith, 
Maccabees,  Siiach.  ToMt,  as  well  as  Jubilees,  the 
Wisdom  and  the  Psalms  of  Solomon,  the  As- 
sumption of  Moses,  with  the  Apocalypses  of  Ba- 
ruch, Enoch,  Ezrt  Noah  and  others.  Had 
these  been  received,  it  would  have  been  hard 
indeed  to  close  the  gates  at  all,  and  to  have 
canonized  all  would  have  amounted  at  last 
to  canonizing  none ;  neither  was  there  any 
clear  principle  of  discrimination,  and  the  com- 
mon consciousness  rejected  them  in  a  lump. 
Henceforth  no  more  books  sacred  and  authori- 
tative could  proceed  from  die- Hebrew  mind) 
all  of  whose  literary  ener^es  were  to  be  di- 
rected toward  the  exploitatxon,  explication  and 
elaboration  of  the  exfaaustless  treasures  al- 
ready securely  ^thered  in  the  Laai,  the  Pro- 
phets and  the  Writings.    Hence,  under  the  nn- 


Cioogle 


wearied  hands  of  so  many  generations  of 
Sabbis  arose  that  stupendous  mass  of  inter- 
pretation and  commentary  known  as  the  Tal- 
mud (Learning)  in  all  its  endless  divisions, 
extensions  ana  ramifications,  which  is  thus 
seen  to  be  a  direct  and  inevitable  result  _of 
the  sealing  of  the  Canon,  of  the  authorization 
and  sanctification  of  a  definite  body  of  na- 
tional literature,  so  much  and  no  more,  even 
as  this  itself  was  the  unavoidable  reaction 
from  the  wide  and  intimate  contact  of  Jew  and 
Greek  brought  about  by  the  coni^uests  of 
Alexander  and  the  domination  of  his  succes- 

"Ootriders."— Neither  is  it  strange  that  in 
Alexandria,  a  firm  seat  of  Hebrew  learning 
and  influence,  more  liberal  views  with  respect 
to  the  'Chitztinim*  prevailed  than  in  Palestine 
and  that  the  so-called  Alexandrian  Canon,  had 
it  not  yielded  to  Palesdnian  authority,  would 
have  sensibly  enlarged  the  volume  of  Writ- 
ings. As  it  was,  these  'Outsiders*  were  sent 
forth  upon  very  uncertain  seas,  to  be  buffeted 
hither  and  thither  for  nearly  2,000  years,  and 
onl;/  within  the  last  decade  to  come  into  their 
critical   rights. 

Style— It  is  impossible  to  tell  their  story 
here  even  in  bare  outline;  only  some  salient 
points  may  be  noted.  From  ihe  first  they  seem 
to  have  erijoyed  a  popularity  not  wholly  un- 
merited Though  never  rising  quite  to  thd 
highest  summit  of  the  canonized  Scriptures, 
in  many  parts  they  attain  very  respectable  ele- 
vation, distinctly  above  a  very  large  portion 
of  the  canonics  themselves,  "niey  are  written 
in  general  with  considerable  titerary  skill  and 
have  often  a  good  share  of  human  interest 
Their  content  is  various,  as  is  also  their"  lit- 
erary form.  In  Baruch  the  elder  proi^iocy  of 
Israel  reappears  like  an  Indian  summer)  in 
the  Book  of  Wisdom  we  find  the  Faith  of  the 
Falhera  tempered  with  Alexandrine  philoso- 
phy ;  in  Bar  Sirach,  proverbial  philosophy 
tempered  widi  religion;  in  the  Odes  of  Solo- 
mon the  hopes  and  enthusiasms  of  the  early 
GnosticB  glow  with  poetic  ardor;  in'IV  Mac- 
cabees the  Jew  has  learned  the  ways  of  die 
Stoic  and  the  tongue  of  philosophic  Athens ; 
in  Enoch,  IV  Ezra*  and  others,  the  apocalyptic 
imagination  bums  at  white  heat;  in  I  Maoca- 
bees,  Judith  and  Tobit  the  narrative  faculty 
of  the  Jew  is  displayed  to  high  advantage;  in 
1  Esdras  pure  literature  comes  to  its  own  in 
the  story  of  the  three  Yoirths,  while  in  Ahikar 
the  walls  of  nationalism  seem  to  fall  away 
and  disclose  the  wider  horizon  of  universal 
interest, —  all  these  and  many  moref  in  the  30 
•Books  Outside,*  the  Chitzunim  or  Apocr]|T)ha. 
Some  of  them  won  the  honor  of  occasional 
citation  by  the  Rabbis,  Ben  Sirach  oftener  than 
all  the  others  put  together,  and  Baruch  is  said 
even  to  have  Deen  read  in  the  synagogue  on 
the  Day  of  Atonement. 

» Tljo  worln  named  Euro  (Grtek.  Eidns) , 

The  I  Bidru  of  the  LXXuid  U»  Bn^Bh  ApooTpfaa  (ntiti' 
Eadru  in  tbs  VulgKle)  (or  tlie  moat  put  puuldi  aiid  Tum 
with  B  flied  toidtncr  certain  porticnu  cf  the  canonic  E*r*  — 
NslKniish  (the  Hebrnr  Etn,  BntlUed  1  Bedne  in  the  Oreek). 
of  wbicli  the  two  divisimu.  B.  uid  N.  in  Eoglidi,  are  the  I 
and  n  Esdrai  of  tbe  Vulgste,  IV  Bm  (the  II  Eedni  of 
tbe  Bngliih  Apocrypha),  to  which  the  fint  twc  cbapten  are 
a  Chrittiao  prefti,  ii  a.  beautiful  Jewith  apacalyptic  "^^ 

loaopfay.  written  -■-■■■■  ""  "■  — ■- •-■'  -—• ' 

both   (or   RtUDa 


ILK  619 

In  tbe  New  TeitamCDt.— Btit  their  t^ef 
recognition  came  not  from  Jews  but  from 
Christians.  Since  the  proio- Christian  move- 
ment found  its  start  not  in  Judea  but  in  the 
Dispersion,  it  is  not  strange  to  find  Apocrypha 
frequently  quoted  in  the  New  Testament  as 
Matt,  xxvii,  9  ('Jeremiah  the  Prophet,'  the 
passage  is  not  in  me  canonic  Jeremiah),  Luke 
xi.  49  ("Wisdom  of  God"),  Jude  9  ("As- 
suinption  of  Moses"),  Jude  14fl  ("Enoch*), 
I  Cor.  ii,  9  and  Eph.  v,  14  ("Apocalypse  of 
Elijah*)  Heb.  xi,  37  (•Martyrdom  of  Isa- 
iah*), How  many  are  the  points  of  lighter 
contact  may  be  seen  from  Dittmar's  ]3  pages 
of  references  ('Vet.  Test,  in  Nov,,'  149-ie5). 

Adoption.— When  the  triumphant  Chris- 
tian Propaganda  had  organized  itself  into  a 
church,  ana,  indeed,  during  the  process  of 
organization,  the  question  of  standards,  of 
authoritative  scriptures,  arose,  and  the  first 
most  obvious  answer,  since  the  propaganda 
issued  from  Jewry  in  contact  with  Hellenism, 
was  that  .  the  standard  books  of  the  Jews 
should  be  also  the  standard  books  of  the  Chris- 
tians; and,  accordingly,  we  find  them  quoted 
from  the  start  as  authoritative.  Since  the 
Greeks  had  no  such  standard  (even  in  Ho-, 
mer),  there  was,  of  course,  none  to  be  taken 
over  into  thdr  new  faith  by  the  Gentile  con- 
verts. Naturally,  diversities  of  view  with  re- 
spect to  the  canon  that  were  current  in  Jewry 
passed  over  into  the  ranks  of  the  Christians, 
with  the  difference  already  noted,  that  the  new 
religionist  tended  toward  a  more  liberal  view 
than  that  of  tbe  stricter  orthodox  Jews,  rep- 
resented so  forcefully  by  Rabbi  Aqiba.  Ac- 
cordingly, not  only  were  the  Apocrypha  from 
the  first  used  fredy  by  the  Christians,  but 
many  were  finally  received  into  the  Catholic 

Blarly  Use.—  The  history  of  these  Deuiero- 
canonics  (sometimes  so  called  to  indicate  their 
secondary  position)  is  both  interesting  and 
instructive.  The  free  use  of  them  in  the  N«w 
Testament  has  already  been  noted.  Except, 
perhaps,  Baruch,  1  Maccabees,  and  the  addi- 
tions 4o  Daniel,  they  seem  all  to  enter  into  the 
religious  consciousness  lif  the  Apostolic  Fa- 
thers, thou^  ibe  allusions  are.  as  a  rule^  loose 
and  implicit  as  is  generally  tne  case  with  the 
Fathers.  Next  we  find  nearly  all  attested  by 
this  or  that  apologist,  as  Baruch  by  Athenag- 
oras  and  Irenxus,  the  latter  also  noting  that 
the  stories  of  Bel  and  the  Dragon  were  ascribed 
to  Daniel.  JuBtin  Martyr  is  tbe  first  to  hint 
at  the  ability  of  the  Church  to  form  its  own 
Canon,  regardless  of  Jews,  though  the  Church 
itself  oanio  only ,  slowly  to  this  conviction. 
Melilo,  bishop  of  Sardisi  gave  (170  a.D.)  the 
first  list  c'   *     ■  '  ■ 


annprel 


It  Init  tender. _. 

noble  endeavor  " 


Uia  "Tcatamenta  of  the  T 


r.M) 


list  (Eus.  R  E.  iii.  11)  but  writing  to  Julius 
Africanus  he  defends  JutUth  and  ToUas  and 
the  Danielle  additions,  agreeing  with  tbe  Mar- 
tyr that  the  Church  is  empowered  to  decide, 
and  introducing  all  tbe  Deuteros  in  his  Hex- 
apla.     The  Codex  Claromontanus,  itself  of  the  ' 

6th  century,  contains,  immediately  before  the 
Epistle  to  Hebrews  (with  which  it  ends),  a 
table,  'Versa  s  Scribturarum  Sacra  mm,*  re- 
ferred by  such  opposing  critics  as  Harnack  and 
Zahn  to  Alexandria  and  the  time  of  Or^fen, 
in  whtch  are  found  the  two  ^Wisdoms'^of  , 

Liooglc 


Solomon  and  Ben  Sirach),  1_,  2,  4  Maccabeet 
Judith  and  Tabias  (along  with  the  Epistle  ot 
Barnabas,  the  Shepherd  'oS  Hennas,  the  Acts 
of  Paul  and  the  Revelation  of  Peter).  Bishop 
Hippolytus  cites  *Wisdom>  as  Salomon's,  u^es 
MaccaSees  and  Baruch  as  Sctipture  and  treats 
of  the  incident  of  Susanna.  In  Africa,  Cy- 
prian, as  well  as  Tertullian,  is  said  to  employ 
all  the  Deutero-canonics  but  Judith  and  Tobil. 
This  is,  indeed,  by  no  means  certain.  Oc 
looking  up  the  scores  of  'citations'  the  reader 
will  find  that  nearly  all  are  more  or  less  faint 
resemblances  and  prove  nothing  whatever; 
however,  in  writing  'Against  Valentin ians,* 
Tertullian,  does  declare  (c.  2),  'The  Face  of 
God  is  awaited  of  whoso  sceketh  Him  in  sim- 
plicity, as  tAacheth  'Wisdom'  itself,  not  of 
Valentinus,  but  of  Solomon,*  with  manifest 
allusion  to  Wisdom  i,  1.  He  also  refers  to 
the  Maccabees  as  fighting  on  the  Sabbath,  but 
does  not  cite  the  books. 

Later.—  On  entering  the  4th  century  w« 
find  the  authority  of  these  Chitnmim  on  the 
wane.  At  Alexandria  the  far-famed  watchdog 
of  dwma,  Athanasius,  in  his  39th  Festal  Epis- 
tle (367  A.D.)  accepts  only  the  Hebrew  Old 
Testament,  excluding  Esther,  but  allowing  it  to 
be  read  to  catechumens  for  edification  and  in- 
struction, alone  with  the  two  'Wisdoms'  and 
'Judith*  and  'Tobias'  (also  the  Shepherd  and 
the  Teaching).  Similarly  Saint  Cyn!  at  Jeru- 
salem,— as  always  a  centre  of  Jewish  influence, 
—  nor  will  he  allow  any  book  not  read  in  the 
Church  to  be  read  privately.  Eusebius  classes 
them  all  as  AntiUgomena  (Contradicted),  as 
intermediate  between  the  Accepted  and  the  Re- 
jected. Still  th^  munlained  their  popularity, 
as  shown  by  their  persistent  presence  in  Grew 
manuscripts  and  in  Oriental  versions. 

Jerome.— Passing  over  this  we  now  come 
to  Jerome  who,  in  his  "Helmeted  Prologue* 
rejected  al!  but  the  Hebrew  Canon  as  apocry- 
phaj,  naming  the  'Wisdoms,'  Tobias  and 
Judith,  which  indeed  the  Church  'may  read  for 
edification  of  the  people,  but  not  to  confirm  the 
authority  of  Church  dogmas."  The  Solitary 
of  Bethlehem  was  the  most  learned  Christian 
and  especially  the  most  erudite  Hebraist  of  his 
day;  he  was  also  the  comoanion  of  Rabbis,  and 
his  weighty  words  bore  down  the  scale  against 
the  Deuteros,  especially  wherever  his  Vulgate 
translation  of  the  Ola  Testament  into  Latin 
found  its  way. 

Rome.—  But  Rome  had  not  yeit  spoken  nor 
did  speak  till  in  the  so-called  Decretal  of  Gela- 
sius  'Concerning  books  to  be  received  and  not 
to  be  received,*  dating  in  substance  (it  is  held) 


cent  i,  'sent  in  405  to  a  Galilean  bishop  in 
answer  to  an  enquiiy.*  the  hst  is  the  same  as 
that  adopted  by  the  Tridentine  Council  in  1546, 
and  all  the  Detiteros  are  included. 

AugusHne.— The  leading  spirit  of  the  Afri- 
can Cliurch,  Augustine,  would  disting\iish  de- 

*  Tb*  pIvtH  ii  nnttbl*.  Tho  rraAu  wiU  mDu-li  tliat 
nowhere  i*  it  ■  nutter  of  ceuoo  «  ugumsnt.  nntlier  cnuld 
It  bo.  but  iQlBlr  of  a^hority.  At  Snt  thtaueatxin  minot. 
"An  then  book* canoBial^'batntber/'BlullweKUblith 
-  than  u  canonicii],  u  a  part  of  th«  rula  of  faith,  of  Ibe  itand- 
■rd  ol  tlutiuth?  ''  lafenxne'inew.  whalKiTedtoani£rrD 
tluT  Church  doctrhia  irioalil  be  canouic,  what  did  ii~'  — 
Hncanonic.    Such  mjiua  to  hvic  bacn  tba  ■oidinc  -pi 


grees  of  inspiration  but  used  the  Detiteros  freeh 
and  the  four  synods  that  he  guided  (Hippo  393, 
Carthage  393,  397,  419)  on  traditional  and  Utur- 
gical  grounds  included  all  the  Deuteros  in  their 
sacred  lists.  Of  these  the  Carthaginian  passed 
over  to  the  East  and  Aere  by  its  mere  authority 
determined  the  attitude  of  the  Greek  Cfaurch' 
which,  however,  in  excess  of  generosity,  addea 
HI  Maccabce^  a  Jewish-Greek  patriotic  ex- 
travaganza and  maintained  the  canon  down  to 
the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  ^Rev.  Bibl., 
April  1901). 

The  Bud.—  Meanwhile  for  over  1,000  yean 
in  the  Latin  Church  tiie  beam  was  held  trem- 
bling between  acceptance  by  Rome  atid  rejection 
by  Jerome,  reminding  us  of  the  famous  line  of 
Lucan: 

"  Victrii  catwt  deii  placuit,  aad  victa  CatoBL" 

The  scholars  sided  with  the  man,  the  tmtu- 
tored  mind  and  all  underlings  of  authority  were 
led  by  the  other;  the  chief  of  the  schoolmen, 
St.  Thomas  Aqiunas  was  hesitant  and  bewil- 
dered. But  the  final  decision  came  at  last.  In 
1442  the  Council  of  Florence  approved  the 
■Decree  for  Jacobites*  of  Pope  Eugenius  IV, 
which  declared  the  Deuteros  recdved  by  the 
Church  to  be  inspired,  but  did  not  yet  say  'ca- 
nonic' ;  not  until  1546  did  "the  holy  ecumenical 
and  general  Council  of  Trent"  by  its  decree  of 
April  8  establishing  the  Canon,  'die  entire  books 
[of  the  two  Testaments]  as  sacred  and  canonical 
with  all  their  parts  as  wonted  to  be  read  in  the 
Catholic   Church,   and  as   found  in   the  ancient 


Latin  Vulgate  edition,"  stamp  authority  upon  all 
the  Deuteros,  including  Tobias,  Judith,  Wisdo 
Ecclesiasticus,  Bartich,  I  and  it  Mac     ' 


eluding  Tobias,  Judith,  Wisdom, 

.  Jartich,!  and  II  Maccabees,  with 

•Let  him  be  anathema*  on  'whoever  does 
not  receive.*  Herewith  all  doubts  were  ex- 
cluded; and  it  is  again  notable  that  the  grounds 
of  canonization  did  not  involve  authorship  or 
character  of  the  books,  but  only  tradition  and 
liturgy;  th^  had  been  accepted  and  used  as 
canonic,  ano  therefore  were  established  as  ca- 
nonical,    precisely      as      at      Carthage     nearly 


r 


.  .  again  the  very  gap  that  Florence  had 
—- ised,  for  it  did  not  afnrm  the  inspiration  ex- 
plicitly. This  defect,  which  had  b^vn  to  give 
annoyance,  the  Vatican  Council  of  1870  duly 
amended  by  stamping  all  the  canonicals  as  in- 
spired in  all  their  parts  —  (bva  closing  the  dis- 

Buia.— The  Church  has  thus  based  both 
canonicity  and  inspiration  on  authority,  and  in 
truth  wiui  wisdom,  for  they  could  be  based  on 
nothing  else.  Tlie  difficulty  is  not  theolo^cal 
but  psychological,  as  Hobhes  long  ago  percen-ed. 
Though  a  man  mi^t  honestly  say  'the  spirit 
of  Jehovah  is  upon  me,*  he  could  never  com- 
municate his  own  consciousness  to  another,  be 
could  never  make  another  know  his  own  self- 
Imowledge.  . 

Rejection.—'  Authority,    however,    may    be  I 

either  acknowledged  or  rejected,  and  in  the 
stress  of  controversy  with  Eck  in  Leiprig  (Jnne 
IS19),  Martin  Luther  found  it  necessary*  to 
reject  II  Maccabees  as  outside  the  Canon,  in  I 

order  to  invalidate  (he  argument  for  Purgatory 

*  But  hud1y*iiffieiMit,«iii«  the  doctrine  of  tlM  |nu|mt°ri*' 
fbe  wu  certainly  a  part,  homvn  IneoBatial,  ol  thB  Jewiui 
Uth,  aa  indeed  alao  <J  tha  £-  ' 


drawn  from  the  exan^le  oi  Judai  (ni,  43^46). 
iionovtr,  in  the  firit  edition  of  his  translation 
of  the  Bibk.  he  ^th«red  togetfaer  the  UcDteros 
with  the  otner  Apocrypha  between  the  Testa- 
ments, as  the  imhoty  between  two  holies,  a 
position  of  dishonor  to  which  Protestants  uni- 
versally consigned  them,  but  which  th^  have 
not  always  been  able  to  maintain.  Calvinism 
hai  sho'mi  them  all  its  native  sternness,  espe- 
dally  since  the  Westminster  Confession  (1647), 
whidi  ^ore  them  of  ail  authority  and  reduced 
them  precisely  to  the  low  level  of  'other  human 
writings,"  The  Anglican  Confession  of  1562 
had  been  milder,  restating  the  patroniiii^  posi- 
tion of  'Hieromc.*  However,  they  were  Still 
printed  in  Protestant  Bibles  till  in  1S25,  after 
12  years  of  preliminary  wrangUnK,  the  Edin- 
faur^  branch  of  the  British  and  ForeiEn  Bible 
Society  announced  to"  London  that  the  Scottish 
societies  would  withdraw  their  support  unless 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  should 
finally  and  entirely  desist  from  distributing 
Apocrypha.  After  two  more  years  of  warm 
debate,  London  yielded,  whereupon  most  of  the 
continental  branches  withdrew,  and  the  Scot- 
tish branch,  on  the  refusal  of  the  Society  to 
retire  all  its  officers  that  had  championed  the 
Apocrypha,  itself  withdrew  and  founded  a  new 
Bible  Society  in  Edinburgh, 

Cnt  oS. —  Since  then  the  Deutero-canoni- 
cal  Appendix  (along  with  all  Apocrypha)  has 
been  omitted  from  nearly  all  Protestant  Bibles 
in  Englidt- speaking  countries,  though  still  re- 
Bining  its  ambiguous  position  among  other 
Protestants,  and  still  furnishing  lessons^  thou^ 
in  diminishing  numbers,  for  the  Anghcan  lit- 
urgy, and  even  appearing  in  a  separate  vorome 
of  the  Revised  Version  (1894),  in  a  translation 
inferior  to  that  of  the  canonicals. 

Trtle  Worth.—  Meantime,  however,  with 
the  genera!  deepening  and  broadening  of  re- 
seardi,  due  to  the  critical  spirit  of  modem 
scholarship,  interest  in  all  the  'outsiders*  has 
been  revived  and  greatly  intensified  and  has  as- 
sumed a  thoroughly  rational  character.  It  is 
now  seen  that  these  works  are  natural  and 
intelligible  expressions  of  the  Hellenistic  soul, 
of  the  Jewish  mind  active  under  the  profoundly 
altered  conditions  of  its  intimate  contact  with 
the  spirit  of  Greece.  It  is  also  perceived  that 
they  sustain  the  most  vital  relation  to  the 
greatest  event  of  all  history,  the  proclamation 


accompaniment,  and  to  the  correct  understand- 
ing of  which  they  arc  well-nigh  indispensable. 
KiutzBcfa. —  Accordingly,  as  attention  has 
been  centred  more  and  more  on  the  origins  of 
Christianity,  the  Apocrypha  have  been  studied 
more  and  more  intently.  An  unequivocal  sign 
of  this  lively  interest  may  be  seen  in  the  splen- 
did editions  that  have  recently  appeared,  not 
onlv  of  separate  books,  but  also  of  the  whole 
body  of  such  literature  discovered  thus  far. 
The  great  work  of  Kautzsch,  collaborating  with 
16  German  scholars,  on  'Die  Apokryphcn  und 
Pseudepigraphen  *  des  Alten  Testaments'  ^- 
peared  in  1900  in  two  volumes  of  542  and  540 
targe  pages,  treating  24  of  these  books,  and  the 


•Thii  title  ill 


otfncn  l> 


rt  unfortiuute,  lince  it  buuaU  a  Em 
&t  iota  net  really  eijit.  The  devic 
—  Tuiployed  in  ei --'  ' ■ 


reader  must  remember  that  the  whole  Helw-ew 
Canon  has  also  been  similarly  treated  by 
Kautzsch  (assisted  by  ten  Carman  scholars)  in 
two  volumes  of  960  and  637  slightly  larger 
pages,  on  'Die  Heilige  Schrift  des  Alten  Tes- 
taments' (1909-10)  1  whence  it  appears  that 
though  they  are  no  longer  entitled  'Holy  Writ,' 
they  at  length  receive  critical  attention  of  the 
first  order  —  which  is  indeed  far  better. 

Charlei. —  The  scholarly  work  of  Kautzscb 
has  been  quickly  followed  and  surpassed  b^  a 
still  more  ambitious  work,  bearing  the  like  title, 
'The  Apocrypha  and  Pseudepigrapha  of  the 
Old  Testament,'  under  the  editorship  of  the 
illustrious  scholar,  'R.  H.  Charles,  ...  in  , 
conjunction  with  many  others"  (Oxford  1913), 
professing  to  include  °^all  the  extant  non-ca- 
nonical Jewish  books  written  between  200  EC. 
jjid  100  A.D.,  with  possibly  one  or  two  excep- 
tions," though  the  reader  will  not  find  Josephus 
nor  Philo;  what  is  meant,  is  the  non-canonical 
literature  of  unknown  authorship^  but  even 
then  the  profession  remains  too  wide  for  the 
•books"  and  too  narrow  for  the  dates.  Plainly, 
then,  these  30  "outsiders"  have  at  length  been 
established  immovably  in  their  rights,  not  in- 
deed as  inspired  or  in  any  way  superhuman,  but 
as  shedding  much  welcome  light  on  a  very  ob- 
scure but  extremely  important  transition  period 
in  history. 

Hew  Base.— It  remains  to  add  that  the 
position  of  Protestants  with  respect  to  the 
Canon,  after  they  had  abandoned  the  solid  rock 
of  authority  and  rejected  the  witness  of  tra- 
dition, seemed  somewhat  insecure  and  difficult 
to  defend  It  became  necessary  to  find  some 
still  firmer  foundation  than  either  Jerusalem  or 
Rome  could  offer  and  this  was  sought,  with 
the  moat  extraordinary  diligence  and  with  the 
utmost  prodigalitv  of  learning  and  ingenuity,  in 
the  Scriptures  tnemselves  which  were  to  be 
their  own  witness,  self-luminous,  self-evident, 
self-proving.  'Canonical  authonty  of  Scrip- 
ture does  not  depend  on  the  (^urch  or  on  its 
councils,"  but  'lies  in  the  Scripture  itself;  it  IS 
inherent  in  the  books  so  far  as  they  contain  a 
revelation  or  declaration  of  the  divine  will. 
Hence  ...  the  authority  of  Scripture  Is 
from  God  alone."  These  words  of  the  eminent 
scholar  and  critic.  Dr.  Samuel  Davidson,  are 
found  in  the  'Encyclopaedia  Britannica' (9th  edi- 
tion 1875)  but  neither  they  nor  any  equivalent 
in  the  11th  edition  (1910),— where  the  whole 
matter  is  left  undefined  and  floating  in  the  air, 
—  such  is  the  chan^  a  generation  has  wrought. 
The  deliverance  of  Davidson  is  clear  and  direct, 
except  for  the  clastic  clause  'so  (ar  .  .  . 
divine  will,"  which  saps  it  of  force  and  value: 
for  this  clause  simply  means,  'so  far  as  they 
are  inspired  of  God,"  but  leaves  the  question 
•How  far  are  they  inspired  ?•  entirely  un- 
touched. The  proposition  that  the  Scriptures 
are  authoritative  so  far  as  they  are  divinel^r  in- 
spired, it  is  indeed  impious  to  deny,  but  it  Is 
-^ to  affirm. 


Canon  of  the  New  Testament. 
In  dealing  with  the  Canon  of  the  New 
Testament  we  find  the  area  of  inquiry  much 
narrower  and  more  sharply  bounded  and  the 
sources  of  evidence  more  abundant  as  well  as 
closer  at  hand;  nevertheless,  the  debate  has 
not  been  less  but  even  more  sttibbom  and 
acrimonious. 


Digitized  by  Google 


Earliest  Stage.— Proto-Christian^reachni/, 
as  it  appears  in  the  earliest  Christian  litera- 
ture, wa£  essentially  missionary  (a  Misiionf 
preiiigt,  says  Narden,  1913),  the  propaganda 
of  a  new  universatistic,  in  contrast  to  the 
Jewish  particularistic,  Monotheisni  ("the  mon- 
otheistic Jesus-cult,'  Deissmann,  1912),  the 
•Eternal  Gospel,"  'Fear  God  and  give  Him 
glory*  (Rev.  xiv,  7).  Though  directed  to 
the  whole  Roman  pagan  worm,  *a  light  to 
lighten  the  Gentiles*  (Luke  ii.  32,  Matt,  iv, 
16,  Acts  xiii,  47;  wcvi,  23),  its  prime  ob- 
ject the  overthrow  of  idolatry,  it  proceeded 
from  the  Jewish  Dispersion,  its  inspiratioR 
was  the  thousand-year-long  stru^te  ttiat  Is- 
rael had  waged  for  the  One  God  against  the 
surrounding  hosts  of  Polytheism,  its  apostles 
(missionaries)  were  in  general  liberal-minded 
Jews  or  Jewish  proselytes  full  of  zeal  for 
their  pearl  of  great  price,  their  new-found  faith 
in  God,  and  their  common  armory  and  arsenal 
of  arguments  was  the  Law,  the  Prophet^  the 
Writings,  the  three- fold  Canon  of  Hdirew 
Scripture,  as  it  was  then  taking  final  and  per- 
manent shape  in  the  teaching  of  Rabbis  and 
in. the  service  of  the  Synagogue.  An  evangelist 
like  Paul  or  Barnabas  mi^ht  indeed  deliver  a 
philosophic  discourse  against  Idolatry,  after 
the  type  of  that  on  Mars'  Hill  (Acts  ivii, 
22-30),  without  allusion  to  Scripture,  but  on 
grappling  in  closer  combat  he  would  nearly 
always  have  recourse  for  proofs  to  the  liter- 
ature of  Monotheism;  the  well  of  religion  un- 
defiled,  the  authoritative  Books  of  the  People 
of  the  Living  God.  So  Tatian  tells  us  ('Ad- 
dress to  the  Greeks,'  c.  29)  that,  having  found 
one  demon  (heathen  god)  here  and  another 
there  instigating  to  evilj  he  chanced  to  liriit  on 
certain  'barbaric  writings"  (of  the  Jews),  too 
old  to  be  matched  with  opinions  of  (Greeks 
and  too  divine  to  be  matched  with  their  er- 
rors, which  declared  the  government  of  the 
wniverse  to  be  centred  in  One  Being.  It  is 
obvious,  indeed,  that  the  new  religion  wonld 
naturally  and  almost  unavoidably  adopt  these 
sacred  volumes  as  their  own  standards  in  their 
high  debate,  and,  accordingly,  ve  find  early 
Christian  literature  richly  laden  with  quota- 
tions from  Scriptures  (graphai) ;  thou^  by 
no  means  always  either  accurate  or  relevant, 
such  citations  and  reminiscences  show  how 
completdy  Christian  consciousness  was  domi- 
nated by  the  Hebrew  Bible. 

But  comparatively  few  could  extort  its 
meaning  from  the  Hebrew  text,  and,  accord- 
ingly, recourse  was  had  to  the  Septuagint  or 
some  other  translation.  Of  the  350  citations 
in  the  New  Testament  from  the  Old,  about 
300  lean  toward  the  Septuagint,  away  from  the 
Hebrew.  Hence  it  was  natural,  if  not  inevi- 
table, for  the  pro(o-Christian  to  look  more 
kindly  upon  "outsiders*  than  did  the  Pales- 
tinian "Jew,  since  he  found  them  not  only  en- 
listed Dut  actually  inscribed  among  the  trans- 
lated Scriptures  *that  defiled  the  hands,* 
As  already  noted,  we  find  works  like  Enoch 
and  the  Assumption  of  Moses,  though  lying 
far  on  the  borders  of  the  Apocrypha,  still 
cited  in  Jude  (xiv,  9),  and  several  of  these 
•extraneous  works'  established  themselves 
fixedly  in  the  Tridentine  Canon.— about  wluch 
sufficient  has  been  said. 

Christian  Scriptures^— We  m^  conclude, 
dien,    that    the   natural    Canon    of^  the    early 


Cfaristiaa  was  that  of  the  Jews,  tiot  in  its  nar- 
row Palestinian -Hebrew,  but  in  a  wider  Alex- 
andrian-Greek form,  which  not  only  made 
room  already  for  numerous  'out^etrs,*  but 
also  opened  the  door  for  admission  of  other 
works  to-  be  bom  hereafter  of  the  world-wide 
religious  fermentation  and  deemed  wordiy  of 
place  among  the  worthies  of  old.  Yet  it  was 
centuries  before  any  product  of  the  new  Faith 
could  make  good  its  claim  to  such  recognition. 
Everywhere  in  our  present  New  Testament 
the  term  Scripture(B)  refers  to  the  Hebrew 
Canon,  as  welt  as  in  the  Apostolic  Fathers, 
who  attest  and  rqiresent  usage  in  the  first 
half  of  the  2d  century, —  with  one  apparent 
exception;  In  2  Peter  lii.  16,  we  read:  "even 
as  our  beloved  brother  Paul  .  .  .  wrote  unto 
you;  as  also  tn  alt  his  epistles  ...  as  also 
die  other  scriptures  .  .  .*  Here  it  seems  plain 
diat  Epistles  of  Paul  are  spoken  of  as  'Scrip- 
tures,* such  being  the  force  of  ■other*  ('re- 
maining,* loiptu).  However,  the  exceptioD  is 
only  apparent,  for  this  2  Peter  is  reCMmized 
with  practkal  unanimity  (in  spit£  of  Zahn) 
as  a  pseudepigraph  dating  from  (say)  170, 
diough  Aere  is  no  sure  proof  of  its  existence 
before  the  beginning  of  the  3d  century  (Har- 
nack,  <C3ironologie,'  469),  and  moreover  as 
proceeding  from  some  source  in  Alexandria, 
where,  from  the  looseness  of  prevalent  coi>- 
eeptions  concerning  the  Canon,  the  term 
'Scriptures*  would  find  easier  and  earlier  ex- 
tension to  Pauline  Epistles  than  it  would  else- 
where. The  famous  verse  does  not,  then,  rep- 
resent apostolic  or  even  sub-apostolic,  but,  at 
the,  earhest,  patristic  apologetic  usage,  after 
the  middle  of  the  2d  century.  Nor  is  the 
weight  of  its  witness  increased  by  the  fact 
that  the  author  impersonates  'Symeon  Peter, 
servant  and  apostle  of  Jesus  Chnst,*  who  had 
died  a  century  before. 

A  nearly  contemporaneous,  pertiaps  slight- 

S  earlier,  use  of  ■Scripture*  is  found  in  the 
omily,  formerly  called  the  second  Epistle  of 
Gement  to  Corinthians  (ii,  4) :  *And  another 
Scripture  says  that  <I  came  not  to  call  just 
men  but  sinners,' '  —  exactly  as  in  Mark  ii, 
17,  Matt,  ix,  13.  However,  we  cannot  con- 
clude with  confidence  that  there  is  any  rofer- 
ence  to  these  (Jospels;  for  the  sentence  quoted 
is  epigrammatic  in  form  and  was  probably  a 
slogan   of    the  Gentile    mission    (just   men*~ 

Jews,  sinners*=GeDtiles),  and  as  such  it  may 
ave  appeared  in  various  writings  before  our 
era.  Nevertheless,  it  is  in  any  case  cited  as 
Scripture. 

IrenBos. —  On  entering  now  (be  IsM  quar- 
ter of  die  2d  centuiv,  we  are  met  near  tbe  gate 
bv  the  monumental  work  of  Irenxus.  This 
chosen  champion  of  Catholic  faith  seems  to 
have  been  sent  about  the  year  of  the  persecu- 
tion (177),  as  presbyter  of  Lyons,  on  a  mission 
to  Rome,  whence  returning  he  succeeded  to 
the  bishopric  made  vacant  meanwhile  by  the 
martyrdom  of  Potheinos.  It  was  the  crisis  of 
church- fortunes  in  the  battle  with  the  •here- 
tics,* especially  the  followers  of  Valentinas 
and  Marcion,  the  former  the  first  great  biMi- 
ca!  theologian,  the  latter  the  onlj'  man  dut 
had  understood  Paul,  though  he  misunderstood 
him  (Hamack),  and  by  the  testimony  of  ve- 
hement opponents,  both  of  them  men  of  ex- 
ceeding ability,  religions  devotion  and  sinritual 
insight,  who  had  carried  tbeir  campaign  into 


Jaha  IV,  SS-V,  □ 

Sunple  of  luerted  qubfl.     Eulr  4tli  CMtarT 

WuhlnsMn  H3.  ol  thi  Ooiptb,  Frmt  Coll*cllaB 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


.ooniioogk 


Rome  itself  and  there  established  themsehres 
(138-146)  in  a  determined  effort  to  ■pefonn* 
flie  Church.  Their  •heresies'  must  have  in- 
terested Irenxns  intensely  and  on  retnminE  to 
Lyons  he  began  writing,  apparently  at  the  re- 
quest of  some  ■very  dear  friend,*  who  may 
have  be«n  the  highest  ofiicia],  a  series  of  five 
Books  'Against  Heresies.'  This  'Detection 
and  Refnbttion  of  the  Gnosis  falsely  so- 
called'  is  ordinarily  dated  between  181  and 
189;  because  in  Book  III,  c.  23,  is  quoted  the 
Ephesian  Theodotion's  translation  of  Isaiah. 
tvhich  appeared  fEnsebius  says)  in  the  second 
year  of  Commodus  (181)  ;  and  in  Book  III, 
c.  3,  we  read  that  'Eleutherins  (d.  189)  now 
holds  the  bishopric  (of  Rome)  in  the  twelfth 
place  from  (he  Apostles.'  While  rtiese  state- 
ments ma^  &x  the  date  for  so  much  of 
this  bool^  It  is  clear  that  they  fix  less  for  the 
earlier  and  later  ones.  For  the  composition 
evidently  extended  over  a  considerable  period, 
the  separate  books  being  sent  from  time  to 
time  to  the  'friend  very  dear,*  Especially  is 
the  interval  noticeable  Mtween  the  second  and 
the  third;  indeed,  the  work  seems  logically  well- 
nigh  completed  in  Book  II  with  the  minute 
description  and  confutation  of  heretical 
schools,  while  the  other  three  concern  them- 
selves, apparently  by  afterthought,  with  set- 
tii%  forth  and  vindicating  the  whole  body  oC 
Church- doctrine.  Accordingly,  this  elaborate 
apology  has  especial  interest  as  accompanying, 
characterizing  and  exhibiting  in  its  gradual 
growth  the  idea  of  a  New  Teslamrnt  Canon, 
In  the  earlier  books  we  find  scarcely  anj;  al- 
lusion to  the  sources  of  the  Scripture  citations, 
while  in  the  later  the  references  by  name  to 
nearly  all  the  New  Testament  books  Decome  too 
numerous  to  catalogue.  Approaching  the 
close  of  the  centliry  we  behold  in  l»rth  the 
consciousness  of  a  New  Testament  Canoa 

His   Usage.— What,   then,  is  the  Bishop's 
use  of  the  term  Scripture?     It  is  not  easy  to 

five  a  thoroughly  satisfactoo"  answer.  About 
00  times  the  word  refers  clearly  to  Hebrew 
Scriptures;  about  17  times  it  might  include  the 
Christian  as  well;  about  16  times  it  would  seem 
to  be  aimed  more  directly  at  the  latter.  A  diffi- 
culty in  detennining  the  reference  lies  in  thp 
fact  that  Irenxus  conceives  of  ancient  Scriji- 
turc  as  already  containing  in  minutest  detail 
the  Gospel  story  and  the  history  of  the  primitive 
Church  (as  diet  Justin  and  other  leading  lights), 
so  that  when  he  speaks  of  "Scriptures  domini- 
can,"  which  we  should  use  exclusively  of  the 
New  Testament,  his  reference  may  very  well  be 
to  the  Old.  Again,  he  seems  rarely  if  ever  to 
employ  the  phrase  'the  Scripture  says'  of  any 
but  Jewish  Scriptures.  He  also  disltngui^es 
often  between  the  Old  Canon  and  the  New  that 
is  just  in  birth,  by  such  locutions  as  'neither 
any  Scripture  has  told  nor  the  Apostle  has 
said  nor  the  Lord  has  taught"  {II,  43),  and  *all 
Scriptures  cry  aloud  and  the  Lord  teaches"  (11. 
3,  7),  and  'all  Scriptures  cry  aloud  and  Paul 
moreover  (et  Paulus  autem)  bears  witness" 
(II,  V)  —  all  these  examples  being  in  the  sec- 
ond book,  after  which  he  seems  to  have  ac- 
quired new  knowledge  or  felt  a  change  of 
heart.  Yet  how  largely  the  new  literature 
bulked  in  his  mind  appears  in  the  fact  that  of 
1,467  citations  532  are  Old  Testament  and  935- 
New   Testament.     This    latter  term    itself   is 


frequent  ettougfi  itt  the  later  books  of  Irensus, 
being  used  over  a  score  of  times,  but  never  in 
the  modem  sense  of  a  body  of  writings,  always 
in  the  proper  use  of  covenanl^  dupensalion; 
It  is  'the  Old  order  changeth,  yielding  place  to 
tfie  New' ;  the  Old  is  the  lawgiving  that  was 
aforetime,  but  the  'New  is  conversation  (man- 
ner of  life)  according  to  the  Gospel';  'the 
New  Testament  (covenant)  having  been  known 
and  preached  by  the  prophets."  For  him  the 
Christian  Scriptures  are  not  yet  the  New  Tes- 

Ponr  Gospels.— What,  then,  are  they?    He 

Sves  no  catalogue  but  proves  (III,  11)  that 
ere  are  and  must  be  in  the  nature  of  the  case 
neither  more  nor  less  than  four  Gospels,  ^nce 
there  are  'four  climes  of  the  world'  and  'four 
catholic  winds'  and  four  faces  of  the  Cherubim 

ilion,  calf,  man  eagle.  Rev.  iv,  7),  'images  of 
ic  activity  of  the  Son  of  God.*  He  is  perhaps 
not  far  wrong,  in  voicing  a  vague  but  dominant 
sense  of  the  eternal  fitness  of  tlungs  and  of  the 
omnipresence  of  the  Divine.  In  accord  widt 
this  reverence  for  the  Quaternion  'a  fount 
with  roots  of  eternal  bemg.'  ^e  Jofaannine, 
though  originally  intended  as  unique,  the  sole 
and  sufficient  Gospel  (Wendland,  'Literaturfor- 
men,'  p.  236,)  was  ranged  in  the  ranks  of  the 
Four.  These  he  ascribes  to  Matthew  'who 
edited  a  writing  of  Gospel  among  Hebrews  in 
their  own  tongue*;  to  "Mark  the  disciple  and 
interpreter  of  Peter" ;  to  "Luke  the  follower  of 
Paul,'  'who  set  down  in  a  book  the  Gospel 
preached  by  him' ;  and  'John  the  disciple  of  me 
Lord,  who  also  leaned  on  TGs  breast,  himself 
also  edited  the  Gospel,  while  tarrying  in  Ephe- 
sus  of  Asia'  (III,  I). 

The  Rest— The  other  Scriptures,  though 
not  yet  classifieiL  are  cited  often  oy  name,  Acts, 
Romans,  1  and  2  Corinthians,  Ephesians.  Phil- 
ippians,  Galatlans,  Colossians,  1  and  2  Thessa- 
lonians,  Peter,  John,  .^wcalypst — the  others 
are  not  named.  Verses  7,  8  of  2  John  are  cited 
as  from  1  John  ui,  17,  7,  also  v.  11  as  from  John. 
Two  expressions  are  used  that  are  also  found 
in  Tude  (*an  example  of  just  judgment  of 
God.*  7,  and  'faith  delivered  unto  us?  3),  hut 
ndther  as  <}uated,  nor  is  there  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  either  was  tiken  from  lude.  Like- 
wise the  aphorism  in  2  Peter  iii,  8  is  twice  used 
(v.  23, 2;  28,  3)  in  the  form  'the  day  of  the  Lord 
is  as  a  thousand  years,*  but  with  no  indication  of 
derivation  from  2  Peter.  Three  phrases  are 
somewhat  like  phrases  in  James,  but  only  one 
need  be  mentioned,  'the  friend  of  God,'  a 
characterization  of  a  devout  man,  frequent  in 
the  classics  and  appearing  in  2  Chron.  xx,  7 
(■Abraham,  thy  friend') .  Harvey  thinks  he  finds 
references  to  10  passa^s  in  Hebrews,  ^1  of 
which  is  mere  imagination;  there  seems  to  be 
no  use  made  of  this  Epistle,  the  correspondences 
are  merely  in  slock  phrases.  The  whole  verse 
Titus  iii,  3-IOi  about  avoiding  heretics  is  quoted 
with  the  formula,  'As  Paul  also  said"  (iii,  2,  4; 
also  in  i,  9,  3,  in  what  seems  to  be  an  interpola- 
tion). Other  supposed  references  are  illusory; 
of  about  eieftt  phrases,  only  one,  'novelties  of 
words  of  false  imowledge,'  is  referred  to  Paul 
(ii,  18,  51,  1  Tim.  vi,  ffl)  in  a  sentence  much 
<ilscussed  and  perhaps  inserted.  About  half  a 
dozen  phrasal  resemblances  to  2  Timothy  may 
be  hunted  down  in  Irenseus,  and  of  4,  lOf,  il 
IS  expressly  said  (Ui.  1),  'Paul  has  manifest^ 


.Google 


in  his  EiHstles.*  There  a  no  allusion  to 
Philemon. 

Apocrypha. —  It    seems,    then,    that    seven 
Epistles,    the    Pastorals,    Phi  lemon,    Hebrews, 

fames,  Jud^  find  no  express  recognition  by 
renxus,  though  passages  in  the  Timothies  are 
ascribed  to  Paul.  But  the  Bi^oo  knows  and 
uses  still  other  'Scriptures."  He  cites  (III, 
xxii,  I,  xxx\,  1)  from  Isaiah:  "And  the  Holy 
Lord  remembered  his  dead  of  Israel  that  had 
slept  in  the  land  of  sepulture,  and  descended 
to  preach  them  salvation  that  is  from  Him,  to 
save  them."  Again  (IV,  xxxvi,  1)  Ik  cites  it 
in  almost  the  same  words  from  Jeremiah,  as 
does  also  Justin  (Dial  72)  cbaracteristicall^ 
accusing  the  Jews  of  suppressing  it,  thou^  it 
is  unknown  to  the  Hebrew,  Septuagint,  Vulgate, 
Targums,  Hexapla,  and  all  other  versions, — 
clearly  a  Christian  addition  useful  in  argument 
and  toe  basis  of  the  famous  passage  *tbe  ^spel 
was  preached  even  to  the  dead*  (1  Peter  iv,  6). 
Again,  (IV,  ix)  we  find  the  apocryphal  Daniel 
3civ,  3f,  24,  quoted  and  ascribed  to  toe  propheL 
Once  more  (IV,  xjcvii,  2)  we  find  Enoch  de- 
scribed   as    'God's   legate    to    the    angels  *    ' 


years  reveals  itself  distinctly.    His  earliest  po- 

'  •  1  Nationes'  and  <Al  ' 
I  the  year  197,  and  I 


kmics,  'Ad  Nationes'  and  <Apolc«eticus,>  are 
1  to  the  year  197,  and  his  literaiy  spaa 
to  22a     Far  more  brilliant  and  prolific 


apocryphal  Enoch,  ] 


the 


rther,  at  IV, 

,  ., ^_, _ifice..."     The  passaj^ 

cited  here  (also  by  Clemens  AU  P^d.  Ill,  xii) 
as  Scripture  is  not  in  our  present  Scriptures. 
Lastly,  we  find  (IV,  Txxiv,  2)  the  first  com- 
mandment of  the  Shepherd  oi  Hermas  cited 
with  praise  as  "the  Scripture,*  and  the  First 
Epistle  of  Clement  described  and  amtroved 
as  •Scripture  itself  or  "very  Scripture"  (ipsa 
Scriptura).  At  II,  Ivi,  1  'the  Lord  said»:  *If, 
etc.,'  which  words  are  also  cited  in  2  Clement 
viii,  S  as  *in  the  (lospel,'  and  Grabe  thinks  the 
reference  is  to  'the  Gospel  according  to  Egyp- 
tians >  whereof  fragments  are  still  afloat 
Finally,  the  letter  of  Polycarp  is  declared 
illL  3,  4)  'written  most  sufficient'  to  teach 
■both  the  character  of  his  faith  and  the  nrpach- 
ing  of  the  truth,*  and  at  V,  xjcxv,  1  the  long 
citation  from  'Jeremiah'  is  found  only  in 
apocryphal  Baruch  (iv,  36-v,  9). 

Canon.-^Ten  such  examples  are  enough  to 
show  that  the  scriptural  honzon  of  the  ancient 
Bishop  was  notably  wider  than  the  modern,  as 
well  as  only  vaguely  defined  at  many  points. 
Manifestly  the  Canon  is  coming  to  birth,  but 
for  him  it  is  not  yet  boni.  It  remains  only  to 
recall  that  the  allusions  (real  or  apparent)  to 
the  later  New  Testament  writings  are  nearly 
all  to  be  found  in  the  later  books  (III-V)  of 
Irenxus,  written  it  appears  after  the  demand  of 
his  friend  had  been  fulfilled,  as  an  overplus 
beyond  what  was  expected  ('pneter  quam 
opinabaris').      Also,   in   the   barbarous   ihoudi 

Sene  rally  faithful  Latin  translation  of  the 
Ireek,  it  is  almost  impossible  that  some  emen- 
dations should  not  be  found,^  the  marginal 
comments  of  readers  or  copyists,  which  have 
crept  into  the  text,  as  at  V,  xiii,  3,  where  the 
words  'in  second  to  Corinthians'  are  not  in  the 
Greek.  These  definite  references  to  the  New 
Testament  Scriptures  represent  in  large  meas- 
ure a  somewhat  later  consciousness,  even  as 
Harvey  notes.  The  rapid  growth  of  this  recog- 
nition of  an  authoritative  literature,  and  of 
its  precise  determination,  is  the  all-important 
fact  that  shines  through  the  pages  of  Irenseus. 
In  Tertullian  the  development  of  nearly  20 


than  IrenKUS,  indeed  a  forensic  genius,  b 
less  catholic  and  representative,^  he  was  never 
canonized,  nay,  he  fell  ultimately  into  Uontan- 
ism,  a  heresy  much  less  rational  and  more 
exlrava^ant  than  any  he  had  so  vehemently 
opposed,— his  witness  withal  to  the  growth  of 
the  Canon- consciousness  and  the  (Tanon  itself 
is  an  invaluable  supplement  to  that  of  Irenaeus. 
TertnUtan'B  Terma.— The  fierce  African 
pours  forth  such  a  deep  and  rapid  torrent  of 
speech  that  one  is  often  bewildered  in  its  up- 
roar. Some  things,  however,  are  heard  dis- 
tinctly, and  it  soon  becomes  clear  that  he  has 
gone  much  beyond  the  Gallican  Bishop.  Of 
terms  to  denote  the  Scriptures,  Old  and  New, 
together  and  apart,  as  a  whole  or  in  division  or 
even  opposition,  he  has  about  30.  He  uses  the 
word  'Scripture'  for  the  Christian  writings 
(De  Res.  Car.  xxvii,  1  and  often  elsewhere  less 
certainly) ,  but  his  favorite  word  is  Inslrv- 
mentitm,  for  which  he  tells  us  (in  Marc  IV,  1) 
Teslamenlum  is  more  in  use;  he  distinguishes 
two  such  Instrumenta   (Testamenta),  Old  and 


._ ___    _.   _    .__  rather  new  apparatus" 

(Apol.  47);  also  of  the  'old  instrumenta  of 
legal  Scriptures'  and  'all  our  apparatus' 
(Monog.  7).  With  him  tnrf  rumen  turn  sig- 
nifies (means  of)  doctimentary  proof,  a  sense 
adopted  from  the  Roman  forum  or  txioks 
of  law  and  still  approved  at  the  bar;  over 
arainst  the  'instrument  of  Jewish  literature* 
(Cult  I,  3),  he  sets  the  "Christian  letters' 
(Prescr.  Her.  37)  and  the  'instrument  of 
preaching*  (Mod.  I).  He  has  then  clearly  in 
mind  a  body  of  Christian  evidential  literature, 
and  it  seems  remarkable  that  he  still  hesitates 
and  rarely  apices  to  it  the  term  'Scripture.' 

HiB  List.— This  New  Apparatus,  Instru- 
ment, or  Testament  consists  in  his  mind  of  two 
grand  divisions:  the  Evangelic  (Marc.  IV,  2) 
and  the  Apostolic  (Resurr.  39),  called  also 
'evangelic  letters,"  'evangelic'  {(jospcls), 
and  'apostolic  letters,*  or  simply  'apostles.*  Of 
these  two,  the  first  consists  of  the  Four  (jos- 
pels,  which,  possibly  for  controversial  reasons, 
he  gives  in  the  order  John,  Matthew,  Luke, 
Mark  (Comp,  Codex  Bezae :  Matthew,  John, 
Luke,  Mark),  the  first  two  being  apostles,  the 
others  only  apostolic  The  second  comprises 
the  'Instrument  of  Acts*  (Marc.  V,  2)— used 
relatively  little  called  also  'Acts  of  Apostles,* 
'Scriptures  of  Apostolic s,*  'commentary  of 
Luke," — and  the  'Apostolic  Instrument*  proper 
or  'his  own  Instrument,"  i.e.,  the  'Apostle's," 
i.e.,'  Paul's,  called  also  simply  "Paul*;  as  well 
as,  thirdly,  the  'Instrument  of  John"  (Resurr, 
38),  embracing  the  Apocalypse  and  the  First 
Epistle  of  John.  The  main  division,  'Instru- 
ment of  Paul,*  consists  primarily  of  the  Ten 
Epistles,  first  collected  by  Marcion  (near  140) 
under  the  name  of  'Apostle  or  Apostnlicon" 
and  in  this  order:  Galatians,  1  and  2  Corin- 
thians, Romans,  1  and  2  Thessalonians,  Ljodi- 
ceans  (Ephesians),  Colossians.  Philemon,  Philip- 
pians;  but  the  'auostolic  battle-front'   (acits), 

•Tbia  mm)  "puatiira"  is  ■  pet  of  TertaUkn'i.  iriu  ■■>• 
, . j: J .: nitho-  itnisad. 


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as  Temillian  calls  it  (Uod  l7),  was  strengtb* 
ened  by  the  three  Pastorals  of  Timothy  and 
Titus. 

The  Dnblona.— So  much,  lh«n,  seems  to 
have  been  not  only  definitely  included  but  also 
placed  and  named  in  the  Dody  of  Christian 
writings  recognized  as  antboritative  by  Ter- 
tullian  and  doubtless  in  the  main  by  the  African 
Church.  But  there  was  alio  a  considerable 
group  of  writings  not  yet  securely  folded 
within  the  sacred  pale.  Of  , these  the  Epistle 
to  Hebrews  wai  chief.  In  his  pamphlet  on 
■Modesty,"  having  gone  throu^  the  whole 
•discipline  of  the  Apostles  properly*  (so-called), 
at  the  beginnii^  of  c-  20  he  'Buperduces* 
another  'radundant  testimony  of  a  companion 
of  Apostles";  'For  there  exists  also  a  title 
<To  Hebrews,'  of  Barnabas,  a  man  well 
authenticated  by  God,*  *and  surely 

the  Epistle  of  Barnabas  is  more  received  among 
churches  than  that  apocryphal  Shepherd  of 
adulterers' ;  he  then  quotes  vi,  1,  4-^  almost 
as  we  now  read  them.  His  other  allusions  to 
this  Eptstl^  thou^  numerous,  are  illusivei 
Again  (^Prayer,'  20),  with  apparent  reference 
to  1  Peter  iii,  1-6,  he  mentions  the  •prescrip- 
tion of  Peter*  as  checldug  with  the  same 
mouth,  because  with  the  same  spirit,  as  Paul, 
the  glory  of  garments,  etc.,  yet  widiout  any 
assertion  of  reeogniEed  authority.  But  tlus 
chapter  is  apparently  interpolated,  being  out 
of  connectioa  vrith  the  context  and  absent  from 
some  USS.,  one  of  which  jriaces  here  the 
words,  *£nd  of  Tertullian's  bo(dc  on  Prayer.* 
Other  allusions  are  quite  unconvincing  i  per- 
btv»  Tertullian  knew  1  Peter,  but  only  as  an 
appendix  to  his  "Scriptures.*  Similarty  he 
concludes  his  defense  of  the  book  of  Enoch 
as  'Scripture*  with  "the  fact  that  Enoch'  pos- 
sesses testimony  in  Jude,  an  apostle*  (Fem. 
Dress,  3),  but  he  does  not  stress  this  fact, 
merely  'adding*  it  as  of  seemingly  little 
weight,  nor.  docs  he  certainly  use  tiie  Epistle, 
not  even  v.  25.  The  second  Epistle  of  John 
(or  the  Presbyter)  Tertullian  may  have  known 
but  does  in  no  way  recognize.  The  second 
Epistle  of  Peter,  the  third  of  John,  and  that 
oi  James  doubtless  existed  in  Tertullian's  time 
but  lay  b^ond  the  utmost  borda  of  authori^ 
or  canonictty,  being  apparen^  unknown  batn 
to  him  and  to  the  African  Church.  We  have 
also  seen  that  he  rejected  the  Shepherd,  for 
dogmatic  reasons,  as  overlenien*  in  matters 
of  sexual  relation,  but  accepted  Enoch.  The 
dates  of  Tertullian's  numerous  writings  are  loo 
uncertain  to  permit  discussion  of  the  dcvekm- 
'  ment  and  determination  in  bis  own  mind  of  the 
Canon-idea, —  only  one  positive  and  absolute 
datum  is  to  be  foundi  he  was  writing  (Marcion 
I,  IS)  in  'the  IStii  year  now  of  the  Emperor 
Sevcnis*  (207-08).  However,  the  growth  from 
the  time  of  Irenjeus  is  obvious  and  doubtless 
went  on  continuously  during  the  25  years  of 
TertuHian's  Uterary  career   (197-222). 

nnt  CatalaKne.~-The  third  important  wit- 
ness to  the  Cskaon  at  the  junction  of  the 
centuries  is  the  so-called  'Muratorian  Prag- 
ment,*  discovered  (1740)  by  the  'father  of 
Italian  history,"  Ludovico  Antonio  Muratori 
(1672-1750),  m  an  8th  century  compound  of 
thcologic  tracts  and  five  early  creeds.  It  con- 
tains 85  lines  of  barbarous  Latin,  possibly  a 
translation  from  Greek,  cataloguing  the  Chris- 


tian Scriptures.  The  date  of  the  original  seems 
to  he  somewhere  between  195  and  205  (pos- 
sibly 210).  The  first  line  is  "at  which  (or 
same)  be  was  nevertheless  present  and  so  put 
down*  (quibus  tamen  interfuit  et  ila  posuit). 
The  reference  is  seeming^  to  Mark,  the  first 
part  of  the  list  being  lost,  which  doubtless 
noted  both  Matthew  and  Mark,  as  the  second 
line  reads,  'third  book  of  (^spcl  according  to 
Luke,*  and  the  ori^  of  the  various  books  is 
.  described :  four  (jospels.  Acts  (assigned  to 
Lake),  thirteen  Epistles  of  Paul  (io  sevou 
Churches,— for  thlre  were  just  seven  in 
Revelation, —  two  repeated  and  four  personal), 
two  of  John,  one  of  Jude,  two  Apocalypses 
(John's  and  Peter^s),  and  'Wisdom  written 
by  friends  of  Solomon  in  his  honor*  (like  a 
jubilee- volume  presented  to  a  university  pro- 
fessor.). 'Epistles  to  Laodiceans  and  to  Alex- 
andrians, feigned  in  the  name  of  Paul,  for  the 
heresy  of  Marcion'  are  rejected,  "for  gall  fits 
not  to  be  mixed  with  honey*  ('fel  cum  melle.* 
as  we  tnigbt  say,  sand  with  candy) :  the 
Epistles  'To  Hebrews,*  of  Peter,  and  of  James 
are  not  mentioned,  and  "the  Shepherd  .  .  . 
it  is  indeed  meet  to  read  but  not  public^  in 
the  church  to  the  people,  neither  amid  the 
prophets,  complete  in  number,  nor  amid  the 
apostles,  to  the  ages'  end.'  The  Psalm-book 
of  Marcion,  along  with  Basilides  and  other 
Gnostics,  is  wholly  rejected.  Here  then  again 
is  a  region  demarked  in  the  main  like  that  of 
Irenxus,  and  of  Tertullian,  but  with  some  very 
notable  divergencies.  The  list  docs  not  lay 
claim  to  authority  but  doubtless  represents  the 

feneral  Roman  opinion  and  usage  of  its  time, 
nto  further  details  we  have  no  space  to  enter; 
but  a  rapid  glance  will  show  how  the  border 
warfare  was  maintained  for  yet  hundreds  of 

Third  Century.— The  learned  and  liberal 
Clemens  Alexandrinus  conceived  of  the  New 
Testament  Scriptures  (all  save  James,  2  Peter, 
3  ^  John)  more  generously  than  either  the 
Bishop  or  the  African,  He  recognized  He- 
brews, 2  John,  and  Jude,  and  in  Hnc  with  them 
the  Apocalypse  of  Peter,  the  Epbtles  of  Barna- 
bas and  CJlement  of  Rome,  both  cited  as 
apostles,  and  the  Shepherd,  quoted  as  divine. 
Oearly  3,  case  of   the   personal  equation. 

Origen  is  very  cautious  in  his  classification, 
which  is  far  from  original,  into  authentic, 
intermediate,  and  unauthentic;  the  Apocalypse 
has  won  its  way  into  the  first  class,  Hebrews 
not  so  certainly;  James,  Jude,  2  Peter.  2  and  3 
John  are  still  in  the  second  class,  with  the 
Shepherd  on  the  edge;  Barnabas,  the  Preach- 
ing of  Peter,  the  Acts  of  Paul,  and  the  Gospefl 
according  to  Hebrews  and  Egyptians  have 
settled  down  into  the  third  division.  His 
standard  professed  but  not  maintained,  it 
apostolic  origin  according  to  the  tradition  of 
the  Church, —  an  honest  hut  futile  attempt  to 
escape  to  Reason,  since  the  final  appeal  is  still 
to  the  authority  of  tradition. 

Fourth  Centuiy. — Eusebius  seems  to  have 
completed  his  Qiurch  History  in  the  year  324, 
and  the  first  nine  books  periiaps  before  314, 
but  we  know  not  when  he  began.  There  seems 
indeed  to  have  occurred  a  perceptible  change 
between  the  3d  and  the  2Sth  chapters  of  Book 
n_I :  the  Shepherd,  treated  very  tenderly  in  the 
third,  is  summarily  rejected  in  the  25th;  also 


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the  Acts  and  Gospei  and  Preadiing  and 
Apocalypse  of  Peter  "we  know  have  not  been 
aniversally  accepted"  (in  3),  but  in  25  hi» 
Apocalypse  is  "amonR  the  spurious,*  while 
still  worse,  his  Gospel  and  Acts  are  'all  of 
them  to  be  cast  aside  as  absnrd  and  impious," 
•the  fictions  of  heretics,*  unworthy  of  place 
■even  among  die  spurious.'  This  is  progress, 
surely.  In  his  later  discussion  the  historian 
uses  a  puzzling  cross-division :  First,  the  four 
Gospels;  then  Atts;  'after  this  must  be- 
reckoned  the  Epistles  of  Paul' ;  next  1  John 
and  •likewise  the  Epistle  of  Peter  must  be 
maintained';  'after  Utem  is  to  be  placed  the 
Apocalypse,  if  it  really  seem  proper";  these 
are  among  the  Confessed  (Hotnologoutuena). 
Among  the  Contradicted  (Arttilegomfna),  btit 
■nevertheless  recognized  by  many"  are  "the 
so-called  einstle  of  James,  and  that  of  Jude,' 
also  2  Peter,  and  the  so-called  1  and  3  John. 
Among  the  Spurious  (Nolhoi)  are  the  Acts 
of  Paul,  the  Shepherd,  Apocalypse  of  Peter, 
Epistle  of  Barnabas,  the  so-called  Teachings 
of  the  A^stles,  and  besides  'the  Apocalypse  of 
John,  if  It  seems  proper,'  and  'the  Gospel  ac- 
cording to  the  Hebrews,"  "and  all  these  may 
be  reckoned  of  the  Contradicted."  Lastly, 
■those  cited  by  heretics  under, the  name  o£ 
Apostles,"  'Gospels,"  and  'Acts'  which  are 
■fictions    of   heretics     .     .     .     absurd    and    im- 

It  seems  worth  while  to  note  the  standard 
applied  by  Eusebius :  it  is  'church  tradition* 
alone  that  decides  what  are  'true  and  genuine 
and  commonly  received.'  Some  were  uni- 
versally received,  some  by  most  but  not  by  all, 
some  by  onl^  a  minority,  some  •by  no  one  of 
the  succession  of  Church  writers  deemed 
worthy  of  mention,"  Oearly  there  was  still 
much  ground  for  dt-bate. 

As  general  result,  we  find  the  notion  of  a 
body  of  authoritative  Christian  documents 
rapidly  forming  in  the  usage  of  Iremeus,  dis- 
tinctly formed  in  that  of  TertulUan,  and 
actually  formulated  in  the  Muratorian  Frag- 
ment. But  this  notion  of  the  Canon  is  not  yet 
canonical.  There  is  agreement  as  to  central 
and  even  medial  portions  but  the  widest  dis- 
agreement as  to  the  peripheral,  a  difference  of 
judgment  that  it  will  require  long  centuries  to 
adjust. 

Still  Barller.— If  now  we  ask.  Had  Ire- 
nzus  no  forerunners  in  his  idea  of  a  Canon? 
the  answer  must  be ;  Assuredly  he  had ;  the  law 
of  conlinuit>-  was  not  broken.  Beyond  doubt 
the  composition  of  the  'proof- documents"  was 
gradual  and  their  collection  into  smaller  and 
then  into  lai^er  groups  was  also  by  degrees. 
Backward  from  Irenxus,  through  two  or  even 
three  generatiotis,  lies  indeed  a  dark  abysm  of 
time,  yet  not  wholly  unlit  of  stars.  To  be  surcv 
we  ^nd  no  certain  conception  of  authoritative 
Christian  writing.  Scripture  is  the  Old  Testa- 
ment only,  in  wider  or  narrower  sense.  True, 
the  famous  church  letter  of  "the  servants  of 
Christ  residing  at  Vienne  and  Lyons'  to  thejr 
Asiatic-Phrygian  brethren,  respecting  the 
persecution  in  the  year  177,  doos  in  fact  say 
"that  the  Scripture  might  be  fulfilled.  He  that 
is  lawless,  let  him  be  lawless  still,  and  he  that 
is  righteous,  let  him  be  nRhteous  still'  (Eus. 
'Hist-  Eccl.*  V,  ii,  .^8).  But  in  spite  of  the 
Just  praise  accorded  this  letter  we  really  know 


in  its  context,  without  sufficient  attachmat 
either  side;  nothing  suffers  from  its  removal; 
it  makes  the  impression  of  a  pious  observation 
of  a  copyist,  which  has  crept  from  the  margin 
into  the  text  Besides,  it  is  quoted  as  a  stock 
phrase,  none  knows  whence^  for  in  Rev  xiii, 
II,  it  IS  also  most  probably  not  original  but  a 
quotation. 

In  the  uncertain  letters  of  'Thec^hilus  to 
Autolycus"  (173-90)  there  are  two  mentions 
of  the  'Gospe)."  in  Book  III,  13  and  14;  the 
first  is  manifestly  and  the  second  very  probabtj- 
interpolated,  as  is  also  the  phrase,  'and  in  ttw 
Gospels,"  c.  12.  But  in  any  cas^  the  text  need 
not  ihodify  the  foregoing. 

Nearest  to  Irensus  stands  Tatian  (160- 
80),  who  seems  to  have  known  of  four  Gospel 
forms  and  sought  to  blend  them  into  one  in 
his  'Diatessaron'  (173?),  in  which  scarcely 
any  traces  of  the  humanity  of  Jesus  appear 
to  have  been  fotmd.  Hia  'Address  to  the 
Greeks'  (165?)  contains  sentences  or  phrases 
that  are  also  found  in  the  Gospels  and  Epistles, 
apparently  the  watchwords  of  certain  religious 
or  dogmatic  tendencies,  but  none  ^ven  as 
citations. 

The  Mirtyr.— Tatian's  iwaster,  Justin  Mar- 
tyr, had  considerable  acquaintance  with  litera- 
ture now  found  in  the  New  Testament,  btit 
all  cf  it  seems  to  be  floating  as  an  unoi^nized 
mass  (or  rather  as  a  mateorie  swarm)  in  fais 
mind.  He  never  cites  any  such  passage  by  the 
author's  name,  but  ascribes  them  m  the  main 
to  'the  Lord'  or  to  Jesns  or  Christ  or  the 
Saviour,  most  frequently  omitting  the  subject 
•He.'  In  Apology  1,  66,  and  espedally  toward 
the  close  of  the  Dialog  (cc  100-07),  he  speaks 
of  the  'Meraoin  of  (or  composed  by)  His 
Apostles."  The  phrase  ■which  are  called 
Gospels,'  in  Apology  I,  66i  has  long  been  felt 
to  be  interpolated,  and  so  indeed  is  the  whole 
chapter,  which  breaks  visibly  the  connection 
between  cc.  65  and  67.  Again,  that  these 
Memoirs  or  Comtnentaries  {A/nmmemoneM- 
maia)  should  be  mentioned  12  times  in  cc, 
100-07,  only  in  treating  of  Psatan  22,  and 
not  at  all  elsewhere  in  the  Dialog,  is  surely 
extremely  suspicious,  suggesting  easy  interpo- 
lation, or  a  later  date  for  these  late  chapters." 
That  Justin  Martyr  did  not  reslly  refer  to  our 
Four  Cupels  seems  clear  for  many  reasons. 
Had  be  Imown  of  tfiem  under  the  names  oi 
Matlbew,  Mark,  Luke,  John,  it  seems  prac- 
tically certain  that  in  the  course  of  120  al- 
lusions (50  in  App.,  70  in  Di.),  he  weuM  have 
named  some  one,  for  he  is  a  stickler  for 
names  and  exactness,  as  he  conceives  it.  In 
citing  the  Old  Testament  he  names  the  author 
197  times,  onutting  the  name  only  117  limes. 
for  various,  mainly  literary,  reasons.  He  names 
John  the  Baptist  repeatedly.  He  ascribes  to 
'a  certain  man  among  us,  by  name  John,  one 
of  the  Apostles  of  the  Chnst,  the  Bevrfation 
that  they  who  believed  in  our  Christ  should 
spend  a  thousand  years  in  Jerusalem"  (Di.  81); 
had  he  ascribed  the  Gospels  and  Epistles  to 
authors,  as  Irenanis  (Books  Ill-V)  and  Tertul- 


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k.  H*b(«wi  xm,  IS-IS.  B.  n  Timothy  I,  IS-ll 

■th  CentniT 
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Ion  did,  it  seems  inconceivaUa  that  be  would 
not  have  adorned  hi£  poRes  with  their  names. 
Uoreover,  it  is  certain  that  he  drew  from 
apocryphal  sources,  as  from  the  Gospel  of 
Peter;  for  both  he  and  tfai*  Gospel  (u)  the 
AJdrniim  fragment  discovered  1685)  use  the 
strange  word  iachmon  for  'lot*  in  die  "■«*'"g 
of  lots  over  the  garmentB  of  Jesus,  a  word 
known  there  only  to  theie  two  and.  to  Cyril. 
Again,  he  says,  "And  fire  was  kindled  in  the 
Jordan*  at  the  baptism  of  ^esus,  &s  'wrote 
the  apostles  of  him,  this  Chnst  of  ours*  (Di., 
88),  an  incident  noted  in  the  'Preaching  of 
Pau^*  the  Ebumite  Gospel,  the  Sibylline 
Oracles,  and  the  Syrian  Lituisy,  but  not  in 
the  Nerw  Testament. 

Without  going  into  further  details,  it  ap- 
pears  manifest  that  Justin  Martyr  had  before 
him,  in  writing  or  in  memory,  a  considerable 
body  of  miscellaneous  Cbnstian  literature, 
much  of  it  perhaps  under  the  name  of  Oracles 
{Logio}  of  the  Lord  or  Jesus  or  the  Saviour, 
some  of  it  maybe  iH'ofessing  apoatolic  origin 
or  "gospel*  character.  Most  of  this  has  been 
taken  up  and  organized  in  the  New  Testament, 
though  some  oi  it  has  failed  of  that  honor; 
none  of  it  did  Justin  certamly  regard  as  in^ 
spired,  canonic,  authoritative;  all  of  it  he  used 
or  disused,  and  often  misused,  accor(}ing  to  his 
own  fancied  needs  in  argumenlaCion  and  his 
own  sense  of  eternal  fitness.  The  notion  of  a 
New  Testament  canon  was  unformed  in  the 
Uartyr's  nund. 

Otbcra.~If  such  was  the  case  wiib  this 
learned  and  lealous  student  between  the  years 
140  and  166,  perhaps  about  147,  it  would  seem 
ahnost  needless  to  look  unto  lesser  li^ts 
whether  earlier  or  sli^tty  later.  However,  a 
momentary  glance  at  Athenagor^s  (176),  the 
letter  ascribed  to  Diognetus  (200),  Hegesippus 
(185?),  and  Dionysius  of  Corinth  (170)  dis- 
covers the  same  usage  and  state  of  mind  as  with 
the  Martyr.  The  latter  says,  'there  are  many 
false  teachers  among  us*  'forfdng  in  His  name* 
(Di.  62),  and  Dionysius  makes  similar  com-. 
plaint  (Eus.  Hist.  Eccles.,  xxiii.  12):  "My 
epistles  have  the  devil's  apostles  filled  with 
tares,  cutting  out  some  things  and  adding  others 
.  .  .  It  is  not  strange  then  that  some  nave  es- 
sayed to  adulterate  the  Lord's  writings  also* — 
a  practice  that  pervaded  all  literary  ranks. 

Apostolic  Patherg.— Ascending  the  stream 
we  find  Polycarp's  Eiistle  (150-166)  crowded 
with  sentences  and  phrases  now  incorporated  in 
the  New  Testament,  but  without  any  indica- 
tion of  their  source,  with  no  name  of  an  author, 
with  no  hint  of  inspired  or  canonic  character. 

Of  the  other  Apostolic  Fathers,  Clemens 
Romanus,  Ignatius,  Hermas,  Barnabas  and  the 
Teaching,  none  have  any_  idea  of  canon  or  au- 
thoritative scriptures  besides  the  Old  Testament, 
though  they  use  iiiany  New  Testament  phrases 
and  sentences  apparently  drawn  from  the  com- 
mon stock  of  religious  feeling  and  expression. 
In  Barnabas'  Epistle  (iv,  14)  we  read,  *Iest, 
as  it  is  written,  'Uany  called  but  few  chosen,' 
we  be  found*  The  five  words  agree  exactly 
with  Matt.  XX,  16,  but  they  are  there  also  a 
proverb,  whence  quoted  we  cannot  say.  It 
seems  certain  &at  Barnabas  (119?)  is  not  cit- 
ing Matthew  as  Scripture.  It  is  con 
enough  for  him  to  quote  from  Scriptut 
prophets  what  we  do  not  find  therein. 


ILB  ea/i 

CoUectiont.— But  while  the  notioa  of 
Canon  first  takes  form  in  Irenteus  and  Tertnl- 
lian,^  we  may  be  sure  there  had  been  much 
earlier  collections  of  Christian  writings.  Of 
one  such  we  hear  definitely,  that  of  Marcion, 
who  came  to  Rome  a  little  before  140,  having 
10  Pauline  Epistles  and  one  Pauline  Gospel, 
the  relation  of  which  to  our  present  ■Accord- 
ing to  Luke*  has  been  a  theme  of  elaborate 
discussion.  Tertullian  and  the  Catholics  held 
it  was  a  mutilation  of  their  Lucan  Gospel;  un- 
fortunately the  Marcionite  rejply  has  not  reached 
us.  With  respect  to  the  Epistles  the  case  is 
similar,  but  in  any  event  the  example  of 
Marcion  seems  to  have  been  widely  followed 
and  to  have  precipitated  a  battle  of  the  books, 
whose  echoes  resound  throng  the  pages  of 
Irenseus,  Tertullian  and  others.  The  Gnostics 
were  indeed  the  first  scientific  theologians  of 
the  new  faith,  copious  writers,  religious  philoso- 
phers, keen-witted  expositors,  if  too  often  law- 
less in  allegory.  They  were  the  teachers  of  the 
most  illustrious  Church  Fathers,  such  as 
Oemens  Alexandrinus  and  Qrigen;  with  the 
former, —  in  whom  'the  modem  theologiap  is 
disappointed  to  find  very  little  of  what  he  deems 
characteristically  Christian,'  ■Perfect  Gnostic* 
means  'perfect  Christian,*  and  Qrigen  was  a 
close  student  of  the  Gnostic  Herakleon's  Com- 
mentary on  a  John's  Gospel  (170?).  Basilides 
was  perhaps  the  deepest  tninker,  Valentinus  the 
most  constructive,  as  well  as  conservative,  of 
the  whole  school.  As  these  vigorous  exponents 
of  the  CnoHs  entered  the  fray  armed  with 
numerous  collections  of  writings,  among  them 
certain  forms  of  our  present  Synoptics  as  veil 
as  the  Fourth  Gospel,  it  became  necessary  for 
CathoKc  champions  to  meet  them  on  even  terms, 
with  cornitei-arr^ors  of  authoritative  writings, 
of  _proof- documents,  the  instrMmenia  of  Ter- 
tullian. From  this  desperate  and  long-foueht 
battle  the  Canon  of  the  NeV  Testament  has 
emerged,  in  proof  that  'Strife  is  Father  of 

Contenta.— To  tSscuss  the  questions.  What 
were  the  earliest  contents  of  these  documents? 
and.  How  were  the  Gnostic  and  the  Catholic 
forma  related  to  each  other?,  would  cany  ns 
much  too  far  afield,  into  the  region  of  Christian 
Ori^ns;  but  we  may  be  sure  that  the  extant 
forms  are  all  deveU^nnents  of  similar  though 
simpler  primitive  forms  that  grew  up  under 
enffless  revision  and  re-revision  throu^  suc- 
cessive generations,  each  new  growth  displacing 
the  preceding  like  leaves  of  the  forest,  so  that 
from  the  short  and  pithy  oracles  that  Polycarp 
and  Justin  love  to  cite,  we  pass  over  by  a 
devious  path  into  the  continuous  discourse  of 
the  (}ospel  of  John:— though  one  must  not 
think  all  the  earlier  forms  were  short ;  some 
long  ones  have  doubtless  been  shortened  and 
fitted  with  finer  point  and  bri^ter  polish.* 

Authorship  and  Date.— It  is  not  strange 
then  that  the  query  as  to  the  date  and  author- 
ship of  many  New  Testament  Scriptures  should 
not  be  answerable  in  simple  or  positive  terms. 


ho  Goapcl-  Content  u 


dtBOibd  tliw  mHiderftii  prodoctiofii  (jncluding  Acti)  m 
«U«goriM  of  tha  Oiatt  nkting  to  tlw  God  Jmaa  «nd  tb* 
prinjw*  at  h»  cult.  ProttiM  Smith  hu  only  boat  ahl* 
to  nve  qicdnaw  of  the  nna*  of  tb*  (imfaaiiHn.  bu  thM* 
(pedneiu  an  tkocongMy  adaquMe." 


DijilizcdtyGoOgle 


for  they  have  not  dates  and  authors  in  the 
ordinary  sense  of  theie  words,  having  boen 
molded  gradually  under  many  hands  into  their 
present  forms.  If  date  and  author  of  a  certain 
vwse  were  proved  ever  so  clearly,  it  would  de- 
cide nothing  as  to  the  versei  before  or  after. 
DurinK  those  early  centuries  the  Spirit,  whether 
Catholic  or  Gnostic,  was  weaving  and  unweav- 
ing ceaselessly  at  the  loom  of  speech,  and  the 
New  Testament  is  the  perfected  garment,  the 
fruit  of  its  toil.* 

The  Non-Canonici.— Bat  it  must  not  be  for 
a  moment  supposed  that  the  finally  rejected 
writings  (however  inferior  to  the  Canonics)  tn 
any  of  their  forms  or  stages  are  worthless  or 
to  be  despised.  On  the  contrary,  their  virtue 
is  often  exceeding  great,  the  light  they  shed  on 
the  whole  genetic  process  most  welcome  and 
even  invaluable.  They  are  like  intermediate 
and  collateral  forms  in  fossils,  without  which 
die  familiar  types  could  not  be  understood. 
Again,  it  is  absurd  to  suppose  that  the  Gnostic 
variants  were  in  general  mere  corruptions  of 
an  elder  uncorruptcd  text  They  were  rather 
the  honest  expressions  of  another  and  often  of 
an  earlier  consciousness.  A  single  example  of 
extreme  importance  may  make  this  clear.  In 
Matt,  xi,  27  (Luke  x,  22)  arc  the  weighty  words : 
•no  one  knoweth  the  Son,  save  the  Father; 
neither  knoweth  any  the  Father,  sSve  the  Son, 
and  he  to  whomsoever  the  Son  willeth  to  re- 
veal.' So  it  stands  in  Matthew,  Luke  and 
Mart  says  Irenxus  (IV,  11),  but  he  charges 
that  they  who  wish  to  be  experter  than  Apostles 
write  it  thus;  'No  one  knew  the  Father  save 
the  Son,  nor  the  Son  save  the  Father,  atKl  he  to 
whomsoever  the  Son  willeth  to  reveal*;  and  at 
first  the  charge  sounds  plausible,  since  the 
former  seems  more  natural.  But  Irenseus  him- 
self in  Book  I,  13,  gives  the  Gnostic  form  with- 
out protest  and  argues  therefrom;  and  again 
in  Bodt  11,  4  he  quotes  the  < 


Gnostic  "No  one  knew  the  Father,'  uncomplain 
ing.  Thus  it  appears  that  in  Books  1  and  11 
he  makes  no  objection  to  the  Gnostic  form  but 
sanctions  it  by  his  own  use,  seeming  to  know 
no  other;  which  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that 
when  he  requotej  the  passage  in  Book  IV,  xi,  5 

■  How  much  wni  a  could  b*  known  of  Coipgl  mutbonii 
ihown  by  the  foUoirinf:  EukUub  (H.  E,,  iii,  39)  uyi  that 
Pipiu.  biifaop  □(  Hiierapdti*,  nid  (in  nil  Gti  boolo  ol 
'BipDiitioa  of  Dommlcui  Onclea').  "Thu  *lw  tbe  Elder 
uid;  Mmrk,  biLviuf  beoomo  Peta't  interpnteri  vrotv 
carefully  whatever  he  ronemtiand.  tho  not  indeed  in  order, 
rhcthcr  nid  or  done  by  tbe  Cbiiit."  Asmm, 
iccordin^r  oompilad  tha  ondM  in  the  H^nw 
each  interpcetM  them  u  be  wu  able."  Now 
^horouf  h  muter  of  tradition,  in  bia  great  History 
I  the  bert  he  csuld  learn,  eepecially  on  nich  a 


X  Goapdaa 


altered;  for  the  In 
of  PapiM 
Elder,  ahr 


I,  then.  muM 

apiai  could  oncwtb. 

'g^iT  Ene.Bib.,L.    ..    _... 

lastly,  the  coat  would  hardly  be 

.nat  ifuBebiua  could  give  only  the  wont 

report  on]y  the  word  cf  an  nnloiown 

re  wai  no  real  Imowladits  on  the  aobiect, 

nb^uTC  the  BMer  could  main.     With 

Gospel*,  the  indicatit 

It  q  no  reproach  to  tbeae  ' 

Odyaaey.  tha 


vtiaverit),  instead  of  the  orthodox  "shall  haw 
willed  to  reveaf  (voJuerii. .  .revelare).  Hence 
the  vehement  cburchmau  and  here  ^-hunter 
Harver  admits  ia  a  note  (II,  162)  :  'It  is  re- 
nnrkable  that  this  text,  hamng  been  quoted  cor- 
rectly at  ]}age  158,  the  tnnilator  now  not  only 
uses  the  stn^  verb  revtlavtrit,  but  uyi  pMnt- 
ed)r  that  it  was  so  written  by  the  vcncnble 
author.  It  13  probaUe  therefore  that  the 
previous  passage  has  been  made  to  harmoniie 
with  the  received  text  by  a  later  hand." 

The  Gtioatic  Form  Orders— When  now 
we  recall  that  in  a  Syriac  Fragment  (XVI) 
Irenxus  himself  a^in  quotes  the  verse  and 
a^n  in  the  Gnostic  order  of  words  with  the 
'single  verb,*  declaring  'Our  Lord  said :  None 
knows  the  Father  save  the  Son  nor  the  Son  save 
the  Father  and  to  whomsoever  the  Son  shall 
have  revealed* ;  moreover  tint  Justin  quotes 
the  passage  first  (Ap.  I,  63)  exactly  in  the 
Gnostic  form,  and  afterward  (DL  100)  agfain  ia 
the  same  form,  with  only  knew  changed  !□ 
knovit,  and  that  Eusebius  ('Hist  Ecdes.'  1,2) 
again  confirms  the  Gnostic  order  of  word!, 
as  well  as  still  ofher  Fathers,  it  seems  that  Har- 
vey's 'probable*  must  be  changed  to  certain, 
that  the  Gnostic  was  the  older  form,  which 
Irenseus  along  with  Justin  accepted  at  first,  but 
whidi  afterward  it  was  foimd  wise  to  ■har- 
moniie* with  Church  doctrine  by  changing  it 
into  the  'received  text.*  That  this  elder  form 
agreed  with  the  Gnostic  In  giving  knem  and  not 
knovjs  is  now  cleariy  shown  independently  by 
both  Hamack  ('Sprfiche  u.  Reden  Jesu,'  pp. 
189ff.,  1«P>  and  E.  Norden  ('Agnostos 
Theos,»  pp.  OTff.  1913).  An  «elder  form*  not 
a  better,  and  hw  no  means  the  ddest.  which  was 
doubtless  mucn  simpler.  Wellhausen  has  tier- 
ceived  that  the  clause  *no  one  knows  the  Son 
save  only  the  Father*  is  "a  very  oH  Interpola- 
tion. It  is  a  corollary,  must  therefore  not  stand 
in  the  first  place  and  can  nevertheless  not  be 
put  in  the  second*  (D.  Ev.  Mt.,  p.  58).  The 
whole  passage  (Matt,  xi,  25-30,  Luke  x,  21  f), 
among  the  most  famous  and  important  ever 
written,  reaches  far  bade  of  our  Gospels  or 
even  our  era;*  in  'Ecce  Dens'  (p.  118)  it  is 
called  'the  great  Gnostic  Hymn,*  and  a^n 
(p.  166),  'these  rhythmical  and  almost  metrical 
verses*  are  'the  voice  of  Wisdom,"  and  two 
years  later,  in  1913,  Norden  proved  as  mtich  by 
a  profound  analysis  ('Agnostos  Theos,'  277- 
308),  and  this  conception  is  now  adopted  t>J 
Bacon  in  'Christianity  Old  and  New'  (1914): 
'there  is  placed  in  the  mouth  of  Jesus  a  ty]nca) 
Hymn  of  Wisdom*  (p.  164). 

Later  Qrowth.—  When  now  we  glance  once 
more  from  this  specular  mount  of  history, 
the  junction  of  the  2d  and  3d  centuries, 
down  the  stream  of  years,  we  behold  the  notion 
of  the  Canon  indeeo  firmly  fixed,  but  the  bor- 
ders still  vaguely  defined,  uncertain,  unsteadv. 
Of  the  Fathers,^  Cyprian  followed  Tertullian  a* 
his  'master* ;  Origen  ^as  we  have  seen^  indeed 
attempted   sdentinc  criticism  but  without   adc- 


Google 


^uate  prtnciplea  to  ginde  him;  Church  tradi-- 
bon  was  empirical  and  often  inconsistent,  in- 

Siration  was  not  detenninable.  Slowly  during 
e  3d  century  the  mantle  of  the  Canon  was 
widened.  At  length,  in  363,  the  Council  of 
Laodicca  by  its  59tb  canon  enacted  that  *only 
the  Canonics  of  the  New  and  Old  Testament* 
be  read  in  the  Church,  but  «not  private  psalms 
nor  uncanonized  books* ;  the  60th  canoiL  which 
follows  with  a  list,  has  been  shown  by  Credner 
to  be  not  genuine  but  of  much  later  date  (G. 
d.  nt.  K,,  217ff),  The  Ajoslolii:  Conttilutions 
(via,  47,  85)  gives  the  Old  Testament  list  o( 
'books  to  be  esteemed  venerable  and  holy'  by 
■all  you  bodi  clergy  and  laity*  (adding,  'Sec 
that  your  youn^  men  learn  the  Wisdom  of  the 
most  learned  Sirach*),^Dd  names  as 'our  sacred 
books*  'of  the  New  Covenant*  'the  four  Gos- 
pels, fourteen  Epistles  of  Paul,  two  of  Peter, 
three  of  John,  one  of  James,  one  of  Jude,  two 
of  Gement,  and  the  Coastitutions  dedicated  to 
you,  the  Bishogs,  by  me,  Clement,  in  eight 
Books,  which  it  is  not  fit  to  publish  before  all, 
because  of  the  mysteries  contained  in  them, — 
and  the  Acts  of  us,  the  Apostles,*  omitting 
Revelation.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  (348)  in  his 
list  of  divine  Scriptures  includes  'Baruch  and 
the  Epistle*  with  Jeremiah  and  also  omits 
Revelation.  At  last  the  archbishc^  of  Alex- 
andria, Athanasius,  in  his  39th  Festal  Epistle 
i367),  determines  as  'caoonieed  and  handed 
own  and  believed  to  be  divine*  22  Old  Testa- 
ment books  (exclndyig  Esther)  and  our  pres- 
ent New  Testament  exactly;  but  he  still  quotes 
Apocrypha  as  'Scripture*  and  allows  them  to 
be  'read,*  The  great  authority  of  Atbanasiuj 
finally  prevailed,  though  various  fluctuations 
lingered  long  in  the  ju^ment  of  the  Fathers. 

East  and  W«st^  In  the  West  the  councils 
swayed  by  Augustine,  thougli  somewhat  more 
liberal  toward  the  Old  Testament,  yet  fixed 
the  New  Testament  as  at  present  llcantime 
the  Syrian  Church  inclined  to  a  narrower  con- 
ception of  the '  Canon.  The  Conmion  (Pe- 
shitta)  version,  omitting  the  Apoc^ha  at 
first,  admitted  them  later,  but  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament it  lacked  fonr  Catholic  Epistles  and  the 
Apocalypse,  all  of  which,  however,  were  used 
by  Ephrcm.  Like  Origen,  the  Syrians  (about 
500)  divided  the  Scriptures  into  authoritative, 
semi- authoritative  and  tmautfaoritativ&  In  the 
mid-class,  beside  Job,  Chronicles,  Ezra,  Ndie- 
miah.  Esther,  Judith,  1  and  2  Maccabees,  were 
fotmd  James,  2  Peter,  Jude,  2  and  3  John,— 
and  Revelation  was  much  debated.  Armenian 
and  Ai^ssinian  canons  show  many  minor  ec- 
centricities of  no  great  interest  or  importance. 
Still  Latet'— During  the  Middle  Ages  the 
Bastem  canon  alternately  expanded  and  con- 
tracted from  time  to  time  under  various  hands, 
but  these  variations  about  balanced  each  other. 
Meanwhile  in  the  West  the  pendulum  trembled 
between  the  stricter  view  of  Jerome  and  the 
laxer  of  Augustine,  till  the  day  of  Luther, 
when  the  Catholic  sided  definitely  with  the  lat- 
ter and  the  Protestant  with  the  former.  In 
dealing  with  the  New  Testament  also  Luther 
sho*ved_  a  similar  spirit,  reviving  the  Eusebian 
distinction  between  AcceUrd  and  Contmdicttd, 
and  ranging  among  the  latter  the  Apocalypse, 
Hebrews  and  the  Epistles  of  Jude  and  James, 
which  last  he  called  a  'straw-epistle,"  an  un- 
critical judgment  determined  by  his  dogma  of 


■Jusfifica'ion  hy  Faith  atone,*  against  which 
James  had  protested,  and  which,  as  it  existed 
in  the  early  Christian  consciousness,  the  RC' 
former  had  wholly  misunderstood.  But  his 
work  was  invahiable  in  partially  freeing  the 
Christian  mind  in  the  presence  of  the  CSnon. 
His  notion  of  degrees  of  inspiration,  authority, 
dignity  among  (he  Scriptures*  has  been  fol- 
lowed up  by  many  theologians  and  has  even 
found  its  way  into  various  creeds  and  confes- 
sions; but  it  makes  a  vain  distinction  leading 
nowhere  and  logically  worthless.  Better  rea- 
soned were  the  decrees  of  the  Florentine, 
Tridcntine  and  Vatican  Councils  (1441,  1546. 
1870)  and  of  the  Jerusalem  Synod  under  Dosi- 
theus  (1672),  which  threw  the  robe  of  the 
Canon  over  all  the  Deutero-canonics.  Of  ab- 
solute authority  there  are  no  degrees. 

Tctst  Critidnn. 


...  deeper  questio: 

remarkable  literature  thus  cai 
or,  What'  is  the  text  of  the  canonical  scrip- 
It  was  the  learned  Jerome,  a  critic  bom 
out  of  due  time,  who  first  consciously  con- 
fronted this  quer%  when  he  came  to  translate 
the  Hebrew  into  Latin.  His  notion,  that  only 
the  ori^nal  script  itself  is  inspired  and  au- 
thoritative, has  maintained  itself  to  this  day, 
when  it  is  still  widely  prevalent,  though  crit- 
icism long  since  perceived  it  to  be  wholly  il- 
lusory. More  sanely  the  Council  of  Trent 
(1346)  declared  that  •canonicity  and  audiority 
reside  in  the  Vulgate  translation  used  in 
Church  Service.t  It  would  indeed  be  vain  and 
nugatory  for  authority  to  reside  wholly  in  the 
Hebrew  text,  which  extremely  few  could  read 
if  ascertained,  and  which  could  not  really  be 
ascertained  at  all.  Of  what  use  a  Supreme 
Court  inaccessible  to  appeals?  Nevertheless, 
though  the  Council  has  wisely  closed  the  ques- 
tion for  die  faithful,  it  still  rerfiains  open  for 
unfettered  critics;  What  is  the  Text  of  the 
Scriptures?  What  in  their  own  tongue  do 
they  really  say? 

The  Old 


(lit  «dH  omitted  from  Inter  oda.)  apscaii  Tny 
'Pram  all  thii  ygu  can  lishtly  jndgc  between  Ul 
tM  book!,  ud  diltirtEiiUi  which  ve  the  tnt.  For  St. 
Jpbn's  0<i«[i«l.  *a<l  Bt.  Paol'i  Eiutlet,  eapecUlT  tbit  to  tfaa 
Rinuiu,andSt.  Peter's  Bnt  Bpiatle,  us  tbs  tms  itarTow  aod 
kernel  of  sll  ths  booln;  which  properly  also  mi^ht  be  the  fli«l, 
ud  each  ChrittUn  diould  Im  counwled  to  rMd  Ihem  jtnt 
■nd  most,  snd  msks  them  Bs  oommoD  by  daily  TCadinK  as 
his  daily  timd  .  .  .  brieay  St.  Jol|n's  Gospel  and  his  first 
Bpiatle.  St.  IVul'a  Epistle*,  espeoalur  those  to  the  Romans. 
Cslatiana.  Bphcaiuis.  and  St.  Peter's  first  Gpistle;  Oust  art 
UU  baoki  liat  ritaw  Iha  CkrlH  and  ItacX  att  thai  U  is  nad/iU 
sad  Uaaat  fct  IMa  to  Inntr,  fsm  tf  jn*  '""^  *"  ■"' '""'  "<■' 
olkir  bast,  at  any  oUitr  daOrlnt.  Tbcrelon  is  the  Bpislle 
of  St.  Jamu  really  a  straw^epistle  conipBred  mth  (hem,  for 
Gospel  in  rt.'  The  Bnrand  ot  this 
-  -  ically  what  m^ies  the  Istts 
Dd  enliahteninE  of  the  early 

!  Comp1itt«nsian    Pclyirlot  of 


—  _.    . — valnable 

Christian  do<:urDents. 

t  To  the  same  dTeet,   t 

CardinjJ  Ximenea  (which,  h         _  .... 

«BS_ published   iB_  600_c<i}iJiM,    ISn)    presented   the  Latin 


Itshed  «  600  ciniiea,  ISll)  presented  the  Latin 
by  Oreelc  sad  Hebrew,  syrnbohnnR  (it  waa  said) 
sn  Cborch  between  the  Orthodox  Gnek  and  tha 

-  '-'-"--'■     -'-"-HBeenthelwo  thieves,., 

^lOOglc 


SyiwcDKue,  lilce  the 


680  BIX 

cept  certain  small  portions  (Jer.  x,  11,  Ezra 
iv,  8— vi,  18;  vii,  12-26,  Dan.  ii.  46— vii, 
28)  written  in  Aramaic  or  Chaldean  as  some- 
times  called  since  Jerome  (because  used  by 
the  Chaldeans  in  the  speech  reported  in  Dan. 
ii,  4ff.).  Hebrew  was  the  language  of  Ca- 
naanites,  called  'lip  of  Canaan"  (Is.  xix,  18) 
but  also  Jewish  (in  Judca.  2  K.  xviii,  26, 
Neb.  xiii,  24),  from  the  5th  ccnlury  B.C.  on, 
gradually  displaced  as  the  vernacular  by  the 
kindred  Aramaic  (called  profane  in  contrast 
with  the  holy  but  obsolescent  Hebrew,  and 
displaced  in  turn  by  the  conQutring  Arabic, 
7th  century).  The  term  hebraisli  («in  He- 
brew*) occurs  first  in  Scripture  in  Ben  Si- 
rach's  Prolog  (117  B.C.),  long  after  the  eclipse 
of  Hebrew,  and  is  used  often  for  the  profane, 
sometimes  for  the  holy  tongue.  Both  belong 
to  the  grand  group  of  languages  (called  Se- 
mitic by  Eichhom),  between  whose  two  chief 
representatives,  Assyrian  north  and  Arabic 
south,  the  Hebrew  lies  in  the  middle,  some- 
what iis  Dutch  between  German  and  Old  Eng- 
lish. The  main  mark  of  these  toiu^ues  is  that 
the  stems  consist  nearly  always  of  three  con- 
sonants, whose  vocalizations  vary  from  shade 
to  shade  of  the  radical  idea.  Vowels  being 
unwritten,  the  text  was  purely  consonantal,  as 
if  one  should  write  r  g  d  and  pronounce  it 
raged,  rouged,  ragged,  ru^ed,  rigged,  rigid, 
according  to  sense,  or  f  r  m  and  pronounce  it 
farm,  frame,  firm,  form,  from,  forum,  or  even 
affirm —  a   fact  of   fundamental  importance. 

The  Hasoretic.^  The  earliest  text  of  at 
least  the  oldest  Old  Testament  Scriptures  was 
in  the  Canaanite  Script  (called  Ra'ats*  or 
Libona'ah  by  the  Rabbis),  of  which  six  lines 
dating  apparently  from  Hezekiah's  reign  (ca.  700 
11.C.),  discovered  (1880)  in  a  tunnel  of  the 
Siloam  pool,  resemble  that  .of  the  Moabite 
Stone,  uiough  slightly  more  cursive.  The 
oldest  known  specimen  of  what  developed 
into  the  present  Aramaic  script  {kethoh, 
called  by  the  Rabbis  mentbbS,  square,  or 
Asshuri,  Assyrianl  is  a  single  word  of  five 
letters,  discovered  at  Araq-al-amir  (former 
castle  of  Hyrcanus,  east  of  Jordan),  dating 
from  176  B.c  Somewhere  about  this  time  the 
portions  of  the  Old  Testament  then  existent 
were  copied  from  the  Canaanite- Moabite  form 
into  the  oldest  form  of  square  script.  It  was 
impossible  thar  minor  mistakes  of  copying 
should  not  creep  in,  and  as  many  copies  were 
doubtless  made,  a  somewhat  uncertain  form 
of  text  must  have  resulted.  Whence,  then, 
came  the  standard  consonantal  Hebrew  text? 
From  a  critical  comparison  of  various  copies? 
By  no  meatis  1  Some  one  copy  was  adopted, 
what  one  we  know  not,  for  reasons  also  un- 
known. This  text  thus  chosen  was  long  after- 
ward regarded  as  sacrosanct,  not  to  be  al- 
tered in  a  single  Jod  ("or  tittle'  keraia, 
■horn,"  is  apparently  interpolated,  ML  v.  18). 
As  the  ancient  holy  tongue  sank  lower  in  the 
consciousness  of  the  people,  the  guardians  of 
tradition  (Mas  so  rah)  devoted  themselves  to 
preserving  the  text  inviolable  not  only  in  let- 
ters but  also  in  pronunciation,  and  according- 
ly from  the  Sth  century  on  they  intervocalized 
the   text   with   a   system   of   vowel   signs    (dc- 

•I.  e.,  "  brolem,  nilio'cred,''  ■  n«nie  well.fittine  hot 
probably  mmipted  from  J«'<i(=  (pricked,  cluKled),  winiict 
the  trrm  tuiisnum  ussd  by  Epiphaoiiu  (MiSDC.  '  Pktr.  Gr.' 


rived  from  the  Syrian?), —  as  if  we  should 
write  pertn*n^t  or  prorajneiit  or  pt*"^inent 
—  at  the  same  lime  intcrpuuctuating  with  an 
elaborate  system  of  signs  as  guides  to  proper 
cantillalion.  Thus  (hey  superposed  a  vowel 
text  upon  the  adopted  consonants  and  there- 
with established  for  millenniums  an  interpre- 
tation thereof.  Moreover,  thw  not  only  vocal- 
iied.  but  also  verbalized,  for  uie  earliest  manu- 
scripts were  doubtless  written  continuously 
without  any  evident  division  into  words,  as  if 
tbus :  Yhvnthstsrcdmndknntm  (Yahv.ch,  thou 
hast  searched  me  and  know  me). — Three  sys- 
tems of  such  signs  are  now  known,  Babylonian, 
Palestinian,  Tibarian,  developed  between  500 
and  900  a.d.  But  much  earlier  a  number  of 
so-called  vowel  letters-  ^consonants  tending  to 

;uiesce  into  vowel^  as  m  English  draui,  dray, 
torn  drag;  plow,  Ihough.  etc.)  had  been  intro- 
duced as  guides  to  vocalization,  though  form- 
ing no  part  of  the  earlier  text,  so  that  wher- 
ever such  a  letter  is  present  the  question  may 
be  raised.  Is  it  original  or  a  Masoretic  in- 
sertion? The  oldest  dated  manuscript  of  this 
so-called  Masoretic  Text  (denoted  by  MT)  is 
the  Codex  Babytonicus  Petropolitanus  of  916 
A.D.,  but  a  very  few  others  may  be  a  century 
older.  In  any  case  it  would  seem  that  the 
Masorites  have  handed  down  with  remarkable 
accuracy  and  liddily  the  text  that  had  estab- 
lished Itself  with  the  sturdy  Rabbi  Aqiba  (d. 
132  A.D.).  Where  they  felt  called  on  to  sug- 
gest a  new  reading,  they  did  so  by  keeping  ibc 
old  consonants  (the  *k'thiv*  written)  and 
writing  with  them  the  vowels  of  the  suggested 
'consonants  written  in  the  margin  and  called 
Q'ri  (legend,  to  be  read).  Thw  also  made 
many  olncr  minor  emendations  of  little  inter- 
est except  as  evidence  of  painstaking  study 
and  unspeakable  derrotion. 

Variants, —  But  before  Hadrian's  time  or 
the  death  of  Aqiba,  there  was  no  small  diver- 
sity in  the  nnmerous  copies  of  the  sacred  con- 
sonantal undivided  text,  a  fact  attested  in 
many  ways.  What  copy  Aqiba  chose  and  why 
he  chose  it,  no  one  knows ;  perlu4>s  it  was 
merely  the  best  written  diat  was  accessible. 
We  may  be  sure  there  was  no  critical  adjust- 
ment of  contesting  claims,  for  tbe  means 
thereto  were  wantuig.  Accordingly,  to  rely 
on  the  ^ninted  pointed  text  is  to  rely  on  a 
Masoretic  interpretatiou  of  an  unknown  square 
Hebrew  copy  of  an  unknown  cursive  Canaan- 
ite text.  It  is  not  strange  that  Protestant 
scholarship,  represented  especially  by  the  Swiss 
lexicographers,  the  Buxtoris,*  long  held  to 
the  inspiration  and  divine  authority  of  At 
Masoretic  points  as  well  as  of  the  consonantal 
text;  for  tt  seemed  to  be  the  sheet  anchor  of 
the  whole  doctrine  of  verbal  inspiration,— a 
position  long  since  abandoned.  It  now  sceni<i 
to  be  no  radicalism  but  merely  common  sense 
when  Kiltel  in  the  Preface  to  his  'Biblia  He- 
braica'  raises  at  the  start  the  question  whether 
to  attempt  a  continuous  emended  text  (sndi 
as  may  have  existed  300  or  100  b.c)  or  to  use 


the  goal  of  further 


irtiDH 'Ligbt  ot  the  By«'  (1575)  r 


.Google 


_  -  Tht  memns  that  help  migbtily 
forwaid  are  the  exisliog  versions  in  othci 
tongues.  Made  at  various  periods  over  a  long 
stretch  of  time,  these  are  now  coneidetcd  in- 
valuable in  establishing  the  pre-Christian  He- 
brew text.  Oldest  and  most  authoritative  is 
the  so-called  Septuagint  (LXX),  so  oained 
from  the  stoiy  related  at  much  length  in  the 
romantic  'Letter  of  Aristeas,*  of  how  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus  (ai3-247  b.C),  at  the  suggestion  of 
his  librarian,  Demetrius  rhalereus,  wishing  to 
gather  all  literature  into  his  library  at  .Alex- 
andria, called  by  embassy  on  the  Jews  for 
iheir  sacred  books  in  a  Greek  translation,  and 
how  the  Hi^  Priest  Elcazcr  at  Jerusalem  re- 
'  pLed  by  sending  turn  72  experts,  six  from  each 
tribe  (as  requested),  who  were  then,  after 
prclimina:^  seven  days'  symposium,  dismissed 
each  to  his  own  but  oo  the  Island  of  Pharos, 
where  each  made  independently  his  transla- 
tion, and  finally  on.  comparison  it  was  found 
they  all  agreed  exactly,  whereupon,  by  unani- 
mous approval  of  Alexandrian  Jews,  the  trans- 
lation was  proclaimed  canonic,  henceforth  lo 
be  received  as  authoritative,  with  a  curse 
against  any  modification  (as  in  Rev.  xxiL 
iT  19). 

Ita  Origin  and  Chantcter.— Back  of  this 
extravagance  (describing  everything  as  in- 
describable), which  indeed  refers  to  the  Law 
only  and  is  marked  at  every  step  by  ample  arch- 
xoJogical  knowledge  and  a  plentiful  display  of 
lo^  color,  there  may  lie  some  semblance  of 
the  fact  that  there  was  a  felt  need  for  a  Greek 
translation  of  the  Scriptures,  felt  however 
among  the  Jews  themselves,  tnough  their  in- 
struction in  Holy  Writ  was  oral,  and  the  trans- 
lation may  have  begun  as  early  as  260  B.C.  and 
extended  slowly  from  book  to  book  through 
two  or  three  hundred  years.  The  presence  of. 
many  hands  is  indeed  not  doubted,  the  charac-' 
ter  of  the  version  varies  within  wide  limits  in 
different  sections:  Sometimes  it  is  almost 
word  for  word,  as  in  the  Soilg  of  Songs,  in 
Chronicles,  in  Ecclesiastes ;  again,  it  is  exceed- 
ing loose,  with  considerable  apparent  additions, 
as  in  Daniel  and  Job.  The  more  narrative  por-' 
tious,  especially  the  Pentateuch,  seem  to  be 
rendered  best,  while  the  chief  Prophet,  Isaiah, 
has  suffered  most.  The  change  to  style  be- 
comes most  notable  on  comparing  younger  with 
older  portions,  la  general  .there  is  fair  agree- 
ment with  the  MT,  which,  however,  does  not 
exclude  disagreement  at  countless  points  to 
defiiute  extent.    In  tlie  Pentateuch  the  confor 


and  frequent,  both  in  words  and  arrangement, 
an  indication  of  late  composition,  the  text  hav- 
ing not  then  attained  a  fixed  form  (p.  614)). 
Stitl  more  marked  the  divergencies  in  Samuel, 


that   ant 

than  the  Uasorelic,  underlay  the  Septuagint, 
which  indicates  that  in  the  border  centuries 
(150  B.C  to  ISO  A.IX)  the  Holy  Writ  was  stiH 
alive  and  undergoing  develoiMnenL  Occasion- 
ally the  translatora  ventured  to  go  beyond  the 
(present)  Hebrew  text;  thus  fliey  added  con- 


LE  081 

lidersble  to  Darnel,  from  what  Hebrew  orig- 
inal, if  aqy,  cannot  be  said. 

lU  Text.— The  Septuagint  is  probably  tbe 
first  translation  of  large  Kope  that  was  ever 
undertaken,  and  its  importance,  notable  then, 
has  even  to  the  present  remained  scarcely  di- 
minished. It  gave  a  distinct  stamp  to  all  Bibli- 
cal Greek,  supplies  even  now  the  clew  not  only 
to  the  New  Testament  but  to  all  Greek  litera- 
ture kindred  and  derived,  and  is  the  most  trust- 
worthy collateral  witness  to  the  contents  of 
Hebrew  Scriptures  in  the  two  centuries  inune- 
diately  before  our  era.  Accordingly,  it  be- 
comes a  matter  of  signal  interest  to  determine 
just  what  this  translation  was  in  its  original 
form, —  but  at  the  same  time  a  matter  of  per- 
plexing difiiculty.  The  manusuipt  and  lesti- 
m<Miies  do  indeed  vastly  abound, —  as  seen  in 
the  fact  that  the  critical  apparatus  (of  20 
uncials  and  277  cursives)  amassed  by  Holmes 
and  Parsons  fills  five  huge  volumes  (1798- 
1827^, —  but  their  witness  is  inordinately  con- 
tradictory and  uncertain.     Indeed  the  problem 


proper  of  the  Septuagint,  so  brilliantly  attacked 
W  Lagarde  in  his  'Remarks  on  '  "  • 
Translation  of  Proverbs'    (.1863),  r 


;    Greek 


'   Lagarde   in    his    'Remarks    i 
nslation  of  Proverbs'    (.1863',. 
of   the  most  embarrassing  in   textual  crit- 
icism.   The  reason  for  this  should  be  briefly 
Stated. 

Other  VeraioDB. —  Under  tbe  Roman  irri- 
tatioB  and  especially  after  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  by  Titus  (70  aj>.),  as  the  national 
Jewish  feeling  became  extremely  intense,  the 
cleft  opened  between  the  Jewish  consdousneis 
and  the  Christian  widened,  through  two  gat- 
erations,  into  a  chasm  in  the  time  of  Hadriaa. 
The  Jewish  race,  recoiling  from  its  pagan  en- 
vironiaent,  fenced  itself  more  and  more  firmly 
within  its  own  inatitotions,  especially  its  re- 
ligious and  sacred  books,  becoming  a  stricter 
and  stricter  constructionist  The  hi^eat  imper- 
lonation  of  this  tendency  was  the  illustnous 
Rabbi  Aqiha.     Inasmuch  as  the  Christians  de- 

Ended  almost  wholly  on  the  Septuagint,  the 
ter  became  unpopular  with  the  Jews,  not 
solely  because  of  its  inaccuracies  and  diver- 
gencies from  the  synagogal  text.  Hence  arose 
a  demand  for  a  new  and  faithful  rendering  of 
the  latter,  since  the  dispersed  Jews  could  not 
now  dispense  with  a  Greek  translation.  This 
demand  was  met  ([about  1327)  in  the  spirit  of 
Aqiba  b^  the  version  of  Akyla  (Aquila),  slav 
ishly  faithful,  turning  tbe  Hebrew  word  for 
word.  Meantime  it  was  widely  perceived  that 
the  official  Palestinian  text  could  not  be  that 
tised  by  the  Seventy,  and  accordinfrfy  still  other 
translations  of  the  former  were  now  tmdei^ 
taken,  as  by  Symmacbus  and  Theodntion  into 
Grcdc,  and  also  into  Syriac  (Peshitta).  The 
version  of  Symmacbus  is  hi^ly  praised  by  the 
Fathers  for  its  elegance  and  clari^, —  in  con- 
trast with  Akyla's,  often  obscurer  than  tlkc 
original ;  Theodotion's  is  thought  to  display  a 
rather  inferior  sdiolarship. 

The  HexHpla. —  Here,  then,  were  four  ver- 
sions, and  more  than  one  edition  of  some,  often 
widely  divergent.  Such  apologists  as  Justin, 
assuming  that  the  Septuagint  was  perfectly 
made  from  a  perfect  text,  charged  the  Jews 
with  corrupting  their  own  Scriptures ;  others 
assumed  (with  many  generations  of  modems) 
that  tbe  Palestinian  was  the  true  aboriginal  and 
hence  discredited  the  Septuagint  and  outer  Ver- 


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sUina,  and  Origen  even  proposed  to  himself  die 
superhuman  tksk  of  making  a  collation,  at  (irst 
in  four,  then  in  six  (or  even  in  nine)  parallel 
columns,  of  the  Hebrew  (in  Hebrew  and  also 
ill  Greek  characters),  of  Aquila's,  of  Sytn- 
machus,'  of  the  LXX,  and  also  of  Theodotion's 
translation,  a  formidable  array  of  deadly  par- 
allels, called  the  Sextuple  {Hfxapla).  The 
Septuagint  he  then,  corrected'  as  seemed  best, 
prefixing  an  asterisk  f*)  to  each  insertion  and 
an  obelos  <t)  to  eacn  deletion,  and  suffixing 
a  metobelos  (  +  )  to  each  of  both, —  a  scheme 
that  could  be  carried  out  only  very  imperfectly. 

Chaosr—  The  example  and  authority  of 
Origen  stimulated  to  endless  attempts  at  im- 
proving the  Septuagint,  all  of  which  ended  in 
making  confusion  worse  confounded.  Half  a 
century  after  his  death  (254)  three  main  types 
of  text  appeared  and  established  themselves  on 
dte  eastern  coaat  of  the  Mediterranean :  as 
named  in  order  by  Jerome  (Preface  to  Chron.), 
that  of  Hesycbius  in  E^pt,  of  Luciin  in  Asia 
Minor  from  Constantinople  to  Antioch.  of 
£usebiiis  and  Pamphilus  in  Palestine,  this  lat- 
ter being  really  Ongen's  fifth  column;  and  the 
most,  but  not  all,  of  the  manuscripts  still  fall 
under  these  three  types. 

TarfumB. —  Still  another,  thouf^  far  in- 
ferior, index  to  the  old  Hebrew  text,  is  found 
in  the  Targums,  or  Aramaic  taraphrases  of  the 
Old  Testament  Scriptures.  TTie  two  most  im- 
portant are  those  of  Onkelos*  and  (Pseudo-) 
JonaAan,  the  latter  called  Palestinian.  But 
the  former  is  by -far  the  more  valuable,  be- 
cause of  its  fidelity  to  the  Hebrew,  whereas 
pseudo-Jonatbant  has  adorned  his  scroll  with 
all  maimer  of  more  or  less  vivid  pictorial  ad- 
ditions and  elucidations.  Thus  he  assures  as, 
■die  Lord  made  the  firmament,  poising  it  with 
his  three  fingers  *  and  to  the  serpent  is  said, 
'thy  dcin  thou  shall  cast  off  once  every  seven 
years* ;  in  this  way  the  text  is  expaiided  by 
nearly  one-half,  a  fact  that  is  interesting  as 
showing  a  manner  of  literary  growth.  The 
Targums  attest  the  Hebrew  text  as  it  was  ex- 
pounded to  the  people  of  the  1st  coitury  of 
OUT  eis,  and  in  parts  perhaps  two  centuries 

Sammritan.. —  Still  further,  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch,  i.b,  the  Hebrew  text  in  Sanwritan 
characters,  as  current  among  Samaritans,  it  an 
important  witness  to  the  text  of  the  Law.  First 
brought  from  Damascus  to  Europe  in  1616  by 
Pietro  ddla  Valle,  it  has  long  been  a  bone  of 
bitter  but  indecisive  contention.  At  many  pinnts 
diven!ing  from  the  MT,  it  agrees  with  the 
Septuagint  at  rnany,  but  critics  still  debate 
whether  it  represents  a  truly  different  tradition 
or  only  a  faulty  retranslation  from  the  (rrcek. 
Its  witness  is  by  no  means  yet  proved  neg- 
ligible, but  rather  ^ins  steadily  in  considera- 
tion. 


mUui 


Vcrttthtlmi.  Tlia  Tustun  at  the 
1  tapil  o'  Hillol)  i»  of  the  pnpbeti 
ora  tha  MT  and  the  inta-preUtion 


tnw  Joovtb  _ 

only  ind  dcpartE  videly  uu,,,  i.n,  ^n  wtu  ■.<— 

olthc  scnbo. 

t  It  )■  rrckoned  (by  rntriit)  thftt  of  278  gootAtio 
tha  Old  Tntwntnt  io  the  New  ratBnwnt.  10  wne 
MTonly.37wilhl.XXonly.  5,1  with  bolti.  IJi  UTthne 
5  hive  no  nrilcliillt  in  mir  Old  Tettuneat;  vhRi» 
Toy.  uidotheri  infer  that  tbe  New 
B«  tiam  th(  tJibrsir  tut  but  tlmi-i 


Progreaa. —  Armed  with  all  these  and  many 
other  helps,*  and  embarrassed  by  so  maiiy  men- 
tioned and  unmentioned  difRculties,  the  textual 
critic  strives  with  the  question.  What  was  the 
earliest  written  farm  of  the  Hebrew  Bible? 
He  is  very  far  yet  from  being  able  to  give  an 
entirely  satisfactory  answer;  at  the  same  time 
it  cannot  be  denied  that  he  has  made  mem- 
orable advances  along  a  path  where  be  will 
hardly  have  need  to  retrace  his  steps.  Knot 
after  knot  has  been  untangled,  obscurihr  after 
obscurity  cleared  up,  and  a  broad  light  diffused 
over  the  sacred  page.  True,  the  solution  of  one 
problem  is  often  found  to  open  up  a  still  pro- 
fotmdcr  problem,  and  doubtless  many  surprises 
are  yet  in  store  for  the  student;  but  enoti^ 
has  been  securely  fixed  to  make  the  need  for 
a  new  version  of  the  Old  Testament  as  impera- 
tive now  as  it  was  before  the  revision  of  188S. 
To  convince  oneself,  it  should  be  enough  to 
compare  the  successive  editions  of  tlie  noble 
work  of  Kaotzscb  and  his  co-workers^  'Die 
Heilize  Schrift  des  Alten  Testaments,*  first 
issued  in  1890,  then  in  1894,  of  which  — so 
rapid  was  the  encroachment  of  new  knowledge 

diis  ancient  demesne  — it  was  found  neces- 


Cot\iccture. —  At  the  very  best,  however, 
when  all  the  doctmientary  aids  have  been  ex- 
ploited to  the  utmost,  there  will  still  be  a  con- 
siderable residuum  of  dissatisfaction.  Often 
enou^  the  critic  must  feel  that  the  text  bef9re 
him,  in  none  of  its  attested  forms,  can  be  the 
original,  that  some  primitive  error  lies  still 
farther  bact  disturbing  or  hiding  the  sense 
first  intended.  His  pli^t  is  that  of  the  phy- 
sician  who  divines  some  deep  organic  malfor- 
mation or  perversion,  which  noOiing  but  tbe 
knife  can  relieve.  In  such  a  case  rae  textual 
critic  is  driven  in  last  resort  to  eonjectnT<A 
rmtndation,  ■not  only  a  right  but  a  duty  of  die 
exegete*  (Dilhpann,  'Bibeltext,'  in  P  R  E). 
His  own  spirit  thoroughly  saturated  with  lus 
author's  modes  of  thought  and  expression,  he 
must  divine  what  the  latter  would  have  said  in 
the  context,  under  the  ascertained  conditions 
of  language  and  feeling.  Of  course,  conjectures 
will  almost  surely  go  astray, —  there  is  only  one 
way  to  be  right,  many  ways  to  be  wrong.  How- 
ever, there  «nll  be  a  thousand  of  the  critic's 
peers,  all  eager  to  detect  and  expose  any  error 
he  may  commit.  Hence,  his  mistakes,  thoi^ 
many,  will  be  harmless,  while  his  guesses, 
thou^  few,  that  command  acceptance,  will  be 
so  many  points  of  vantage  gained  in  the  slow 
campaign  of  science.  Conjectural  emendatioa 
mnsf  then  be  reconciled  to  frequent  failure 
and  rare  success,  bat  the  latter  may  be  like 
the  lucky  number  in  a  lottery,  of  priceless 
value.  '  ■ 

Tezt-cmcndan.— Such  textual  reconstruc- 
tion has  been  plied  by  Bickell  and  Duhro  and 
others  under  guidance  of  metrical  considera- 
tions, and  by  the  pioneer  Cheynt  in  the  interest 
of  his  North- Araf^Bn  theoiv  (adopted  from 
Windtler),  as  the  majority  believe,  to  an  ex- 
cessive extent.  To  what  lengths  a  sober  editor 
may  find  himself  led  to  go  may  be  seen  in 
Karl  Budde's  booklet,  'Die  schchisten  Psahnen, 

lornct  til*  MI  rf 


IJigitizcdbyGoOgIc 


ubtrsetw  und  CTlaiitcrt,'  on  the  hasiB  of  a  re- 
vised text,  and  the  nature  and  extent  of  this 
revision  of  51  short  Psahns  Budde  has  set 
forth  in  the  Zeittchrif I  fir  die  Alltertammlliche 
(fwjcnjcAa/t  (pp.  17S-QS.  November  1915). 
Plainty  we  are  yet  very  far  from  having:  at- 
tained a  satEsfactory  (original)  text  of  th« 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  but  this  fact  weighs  com- 
paratively little  against  the  literary  worth,  Ac 
hbtoric  value  «nd  the  rdigious  significance 
of   these   writings. 

IlhiBtrattons. —  A  striking  example  of  the 
false  vocalization  of  the  consonantal  text  ii  the 
following ;  In  Jer.  xvii,  9,  occurs  Ac 
familiar  pronouncement,  *'Tht  heart  is  deceit- 
ful above  all  (things)  and  desperately  wicked; 
who  can  know  itf*  The  word  rendered  'des- 
perately wicke<P  is  in  consonants  '  ~  n  ~  sk, 
vocalized  by  the  Masorites,  'a-n-u-Tk;  bwt  the 
Septuagint  evidently  vocalixed  it  'e-n-o-sh 
(man)  and  accordingly  translated  thus:  'Deep 
is  the  heart  beyond  all  things,  and  is  inan,  ana 
who  shall  know  him?"  Strange  as  it  may 
sound,  it  was  accepted,  and  when  Ironxus  was 
challensred  by  tfie  Gnostks  to  prove  the  human- 
ity of  Jesus,  he  appealed  (IV,  55)  to  this  pas- 
sage: 'A(^u  there  sre  those  [prophets]  who 
say,  He  is  a  man,  and  who  sIkUI  loiow  him? 


>  est,  . 


m?l« 


i,  6,  we  read :  "Their  baker  slecpelh 
all  the  night;  in  the  morning  it  bumeth  as  a 
flaming  fiie."  Here  the  letters  ''p>h-iit  have 
been  pointed  to  read  'Ofhlhhn,  but  on  readiog 
'app'hem  (with  Targum  and  Syriac)  we  obtain 
the  couplet: 


The  chan|:e  of  'anger*  into  "baker'  (in 
Hebrew)  is  like  turning  "ripple"  into  'rifle*  in 
English:  Once  more,  the  consonant-group 
m-z-r-y-m,  as  vocalized  in  the  MT,  is  pro- 
nounced Misraim  and  translated  Egypt,  the 
apparent  dual  ending  being  referred  incorrectly 
to  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt.  In  Assyria  on  the 
monuments  it  appears  often,  in  various  forms, 
as  Mizir,  Mizri,  Muzil,  Muzur,  Muzuru,  with 
many  cognates,  and  means  apparently  border, 
frontier.  As  eariy  as  1834,  Dr.  C.  T.  Bcke 
deduced  from  Exodus  that  Mizraim  was  not 
always  Egypt,  but  like  so  many  Anglo-Saxon 
seeds  of  thought,  this  fell  among  thorns  and 
was  choked,  thouch  noted  by  Ewald.  In  1874, 
Schrader  renewed  the  observation,  but  not  till 
about  1890,  in  a  series  of  memoirs,  did  Winck- 
ler  make  clear  from  the  inscriptions  the  exist- 
ence of  both  a  North-Syrian  and  a  North- 
Arabian  Muzri,  which  required  the  frequent 
change  of  the  Masoretic  vocalisation  from 
Mizraim  to  Miirim,  and  draws  along  with  it 
a  scries  of  revisions  both  of  the  Hebrew  text 
and  of  our  whole  conception  of  Israel's  history. 
In  particular,  Winckler,  followed  by  Cheyne, 
would  find  in  this  confusion  of  the  two  Mnzris 
the  single  and  simple  origin  of  the  legend  of 
Israel's  sojourn  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile. 
Still  further,  to  understand  what  Cheyne*a  gen- 
eral text-revision  ('Critiea  ffihfica')  may  ac- 
complish, consider,  not  indeed  the  mere  jomble 
of  words  in  the  Anthorized  Version,  but  the 
much  improved  American  Standard  Version  of 
Is.  vi,  3.  'And  if  there  be  yet  a  tenth  in  it,  it 
also  shall  In  turn  be  eaten  up;  as  a  terebinth, 
and  as  an  oak,  whose  stock  remainetb  when 


they  are  felled;  bo  the  holy  seed  is  the  stock 
thereof.*  But  the  amended  text  yields  this 
quatrain : 

Ajid  aboald  thm*  yflt  be  a  rennunt  tberoD. 
It  ikall  ■■Bin  ba  ^atai  ved. 

For  containptMin  (lull  be  on  its  plkOta. 

A  few  among  countless  such  examples  may 
show  at  once  the  importance,  the  difficulty  and 
the  necessity  of  a  reconstruction  of  the  Hebrew 
text. 

The  New  Testament. 

How  stands  the  case  with  the  New  Testa- 
ment ?  One  might  suppose  its  problem  would 
be  less  complex,  less  oifhcuh  to  grapple  and 
master,  on  account  of  the  abundant  material 
of  evidence;  but  it  yields  no  wlut  (o  the  other. 
The  so-called  critical  amaratus  is  indeed  so 
enormous  in  extent  as  to.  be  hard  even  to  name 
for  ready  reference.  It  consists  wholly  of 
three  kinds  of  manuscripts:  (1)  The  Greek 
text  itself;  (Z)  translations  into  various  other 
languages;  (3)  quotations  in  a  multitude  of 
antnors.  Of  these  the  first  might  appear  to 
be  prepotent,  but  such  is  by  no  means  always 
the  case.  The  manuscripts,  very  numerous,  are 
rarely  of  the  vidiole  New  Testament  (only 
about  167),  more  often  of  only  some  sections 
thereof  most  frequently  of  the  Gospels  (1,277), 
then  of  Acts  and  PauKne  Epistles  (32),  then 
of  Acts  and  Catholic  EpislleJ  (25).  Many  are 
only  small  fragments,  scattered  through  the 
centuries  (as  well  as  the  libraries)  from  the 
4th  to  the  17tb,  and  a  few  pieces  of  papyrus, 
each  containing  but  a  few  verses  (over  40  in 
all),  may  date  from  the  3d  century.  '  In 
form  they  are  of  two  grand  types :  uncials,  up 
to  the  9th  century  and  minuscules  from  the 
10th  century  on.  In  general  the  material  is 
parchment  or  vellum  up  to  the  13th  century 
and  after  the  14th  paper.  Of  course  the  au- 
thority of  the  eldest  is  in  general  by  far  the 
weightiest  but  not  necessanly  decisive. 

Notation, —  The  system  of  naming  the 
manuscripts,  introduced  by  John  Jacob  Wet- 
stein  (169^1754),  designates  the  uncials  by 
ca;iital  letters  (Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew),  the 
minusciJes  by  Arabic  numerals ;  it  has  been 
most  fully  developed  by  F.  H.  A.  Scrivenef 
0813-91)  and  by  Tischendorfs  successor,  C.  R. 
Gregory  (1846-1917),  whose  notation  supplants 
Scrivener's.  But  as  new  discoveries  multiply 
the  manuscripts,  the  letters  become  insufEcient 
in  number  and  at  best  such  designations  are 
purely  formal  and  tell  nothing  at  all  about 
the  manuscripts  themseJves.  Hence  Hermann 
von  Soden  has  proposed  (1902)  a  wholly  new 
system  of  co-ordinates  sharply  defining  the 
manuscript  itself.  He  makes  three  grand  di- 
visions, according  to  die  contdnts  of  the  man- 
uscript, denoted  by  i  (for  dlatheke,  Testa- 
ment), '  (for  evangelton,  (gospel)  and  ■> 
(for  apostolos.  Acts  — Epistles),  the  presence 
or  absence  of  the  Apocalypse  not  affecting  the 
denotation.  The  second  co-ordinate  is  a  num- 
ber naming  the  centup-.  the  numbers  1  to  49 
being  assigned  to  the  nrst  nine  centuries,  those 
from  50  to  99  to  tiie  lOih,  the  hisber  numbers 
to  the  later  centuries,  the  third  digit  denoting, 
the  centuries  after  the  10th  (as  4  the  14th)  and 
so  on.  Owing  to  further  distinctions  in  cen- 
turies where  the  number  of  manuscripts  is  very 
laj^e,  especially  in  the  12th  and  13tli,  the  de- 
becomes     elaborate    and    somewfazt 


.Google 


cumbrouB,  but  U  tdb  tb«  utmost  possible  b>r 
a  few  signs  and  is  extensible  to  any  number 
of  manuscripts  likely  to  be  found.  However, 
for  the  most  important  and  familiar  codices, 
the  current  Wcl  stein-Gregory  notation  re- 
mains preEeraWe.  B  and  D  are  more  man- 
ageable  than   d   1    and  (J  5,   and  E  than  a  1001. 

Text.— Criticism  of  the  New  Testament 
text,  the  attempt  lo  restore  the  Supposed  orig- 
inal, after  valuable  preliminaries  by  Mill  (1707), 
in  Bentley's  'Proposals'  (1720), inBengei's 'In- 
troduction* (1734),  in  Wetstein's  huge  edition 
(1751-52),  a  priceless  repertory  or  classical 
and  other  citations,  and  by  J,  S.  Semler  (1725- 
91),  began  in  grave  earnest  with  the  labors 
of  Griesbach  (1745-1812),  which  came  to  light 
in  his  three-volumed  critical  edition  of  the 
New  Testament  (1774-75).  It  was  he  that 
first  divided  the  manuscripts  into  Con  Stan- 
tinopolitan  (Bengcl's  'Asiatic' ),  Western 
and  Alexandrian,  and  that  introduced  the 
principle  of  genealogy  in  wdghing  their  evi- 
dence. Naturally  Wescott  and  Hort  regard 
him  with  peculiar  reverence,  as  the  chief  of  their 
forerunners,  though  his  New  Testament  text 
was  inferior.  It  was  not  till  1831  that  a  truly 
critical  text  was  published  by  the  brilliant 
Lachmann  (1793-1851),  who  reverted  to  Bent- 
ley's  principle  of  the  agreement  of  Greek  and 
Latin  texts  as  a  test  of  antiiiuity  (in  a  read- 
ing). Since  then  such  attempts  to  restore  the 
presumed  primitive  have  multiplied.  Samuel 
Prideaux  Tregclles  (1813-75),  (he  distin- 
guished Quaker  scholar,  following  Lachmann's 
method,  but  with  added  material,  issued  his 
stately  edition  (1857-72),  and  the  unwearied 
real  of  Coostantin  von  Tischendorf  (I8IS- 
74)  gave  forth  as  8th  edition.  (1869-72)  two 
volumes  of  text  with  the  most  extensive  crit- 
ical commentary  up  to  that  time  known. 
Both  Tregclles  and  Tischendorf  smitten  by 
paralysis,  were  unable  to  publish  their  Pro- 
legomena, but  the  pious  task  was  accomplished 
for  the  latter  in  1894  by  his  sucoffisor,  C.  R. 
Gregory,  aided  by  Ezra  Abbot. 

•Neutrals."— However,  as  early  as  1853, 
B.  F.  Wescott  (182S-1901)  and  F.  ).  A.  Hort 
(1828-92),  discontented  wiih  the  state  of  the 
New  Testament  text,  began  the  life-labor  that 
culminated  (ISSl)  in  their  two-volume  work, 
■The  New  Testament  in  the  original  Greek,' 
a  signal  achievement  of  British  scholarship, 
making  a  distinct  advance  beyond  all  prede- 
cessors. They  exalt  the  genealogical  princi- 
ple of  Griesbach,  to  whose  three  grand  classes 
of  manuscripts,  called  by  them  Syrian,  West- 
cm,  Alexandrian,  they  add  an  important 
fourth,  the  'Neutrals,*  represented  especially 
by  the  Vatican  and  Sinaitic  Uncials,  B*  and   H 

*Of  4Ui  cenCun'.  namtiend  1209  Cr.  in  Vat.,  each  pMC  of 
Ane  mhiRiu  and  42  liniBakcli.  tha  wlialt  Bible  cioept  Par 
hnk,  Phikinan.  Rcvcktion,  Heb.  V^IJ*  (loM),  mitten  br 
thiM  KiilMB,  oDt  tha  mat  h  McitH  D  of  N  (Tiach.),  fint 
catalogued  ia  Vat.  in  lUl  (not  is  1475),  pbaXotyvoi  in 
lUV-W.  190S.— K'l  page  ia  thin,  of  foui  colomnl  48  linM 
each,  of  iuilck>pc  (or  aaa)  pelt,  each  of  tin>  leava  four  pages: 
in  all  3««i  leaTCi.  13)  by  14  inchea.  Old  Teatament  and 
Nnr  Tostamsnt  <1M  leavea)  with  Bp.  ol  BaraatiB«  and  part 
of  Shepherd  □(  Bennai,  oaUotrpad  (Orion]  1909), 
Tiacbendoif  botromd  thi>  tnanira  fian  the  mnmkM  at  Sinai. 
aa  the  ImsUtea  borrDwed  (loni  the  BgrpCiana:  "I  ranired 
a  loan,  ttie  Sbiaitic  Bible  to 


1  SbuH  PeteMburg  and  I 

u  tnaaJUet''     In  1*69  the  Tht  prtaented  tl 

■anatloBa  and  (1,600  in  cashi 


(the  latter,  discovered  in  Saint  Catherine's 
Uona»tery,  Mount  Sinai,  by  Tischendorf —43 
leaves  in  1843,  now  in  Leipdg,  and  the  rest 
in  1859,  now  b  Petrograd- was  published  in 
ISeZ  at  the  cost  of  Sie  Tsar).  The  manu- 
scripts of  the  three  grand  classes  they  re- 
garded as  having  undergone  manifold  corrup- 
tion, from  various  sources  according  to  vari- 
OU3  tendencies,  from  all  of  which  the  ■Neu- 
trals* (tbey  think)  have  remained  relatively 
free.  With  much  confidence,  they  made  a 
brave  'attempt  to  present  exactly  the  original 
words  of  tlie  New  Testamctu,'  holding  that 
■its  books  in  extant  documents  assuredly  speak 
to  us  in  every  important  respect  in  language 
identical  with  that  in  which  they  spoke  to 
those  for  whom  tiiey  were  originally  written.* 
Brrors,— That'  this  confidence  was  ill- 
grounded  may  appear  from  three  among  many 
facU :  They  rejected  the  Pauline  Codex  F  as 
an  tndei>endent  witness,  declaring  it  was  al 
least  in  its  Greek  text  a  copy  of  G  (as  also 
did  Zimmer,  in  1887,  for  much  better  reasons) ; 
but  this  judgment  (in  which  they  were  fol- 
lowed by  English  and  even  "by  Continental 
critics  generally)  was  entirely  wrong,  as  Greg- 
ory explicitly  declares:  ■Smith  aus  New  Or- 
leans weist  nach,  dass  P  nicht  aus  G  sein  kann, 
sondern  dass  P  und  G  aus  einer  anderen  kann, 
belstnnten  Handschrift  abgeschrieben  wurden' 
lAm.  Jour.  Theology,  Bd.  7.  1903,  S.  452-85. 
662-88,  *Text  Krifik  d.  Neuen  Testaments,'  iii, 
1041).  Again,  they  raise  no  doubt  about  the 
text  of  Rom.  i,  7,  regarding  the  agreement  of 
all  the  chief  manuscripts,  versions  and  cita- 
tions as  decisive;  but  both  Hamack  and  Zahn 
row  admit  the  writer's  earlier  proof  (1901)  that 
the  word  'Rome*  is  interpolated  in  the  elder 
text;  «To  all  those  that  are  in  love  of  Goi.' 
Neither  had  they  any  doubt  about  the  text  of 
Matt,  xi,  27,  yet  both  Hamack  and  Norden 
recognise  that  the  elder  text  was  cpegnv 


then,  that  the  text  problem  is  far  profounder 
than  even  Westcott  and  Hort  conceived 

Recenuona.— More  recently  (1902-13)  a 
much  more  ambitious  attempt  at  text-restora- 
tion has  been  carried  out  by  H.  von  Soden, 
with  collaborators,  in  the  four-volumed  'Die 
Schriften  des  Neuen  Testaments  in  ihrer  altestcn 
eireichbaren  Textgestalt,'  with  the  employmeui 
of  165  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament  as  a 
whole,  1,240  of  the  (Gospels  only.  244  of  the 
Apostolos  only,  besides  250  Commentaries  with 
texts,  170  on  the  (^spel^  40  on  the  Apostolos, 
40  on  the  Apocalypse.  The  standpoint  of  von 
Soden  in  this  colossal  work  is  worth  notice; 
in  Ucge  measure  it  is  that  of  Hug  (1765-1846), 
die  acute,   ifj  eccentric,   Swiss   C^jholic,  devel- 


have  been  so  careful  to  repudiate 
as  'fanciful.*  Footing  on  two  statements  of 
Jerome,  one  already  noted,  the  other  in  his 
■Preface  to  the  Gospels* :  'I  disregard  those 
Codices  fathered  by  Lucian  and  Hesychius, 
which  the  perverse  contentiousness  of  a  few 
Upholds,*  Hug  assumed  a  disorderly  popular 
Western  text  (koint  ekdasis,  vulgate  edition), 
prevailing  till  the  last  half  of  the  3d  century. 


3glc 


text  crhidsm)  in  Attxandria,  by  Lucian,  the 
martyr  of  Antioch  (312),  and  by  Origen  in 
Qesarea.  Similarly  von  Soden  a^imiea  that 
about  tbe  year  300  the  increasing  confusion  of 
text-tradition  'urged  to  the  revision  and  au- 
thoritative edition  of  the  text"  at  "three  great 
Etnscopal  Sees,*  Alexandria,  Qesarea,  An- 
tioch, and  accordingly  he  classifies  his  wit- 
nesses under  the  three  text-forms,  H,  I,  K 
(for  koinl).  Of  these  H  (Hesychian),  prev- 
alent only  in  Egypt,  is  represented  tqr  the  au- 
gust 'Neutrals'  B  or  ■*  1  and  »  or  iJ2;  also 
by  the  Codex  Ephraem  (C  or  3),  in  Paris, 
a  palimpsest  deciphered  by  Tischenoorf  (1842), 
by  >*  48.  and  (for  Luke  aud  John)  by  the  re- 
cent find  tQH  (in  Detroit)  ;  it  is  likewise  at- 
tested by  about  40  papyrus  fragments  of  the  4th, 
5th  and  6th  centuries  by  Egyptian  translations 
and  by  quotations  of  Egyptian  Fathers,  as 
Athanasius,  Cyril  of  .  Aluandria.  Didyrous. 
Such  are  the  decisive  authorities  for  a  critic 
like  HorL  such  "The  weight  dark  Egypt  on  his 
spirit  laid.* 

I  and  K.~Next  to  H  sAands  1,  the  text  of 
Pamphilus  (presbyter  at  Cfesarta,  pupil  of 
Pierius,—  Origen's  pupil,—  teacher  of  Euse- 
btus,  scribe  of  Origen's  works,  a  mar^  in 
301?),— a  text  not  nearly  so  distinctly  attested 
as  H,  but  largely  present  in  the  quotations  of 
Origen.  MiKh  further  off  by  itself,  stands 
the  K-text  — of  Lucian,  whose  "authority  in 
wide  circles,*  sikys  Hamack,  'about  the  year 
3O0  displaced  even  that  of  Origen,*— issued 
from  Antioch,  a  primitive  focus  of  Christian- 
ity, and  departing  both  widely  and  oft  from 
H  as  well  as  I.  The  main  wdl-spricg  of  these 
deviations  (in  the  Ciospels)  von  Soaen  would 
find  in  the  Diateisaron  of  Tatian ;  for  Acts  he 
refers  them  directly  to  Latin  and  Syriae  trans- 
lations, indirectly  to  a  second  edition  of  that 
work,  which  won  great  acceptance.  For  tile 
Apostolos,  Marcion  s  edition  is  suggested  as 
the  culprit.  In  general  the  attitude  of  Lucian 
seems  to  von  Soddn  to  have  been  freer  tiian 
that  of  Origen,  to  which,  indeed,  it  was  con- 
sciously opposed. 

The  Three. —  No  manuscript  has  reached 
us  antedating  these  recensions,  some  one  of 
which  is  attested  by  every  Codex.  Throughout 
Christendom  the  three  competed,  H  least  of  all, 
but  I  and  K  sharply  for  centuries,  with  mutual 
concessions  that  fell  mainly  to  the  good  of  K. 
Not  one  of  the  36 1-witnesses  to  the  Gospels,  nor 
of  the  14  (o  the  Apostolos,  approaches  in  single- 
ness and  purity  of^its  text- attestation  the  oldest 
of  the  H-uncials,  but  at  best  only  those  of 
second  rank,  like  C  ( ''3)  or  ^48.  A  chief  Ms.  for 
the  Gospels  is  the  famous  Codex  of  Beza  (D  or 
a  5)  in  Cambridgejor  Acts  E  (orolOOl),  and 
for  Mark  e014.  These  manuscripts  of  the  I- 
type,  b«^inning  perhaps  in  the  4th,  multiplied 
in  the  5lh  and  following  centuries,  but  more 
and  more  the  K- readings  intruded  till  they 
finally  triumphed.  In  the  Apostolos  two  main 
types  may  be  distinguished.  Both  show  close 
contact  with  Syrian  vernons,  involving  ma- 
terial text^^ariants,  which  von  Soden  would 
explain  (as  in  case  of  Acts)  ty  supposing, 
anaJogousiy,  very  early  Eastern  etutlons  of  the 
Epistles  in  which  "the  text  was  treated  very 
freely*  (mit  sehr  freier  Textbehandlung). 
After  the  10th  century  the  mixed  texts  (of  I 
and  K)  vanish,  and  K  b  left  sole-reigning  in 
the  manuscripts. 


For  the  Gospels  the  oldest  K-text  is  that  of 
Matthew  in  (014  of  the  5tfa  or  6th  century,  next 
is  '051  (in  Tiflis)  of  the  7th  or  8th.  But  the 
oldest  indirect  witness  to  this  text  is  the  Com- 
mon ii^shUta)  Syriac  translation  made  by 
Rabbula  (?),  bishop  of  Edessa  411-435,  and 
representing  the  Greek  text  at  Antioch. 

Not  Final.— This  scheme  of  von  Soden's 
is  noteworthy  in  dismissing  the  'neutral  text* 
and  recognizing  that  the  venerable  twain,  B  and 
K,  are  revisions  like  all  the  rest,  as  indeed  is 
clearly  shown  by  Adelbert  Merx  in  the  test- 
case  of  the  two  sons  (Matt  xxi,  28-31).  But 
it  is  far  from  true  that  the  text-problem  has 
been  solved;  von  Soden's  own  conception  of 
the  earlier  history  of  the  text  seems  naive,  ro- 
mantic and  apologetic  to  a  degree,  and  he  is 
indeed  contradicted  by  himself  in  immediately 
sequent  sentences,  thus:  *As  against  the  Gnos- 
tic redactions  as  well  as  Marcion's  version  of 
Paul's  Epistles,  the  situation  demanded  that 
they  lay  emphasis  now  on  the  authentic  verbal 
form  of  those  Scriptures.  Nevertheless,  ihey 
were  still  so  free  in  attitude  toward  this  ver- 
bal form  that  Tatian  between  160  and  ITO 
could  offer  in  his  Diatessaron  a  compound  of 
the  four  Gospels  in  one  and  obtain  success  for 
it  in  the  wid^t  circles.'  Plainly,  then,  the  'de- 
mand,* however  just  it  may  seem  to  von  Soden, 
did  not  seem  so  to  the  Christians,  neither  was 
it  by  any  means  met  Moreover,  it  is  to  be  noted 
that  von  Soden's  explanation  of  the  creeping- 
in  of  Tatian-variants  and  others  is  at  most  onl^ 
probable,  in  no  case  certain.  Even  when  it 
seems  quite  satisfactory  it  is  not  therefore 
necessary  or  proved:  such  indeed  may  (not 
must)  have  been  the  case.  Now,  when  there 
are  so  many  distinct  and  often  independent 
cases,  even  though  the  probability  in  any  one 
be  very  hidi,  this  does  not  make  the  probability 
hi^  for  the  whole  body  of  cases;  it  may  still 
be  very  low,  even  though  one  may  be  unable 
to  suggest  any  other  solution  nearly  so  likely 
in  any  individual  case.  We  must  beware,  then, 
of  ascribing  great  likelihood  to  such  collective 
explanations  as  von  Soden's.  Often  the  results 
may  have  come  about  in  totally  different  ways. 

OriginalB.—  In  title  the  German's  work  is 
surely  modest  enough:  'The  Scriptures  of  the 
New  Testament  in  their  oldest  attainable  text- 
form,"  which  is  tw  no  means  necessarily  the 
original  form.  Indeed,  not  only  does  any  such 
original  form  seem  almost  if  not  quite  as  unat- 
tainable as  in  case  of  the  Old  Testament,  but 
we  may  seriously  question  whether  indeed  there 
was  ever  any  such,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
iJirase.  By  original  form  of  a  modern  work, 
as  it  first  leaves  the  press,  of  an  ancient  on^  as 
it  was  first  written  or  dictated  by  the  auuor 
himself,  we  indicate  a  more  or  less  complete 
and  rounded  unit,  subject  only  to  minor  moiti- 
fications.  In  case  of  far-reaching  changes,  by 
addition,  subtraction  or  otherwise,  we  should 
say.  "This  is  practically  a  new  work,*  and  we 
should  discriminate,  as  between  the  A  and  B 
editions  of  Kant's  'Critique  of  Pure  Reason.' 
Moreover,  we  associate  such  an  original  with  a 
certain  author, —  or  if  with  collaborators,  as- 
siniing,  generally  with  fair  exactness,  responsi- 
tnlity  to  eadi.  However,  on  coming  to  the 
New  Testament,  in  particular  the  central  mass, 
the  Gospels,  we  find  all  such  conditions  re- 
versed.    Not  to  speak  of  leaving  the  jtress. 


.Coogle 


there  is  no  notion  of  first  wnting  or  liictstion 
of  the  Gospels  as  a  rounded  whole  complete  but 
(or  minor  corrections.  To  be  sui»e,  some  per- 
son or  persons  must  have  presided  at  each 
trans formatioh  of  transformations,  but  they 
who  shaped  it,  as  it  now  is,  most  likely  supplied 
but  httle  material.  It  is  indeed  an  accepted 
principle  of  Gospel  study  that  the  Synoptics,  at 
least  in  their  present  form,  arc  the  result  of 
century'! ong  processes  of  continaal  growth, 
directed  by  continual  pruning,  of  weaving, 


Matlhew  and  Luke,  the  so-called  pre-mstories, 
form  no  part  of  the  originals,  but  are  the  prefix 
of  a  later  hand.  As  we  penetrate  deeper  and 
deeper  into  the  intimate  structure  of  tne  Gos- 
pel, the  seeming  unity  resolves  into  multiplicity, 
the  same  chapter,  paragraph,  vene  even  show- 
ing layers  of  different  ages  and  authors,  of 
varying  and  even  inconsistent  tendencies.  In- 
evitably the  critic  becomes  anatomist  and  is 
forced  to  distinguish  the  components  by  finer 
and  finer  division.  It  is  not  any  single  output 
of  any  single  mind  nor  of  any  co-operative 
group  of  minds  that  lies  before  him,  but  the 
gradual  unfolding  of  a  common  consciousness, 
the  stratified  deposit  of  more  than  100  (or  even 
200)  years  of  the  intensest  religious  lile.  The 
history  of  a  Gospel  is  not  unlike  that  of  a  say- 
ing or  "winged  word,"  On  tracing  it  down  we 
may  find  it  now  has  many  forms,  perhaps  in 
many  tongues,  that  it  goes  back  for  genera- 
tions pcrclnance,  and  may  be  lost  in  the  mists 
of  antiquity. 

Illustration .— As  a  special  case,  lake  the 
most  famous  of  Logia,  the  one  already  men- 
tioned (Matt,  xi,  25-^),  and  hear  the  latest 
enlightened  and  enlightening  judgment,  that  of 
Ed.  Nordeo  Ceiaborating  earlier  suggestions) 
in  Agnostos  Thcos  (1913,  pp,  307-08).  'The 
author  of  the  source  Q  (the  Orades,  commonly 
regarded  as  an  oldest  layer  of  Gospel  tradition! 
was  acquainted  with  a  myslic-theosophic  tract, 
which  already  had  a  long  past  behind  it  and 
which  in  any  case  had  taken  a  fixed  literary 
form  in  oriental  languages  (Greek  included, 
which,  howeverj  is  secondary).  Not  a  few  re- 
ligious commimities  had  made  it  their  own;  not 
only  through  Hteralure  but  also  by  oral  propa- 
ganda it  had  been  spread  abroad;  meantime  the 
ground-form  had  in  each  case  been  adapted 
to  the  special  interests  involved.  Hence  it  fol- 
lowed of  itself  that  it  drew  Christianity  into 
its  circles,  as  the  Utter  was  just  entering  into 
the  rivalry  of  religions.  The  author  of  Q  has 
accoritingly  taken  out  of  it,  over  into  his  own 
book  of  doctrine  and  edificatron  for  the  Chris- 
tian community,  motifs,  preserving  the  cTact 
connection  of  thottght  and  words,  a  path  along 
which  the  author  of  the  Fourth  Gospel  has 
advanced  consistently  further.  But  to  the  old 
wine  they  have  given  an  especial  spice.  The 
Cnosit,  to  propagating  which  —  according  to 
the  conception  of  the  next  following  genera- 
tions—Ihc  Christian  Sotrr  [Saviour]  was  de- 
voted, was  of  a  kind  wholly  different  from  that 
in  whose  service  both  before  and  after  him,  the 
Sofers  of  the  other  cult-communities  had  been 
engaged.  In  their  theosophic  systems  the  wis- 
dom of  this  world  was  by  no  means  banned ; 
without  knowledge  no  one  could  follow  their 
complicated  trains  of   thought.     On  the  con- 


trary, the  struggle  of  the  .former  agwntt  the 
learnioK  of  the  scribes  was  still  fresh  in  mem- 
ory when  the  first  sketches  were  begucL  By 
combining  individual  traits  drawn  from  the 
life-struggle  of  Jeios  against  the  conceit  of 
wisdom,  with  the  traditional  motif  of  the  Jew- 
iah-Gnostic  propaganda,  the  author  of  this 
LogioH,  like  the  author  of  the  Fourth  Gospel, 
gave  the  Logion  a  polemical  point  directed 
against  such  'Gnostic*  treatises.  The  Christiaii 
Soler,  from  whom  the  "babes'  ouglit  to  leara 
that  he  is  meek  and  lowly  of  heart,  directs  Ms 
appeal  to  the  weary  and  heavy-ladm,  to  whom 
out  of  love  and  compassion  he  will  give  peace 
for  the  soul.  Here  a  new  sun  flashes  throu^ 
the  cold  darkness  of  the  pretentious  M^es, 
theurges  and  'proiJiets.'  In  the  strict  sense  of 
the  word,  not  even  this  new  element  was  an 
autophonia  [actual  utterance  of  Jesusi  :  it  is 
far  too  deeply  interwoven  with  motifs,  bor- 
rowed from  literary  tradition,  for  that.  But 
that  the  Ideal  is  true  in  the  higher  sense,  and 
as  such  is  also  imperishable,  we  know  from 
Plato.* 

A  Gnostic  Hynm.— This  literal  transla- 
tion makes  no  pretense  to,  lighten  the  laborii^ 
speech  of  the  illustrious  linguist,  nor  does  his 
view  seem  correct  at  one  vital  point ;  he 
throws  out  sops  to  Cerberus,  nor  hints  that 
the  "babes,*  as  elsewhere  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, are  Gentile  converts  to  monotheism; 
but  his  genera]  conception  of  the  oracle  as 
primarily  a  theosophic  meditation  of  pre- 
christian  Gnostics,  transformed  in  passing 
from  community  to  community  and  laid  at 
last  in  noble  music  on  the  lips  of  Jesus,  is  cer- 
tainly correct  and  in  full  accord  with  the  two- 
years  earlier  statements  of  Ecce  Deus  already 
cited.  Now  we  may  indeed  inquire  with  von 
Soden  after  the  "oldest  attainable  text-form' 
of  these  verses,  but  that  will  certainly  not  be 
"the  original  text,'  a  notion  that  vanishes 
along  with  that  of  the  original  author. 

VcTHr—This  glimpse  at  the  studio  of  an 
Evangelist  reveals  also  the  in9mentous  fact 
that  these  *Orac!es'  were  not  prose  as  every- 
where read,  but  were  verse,  even  as  Norden 
prints  this  one,  three  stanzas  of  four  lines 
each.  If  the  numerous  poems  in  the  New 
Testament  were  all  properly  printed  in  verse, 
it  would  contribute  more  to  the  popular  un- 
derstanding -  of  these  writings  than  tnaoy 
commcDtanes.  A  good  beginning  has  been 
made  by  Professor  Briggs  in  his  'Wisdom  of 
Jesus'  and  some  strikiiw  examples  are  given 
m  his  'Study  of  Holy  Scripture';  as  also  by 
Dr.  MoSatt  in  his  'New  Translation*    (1913). 

Latest  Phase. —  Furthermore,  with  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  mirage  of  •neutrality*  in 
certain  manuscripts,  the  centre  of  gravity  of 
text-authority  seems  to  have  suffered  displace- 
ment; it  lies  no  lon^r  in  the  testimony  of  the 
codices,  but  rather  tn  the  earliest  translations 
and  in  the  quotations  by  the  Fathers.  Oi 
these  there  seem  to  be  three  ^es:  Old  Syriac. 
Old  Latin,  Clenwntine.  Tatian's  Diatcssanin, 
Justin's  quotations  and  odicrs  may  attest  the 
Greek  text  in  Rome  in  the  fir^  half  of  the  2d 
century.  For  Buchanan's  views  see  BtBUCAL 
A8CH«)U)cv  — New  Testament. 

Bibliography.— The  Kterature  of  the  Bible 
is  immeasurable;  2,000  quarto  volumes  issned 
in  Paris,  in  the  second  third  of  the  last  cen- 


tury,  from  the  press  of  Migne  atone ;  fortu- 
nately^  it  is  also  in  great  part  dispensable ; 
it  pensbes  by  supersession,  what  is  valuable 
in  the  work  or  possession  of  one  century  being 
constantly  absorbed,  assimilated  and  repro- 
duced in  the  next.  A  few  of  the  most  noted 
books  have  already  been  named  or  even  ap- 
praised in  the  foregoing  text;  a  few  others 
may  now  be  added. 

The  writings  of  the  Fathers  are  preserved 
in  476  quarto  volumes  in  Migne's  Patrologics 
and  in  the  later  more  critical  collections  not 
yet  complete.  From  time  to  time  copious  selec- 
tions have  been  made  under  such  names  as 
'Catena'  {e.g.,  Cramer's,  1S41),  'Spicilegium' 
(J.  A.  Grabius,  1700)  and  the  like.  Sudi  a 
huge  anthology  is  found  in  the  32-vo!umed 
BibIe>work  oT  Lemasiire,  hereafter  mentioned 
under  versions.  Like  ihe  works  of  AtJgustine, 
those  of  his  great  continuator,  in  the  Reforma- 
tion, Jeban  Calvin,  especially  the  masteriy  'In- 
stitutes of  the  Christian  Rehgion'  (Latin,  1536; 
greatly  enlarged  in  French,  1540),  stand  con- 
spicuous for  all  time.  Less  rigorous  but  very 
influential  the  'Lod  communes>  (1S21)  of 
Melanchthon,  scribe  of  the  Reformation.  Oo 
the  Catholic  side,  surpassing  even  Bellarmine's, 
the  works  of  Bossuet  (1627-1704),  as  the  'Dis- 
cours  sur  t'histoire  umverselle,*  and  especially 
the  'Histoire  des  variations,  etc.*  (1638),  out- 
shine all  others.  'The  Great  Commentary'  of 
the  Fleraid)  Jesuit,  Cornelius  it  Lapide  (van 
den  Steen,  1567-1637),  excels  in  extent  (omit- 
ting only  Psalms  iad  Job)  and  thoroughness 
(reveling  in  the  *fourfold  sense*),  and  has 
been  repeatedly  edited  and  translated.  Nathaniel 
Lardner's  'The  Credibility  of  the  Gospel  His- 
tory, etc,'  (1727,  1733-5S),  a  pioiieer  work  of 
exhaustive  patience  and  painstaking,  was  the 
chef  d'eevvre  of  its  day.  J.  I.  Wetstcin's 
'Novum  Testamentum  Grsecum'  (1751-52)  de- 
serves renewed  mention  as  a  storehouse  of 
classical  parallels.  Joseph  Butler's  famous 
'Analogy'  ( 1736)  displayed  extraordinary 
power  of  sustained  thought,  but  the  arch  of 
argument  from  premises  to  conclusion  was.  too 
long  ajid  fine  spun.  William  Paley's  more 
common-sense  'Natural  Theology,  or  Evi- 
dences, etc'  (1802),  as  well  as  his  earlier 
'Horae  Paulinie,'  appealed  powerfully  to  the 
Anglo-Saxo'n  mind,  but  proved  unequal  to  the 
increasing  demands  of  thought  and  knowledge. 
About  the  same  time  (1818)  T.  H.  Home 
occupied  the  field  with  nis  long  popular,  but 
now  superseded,  'Introduction  to  the  Critical 
Study^  etc'  Later  works  are  generally  less 
ambitious  and  comprehensive,  content  to  oc- 
cupy some  limited  sector  in  the  lon^  line  al 
discussion,  tind  in  the  main  escape  brief  char- 


Canon:  Buhl,  F  'Canon  and  Text  of 
the  Old  Testament'  (Eng.  trans.,  Edin- 
burch  1892);  Ryle,  H.  E,  'The  Canon  of  the 
OM  Testament'  (London  1892;  New  York 
1909);  Wildehoer,  'The  Origin  of  the  Canon 
of  the  Old  Testament'  (Eng.  trans.,  London 
1895);  Comhill,  C.  H.,  'Introduction  to  the 
Canonical  Books  of  the  Old  Testament'  (Eng. 
trans.,  London  1909)  ;  Jugic,  'Histoire  du  canon 
de     I'ancien    Testameni   dans    I'Eglise   erccque' 


'Knleitung  in  das  Neue  Testament'  (1897-99; 
1906);  Hamack,  A.,  'Lehrbuch  der  Dogmen- 
geschichte'  (1886-90;  Eng.  trans.)  ;  also  <CJc- 
schichte  der  allchristlichen  Lileratur'  (1893- 
1904),  and  many  others;  Westcoit,  B.  F.,  'His- 
tory of  the  New  Testament  Canon*  (1899), 
ana  others;  Leipoldt,  W.  J.,  'Geschichte  des 
neutestamentlichen  Kanons'    (1907-08). 

Text;  Field,  F  'Origcnis  Hexaplorum 
quae  supersunt'  (1867-75);  'Sacred  Books  of 
the  Old  Testament'  (Polychrome  Bible,  Heb. 
1893ff;  Eng.  1897fr)  ;  Cheyne,  T.  K.,^  'Critica 
Biblica'  (1904);  Ginsburg,  C.  D.,  ' 'Introduc- 
tion to  the  Mas  so  reti  CO' Critical  Edition  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible'  (1897)  ;  Buhl,  F.,  'iCanon  und 
Text'  (see  above)  ;  Scrivener,  F.  H.  A.,  'A 
Plain  Introdnction  to  the  Criticism  of  the  New 
Testament'  (1862;  re-edited  by  Ed.  Miller 
1894) ;  Gregory,  C.  R.,  "Prolegomena*  to 
Tischendorf's  'Nov,  Test.  Or.,  Ed.  VIII  Critica 
Maior'  (1894).  also  'Die  Textkritik  des 
neuen  Testaments'  (19(M);  Soden,H.von,  'Die 
Schriften  des  neuen  Testajnenis'  (1902-)  ;  Ken- 
yon,  F,  G.,  'Handbook  to  the  Textual  Criticisrn 
of  the  New  Testament'  (Ixindon  1901;  New 
York  1912);  Burkitt,  F.  C.  'Evangclion  Da- 
Mepharrcshe'   (1904). 

iNTERpaETATiON :  Meyer,  H.  A.  W.,  <Krit- 
isch-Exegetischer  Kommentar  zum  Neuen  Tes- 
tament' (since  1832  and  continually  re-cdited, 
Eng.  trans.)  ;  Keil  und  Delitisch,  'Biblischer 
Kommentar  ueber  das  Alte  Testament'  (since 
1833)  ;  Lange,  'Theologisch-homiletiscbes  Bi- 
bel-wcrk'  (l857ff;  translated  and  enlarged  by 
Ph.  Schaff)  :  Nowack,  W.,  'Handkommentar 
lum  Allen  Testament'  (1892-)  ;  Holtimann, 
H.  J.,  'Handkommentar  zum  Neuen  Testa- 
ment' (1892-)  ;  Briggs,  Driver  and  Plummer, 
'International  Critical  Commentary'  (189S-) ; 
Zahn,  Th.,  'Kommentar  zum  neuen  Testament' 
(1903-):  Godet,  F,  L.,  (1812-1900),  On  Gos- 
pels, Romans  Corinthians  (1863-;  Eng. 
trans.),  also  'Introduction  au  Noilveau  Testa- 
ment' (1893-;  Eng.  trans.);  Holslen,  C,  'Das 
Evangelium  des  Pautus'  (1880);  Volkmar,  G., 
'Marcus'  (1876).  From  1872  for  some  years 
the  anonymous  'Supernatural  Religion'  (of  W. 
R.  (^ssels),  repeatedly  printed,  held  the  front 
of  controversy  m  England;  in  a  series  of  essays 
by  the  learned  Bishop  J.  B.  Lightfoot  (1827- 
89),  whose  'Commentaries'  and  'Apo.-itolic 
Fathers'  formed  the  apex  of  British  biblical 
scholarship,  it  was  powerfully  attacked  and 
some  of  its  salients  were  carried.  Among 
liberal  critics,  P.  W,  Schmiedel  of  Ziirich  is 
unsurpassed  in  learning  and  acumen,  as  witness 
his  copious  contributions  to  the  'Encyclopaedia 
Biblica' ;  B.  Dubm,  in  his  comprehension  of 
Prophetism ;  and  Paul  Haupt,  in  immense  and 
multifarious  scholarship;  the  highest  achieve- 
ment in  French  criticism  is  A.  F.  Loisy's  'Les 
Evangiles  synoptiques'   (1908). 

Archeology:  Bennett.  C.  W.,  'Christian 
Archaology'  (1889),  first  American  work  on 
the  subject);  de  Visser.  Th..  'Hebrecuwsche 
ArehBfologie'  (1894);  Budge.  E.  A.  W..  'The 
Book  of  the  Dead'  (1901)  ;  Hommci,  Fr,  'Die 
alttesiamentliche  Ucherlieferung'  (1903;  Eng. 
trans.)  ;  Hilprecht,  H.  W.,  'Recent  Researches 
in  Bible  Lands'  (1903),  and  'Explorations  in 
Bible  Lands  during  the  19th  Century'  (1904)  ; 
Jeremias,  A..  'Das  Alte  Testament  im  Lichtc 
des  alten  Orients'  (1906);  Sayce,  A.  H..  <Tfie 
Higher  Criticism  and  the  Vertfict  of  the  Monu- 


Cioogle 


638  BIB 

mcnts*  (1894),  'Early  History  of  the  Hebrews'' 
(1897),  'The  Ardueology  o£  Cuneiform 
Inscriptions'  (1907);  Gressmann,  H.,  <Alto- 
rientalische  TtxU  und  Bitder  zum  Allen 
Testament*  (1909).  'Mose  und  seine  Zeit> 
Jastrow,  M.,  Jr^  'Die  Religion  Babyloniens  und 
Assyriens'  (1910);  Kited,  B.,  'Die  Aus- 
grabungen  und  das  Alte  Testament'  (19)0); 
Petrie,  W.  M.  F,  'Egypt  and  Israel'  (1910), 
and  many 'Others;  Breasted,  J.  H.,  'Ancient 
Records  of  Egypt'  (1905),  and  other  works; 
Rogers.  R.  W.,  'Cuneiform  Parallels  to  the  Old 
Testament'  (1912)  ;  Barton,  G.  A,  'Archteol- 
ogy  and  the  Bible'  (1916);  Cobem,  C.  M., 
'Recent  Explorations  in  Palestine'  (191S). 
'The  New  Archaeological  Discoveries'  (1917); 
Deissmann,G.  A..'Bibe!-Studien'  (1895;  1897); 
'Licht  vora  Osten'  (1898;  Eng.  trans.); 
'Paulus>  (1910);  Monlgomery,  J.  A.,  'The 
Samaritans'  (1907);  Goodspeed,  E.  J.,  'His- 
tory of  the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians'   (1917). 

Vebsions:  Schaff,  Ph..  'A  Companion  to 
the  Greek  Testament  and  the  English  Version' 
(New  York  1889)  ;  Westcotc,  B.  F.,  'A  Gen- 
eral View  of  the  History  of  the  English  Bible' 
(1869;  3d  ed..  1905);  'History  o£  the  New 
Testament  Canon'  (1855);  Loisy,  A.,  'His- 
toire  du  texte  et  des  versions  de  la  Bible' 
(1895) ;  Kcnyon,  F.  G.,  'Our  Bible  and  the 
Ancient  Manuscripts,  being  a  History  of  the 
Text  and  its  TransUtion'  (1896)  ;  Swete,  H. 
Bt  'An  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament  in 
Greek'  (1900)  and  article^  *  Bible  Translation,* 
in  the  Schaff-Herzog  'Encydoprdia'  (New 
York  1908-11)  ;  Lortsck  'Histoire  dc  U  Bible 
en  France'  (1910);  MargoHs,  M.  L..  'The 
Story  of  Bible  Translations'   (1917). 

Among  more  general  works  should  be 
named  Lightfoot,  J.^  'Hone  Hebraicc  et 
Talmudiae'  (1684);  Rawlinson,  H.  C,  'The 
Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of  Western  Asia' 
(1861-84)  i  Schiirer.  E.,  'Geschichte  des 
judischen  Volkes.  etc.',  (1890);  Eng.  trans.): 
Slade,  B..  'Geschichte  des  Volkes  Israel' 
(18B1-6S)  ;  Masliero,  G.,  'Histoire  ancienne 
des  peuples  de  COrient'  (1895-)  ;  Meyer,  £., 
'Die  Entstehung  des  Judenthums'  (1396); 
Weizsackcr,  K.,  'Das  apostolische  Zettalter. 
etc'  (1886);  Ritschl,  A.,  'Die  EntstehuM  der 
altkalholischen  Kirche'  (1850),  'Die  CSrist- 
lichc  Lehre  von  der  Rechtfertigungund  Ver- 
sohnung'  (1870-74);  LipsiutR-  A.,  'Acta 
Apostolorum  Apocrypha'  ( 1891 ) ,  and  'Die 
apocryphen  Apostelgeschichien  und  Apostel- 
Icgenden'  (1883-90).  On  the  Mythical  Theory 
of  Christian  Origins,  connected  but  not  to  be 
confounded  with  the  views  set  forth  in  'Ecce 
Dcus*  (1911)  and  'Der  vorchristliche  Jesus' 
(1906),  consult  Robertson,  J.  M.,  'The  His- 
torical Jesus'  (1916),  'The  Jesus  Problem' 
(1917),  and  earlier  works;  Drews.  A.,  'IHe 
Christusmythe'  (1909),  'Die  Zeugnisse,  etc' 
(1911),  both  also  in  English;  tottlra.  Case. 
S.  J..  'The  Historicity  of  Jesus'  (1912)  ;  Cony- 
beare.  F.  C-.  'The  Historical  Christ'  (1914); 
Thorhum,  T.  I..  'The  Mythical  Interpretation 
of  the  Gospels' ;  also  elaborate  reviews  by 
Smith  in  the  Monwf;  also  Sadler,  G.  T.,  'The 
Origin  and  Meaning  of  Christianity'  (1916) ; 
Luhlinski.  S..  'Der  urchristliche  Erdkreis' 
(1010).  Among  countless  Jouknau,  besides 
the  publications  of  learned  societies,  may  be 
named :  The  American  JoiirntU  of  Theology 
(1897-);  BibHoliwca  Sacra   (1844-);  Hcbratca 


(1884^5),  continued  as  Amtrican  Jottmai  of 
Semitic  Languages  aitd  Literatures  (1S95-); 
Harvard  Theologicai  Review  (1908-)  ;  Prince- 
ton Theological  Review  (1890-)  ;  Journai  of 
Theological  Studies;  Jewish  Quarterly  Review; 
Expositor;  Expository  Times;  Menzies'  Re- 
view of  Theology  and  Philosophy  (1905-); 
Revue  hiblique;  Rnme  des  Etudes  juives;  Rt- 


Zeitschrift  fiir  die  neutes lament liche  U'ii^. 
schafl,  etc.  (1900-)  ;  Archiv  fur  Retigioni- 
wissenschaft  (1897-):  Theologische  Literalwi- 
zeituna;  Theologisch  Tijdschrift  (1867-); 
Didaikaieion  (1912-) ;  invaluable  the  The9- 
logischer  Jahresbericht  (1881-).  Among  works 
of  Refebence:  Wilbam  Smith's  'Dictiooaiy  of 
the  Bible'  (1860-65),  superseded  by  HasUne's 
'Dictionary  of  the  Bible'  (1898  et  scq.V, 
Vigouroux,  F_  'Dictionnaire  dc  la  Bible' 
(ia)5  et  se(i.)  ;  Migne,  J.  J.,  'EncydopMie  Tht 
ologique'  (1847).  The  highest  critical  level  is 
attained  by  Cheyne  and  Black's  'Encyclopedia 
Biblica'  (1899-1903);  invaluable  the  'Jenish 
Encyclopedia'  (1901-06),  a  treasure-house  oi 
knowle<^e  elsewhere  almost  inaccessible.  Valu- 
able also  the  'Catholic  Encyclopedia'  (1907- 
12),  The  great  French  and  German  en- 
cyclopaedias have  enlisted  the  highest  abilities 
of  the  masters  of  criticism,  as  the  Schaff- 
Herzog  'Rcal-Encyclopadie'  (Ens.,  New  York 
1908-11).  If  from  the  foregoing  it  should 
appear  that  Biblical  criticism,  especially  the 
'Introduction,'  has.  been  in  large  measure  a 
German  disdpline,  the  reasoik  is  to  be  sou^t 
in  the  Reformation  and  the  more  tolerant  con- 
ditions it  engendered,  as  compared  with  the 
firm  and  often  harsh  repression  that  has  uni' 
forroly  met  the  strugghng  religious  spirit  both 
in  the  East  and  in  the  West. 

WiLUAii  Benjauin  Shitb. 
Emeriliu  Profeuor  of  Philosophy,  TuUme  Uni- 
vertiiy. 

BIBLB,  History  of  Old  Testament  In- 

-     '-        --     -■  -    ;    the 


borr 


the 


ledisfval  Judaism,  it 
was  at  once  diverted  to  sweil  the  stream  of 
biblical  exposition ;  when  the  philosophy  of 
religion  was  born,  the  tale  was  repea.ted,  and 
even  the  mysticism  of  the  Qabbala  met  a  simi- 
lar fate.  All  the  rivers  of  the  Hebrew  mind 
have  run  into  the  sea  of  Hermeneijtic. 

The  key-word  of  this  devotion  is  da'rash.  'lo 
seek."  as  m  Ezra  vit,  10.  "to  seek  the  Law  of , 
Yahveh* —  whence  midrash  (inquiry) ,  whidi 
for  generations  was  only  oral.  As  the  national 
science,  it  was  developed  by  the  Pharisees  la 
two  main  directions,  Miqra'_  (Holy  Writ  as 
read)  and  Mishnah  (repetition,  tradition,'  in- 
struction). This  latter  branched  into  Mid- 
rashnth  proper,  exposition?  of  Scriptures,  and 
fas  first  shoot  therefrom)  the  legal  Halatolh 
(customs),  statutes  derived  by  eicgesis  from 
the  Law,  with  others  of  oral  tradition,  to  he 
traced  back  to  the  Law.  and  the  moral  Hag- 
gadoih  (reports),  expositions  and  illustration* 
connected  not  with  the  Law  but  with  nuiterial^ 


.Google 


„  _  .  , __„ s  the  Mish- 

nah.  The  earliest  known  commentary  on  any 
text  is  tbe  Midrasfaim  to  four  books  of  die 
Penlateucfa:  Mekilta  (rule)  on  Exodus,  Sifra 
on  Leviticus,  Sifre  (Writings)  on  Nnmbers 
and  Denteronomy.  The  sages  of  the  Mishnah 
and  die  Baraitha  ('outside*  tradition),  called 
ToniMinn  (*teachers'),  flouri^ed  from  10  to 
220  A.D. 

With  advent  of  the  Amoraim  ("speakers," 
219-500)  came  a  chstnge:  The  Mishnah  itsdf 
was  interpreted,  and  the  whole  body  of  this 
interpretation  (in  the  second  degree)  was  con- 
solidated later  and  edited  in  du  two  Talmuds, 
fiab^lonUn  (Babli)  and  P.alestinian  (Yemsh- 
almi)  and  alongside  of  them  the  Targum  litera- 
ture was  extended  to  the  whole  Hebrew  Biblci 
From  Hillel  (30  B.C.)  on,  the  names  of  the 
expositors  begin  to  appear.  Hillel  himself 
formulated  seven  Rules  for  haUkic  exeiKsisi 
his  pupil  Jolianan  ben  Zakkai  followed  wilii  a 
sort  o£  symbolic  exegesis,  which  flourished  be- 
tween the  two  destructions  of  Jerusalem  (70 
and  135  aji.  by  Titus  and  Hadrian),  a  period 
of  symbolism  dominant  in  Christian  rankii. 
Two  OHiosing  leaders  were  the  liberal  Ishmael 
ben  Elisha, —  who  expanded  the  seven  Rules 
to  13,  a  number  afterward  raised  by  Eliezer 
to  32  (for  Haggadah),  and  laid  down  the  doc- 
trine of  the  human  form  of  expression  in  die 
Bible, —  and  the  rigorist  Aqiba  ben  Joseph, 
who  held  every  minutia  of  the  sacred  text  to  be 
significant,  and  successfully  built  uo  tradition 
as  a  hedse  about  tbe  Law.  This  first  period 
of  Jewish  exegesis  ends  with  the  final  redac- 
tion of  .the  Talmud  (ca.  500). 

Meantime  among  the  AfiniM  (sectaries) 
and  even  occasionally  among  the  orthodox  there 
had  been  considerable  in&ltration  of  foreign  in- 
fluence:, which  showed  itsdf  in  curious  specula- 
tions I(nd  esoteric  doctrine  (^Mi^aseh^  "work*) 
about  Creation  {B'reskilh)  in  Gen.  i,  and  the 
.chariot  {Mcrkabah^  in  E/ek.  i.  Outside  rab- 
binical ranks,  Josephus  wrote  practically  a  Com- 
mentary on  the  Bible  in  his  'Archaeology,* 
and  Pbilo  tried  to  show  by  thorough  allegorii- 
ing  that  Gfeck  philosophy  had  been  anticipated 
by  Moses,  ,This  exegesis  by  the  Tannaim  and 
Amoraim  contained  much  acute  and  even  jua 
exposition  — the  depths  of  the  Talmud  are  in- 
deed thick-strewn  with  pearls,  and  would  that 
well-equipped  divers  miRht  bring  more  of  them 
up!  —  but  still  more  downright  imposition  of 
meaning  on  the  text;  as  Ishmael  b.  Elisha 
fifiely  said  in  rejertii^  an  exegesis  of  Elierer 
b.  Hyrcanus :  "In  fact  you  say  to  Scripture,  Be 
silent  while  I  expound"*  (Sifra  on  Lev.  xiii.  49). 
The  Babylonian  Amoraim  distinguished  between 
Peskal  {out' stretched,  manifest,  primary  sense) 
and  Derash  (Midrash -exposition),  declaring 
but  not  obeying  the  maxim  that  the  latter  could 
not  annul  the  former;  in  the  practice  of  the 
>:enturies  following  the  iinal  redaction  of  the 
Talmud,  the  Peshat  vanished,  only  Derash  was 
left,  though  the  Masorah  ("fetter*)  still  hedged 
th«  L^aw  after  a  fashion. 

In  the  8th  century  the  Qaraites  (Lecturists, 
"Sons  of  Scripture,"  Bene  Miqra'),  founded  by 
Aoan,  disclaiming  tradition,  reacted  from  the 
Midrash  back  to  the  Bible  itself    (reminding 


one  of  Lnther).  The  iUustrious  Saiidya*  (802- 
942  A.D.),  prince  of  alt  Us  order,  in  turn  reacted 
still  more  powerfully  against  them  and  thereby 
stimulated  them  to  worthier  efforts,  some  of 
which  made  real  advances.  Benjamin  Naha- 
wendi  revived  Philonism ;  Chivi  of  Balkh  (SaS 
A.D.)  avowed  rationalism  and  gave  200  reasona, 
historical  and  legal,  gainst  (he  authenticity  of 
the  Pentateuch.  For  nis  perversity  he  is  nick- 
named Al-Kalbi  (the  Cynic)  instead  of  Al-Baiki 
(used  only  once).  Aaron  h  Elijah's  'Crown 
of  the  Law*  {KeUr  Tarak)  in  the  14lh  century 
wmt  the  swan-song  of  Qaraism  in  exegesis, 
though  Isaac  ben  Abraham  Troki  (1533-M) 
produced  in  his  'Fortress  of  Faith'  {Ckiteug 
Entitnah)  — translated  and  published  repeatedhr 
in  several  latwuages,  as  late  u  1873  in  boOi 
German  and  Hebrew  —  a  master-piece  of  po- 
lemic, which,  according  to  the  word  of  Voltaire, 
left  the  anti-Christian  critic  nothing  new  to 
discover. 

Under  Sakdya,  C^aonf  of  Sura,  the  Peshat 
came  once  more  to  its  own.  Writing  in  Arabic, 
he  not  only  founded  Hebrew  philology  but 
strove  hard  to  rationalize  all  his  Bible  and  har- 
monize it'  with  philosophy.  In  this  interest 
his  follower  Abulwalid  ibn  (janach  did  not 
shrink  from  transposing  and  interchangii^  let- 
ters extensively,  holding  that  the  authors  put 
one  word  for  another  by  mistake,  a  drastic 
method  \ty  which  one  of  his  disciples  explained 
200  ^stages.  Uoses  ibn  (riqatilla  even  dared  to 
explain  mir»cle«  rationalisticaUy,  inviting  there- 
by the  attacks  of  Ibn  Bataano,  and  was  the  first 
to  essay  a  continuous  historic  interpretation  of 
the  Psalms  and  Isaiah,  dating  the  former  from 
the  Exile  and  the  latter  part  of  the  latter  from 
the  Second  Temple; — so  winning  tbe  honor  of 
frequent  citation  by  Ibn  Ezra.  Such  under 
Arabic  contact  was  the  golden  age  of  Jewish 
tbou^t  in  Spain,  which  held  fast  Sa^dya's 
principle  diat  Scripture  did  not  transcend  Rea- 
son even  in  the  loftiest  flights  of  religious  ex- 
perience. To  make  the  twain  agree  called  for 
high-handed  freedom  with  the  former,  since  the 
latter  was  inexorable,  and  philosophic  Midrash 
began  to  threaten  Peshat  Meantime  in  Christ- 
endom, particularly  in  northern  France,  the  exe- 
getes  {Darshanim)  veit  active,  and  R.  Solomon 
ben  Isaac  (called  Rashi,  1040-1105)  wrote  his 
grtiat  common-sense  exposition  of  the  Scrip- 
ture, in  particular,  the  X^w,  never  yet  sur- 
passed  in  circulation  and  acceptance.  But  the 
ablest  work  of  this  French  School  was  the 
Pentateuch  Commentary  of  Samuel  b.  Meir, 
who  held  firmly  that  interpretation  must  be  un- 
fettered by  tradition.  Lastly,  Joseph  Bekor 
Sbor  gave  a  foretaste  of  modem  criticism  in 
assuming  a  double  narrative  in  the  Pentateuch. 
So  considerable  was  the  accomplishment  of 
common  sense  unguided  by  scientific  philology 
or  philosophic  culture.  Somewhat  later  (1140) 
the  iwer  of  learning,  Abraham  ibn  Ezra  (1092- 
1167),  in  the  noon  of  his  days  'departed  from 
his  native  place,  in  Spaiti,  and  went  to  Rome,* 
spent  27  years  of  travel  in  France.  Italy,  Eng- 
land, and  brought  the  highest  scholarship  then 
known  to  his  Hebrew  Commentary,  notable  for 
courage  as  well  as  caution,  for  compass  even 
•VMiouily  ipdlnl  even  by  Ssidya  himself.  The  form 
t  Hightifw.  BuhlUcacv,  ticls  (fint  eoaterrtA  by  AH  oa 


:,  Google 


«M  BU 

more  than  for  depth,  in  general  conservative 
yet  sdmitting'  mmor  accretions  to  die  Penta- 
teuch, to  wfiich  a  nebulous  note  on  Deut.  i 
would  seem  to  ascribe  post-Hoswc  authonhip, 
and  hinting  a  later  origin  for  Ix.  xl-Lxvi.  In 
traditional  eicposition  he  sees  no  exposition 
proper,  but  only  'sumestion,*  'reminder,* 
mnemonic  device.  The  iCunchis,  Joseph  and  his 
two  sons,  Moses  and  David,  the  latter  the  chief 
of  alt,  agreed  with  Ezra  but  insisted  more  on 
grammar  and  rationalism,  besides  inveighing 
against  Christian  inlerpretation  of  the  Psalms. 
Following  but  far  surpassing  alt  these,  Mqki 
Uaimonides  (Rabbenu  Mosheb  bar  Maimon 
Haddayyatt,  of  Cordova,  1135-1204),  court-[>hy- 
sician  to  Saladin  of  Egypt,  mathematician,  as- 
tronomer, Talmudist,  the  Aristotle  of  Jewry, 
and  leader  of  all  the  expositor-choir,  in  his 
*Mishneh  Tomh>  digested  and  almost  super- 
seded the  Talmud  itself,  and  in  his  Arabic 
'Guide  of  the  Erring'  iuatiiatu  'l-HHrin,  or, 
in  Hebrew,  Morth  Ntbukim)  essayed  the  recon- 
ciliation of  Moses  and  the  Stagirite.  Of  confs^ 
such  an  attempt  laid  all  the  resources  of  meta- 
phor, figures,  esoterism,  symbolism  and  the 
like  under  heavy  contribution,  but  it  abjured  all 
mysticism,  remaining  rationalistic  throughout 
At  miracles  and  prophecies  it  mi^t  seem  to 
batk,  but  a  theory  of  visions  contrived  to  trans- 
fer much  from  uie  physical  and  objective  with- 
out to  the  psychical  and  subjective  within. 
Translated  into  Hebrew,  it  naturalized  Ariatotle 
in  the  Jewish  mind  and  was  propagated  in  a 
long  succession  of  philosophic  interpretations, 
some  of  which  launuied  out  boldly  upon  shore- 
less a.ltegory. 

Two  beliefs  now  dominating,  that  there  must 
be  a  deeper  meaning  in  the  Bible  Aa.R  the 
literal,  and  that  all  truth  is  hidden  therein, 
gave  rise  (about  1268)  to  mystic  exposition 
called  Secret  Wisdom  (Chokmah  Nistarah)  or 
Qabbala.  and  at  the  same  time  to  the  Gema-' 
fria*  of  Eleaier  ben  Judah  at  Worms,  on 
which  the  Qabbala  itself  is  based.  Bachya 
ben  Asher  commenting  on  the  Law  (1298) 
recogniies  four  Ways  to  Truth :  Peshat, 
Midrash,  Reason,  Qabbata  (•path  of  light*). 
More  portentous  was  the  simultaneous  in- 
troduction into  Spain  by  Moses  de  Lfon 
of  Zohar  (Light),  a  commentary  on  the 
Pentateuch,  with  many  digressions  and  addi- 
tions, professing  a  hoary  antiquity  for  its 
mysticism  as  having  been  taught  by  the  sages 
of  old,  even  by  Aqiba's  pupit,  the  wonder- 
working Simeon  ben  Yochai.  It  also  taught 
four  Senses  of  Scripture ;  Peshat,  Remez  (al- 
hisionX  Darash  and  Sodh  (secret,  mystical), 
—  which  indeed  it  had  borrowed  from  such 
Christians  as  the  Venerable  Bedo  (673-735), 
who  thought  the  inner  sense  surpassed  the 
letter  as  apples  do  leaves  (cp,  Jerome,  Ep.  ad 
Gal.  i,  2),  and  Hrahanus  Manms  (776-856), 
Preceptor  Germanix.  Hence  die  consonantal 
acrostic  PaRDeS  (Paradise),  known  since 
Ac|iba,  came  into  vogue  as  the  tenet  of  the 
fourfold    sen5e,t   which   had    already   marked 

*  Letter-Art,  jntefpretalion  by  nmnbaai.  imrds  of  the  tuae 
Tiiirrt^ijHil  value  beina  treated  M  equiva]ent.     It  ii  found  iD 
i  and  wai  ernploycd  probably  much  earlier. 
Ltifully  alleeomed  in  Zohar  tii,99>;  Dofrtrmr  »howi 

._,._,__. I  V ..___   -- '— •-— Itoniog  with  ho- 

throi^  s  thkk 


the  Talr 

tB. _.... 

heneUtoher  hrlomi,  her  cl 


1   DsTU 


throuRh  a 


•-  and  heart  to  hnrt 


bermeneutic  with  long  and  broad  eclipse 
Herewith  the  night  of  one  and  a  half  centuries 
settied  down  on  Jewish  Biblical  Exegesis,  till 
the  momit^  star  of  Mendelssohn  arose.  One 
lamp  indeed  was  still  lit  in  the  dark,  the 
learned  and  unwearied  grammarian  and  lexicog- 
rapher, Elijah  Levlta  (1468-1549),  whose 
^Masoret  Ha-Masoret'  (Venice  1538)  demon- 
strated the  human  and  post-talmudic  birdi  of 
vowel-points,  to  the  indignant  dismay  of  the 
orthodox,  both  Jew  and  Gentile,  who  had  ac- 
counted them  primitive  and  divine.  Mean- 
while the  hunt  for  many  meanings  went 
bravely  on,  and  in  Pohnd  with  especial  vigor 
and  success :  in  1630  Nathan  Spira  discovered 
250  senses  for  Deut.  iii,  24ff,  only  alas!  to  be 
outvied  by  Elijah  b.  Abraham  Oettingen,  who 
brou^t  365  to  light. 

Moses  Mendelssohn  (1729-86),  the  ■Na- 
than* of  Lessing,  victor  in  competition  with 
Kant  (1763),  by  his  CxnnmentaiT  on  Eccle- 
siastes  (1773)  and  still  more  by  his  translation 
of  the  Pentateuch  (1783)  recalled  the  Rabbb 
to  reason.  His  co-workers,  called  Bi'tirult 
(from  Bi'Mr,  exposition),  translated  and  com- 
mented (in  &rman,  at  first  in  Hebrew  letters, 
later  in  German).  Similarly  each  nation  now 
received  its  own  translation,  Luzzatto's  Italian 
and  Cahen's  French  being  especially  valuable 
Nevertheless,  in  the  marvelous  advance  of  thfe 
last  century  toward  the  comprehension  of  their 
Scriptures,  the  Jews  have  rarely  been  con- 
spicuous in  front  Though  abounding  in 
ability  and  learning,  they  have  suffered  from 
lack  of  oivanization  in  nniversities  and 
academies ;  tneir  attention  has  been  in  large 
measure  absorbed  in  the  study  of  post- 
biblical  Judaism,  a  terrain  immense  and  dear 
as  fatherland  to  their  hearts,  wherein  only 
they  are  at  home;  and  the  rapidly  increasing 
complexity  of  modem  life  has  burdened  the 
Rabbinate  with  social  activities  and  countless 
extra- scholastic  cares.  But  when  all  is  said 
it  remains  true  perhaps  that  the  Jewish  scholar 
has  put  off  his  sandals,  as  treading  on  holy 
ground,^  *he  feared  the  gods  and  heroes  and 
spake  low,' — he  has  not  quite  found  as  yet  a 
modus  mve»di  with  the  dissolvent  criticism  of 
the  last  60  years,  he  awaits  another  turn  of 
the  wheel  Witness  the  recent  severe  stric- 
tures of  David  Hoffmann  in  'Die  wichtigsten 
Instanzen  gegen  die  Graf- Wei  Ihausensche 
Hypothese'  { 1904)  and  his  uncompromising 
Statement  of  the  (orthodox)  Jewish  position 
on  the  whole  Bible-question,  in  his  'Leviticus' 
(1905-06)  :  "As  we  are  firmly  convinced  of 
the  divinity  of  the  Halakoth,  the  words  of 
the  Tradition  count  for  us  exactly  as  much 
as  the  words  of  the  Scripture*  (p.  2);  'Our 
first  principle  is :  we  believe  that  the  whole 
Bible  is  true,  holy,  and  of  divine  origin, — 
every  word  of  the  Torah  was  written  down  at 
the  command  of  God*  (p.  6) ;  The  second 
principle,  which  must  guide  every  Jewish  ex- 
pounder of  the  Bible,  is  the  assumption  of  the 
integrity  of  die  Masoretic  or  traditioaal  text' 
(p.  7). 

Hoffmann's  contradiction,  dealing  mainly 
with  matters  of  the  Law,  would  evade  the 
critics  by  supposing  frequent  changes  and 
adaptations  o(  the  Torah  during  the  wander- 
ings   of    the    40    years    (it    were    better   40 


vCiOogIc 


squared),*  while  on  the  other  hand  Siegnmnd 
Ziunpel  hai  treated  the  historic  features  in 
detailed  articles  but  has  developed  no  syste- 
matic anti-critical  view.  Both  are  constrained 
to  many  unpalatable  concessions,  and  Barth 
renounced    the    pretension    oi    Is.    xl-Ixvi    to 

K>ceed  from  the  son  of  Amoz.  More  liberal 
bbis,  as  Graetz,  Hirsch.  Jacob,  have  sought 
peace  witti  the  Higher  Criticism,  while  blunt- 
ing its  edge  at  various  points,  and  the 
Breslau  editor.  Rabbi  A.  Geiger  (1810-74), 
has  clearly  shown  in  his  'Urschrift  tmd  Ueber- 
setzunsen  der  Bibd'  (1857),  that  the  growing, 
expanding,  self- trans  forming  religious  con- 
saousness  of  Israel  is  mirrored  in  the  like- 
changing  text  of  the  Bible,  and  fliat  the 
Masoretic  as  well  as  the  elder  forms  have 
^red  in  this  steady  evolution.  The  effect  of 
prolonged  study  is  also  strikingly  shown  in  the 
extremely  erumte  and  even  encyclopedic  com- 
mentaries of  Marcus  M.  Kalisch  (I628-8S) 
the  refugee  of  1848,  of  which  'Exodus'  (1853) 
is  conservative,  <Genesis>  ( 1858)  liberal. 
<Lcviticus>  (1867,  1872)  radical,  forestalling 
Wellhausen  at  many  capital  points. 

Most  of  all.  Professor  David  Neumark  in 
his  (German)  'History  of  Jewish  Philosophy' 
has  brought  this  discipline  to  the  aid  of 
Judaism,  seeking  to  supplement  and  correct 
the  Higher  Criticism  into  accord  with  a  deeper 
and  broader  view  of  the  genesis  of  the  Idea 
of  God  tmder  the  influence  of  Prophetism. 
Plainly,  then,  the  counter  currents  are  as 
strong  in  Judaism  as  elsewhere  and  there  is 
no  reason  to  fear  that  Jewish  exegesis  will 
not  yet  catch  up  and  keep  pace  with  Gentile, 
remembering  that  the  vehicle  of  revelation  is 
not  an^  lifeless  form  of  human  speech  but  the 
everliving  spirit  of  the  People  itself. 

GentUlc— Since  the  Christian  movement 
took  its  rise  among  the  Tews  of  the  Dispersion, 
in  Galilee  of  the  Gentiles  (Malt,  iv,  12-16), 
the  attitude  of  die  early  disciples  toward  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  can  hardly  have  diflered 
sensibly  from  that  of  the  Jews,  among  whom 
Hellenistic  vied  with  I&bbinical  methods. 
Very  soon,  if  not  indeed  at  the  start,  allegoric 
interpretation  acquired  vogue  and  prevailed. 
■Which  things  are  an  allegonf,*  Gal.  iv,  24. 
The  Scriptures  were  regarded  as  so  many 
sign-posts  all  pointing  toward  the  'consumma- 
tion of  ages,*  and  all  previous  histonr  was 
viewed  as  reflected  in  the  present  "These 
thinpi  were  our  examples,*  'that  Rock  was 
Chnst*  (1  Cor.  x,  6,  4);  "whatever  was  fore- 
written  was  written  for  our  leaminK*  (Rom, 
XV,  4),  etc.  From  such  premises  the  Scrip- 
tures were  speedily  interpreted  throughout  as 
prophecies  m  lypei,  and  out  of  them  elaborate 
lives  of  Jesus  were  constructed,  as  in  the 
epistles  of  Barnabas  and  Ignatius,  in  the 
writings  of  Justin  and  of  still  earlier  and 
later  Oiristians  generally.  From  such  intei^ 
pretation  the  step  was  easy  and  natural  to 
invention :  if  the  event  was  not  known  to  have 
occurred,  our  knowledge  was  defective. 
Oemens  Alexandrinus  in  his  'Stromata'  (VI, 
673,    Sylb.)    defines    the    fourfold    engrafting 

the  pilin  of 

_.  Pi*&n.itic, 

.    ■nd  Arbotli-Miwb;  nt   tluaa  tlw 

the  form  11   lubJDCt  to 

CLevitim*'.  i,  p.  li.'i 


LB  641 

of  the  sacred  word,  the  last  or  gnostic  form 
being  able  (like  Sodh)  to  look  Ihrou^  things 
themselves.  Origen,  adopting  13  of  Philas 
23  rules  and  distinguishing  three  senses  of 
Scripture,  corresponding  to  Body,  Soul  and 
Spirit,  carried  allegoric  interpretation  to  al- 
most inaccessible  heights.  Under  this  or  that 
form  the  typical  or  allegorical  method  (re- 
appearing as  an  after-image  in  Hengstenberg) 
prevailed  for  centuries,  though  here  and  there 
discountenanced  by  sober  judgment  represented 
mainly  by  the  Antiochan  School  founded  by 
Lucian  (300)  and  for  centuries  the  vigorous 
mother  or  grandmother  of  the  most  approved 
patristic  exposition,  which  still  however  in- 
sisted on  two  senses  corresponding  to  the 
Covenants,  Old  and  New.  Jerome  appears  to 
have  been  saner,  but  incoti  si  stent,  unwilling  to 
tie  himself  even  to  the  allegoric  method,  which 
i-eigned  throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  the  four- 
fold sense  beine;  formulated  in  the  couplet: 
•Literal  sense  (Tittera)  teaches  facts;  allegor- 
ical, what  to  believe ;  moral,  what  to  do ; 
anagogic  (mystic),  whither  we  tend."*  No 
steps  were  taken  by  the  Church  toward  even 
proposing  the  problem  of  Inblical  criticism,  of 
whose  existence  indeed  men  were  quite  un- 
conscious. The  faith  of  Augustine  was  in 
truth  wounded  by  the  phrase  'unto  this  day* 
in  Josh,  iv,  9,  hut  was  healed  by  the  same 
phrase  in  Josh,  vi,  25.  We  have  noted  many 
such  qualms  in  reviewing  Jewish  ftiterpreta- 
tion,  but  the  first  scientific  criticism  we  owe 
to  the  Neo-^latonic  Porphyry,  who  showed, 
against  tradition^ that  'DameP  originated  not 
in  the  Jewish  Captivity  but  400  years  later 
under  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  Far  the  un- 
troubled conscience  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the 
Hohr  Scriptures  served  only  the  purposes  of 
edification  and  controversy, —  the  thought  of 
making  them  the  subject  of  scientific  study 
does  not  seem  to  have  arisen.  At  length  came 
stirrings   of   the  dawn.     From  authority  and 


de  Lm  (1270-1340)  who  by  soberftr  methods 
and  knowledge  of  Hebrew  displayed  in  his 
•Postilla  Perpetua'  (liUeralii  in  1322-31, 
mystka  in   1339)   made  smoother  the  way  for 


non  saltasset).  By  the  Council  of  Trent,  how- 
ever. Exegesis  was  formally  immured  within 
four  walls:  Rule  of  Faith,  Mind  of  Church, 
Consent  of  Fathers,  Decrees  of  Councils. 

With  the  Reformation,  Holy  Writ  sprang 
up  into  a  seat  of  supreme  authority.  Said  Chil- 
lingworthj  «The  Bible,  and  the  Bible  alone,  is 
the  religion  ot  Protestants*;  it  became  the 
Court  of  Cassation,  of  final  appeal.  Under 
Luther,  Melancthon,  Zwingli,  Calvin,  the  mind 
of  the  Reformers  maintained  in  some  measure 
its  attitude  of  new-won  freedom ;  but  with  the 
17th  century  the  Dark  Ages  of  Confessionalism 
closed  down  upon  Europe,  for  150  years,  dur- 
ing which  practically  no  advance  was  made 
toward  understanding  the  Scriptures.  However 
great  the  talents  of  the  learned,  they  all  lay 
wrapped  up  in  the  napkin  of  implicit  faith 
(Hobbes).  A  rude  shock  to  this  slumber  in 
the  all-sufficiency  and  verbal  infallibility  of  the 


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Scriptures,  as  known  to  clergy  and  people,  was 
given  by  the  dem on st ration  (already  noted)  of 
Elijah  Levita,  which  was  indeed  violently  re- 
sisted by  the  Buxlorfs  (1564-1664)  and  others 
but  was  confirmed  (1650)  by  Louis  Cappe! 
(1585-1658)*  and  at  len^  sullenly  admitted. 
Nevertheless,  no  awakening  followed.  The 
mind  o£  the  Reformed  Church  turned  over 
again  to  a  sleep  continually  troubled  bv  dreams 
of  contending  dogmas.  It  was  one  of  the  vir- 
ilest  and  widcst-armcd,  if  least  attractive,  of 
English  thinkers,  Thomas  Hobbes  (1588-1679), 
who  in  his  well-named  'Leviathan'  (1651),  with 
the  iinclouded  eye  of  common- sense,  armed 
with  no  lens  of  exact  philology^  first  saw  and 
proclaimed  the  general  conception  of  Hebrew 
Scriptures  that  has  now  long  since  become  the 
common  property  of  culture.  From  obvious 
considerations  he  shows  (c.  33,  pp.  200-203) 
"that  the  five  books  of  Moses  were  written 
after  his  time,  though  how  lon^  after  it  be  not 
so  manifest,"  while  allowing  his  authorship  of 
the  "volume  of  the  Law*  "found  again  by 
Htlkiah,  and  sent  to  King  losias  (2  Kings 
xvii,   8)."     The    ill-famed     *unto     this    day' 


1  °to  the  day  of  the  captivity  of  the  land* 


As 

less 

from  tradition,  though  regarding  Job  not  as 
history  but  as  philosophy  and  poetry  "in  Hex- 
ameter verscSj"  with  Prologue  and  Epilogue  in 
Sose.  The  Psalms  seemed  to  him  mainly 
avidic,  though  edited  after  the  Captivity, 
Proverbs  the  compilation  of  a  "godly  man,  that 
lived  after  them  all*  (the  authors) ;  Ecclesiastes 
and  Canticles  are  "Solomon's.*  Strangely, 
Sophoniah  is  "among  the  Prophets  the  most 
ancient,'  and  "if  the  .  .  .  Apocrypha  .  .  , 
be  credited,  the  Scripture  was  set  forth  in  the 
form  we  have  it  in,  by  Esdras."  In  the  preced- 
ing chapter  Hobbes  speaks  from  the  summits  of 
intelligence  and  freedom  (pp.  196-197),  only  to 
sink  at  once  into  the  depths  of  servility  (198- 
199),  but  his  example  is  extremely  instructive  as 
showingwhat  triumphs  are  possible  to  the  open 
mind.  The  Englishman  did-nol  excel  in  keen- 
ness many  others,  both  Jew  and  Gentile,  who 
tar  suri>asscd  him  in  technical  mastery  of  the 
subject  in  hand;  and  yet  he  saw  clearly  what 
had  been  hidden  from  rahbinical  pilpul  and 
clerical  scrutiny  for  nearly  2,000  years. 

Hobbes  was  soon  followed  by  a  far  greater 
thinker  far  better  equipped.  In  1670,  while  the 
'Leviathan,'  formerly  sold  for  eight  shillings, 
having  been  condemned  in  1666  by  Parliament, 
was  selling  at  30  shillings,  "it  being  a  book  the 
bishops  will  not  lei  be  printed  again"  (Pepys' 
•Diary'  3  Sept.  1668),  Baruch  de  Spinoza 
(1632-77)  published  anonymously  his  noble  plea 
for  "freedom  of  thought  and  speech*  (liberta- 
lem  philosophandi),  'Tractatus  theologico- 
politicus,'  the  groundwork  of  modern  criticism, 
wherein  having  set  forth  in  chapter  VI  a  purely 
rationalistic  doctrine  of  miracles,  and  in  chapter 
VII  a  common-sense  method  of  interpreting 
Scripture  from  Scripture  alone,  he  proceeds  in 


chapter  VIII  to  lay  the  foundations  of  histoti- 
cal  criticism  of  the  Old  Testament  tn'  discusi- 
ing  in  detail  the  authorship  of  the  PcnUtcach 
and  the  other  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment beginning  with  the  mystic  note  of  'Abni 
Eira"  on  Deuteronomy,  which  he  expounds, 
and  concluding  that  "it  is  clearer  than  the  sun 
at  noon  that  the  Pentateuch  was  written  not 
by  Moses  but  by  some  one  living  long  ailK 
Moses,"  to  whom  indeed  he  attributes  other 
writing,  but  not  the  Pentateuch.  From  various 
considerations,  as  of  the  phrase  "unto  this  day,* 
he  deduces  that  the  book  of  Joshua  "was  writ- 
ten many  generations  after  bis  death,'  and 
Judges  "after  the  establishment  of  the 
monarchy,*  and  Samuel  'many  generations 
after  Samuel's  death,"  and  Kings  compiled,  he 
does  not  say  when  —  but  'all  the  books  we  haTt 
hitherto  considered  are  compilations,'  — be 
might  have  still  said  mosaic,  no  other  term  k 
so  fitting.  But  the  compiler,  he  thinks,  "wa?  a 
single  historian,"  most  probably  Ezra,  and  ii 
we  had  the  originals,  "we  should  find  a  gnas. 
difference  in  the  words  of  the  precepts,*  their 
"order,"  and  ibe  "reasons"  assigned.  He  thinks 
"that  all  the  materials  were  promiscuously  col- 
lected and  heaped  together  to-be  toorc  readilv 
examined  and  arran^d  thereaiter."  The  wotk 
was  never  completed  by  Ezra,  for  unknown 
"cause,  if  il  were  not  untimely  death,"  whence 
the  ditplication  and  confusion  still  reignins. 
He  also  discusses  the  marginal  readings  and 
the  vow  el -pointing,  which  ^  thinks  is  always 
human  and  sometimes  wrong,  as  in  Gen.  xlvii, 
31,  where  he  would  read  mate  (staS)— as 
does  the  Septuagint  and  Heb.  xi,  21 — instead 
of  mitit  (bed),  a  criticism  with  which  com- 
mentators  do  not  in  general  agree.  The  text, 
he  thinks,  has  felt  the  tooth  of  time,  has  suf- 
fered various  corruption,  as  witness  the  28  cases 
of  hiatus,  and  the  rabbinical  readings  in  Uk 
Talmud,  often  dil^erent  from  the  Masoretic; 
also  it  was  singularly  exposed  to  corruption 
from  the  painful  resemblance  between  pairs  of 
Hebrew  letters,  as  Beth  and  Kaph,  Daleth  and 
,  Resh,  Vav  and  Yod,  and  he  might  have  added 
Gimel  and  Nun,  He  and  (^eth,  and  even  Tav. 
While  there  is  much  in  these  eha.pters  (\T1I- 
X),  that  would  call  for  revision  or  reycrs^ 
and  while  the  doctrine  of  the  '■simplicit)'  ot 
the  Scripture'  and  its^  "purely  moral  precepts* 
is  superficial,  it  remains  nevertheless  that  thi 
philosopher  anticipated  the  method  and  spirit 
and  many  of  the  results  of  modern  research 
and  blazed  a  path  through  a  hitherto  im- 
penetrable forest. 

However  he  won  no  followers  for  neariya 
century,  sued  was  the  obloquy  that  clouded  lu; 
name.  In  1682.  Father  Richard  Simon,  of  die 
Oratory  of  Paris,  in  his  'Histoirc  critique  do 
Vieux  Testament,'  argued  against  the  siogl'' 
authorship  of  the  Pentateuch  on  litcrar> 
grounds,  since  the  style  varies  where  no  varietv 
of  matter  requires  it,  but  the  position.'  o: 
Hobbes  and  Spinoza  were  not  attained.  A 
further  step  in  pure  literary  appreciation  wis 
taken  (1753)  by  Robert  Lowtb  (1710-87)  ?-■ 
professor  of  poetry  at  Oxford  in  his  'Academic 
Lectures  on  the  Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Heh^e»^' 
and  his  translation  of  Isaiah  (1778),  in  the  ap- 
nouncement  and  application  of  parallelising 
Hebrew  verse,  a  peculiarity  apparently  detiytd 
from  Babjlon  (Schrader),  already  known  im- 


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perfectly  to  Schoettgen  and  ev«n  to  Rabbi 
Ajprias.  In  the  same  year  (1753)  a  much  more 
important  advance  was  made — ^  again  on  purely 
til«raiy  lines  and  a^n  t^  a  layman,  the 
Catholic  Jean  Astnic,  in  his  celebrated  'Con- 
jectures sur  le£  m^oires  originaux  dont  il 
paroit  que  Uo^  s'est  servi  pour  composer  le 
livre  de  la  Gcnese,'  wherein  he  announced  that 
Moses  in  Genesis  and  Exodus  ii  ii  made  use  oE 
two  large  documents,  A  and  B  (besides  10 
small  ones),  distinguished  bv  use  of  the  divine 
Dame:  Elohim  in  A  and  Yahveh  in  B.  The 
path  thus  opened  was  diligently  followed  for 
155  years;  not  until  1908  did  Eerdmans  (Uveigo 
from  it  boldly.  But  though  Astruc  (1684-1766) 
rendered  a  notable  service  in  supplying  criticism 
,.,;.u  :.,  c„. 1..  i:. .-:.„:__  ^f  author- 


point  of  Spinoza  (whose  'vain  triumph'  he 
would  "annihilate")  or  even  of  Hobbes,  his  ob- 
ject being  a  pious  one,  to  remove  obstacles  in 
the  way  of  accepting  Mosaic  authorship,  and  his 
book  a  strange  mixture  of  naiveti  and  acute' 
ncss.  He  builded  better  than  he  knew;  and  it 
mav  be  well  to  remark  that  as  the  first  ancient 
Ola  Testament  critic.  Porphyry,  was  a  metaphy- 
sician, so  were  the  first  modems,  Hobbes  and 
Spinoza,  while  Astruc  was  nbysician  to  Louis 
XIV,  and  all  were  dilettanti.  It  is  also  inter- 
esting to  note,  and  ugnificant,  that  iaiay_  of  the 
boldest  discoveries  were  not  the  intuitions  of 
youth  nor  even'  the  conquests  of  middle  life. 


length  under  th«  stimulation  of  Herder  (1744- 
1803).  the  philosophic  literateur,  in  1780-83 
Eichhorn  (1752-1827)  brought  forth  his 'Einlei- 


Jirehensive  treatment  of  the 
iteralure.*  He  adopts  and 
extends  Astruc 's  analysis  of  Genesis  into 
Elohistic  and  Yah  vis  tic  portions,  and  distin- 
guishes betvfeen  the  people's  Code  (Deut.)  and 
the    preceding    priestly    legislation 

1    cRnginj 

recognizes  many  , 

bedded    in   the   rive   Books,   whence  the   n: 


rapncntary   documents   t 


that  is  non-Isaianic.  in  Daniel  no  little  that  is 
post-exilic;  and  he  displaces  the  Song  from  the 
age  of  Solomon  and  the  Preacher  into  the  Per- 
sian period  (538-332  b.c.)  —  results  that  have 
vi-on  him  the  title  "Founder  of  Modem  Old 
Testament  Criticism.*  Twenty  years  later  they 
were  restated  in  a  modified  form  as  the  Frag' 
menl-Hypothesii\  by  the  unfrocked  CathoUc 
Scot  Alexander  Gecfdes  (1737-1802),  by  whom 
"almost  solely*  (fere  unicus)  Eichhorn  was 
willing  to  be  judged,  in  his  'Critical  Remarks 
on  the  Hebrew  Bible'  (1800).  But  on  the 
island  the  season  of  figs  was  not  yet.  The  next 
forward  move  was  made  In  1798  by  another 
layman,  K  D.  Itgen  (1763-1834),  in  bis  splendid 
torso,  'Documentary  Archives  of  the  Jerusalem 
Temple  in  their  original  Form'  (1798).  by  dis- 
ceminK  two  Elohistic  sources  where  Astruc  and 


■  bi  tbe  RtfwK 


ition  (1787)  be  A] 

--    , '  jUtqut  nmilia.     _. 

I  bnlliinttr  iDnitiatoil  by  Richard 


Bentley   (1661-1742)    jn  Ui  'DwHTtatisn  npon  tlw  BpMlM 
of  PhalnriB  '(1W9). 

t  It  is   BotevorUiy  hoir  Diiciininit-hytiothnei  tend  to 
■olve    iatD  PrapDUit-faypotfaeiM.  *  tendtnc;  viRnnnnly 
Hnend  in  hk  'Brdhlimc  de*  Hnsteuch'  (1911). 


LS  648 

Eichhorn  had  seen  only  one.  But  thus  far 
criticism  had  remained  merely  literary,  starting 
DO  question  of  the  evidential  worth  of  the  docu- 
ments or  sources,  a  question  first  brought  to 
the  front  (1806-14)  in  the  'Contributions  to 
Old  Testament  Introduction,'  the  first  and  best 
work  of  the  many-sided  de  Welte  (1780-l&t9), 
the  pioneer  of  historical  criticism,  also  inspired 
by  Herder  in  the  golden  days  of  Weimar. 
Turning  first  to  Chronicles,  he  exhibited  its 
fictive  and  tendential  character,  thus  clearing 
away  a  thick  cloud  from  the  history  and  re- 
ligion of  Israel;  next  he  brought  Deuteronomy 
down  to  the  7th  century,  where  Parvish  in  his 
'Inqniry  into  Jewish  and  Christian  Revelations' 
had  first  placed  it  (1739),  and  proved  that  the 
history  from  Judges  to  Kings  contradicted  tlie 
do^ma  of  Mosaic  origin  of  Pentateuchal  legis* 
latioo,— •  all  permanent  achievements  of 
criticism. 

Though  a  poet,  de  Wette  gave  no  rein  to 
historic  imagination,  and  indeed  all  work  thus 
£ar  had  been  almost  entirely  negative.  In  strik- 
ing contrast  was  the  personality  and  with  it  the 
work  of  Heinrich  Georg  Augustus  von  Ewald 
(1803-75),  proteg6  of  Eichhorn,  'founder  of  a 


acquitted,  condemned,  imprisoned, —  but  above 
all  the  constructive  historian  with  the  gift  of 
tongues,  the  Niebulir  of  Israel  as  it  was  in  the 
mind  of  the  first  half  of  the  19th  century. 
His  central  work,  'History  of  the  People 
Israel*  (1843-59;  Eng.  Ir.  1867-74),  the  product 
of  boundless  learning  and  30  years  of  untiring 
investigation,  is  a  glorification  of  Israel  as  the 


Race,  in  a  Trinity  of  Stages,  as  Hebrews, 
Israelites,  Jews,  through  three  half-milleniums, 
from  the  Exodus  to  the  final  complete  and  per- 
fect self-manifestation  of  God  in  Christ.  On 
such  a  huge  canvas  this  passionate  artist-scholar, 
this  'backward-gazing  prophet,"  has  painted  the 
life  of  the  chosen  people.  Although  still  deeper 
Study  and  exacter  thought  have  cast  aside  the 
picture  as  false  in  color  and  faulty  in  drawing, 
Its  place  is  secured  among  the  creations  of 
genius  by  the  immensity  of  knowledge  dis- 
played and  the  technical  skill,  by  the  infinite 
nneness  and  minuteness  of  delineation,  the  rich- 
ness and  vividness  of  tone,  the  dramatic  skill 
and  boldness  of  the  composition,  and  by  the  un- 
wavering faith,  the  devoted  and  unliaggii)|g 
entfausiasm  that  the  author  has  brought  to  hit 
task.  Ewald  did  not  in  truth  lift  or  roll  away 
the  clouds  that  hung  dark  over  the  history  ^nd 
literature  of  the  People  Israel,  but  he  lit  them 
up  with  the  splendor  of  his  learning  and 
imagination  into  a  luminous  haze,  where  we 
behold  •vast  forms  that  move  fantastically'  to 
the  charm  of  his  dogmas  and  preconceptions. 
So  great  was  the  authority  of  this  Gottin^en 
oracle  that  for  a  full  generation  a  conception 
widely  different  from  his  called  vainly  for  recog- 
nition. Ewald  had  made  classic  the  notion,  held 
by  Dillmann  with  some  modifications  till  his 
death  (1894).  that  the  priestly  legislation  (called 
by  him  'Book  of  Origins'  and  now  denoted  by 
P)  was  the  oldest  stratum  of  the  Pentatcucti. 
was  Grundschrifi  (Tuch)  or  basis  of  the  whole, 
on  which  the  prophetic  parts  (J  E)  and  Deuter- 
onomy were  later  deposits.    But  as  early  as  1892  . 

Coogle 


Ediurd  G.  K  Reuss  (1804-91),  as  privat-docent 
in  the  Strassburg:  Theological  School,  had  per- 
ceived, and  maintained  in  lectures,  though  he 
dared  not  publish,  that  the  order  was  the  re- 
verse, that  P  came  last  in  time.  It  was  Vatlte 
(1806-82),  however,  who  first  gave  such  views 
to  print  (1S35)  in  his  'Relijpon  of  the  Old 
Testament,'  but  without  effect  on  critical 
opinion,  having  relied,  as  Hegel's  pupil,  on  d 
priori  principles,  on  a  just  perception  of  what 
would  t>e  the  natural  order  in  the  development 
of  Israel's  religion  and  ritual,  rather  than  on 
any  actual  detennination  and  interpretation  of 
literary  or  historical  facts.  Ewalo's  towering 
construction  received  its  first  concussion  (1866) 
from  the  'Historical  Books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment,* by  Reuss'  pupil,  K.  H.  Graf  {1815-69), 
but  the  decisive  blow  was  delivered  by  the 
Dutch  master,  a  "prince  of  critics."  Abraham 
Kuenen  (1829-91),  who,  starting  but  quickly 
departing   from   Ewald's  siandpomt,   devdoped 


lasting  model  of  clear,  judicial,  convincing  tx- 
tunination,  followed  W  a  series  of  supplemen- 
tary proofs  in  the  leafung  Dutch  journal,  Tkto- 
logisch  Tijdichrift,  as  well  as  tqr  his  compre- 
hensive and  exhaustive  <Onderzoek>  (Ittgniry), 
etc.  Hereby  to  the  unbiased  mind  the  matter 
seemed  decided,  but  it  was  Julius  Wellbansen 
(1844-1918)  who  with  astonishing  mastery  of 
oetail  and  with  sovran  power  in  historical  com- 
bination overcame  the  most  determined  opposi- 
tion and  compelled  the  assent  of  the  most  re- 
luctant converts,  though  of  the  two  props  of 
die  earlier  construction,  Delitzsch  and  Dillmann, 
the  latter  remained  unconvinced  till  death. 
Wellhaii sen's  Incisive  memoirs  were  followed 
IK^)  by  his  'Prolegomena  zur  Geschidite 
Israels,'  reprinted  (1883)  as  first  volume  of 
'History  of  Israel'  (tr.  1885),  and  (1894)  by 
•Israelitische  und  Judiiche  Geschichte'. 
Hereby  was  established  the  school  that  in  spite 
of  Harold  M.  Wiener  still  dominates  Old  Tes- 
tament criticism.* 

Meanwhile  there  had  been  crying  in  England 
the  voice  of  Kuenen's  "valued  friend,*  Jn.  Wm. 
Colenso  (1814-83),  bi.'diop  of  Natal,  Ihrou^  his 
•Pentateuch  and  the  Book  of  Joshua  critically 
examined'  (1852, 1871,  1879),  wherein  he  showed 
forth  the  flctive  nature  of  the  story  in  P  and  the 
many  contradictions  of  the  Hexateuch,  having 
been  impelled  to  critical  int^uiries,  while  trans- 
lating tresis,  by  the  puzzlmg  question  of  his 
Zulu  converts:  "Is  all  that  true?*t  His  fell ow- 
bi^ops  answered  by  deposition  in  Africa  and 
excommunication  in  England,  allowing  him 
however  the  unique  distinction  of  learning  and 
ability  employed  otherwise  than  as  a  humble 


■Dig  BrzAhlung  da   Heuteuch'  (1911), 
puallcl  Judaic   •aiuct*:  Ji  (SSO-SOO  r  - 

gnMcM  Old  Tatamenl  halo """ 

brulitic,  ailtt  70Q);  combiBet,  «  — 

to   Aarmtids    lA    JeraMlcm.     Next    >• 

editions:  Eh  "iU^  1"  Introduction  t. 

before  doimfBll  of  Judih;  Di  with  the  1.  _ 

po«t-e»lic.        Lartly.   P    CPrw«lr  Code  and   Hirtory).  in 

wluch  M«  naany  uUmive  locoadary  clcmBato.     R«dactO[« 

an  ftlwayi  aC  hand,       Apart,  fay  itaelf,  ttsndi  the  Lan  i* 

Rolmnt  O**'.  nvii— iivil. 

t  The  woiAt  at  the  noble  Bnhop  duLi»li  eoomwmniatioii: 
"My  heart  amwered  In  the  worda  o(  the  Prophet.  »i«U  a 
iriBO  apeak  hH  in  the  name  of  the  Lord?  I  dand  not  do  so." 
The  amverti  had  converted  Uwir  converter. 


it  was  caught  up  in  re-echo  much  louder  from 
Holland;  tor  as  he  had  stimulated  Kuenen,  so 
had  Kuenen  stimulated  W.  R.  Smitti  (1S46- 
1894),  from  1881  editor  of  the  'Encvclopsi) 
Britannica'  (9th  ed:),  who  began  (1875)  to 
publish  a  long  series  of  epoch^marldng  irticlcs 
from  the  pens  of  himself  and  others,  in  particu- 
lar Cheyne  (1841-1915)  and  WelUiauini. 
arousing  lively  interest  and  acrid  controveny. 
Denounced  (1876)  as  the  "echo  of  a  imty 
voice  ftwm  Holland,'  in  1878  he  was  tritd,  and 
condemned  by  vote  of  want  of  confidenct 
Hereby  his  opponents  won  a  (^dmeian  viclorj, 
for  his  reasonings  survived  such  refutation,  and 
thrown  into  Lectures,  which  were  published  as 
"The  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church' 
(1881),  'The  Prophets  of  Israel'  (1882).  and 
'The  Religion,  of  the  Semites'  (1889),  the)' 
swayed  powerfully  not  only  the  lay  hut  esm 
the  clerical  mind  of  English-speaking  praplu. 
At  length  in  1891  Dr.  S.  R.  Driver  (1846-1914), 
Regius  Professor  of  Hebrew  and  successor  of 
Pusey  as  Canon  of  Christ  Church,  Oxtort 
in  his  'Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  ihc 
Old  Testament,'  though  he  had  formerly  criti- 
dred  Wellhansen  harshly,  was  able  to  lend. 
without  any  official  danger,  not  otily  the  sanc- 
tion of  sober  and  cautious  scholarsbip  (at  many 
other  p<»nts  still  timid  and  compromising}  but 
also  the  dignity  of  hig[h  position  to  the  heTMy 
that  cost  Professor  Smith  his  chair ;  since  when, 
the  Reuss-Graf-Kuenen-Wellhausen  view  naj 
be  said  to  be  naturalized  In  Britain.* 

Meantime  no  less  a  sea-change  has  come 
over  the  criticism  of  Prophets  and  Writing! 
As  a  Cumuiative  result  of  the  learned  labors  ol 
a  host  of  scholars,  conspicuous  among  Aem 
Cheyne,  Dubm,  Kuenen  Marti,  Oort,  Stade, 
Welhausen,  it  came  to  light  that  perhaps  nol 
one  of  the  prophetic  utterances  hau  reached  m 
in  exactly  its  original  form,  but  all  had  under- 
gone, if  not  before,  at  least  after  the  exile,  a 
more  or  less  thoroughgoing  or  even  repeated 
revision  that  involved  every  form  of  modifica- 
tion, compilation,  elision,  insertion  to  an  indefin- 
able extent.  In  fact,  it  became  not  so  mucli  a 
question  of  detaching  post-exilic  deposits  as  of 
certifying  here  and  there  the  preserice  of  a  pr»- 
exilic  fossil.  Herewith  the  centre  of  literary 
pavity  began  anew  its  descent  toward  tht 
Persian  period  and  even  beyond,  toward  tin 
heroic  era  of  the  Maccabees.  To  appreciate 
the  extent  of  this  disintegration  under  critiol 
anal};sis,  it  suffices  to  consider  Chcync's  'Com- 

Bisiiion    of    Isaiah'    or    the    latest  edition  of 
uhm's    'Commentary'    (1914),    which  re%-al 


Similarly  the  book  of  Jerenriih 
crumbles  under  analyus,  as  in  the  monograph 
of  Mowinkel,  already  cited.  It  has  long  bMi 
Itnown  that  Ae  Psauns  are  of  dates  the  ino!l 
distant  apart,  and  it  is  now  recognized  in  ^ini 
a    very    conservative    work    as    Kittel's    'P^ 

•  To  DHwm  Ihia  movaDeot  in  the  Clmreli  of  Ba^Bf 
oonnar*  Diinr'i  efaaptar  oo  Daniel  (t85-SIS)  with  Pukii 
■The  Prophet  Duikl'  {1K4.  lOS)  wntten  to  nfsM  Ev^ 
and  Ravisn'  (lUO).  the  Work  tt  uevm  Kotbon.  the  wi* 
of  Ha  d»v,  btrt  hrag  tiaca  omtiiddini.  Driver  repudmBk 
of  Puaey'i  contenUona.  aa  data  even  ttw  CBtbobc  «™v„^ 
Temple  wrote  the  «nt  oC  «■  "B.  «nd  R."  brt  qniea*  "»*" 
it  (1870),  ai  hannlMa  bM  in  bwl  aimpmay,  on  iknD>3  » 


.Google 


e«5 


it  may  be  taid  («s  even  Saarce  baa  imeatedly 
avowed)  that  compilation  is  •urely  tne  "V^ 
uaame  to  the  correct  uttdentandin^  of  the  Old 
Testament  Questions  oE  authorship  have  long 
siace  lost  mtich  of  their  pertinence  and  tt»an- 
iag.  The  authors'  names  have  become  signs  for 
certain  highly  complex  phases  of  the  one  great 
Spirit  of  Israel,  which  wrote  and  rewrote, 
which  revised  and  re-revised,  the  wonderful 
scrolls  of  Scripture.  In  last  analysis,  tbia  in- 
deed is  the  only  true  conception  of  any  litera- 
tnre ;  it  is  the  visible  sign  of  tome  fining  phase 
in  the  life  of  Spirit;  but  in  the  literature  of 
Israel  we  are  bTOUgbt  to  face  most  fully  and 
unmistakably  this  momentous  fact. 

The  sifti^  process,  under  which  the  centre 
of  Israel's  Bible  settles  down  ever  deeper  into 
the  Perso-Hellenic  period,  is  it  now  complete? 
By  DO  meaas.  Of  course,  it  cannot  go  on  in- 
definitely; sooner  or  later  the  final  position 
must  be  practically  attained;  but  there  is  still 
room  for  notable  depression,  which  has 
even  been  attempted  of  recent  years  with 
remarkable  energy.  It  was  Ernest  Havct 
(1813-89}  who  suggested  in  his  comprc~ 
seosive  work  <Le  Christianisme  et  ses 
origines>  that  'the  supposed  antiquity  of  the 
pr(^)hets  placed  in  the  Sth,  7th  and  ilh  centuries 
IS  a  pure  illusion,  even  as  that  of  the  Psalms* 
<III.  180-2)3,  1S84).    The  inspiration  of, these 

Jropbets  he  finds  not  in  the  fan  of  Samaria  and 
ETusalem  under  Assyrians  and  Otaldeans,  but 
in  the  glorious  struggles  of  Jews  against  Syrian 
kines  m  the  2d  century.  The  reproach  was 
made  by  Scherer  (1879)  that  Havet.  though  cer- 
tainly acute  as  a  critic,  had  no  right  to  speak  in 
the  matter,  being  disqualified  by  his  ignorance  of 
Hebrew  and  German,  and  his  arguments,  ad- 
mittedly ingenious,  had  little  effect.  More 
recently  his  theses  have  been  revived  bv  dis- 
tinguistied  scholars  of  France,  such  as  Joseph 
HaWvy  ('Richerches  bibliques,>  3  vols.,  189S, 
1901,  1905),  Maurice  Vemes  ('Risoltats  de 
i'exigise  biblique.'  1890,  'Essais  hiblioues,'  and 
'  Du  pritcndu  polyttviisme  des  Hibrewx' 
1891),  and  especially  by  Edouard  Ehijanfin  ('La 
Source  du  Fleiive  Chritien,'  1906';  revised  and 
translated  1911),  who  restores  the  order  of  the 
Hebrew  books,  not  in  the  spirit  of  'anticrhics' 
(as  Sayce  and  Orr),  by  placing  the  Law  before 
the  Prophets,  but  by  placing  the  Prophets  after 
the  Law;  this  with  Joshua,  Judges,  Samnel, 
Kings  he  refers  to  the  4di  and  the  beipnning  of 
the  3d  century  (adding  Chronicles  and  Ezra  — 
Nchemiah  somewhat  later),  but  Jeremiak 
Eiekiel,  Isaiah  and  the  Twelve  to  the  secona 
half  of  the  4th  and  all  of  the  3d  century,  and 
lastly  Psalms,  Daniel  and  the  other  Hagiographs 
to  the  2d  centui^  and  the  1st  (B.C.).— in  all, 
three  grand  divisions  as  of  old,  in  the  old  time- 
order.  Law,  Prophets,  Apocalypses.  Undoubt- 
edly this  scheme,  set  forth  bv  Dujardin  with 
such  impressive  eloquence  ana  such  vivid  bis- 
toric  imamnation,  has  somewhat  to  say  for 
itself,  and  it  yields  a  cleaner-cut  answer  to 
some  queitions  than  any  other  yet  proposed,* 


,  it  is  not  easy  to  think  of  Amos, 

the  she^erd  of  Tekoa,  as  really  author  of  the 
prot^ecies  that  bear  his  name  but  attest  con- 
siderable culture  and  literary  art  .Gnthe  is  con- 
strained to  invoke  tlie  aid  of  'various  redactors* 
"whose  woric  was  completed  in  Jerusalem, 
where  in  the  3d  century  B.C.  the  writings  of  the 
ddcr  prophets  were  collected  for  the  Jewish 
religioUB  coromnnitj.*  These  ■various  redac- 
tors* not  onh  *arranged*  prophecies  but  made 
various  'smaller  additions,*  such  as  the  denun- 
ciations against  Tyre,  Edom,  Jndah,  the  second 
half  of  Chap.  9,  and  so  on.  For  how  much 
these  'various  redactors*  are  responsible,  it  Is 
bard  to  say.  Guthc's  claim  for  Amos  is  modest 
enough ;  'Without  doubt  the  book  is  based  on 
Ktttet  (Aufzekhnungen)  of  the  utterances  of 
Amos,  which  he  made  himself  or  had  others 
make  for  him*  (Kautasck  D.  H.  S.,  it,  p.  27). 
■Without  doubt*  this  *eldest  of  the  prophets* 
(760  B-c)  seems  hereby  virtually  surrendered 
to  the  •3d  century  in  Jerusalem.*  Similarly 
Haunt  refers  Zachariah  i-vii  to  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspis  (521-486), 
the  (^ers  (ix-xiv)  to  the  Maccabean  period, 
tfaougli   Driver  finds  the  s^le  of  ca   :   ' 


reason  why  these  ■various  redactors*  may  not 
in  any  case  have  taken  very  considerable  tra- 
ditional material,  whether  oral  or  written,  of 
very  ancient  origin,  whether  lyric,  historic  or 
gnomic,  and  worked  it  up  into  forms  better 
suited  to  the  needs  of  the  community,  their  own 
ideas  and  the  historical  conditions  tmder  which 
they  lived.*    In  so  doing  they  may  either  have 

E reserved  the  ancient  names  and  reference,  or 
Bve  taken  over  the  ancient  names,  as  Edom, 
Egypt,  Babylon,  etc.,  and  applied  them  to  the 
new  political  facton,  as  Rome,  Greece,  Syria, 
etc.  That  this  latter  was  a  habit  Is  proved  by 
Cohen  in  <Les  Pharisiens,*  i,  362,  ii,  282.  The 
strife  between  French  and  (rcnnan  criticism  is 
far  from  ended,  but  in  one  aspect  at  least  it 
is  larSely  a  question  of  degree,  of  the  extent  of 
admitted  3d-century  redaction. 

In  still  another  direction  the  prevailing  Well- 
fiausen  criticism,  brilliantly  culminating  in 
Gnnkel's  (Genesis  (1902  2d  ed.),  has  of  late 
met  strong  opposition.  After  ISS  years  of  recog- 
nition the  AstTuc  criterion  was  formally  re- 
iected  by  B.  D.  Eerdmans  in  his  'Altlestament- 
idie  Studien'  (1906-12),  The  basis  of  rejec- 
tion is  largely  laid  in  a  deeper  study  of  the 
Septuagrnt,  which  certainly  shows  considerable 
irregularity  where  order  had  been  held  to 
reign.  Thus  even  in  the  famous  first  cbauters 
of  (jeneais,  where  the  separation  into  Elohistic 
and  Yahvistic  documents  appeared  almost  to 
lie  on  the  hand,  the  whole  matter  seems  thrown 
into  doubt  by  the  Septuagint  and  other  wit- 
nesses. The  distinguished  Semitist  of  Cornell, 
Nathaniel  Schmidt,  in  a  remarkable  paper  in 
the  Jourrud  of  Biblical  LiteralMre  (March 
1914)  has  shown  that  the  name  YHVH  probably 
did  not  appear  at  all  in  the  or^nal  so-catled 

(or  Punvo-  ultbntian  in  4I9-4IS  (M  ■taich  dkle  tha  Uw 
of  D«vL  ZTi,  tf  ma  thBrriore  aat  known),  bdt  upoUisfl  in 
TWn  to  J«tiMl«a]  in  W9,  iriiemit  tbar  turn  to  Sudbiu  in 
«M  —  u  Indiotun  that  Den.  in,  a  mat  into  cflact  ba- 


•The  d 


I  i*  aka  made  that  It  findi  amfirmation  In  the 
taiprri  (dueonnd  IMWK  which  (how  tba 
y  uim  fvcainig  frttn  Jonaakm  a  rBgulatioo 


iizodsi  Google 


646  BII 

Yah  vis  tic  account,  and  Dahsc's  immense  ac- 
cumulation of  evidence  in  'Textkritische  Ma- 
terialen  zur  Hexateuchfrage*  (1912)  is  aimed 
to  show  that  the  variations  in  the  divine  name 
arose  from  divisions  oE  Genesis  into  reading 
lessons,  while  the  priestly  portions  are  the  in- 
sertions of  a  compiler.  Most  of  all,  however, 
Eerdmans'  studies  pierce  deep  into  the  matter 
and  would  draw  in  their  train  a  complete  recon- 
struction of  Old  Testament  interpretation.  Es- 
pecially he  is  moved  to  reject  the  hitherto  ac- 
cepttd  notion  that  the  legends  of  Genesis  were 
originally  monotheistic^ for  Eerdmans,  in  fact, 
Elokim  retains  its  proper  meanings  gods  —  that 
the  Elohistic  narrative  is  pre-exiiic,  that 
(priestly)  portions  are  now  to  be  found  in 
Genesis,  Of  cause,  ihe  dominant  schtiol,  thiu 
boldly  assailed  in  its  strongholds,  has  not  been 
jlow  to  reply,  and  the  battle  rages  on  the  Con- 
tinent. A  most  recent  and  comprehensive 
statement  of  the  case  is  to  be  found  in  Eich- 
rodt's  'Die  Quellen  der  Genesis  von  Neuem 
Untersucht'  ('New  Inquiry  into  the  Sourca 
of  Genesis,'   1916).* 

Yet  another  aspect  of  this  ■great  historical 
theme  calls  for  signalization.  The  lamented 
Hebraist,  Canon  T.  K.  Cheyne,  who  opened 
his  brilliant  career  with  very  conservative  con- 
teotions,  was  irresistiUy  borne  on  to  liberal 
positions,  and  thence,  in  his  devotion  to  truth, 
still  forward  to  others  ever  more  and  more 
radical,  until  he  was  finally  landed  in  almost 
painful  isolation.  In  particular,  by  his  so-called 
North-Arabian  Theory  of  Israel's  origin  and 
history,  elaborated  after  adoption  from  Windc- 
ler,  in  connection  with  his  further  theory  touch- 


rival  and  arch-enemy  of  Israel,  he  was  led 
far-reaching  reconstruction  not  only  of  the 
Hebrew  text,  but  therewith  of  all  Hebrew 
history.  These  matters  are  too  technical  for 
full  statement  in  this  connection,  but  they  may 
serve  even  here  to  hint  the  exceeding  pro- 
fundity of  Old  Testament  problems. 

Thus  far,  we  have  spoken  of  Israel's  litera- 
ture and  history  almost  as  if  it  were  self- 
centred  and  self-contained,  without  determin- 
ing connections  with  the  world  around.  Such 
however  was  certainly  not  the  case.  The  lin- 
guistic relations  of  Hebrew  to  its  sister- tongues 
are  not  more  clear  than  the  historical,  cultural, 
spiritual  ties  that  bound  Jacob  to  his  brother 
peoples  of  the  East.  Hence  it  becomes  impera- 
tive to  conceive  of  Israel's  history  not  as  a  de- 
tached episode  or  entr'acte,  but  as  an  inter- 
woven and  inextricable  part  of  the  whole  grand 

•Eerdmans'  revolulionnry  criliciam  resardi  the  miiin  tninli 
ot  GoDnii  aa  a  cento  of  legendi  rtgulntly  beginning  with 

■Thaee  sre  the  Talca  (ToltSolk)  U  ";  on   tha  stem, 

about  SM  Twsej  out  ot  1,553.. the  other  Iwo-lhirdi  of  the 
hook  having  been  grafted  from  time  to  time.  ThtK  Taie- 
Aitt  Bfo  of  the  AatediluTiaua  (5i-»).  of  Noah.  Shem.  Terah. 
Abrah&m,  Isaac  Esau.  Jacob,  aiui  lalet  of  Isisel.  —  all 
prc^eulic  and  polytheiatic.  In  Genesia  ai  a  wholrit  he  flndi 
tOBi  Idada  of  legcnda:  in.  ■  fen  pvirely  polytheistic;  2d. 
npreienting  Yaliveh  u  chief  unong  god*;  3d.  origin>1t/ 
polyttieistic  but  li»nsf«red  to  Yahveh  as  the   One  God; 


;  "Whoever  corseth  his  ^od  shall  t 


illbele((forhiB»itronHod,oreei..us  to  punish).  Buthe 
Lt  btasphemBth  Vahvehs  name,  he  dull  lurely  be  put  to 
ith"  (byWoning).  Eerdmans  regard*  Leviticus  ai  the  book 
Haelcah's  Reformation,  u  DeuteTonomy  is  of  Jotiah'i. 
rejocts  the  theory  of  paraBel  documf-*-  '  ~'  "  —'  " 
t  Buppoees  very  e^tenaivc  adc"'"' 
taxes  from  the  margin.     Tina  h 


drama  of  Semitic  history  as  it  unrolled  AtAl 
between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Pcrgm 
Gulf.  Such  a  conception  called  for  extraordi- 
naiy  intellectual  effort,  not  only  for  linguistic 
attainments  of  the  first  order,  but  for  wide- 
extended  collateral  knowledge  and  for  hisloiic 
imagination  fitted  for  the  boldest  flights.  These 
requisitions  appeared  fulfilled  in  remarkaUc 
fashion  and  measure  in  Hngo  Winckler,  loo 
early  sacrificed  to  science,  who  in  his  'Isnid- 
itische  Geschichte'  <  1895-1900)  has  sketched 
Israel  in  history  with  a  breadth  and  sweep,  a 
boldness  and  grandeur  unattemptcd  heretofore 
in  sudi  composition.  Footing  in  large  measure 
on  the  deep  researches  of  Eduard  Studcen 
( ' Astrabnytnen  der  Hebraer,  Bat^lonier  and 
iEgypter,'  1895^1907),  Winckler  has  not  only 
reconstructed  the  career  of  Jacob  in  its  Asiatic 
setting,  but  has  sought  to  trace  it  out  b  its 
tnythic  or  cosmic  relations,  as  illustrating  hii 
fundamental  doctrine  of  the  'old-oriental  world- 
conception*  of  history  as  the  reflection  on  eanb 
of  a  process  accomplishing  itself  in  heaven 
among  the  stars,  a  conception  that  has  delei^ 
mined  (he  contends)  the  form  assumed  in  the 
Scriptures  by  the  legends  of  all  the  patriarch). 
Here  again  it  seems  quite  impracticable  to  enter 
into  explanatory  details,  but  almost  certain  that 
the  contest  between  the  followers  of  Winckler 
and  their  opponents,  led  on  by  the  astute  and 
learned  Jesuit  Kugler,  cannot  fail  to  spread  a 
wonderful  if  weird  illumination  over  the  re- 
motest patriarchal  story. 

Meantime  it  must  not  be  inferred  thai  far 
more  conservative  criticism  has  been  either 
idle  or  ineffective.  Not  only  the  brilliant  but 
sometimes  erratic  free  lance,  A  H.  Sayce,  hai 
been  indefatigable  in  his  assaults,  but  the  cau- 
tious Orr  and  the  trenchant  Wener  with  rnany 
others  have  plied  incessantly  at  the  structure  of 
■higher-critical  fancies,*  and  not  a  few  of  its 
stones  they  have  loosened  or  dislodged.  In- 
deed, of  all  these  matters  we  may  say, 
Verily,  thoush.  on  the  kneea  of  the  godi  these  iiwes  are  Lyin( 

There  is  no  finality  in  criticism,  any  more 
than  there  is  in  physics  or  clwmistry  or 
the  'ologies.  In  the  most  divergent  views 
there  may  well  be  some  elements  of  correct- 
ness, reconcilable  only  when  cau^t  up  into 
some  far  higher  synthesb.  Criticism  will  never 
indeed  regress  to  its  elder  positions,  it  will  never 
return  upon  itself,  as  the  youth  will  never  be- 
come a  child  again,  but  neither  has  it  attained 
maturity,  much  less  the  ri(pdity  of  age.  The 
front  of  criticism  reforms  itself  contitiuBlIy  in 
its  continual  advance,  and  the  honest  and  oi- 
ligbtened  striving  neither  of  radical  nor  of 
conservative  can  ever  be  lost.  The  true  sprit 
of  research  declares  to  each  of  its  results,  even 
the  most  plausiUe,  *I  cast  thee  silently  inf> 
everlasting  time.* 

For  bibliography  see  article  Bible. 

William  Benjahik  Smith. 

BIBLE,  History  <rf  New  Teatwnent  In- 
terpretation. On  passing  now  to  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  New  Testament,  we  enter  a  repon 
strewn  thick  with  the  embers  of  cootroversv, 
fresh  and  hot,  where  the  conflicting  interests  are 
much  stronger  and  liveKer  than  those  which 
beset  the  path  of  Old  Testament  study.  -At 
first  blush,  indeed,  it  might  seem  that  our  feet 
would  rest  on  surer  and  safer  ground,  since 


.Google 


[he  literature  is  so  much  more  recent  and 
grew  up  under  conditions  so  much  more 
modem  and  more  readily  discoverable.  But 
a  little  reflection  will  show  these  distinctions 
in  a  large  measure  illusory.  In  the  first  place, 
-  the  difference  ii)  age  is  not  what  many  imagine. 
It  is  not  a  chasm  of  one  or  two  thousand,  but 
only  two  or  three  hundredyears  that  opens 
between  the  Teslaments.  There  may  indeed 
be  material  in  the  Old  no  older  than  some  m 
the  New.  Then  a^in,  the  conditions  under 
which  the  New  Scriptures  were  written,  like 
"the  conditions  under  which  the  new  religion 
was  preached,  it  must  be  avowed,  were  more 
^■aried  and  complicated  than  we  have  hitherto 
supposed'  (Loisy,  reviewing  *Der  vorchrist- 
liche  Jesus,'.  1906),  The  naive  Tiews  so 
gratuitously  asaumnl  for  1,600  ye^s,  which 
even  now  appear  often  under  thin  disguise  in 
authoritative  critical  connections,  do  not  call 
for  much  notice  and  need  not  long  detain  va. 
The  earliest  Christian  theologians  were  the 
Gnostics  (as  Hamack  admits),  and  some  o£ 
them  brou^t  a  very  high  order  o£  ability  to 
the  ta^k  of  conEtructing  a  well'ordered  system 
out  of  the  chaos  of  "hopes,  loves,  .creeds, 
together  heaped  and  hurled"  that  tossed  in  the 
soul  of  the  first  two  centuries  of  our  era. 
Such  names  as  Basilidcs,  Valcntinus,  Marcion, 
and  others  should  not  he  mentioned  but  with 
profound  respect  It  is  true,  these  pioneers 
failed  completely,  but  in  such  a  great  matter, 
to  have  atlempted  even,  was  great.  Their 
abundant  writings  have  ail  perished,  and  their 
thoughts  have  been  grossly  misrepresented,  but 
everl  under  the  grotesque  mask  of  travesty  it 
is  still  possible  to  reco^lte  features  of 
grandeur.  Origen  thought  it  well  worth  white 
to  study  and  to  cite  that  primitive  Commentary 
of  Hcrakieon  upon  the  Fourth  Gospel.  The 
earliest  orthodox  conception  of  the  New 
Testament  was  that  of  a  repertory  of  proof- 
texts,  as  expressed  in  Tertullian's  favorite 
juristic  term  'Jnstrvunentiun*  (documentary 
proof),  and  again  in  the  elegant  distich  of 
Samuel  WerenfeU  (J6S7-1740).  the  triumvir 
of  Basel,  promoter  of  hermeneulic  and  the 
most  distinguished  divine  among  Reformers 
of  that  age: 

This  is  the  Tohune  in  which,  for  hia  do^mM  CKch  oaa  inquiiin^ 
Fifldeth  bis  dognua  m  truth  niiuUly  mch  one  hiA  ovm.* 

This  conception  prevailed  for  over  ]600 
years  and  is  by  no  means  yet  finally  displaced. 
Orthodox  and  heterodox  alike  proved  their 
theses  by  appeal  to  the  authoritative  Word, 
and  seemed  to  rward  this  judicial  funclran  as 
its  main  reason  for  being.  Its  main  fulcrum 
was  the  postulate  of  the  manifold  (generally 
fourfold)  sense,  of  which  sufficient  has  been 
said.  To  feel  the  magic  of  this  number  four, 
one  need  only  read  Briggs'  'The  Study  of 
Holy  Scripture.'  much  of  which  moves  on  the 
plane  of  Irenxus  (III,  II),  The  procedure  of 
Erasmus  in  editing  the  Greek  text  and  trans- 
lating it  into  Latin  with  notes  (Novum  Testa- 
mentum,  1516)  was  more  rational  and  inde- 
pendent, was  in  fact  a  movement  toward 
understanding  the  sacred  volume  a  movement 
urged  on  by_  Luther,  who  in  his  translation 
with  bold  injustice  relegated  Hebrews,  James, 
Jude    and    Revelation   to    an    Appendix.     But 


LB  047 

when  the  authority  of  the  Giurch  fell  away 
from  the  Protestant  mind,  the  latter,  dazzled 
and  bewildered,  felt  the  need  of  a  guide  and 
no  other  was  at  hand  but  the  Bible  itself ;  so 
that  Protestantism  quickly  passed  over  in 
doctrinal  and  controversial  phases  into  the 
worship  of  the  Bible,  and  as  such  it  still  en- 
dures in  wide  and  respectable  circles. 

This  character  of  court  of.  last  resort 
required  as  necessary  corollary  the  verbal 
inerrancy  of  the  Bible,  since  it  were  vain  to 
appeal  to  a  supreme  court  that  could  err;  and 
alongside  therewith  flourished,  alike  among 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  the  amanuensis- 
theory  of  Scripture-authorship,  which  re- 
tarded  the  writers  as  mere  pens  of  the  Holy 
pirit  (according  to  a  saying  ascribed  to 
Gregory),  so  that  their  names  and  personal- 
ities were  quite  indifferent;  who  would  care 
for  the  pen,  knowing  that  God  himself  was  tiie 
penman*  —  an  attitude  unfavorable  .to  hi^er 
criticism.  But  over  against  this  cherished 
dogma  there  grew  up  year  after  year  a  denser 
and  denser  array  of  facts  in  variants  continually 
disclosed  by  the  multiplying  manuscripts  and  by 
textual  criticism.  At  the  same  time  the  strong 
rationalistic  trend  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries, 
propagated  from  all  the  adjacent  domains  of 
human  inquiry,  spread  resiatlessly  over  the 
fields  of  theology  and  Scripture.  The  19th 
century  added  the  regrulative  notion  of  evolli- 
tion,  of  gradual  growth  from  seemingly  simple 
forms  to  forms  of  endless  complication. 
Under  the  urge  of  these  forces  New  Testa- 
ment interpretation  has  pressed  forward  ;^ear 
after  year  with  quicker  and  longer  strides 
toward  its  goal,  the  sympathetic  comprehen- 
sion of  New  Testament  Scriptures. 

The  Biblical  interpretation  of  the  Middle 
Ages  and  of  the  Reformation  embodies  an 
immense  amount  of  intellectual  effort  put  forth 
in  many  eases  by  minds  of  the  first  order. 
However,  its  significance  for  to-day  is  by  no 
means  proportioned  to  its  intrinsic  excellence. 
From  tfie  principles  from  which  it  started  and 
th<;  methods  by  which  it  was  guided,  the 
modern  spirit  has  departed  definitely  and 
finally;  any  return  thereto  would  be  like  a 
return  to  Ptolemaic  astronomy  or  to  pre- 
electric  mechanics.  The  student  of  to-day  ia 
not  concerned  with  the  "fourfold  sense,* 
nor  even  the  'double  sense,"  of  the  Scriptures, 
nor  yet  again  with  proof -texts  wrested  in 
controversy  to  the  sui^ort  of  this  or  that 
system  of  dogmatic  theology.  On  the  con- 
trary, his  sole  or  at  least  his  main  concern  is 
to  understand  the  mind  of  the  author;  what 
he  actually  thouf^t  and  felt  and  meant  at  the 
moment  of  writing.  To  such  a  student  the 
easlier  commentaries,  learned  and  deep- 
tboughted  as  they  often  are,  seem  more  like 
Meditations  than  Interpretations,  No  attempt 
can  be  made  here  to  sot  forth  the  nature  and 
extent  of  these  musings,  nor  dieir  valua 
which  indeed  depends  largely  on  the  mood  Ol 
the  reader.  A  shnilar  state  of  case  presents 
itself  also  in  the  study  of  the  nrofane  masters. 
When  we  read  'Ueber  alien  Gipfeln  ist  Ruh',' 
a  vast  perspective  seems  to  be  open  before  us; 
we  think  of  solitary  heights  of  achievement 
in  art,  in  science,  in  action,  in  suffering  and 
sacrifice,  of  the  holy  calm  of  the  victorious. 
souL     This   may   all    be  very  t^itimmte  wtd 


,  Google 


even  ennoMing,  but  it  is  not  iaterpr«tation, 
it  does  not  reveal  the  mind  of  Goetfae,  who 
was  writing  of  the  deep  bush  of  evening  as  it 
falls  widi  awe  and  solemnity  upon  the  moun- 
tain-tops. 

So  much  premised,  we  may  call  the  2d 
cottury  the  'Apologetic*  age  of  Scripture  in- 
terpretatioiv  marked  by  such  names  as  Oemens 
Rmnanus,  ■Biamabas,"  Justin  Mar^r,  Irenaeus, 
Tertullian,  whose  main  interest  was  to  refute 
Gnosticism  and  especially,  by  all^oric  inter- 
ftretation  of  the  Old  Testament,  to  establish 
the  Gospels  as  history.  The  'Philosophic* 
Sta^,  best  represented  by  Clemens  Alex,  and 
Ongen  in  the  3d  century,  greatly  stresses  and 
develops  the  allegoric  method  but  in  a  much 
wider  interest,  striving  to  elaborate  a  theoloKy 
in  some  measure  acceptable  to  the  Greek  intel- 
lect As  a  reaction,  arose  and  flourished  in 
the  4th  and  5th  centuries  the  "half -critical 
and.  historical'  schools  of  Syria,  of  Ephraem 
Syrus  at  Edessa  and  Theodore  of  Uopsuestia, 
*exegete  of  the  Church,*  at  Antioch.  These 
in  some  measure  recalled  exegesis  to  the 
literal  sense  of  the  Scriptures  and  to  a  much 
soberer  handling  of  the  sacred  text,  and 
especially  the  Antiochan  School  spread  its  in- 
fluence far  and  wide,  over  Athanasius, 
Chiysostom  and  Cyril  in  the  East,  and  Ambrose, 
Augustine  and  Jerome  in  the  West  But  the 
exigencies  pf  dogma  did  not  allow  an^  but 
half-way  measures,  a  thoroi^-going  histor- 
ical criticism  seemed  out  of  the  question,  and 
the  Antiochan  method  fell  before  the  allwiric 
of  Origen,  which  thenceforth  reigned  till  the 
Reformation. 

There  followed  the  great  millennium  of 
'Authority,*  marked  indeed  by  some  very 
notable  names,  tuit  contributing  little  or 
nothing  to  the  comprehension  of  Scripture. 
The  general  contact  of  the  Greek  with  the 
Latin  mind  was  now  interrupted,  and  the  con- 
duits by  which  the  treasures  of  the  former 
were  transmitted  to  the  latter  took  the  inade- 
quate form  of  Anthologies,  so-called  'sen- 
tences* culled  from  the  Fathers.  Isidore  of 
Seville  (560-636)  led  the  way,  exploiting 
chiefly,  however,  Augustine  and  Gregory  the 
Great  In  fact,  the  following  centuries  fed 
upon  Augustine  as  the  earlier  upon  Origen. 
For  nearly  600  years  such  ox-blood  capsules 
sustained  the  spiritual  life  of  the  generations, 
but  with  the  dawn  of  the  12th  century  a  new 
Spirit  of  daring  breathed  upon  the  dry  bones 
and  they  started  up  clothed  with  flesh  and 
vigor.  It  was  Peter  Abelard  (1079-1142)  who 
inaugurated  that  splendid  century  and  set 
Reason  and  Aristotle  side  t^  side  with  the 
Sible  and  the  Fathers.  His  audacious  Sic  et 
NoH,  which  ranged  authority  against  authority 
in  shocking  contradiction,  was  followed  t^ 
flocks  of  'Sentences*  compiled  with  pious 
purpose,  as  by  Peter  Lombard  (d.  UM). 
Aristotle  was  now  enthroned,  and  special 
iJcading  ruled  in  the  schools,  with  endless 
disputations.  The  stateliest  structure  of  dogma 
was  read  by  Saint  Thomas  Aquinas  in  his 
<Snmmx,>  and  Thomism  still  sways  Catholic 
thought,  as  at  Louvain.  But  in  boldness,  keen- 
ness and  originality  be  had  already  been  sur- 
passed by  the  Gnostic  Johannes  Scotus  Erigena 
(d.  877),  who  made  caprice  supreme  in  God 
(whose  essence  was  nothingness),   surpasMng 


even  Origen  who  had  polled  free  will  and  indi- 
vidualism to  the  utmost,  even  to  the  practical 
annulment  of  the  'historic  Jesus*  (Hamack). 
The  exceedingly  acute  William  of  Occam 
^orifled  doubt  as  the  handmaid  of  God;  bjr 
removing  all  the  natural  bases  of  mental  se-  . 
curi^  be  sought  to  settle  faith  the  more  firmly 
on  Uie  rock  of  church  authority.  Ansehn 
with  his   'Cur  Deus  Homo*  has  also  a  place 


taken  toward  understanding  the  Bible,  the 
common  armory  of  this  endless  warfare,  until 
the  'Fostilla  Ijtteralis*  of  Nicolaus  de  Lyra, 
who  with  great  learning  with  keen  acumen 
and  with  sound  historic  judgment  strove 
hard  to  recall  his  readers  from  the  'mystic* 
to  the  litentl  sense  of  the  Scriptures,  whom  the 
following  centuries  admired  but  could  not 
emulate.  In  Luther,  he  was  partiallv  revived, 
but  the  German  was  a  moral  ana  s^ritual 
force  rather  than  a  sequacious  thinker.  System 
he  left  to  Melanchthon  (1497-1560),  who  was 
unequal  to  the  task  and  fell  back  more  and 
more  into  the  abandoned  paths  of  traditktnal- 
ism.  Not  so  Jean  Calvin  (1509-64),  who  was 
nothing  if  not  rigorous  attd  consequential  and 
surveyed  the  whole  field  of  relt^ous  con- 
troversy with  scrupulous  care  in  bis  calcula- 
tions. Augustine  came  again  to  his  own  in 
the  Genevan,  the  master-builder  of  the  Refor- 
mation, whose  method  and  authority  have 
dominated  the  severer  forms  of  dogmatk 
theology  from  that  day  to  this.  But  neither 
he  nor  his  successors  raised  seriously  the  pre- 
vious question  as  to  what  the  Scripture  really 
is ;  nor  even  while  proclaiming  'The  Bible,  the 
Bible  alone,  is  the  religion  of  Protestants* 
(Chillingwordi  1637),  did  they  open  up  any 
safe  paths  of  studv  in  order  to  understand  it 
as  an  historic  prouuct  On  die  contrary,  they 
fell  into  a  dogmatism  as  hopeless  as  the 
scholasticism  from  which  they  had  emerged. 
Hie  Scripture  was  treated  as  a  complex  of 
proof -texts,  a  homogeneous  whole,  self-con- 
tained and  unrelated,  its  own  commentary,  a 
verse  in  John  to  be  explained  by  a  verse  tn 
Isaiah,  a  passage  in  Daniel  by  one  in  Revela- 


the  seat  of  authority,  and  a  disintegraliv. 
process  set  in,  which  has  continued  up  to  die 
present  From  this  the  Cadiolica,  even  during 
the  reaction  sotoetimes  called  the  Counter- 
Reformation,  headed  by  Clajetan  (1469-1534), 
Bellarmine  (1542-1621),  Francis  (]567-l622). 
Jansenius  (1585-1638),  wer«  sheltered  by  the 
■till  unshaken  pillars  of  (Church  authority,  but 
thdr  new-qoiwened  zeal  while  purifjiing  the 
life,  perfecting  the  ormniaation  and  inspiring 
the  activities  of  the  Church,  did  not  expand 
its  intellectual  faoriion  nor  sharpen  its  critical 
insight    The  seals  of  the  Bible  remained  un- 


represented by  H.   S.    Reimarus    (1694-1768), 
seven  fragments  of  whose  huge  work  (still  in 


*  Which  ii  tiks  nathma  elae  m  much  m  tmch  nrfin. 
when  each  oaw  cutnn  Itada  np  to  ■  poalion  MiB  men 


iizodsi  Google 


sing  (1729^1),  under  the  title  of  WoHen- 
biitteler  'Fragmente  ernes  UnKcnannteo'  (of 
Retmarus's  'Apology  for  the  Rational  Wor- 
shippefs  of  God>).  The  author's  standpoint 
is  toat  of  English  Deism,  and  his  unsympa- 
thetic treatment  of  the  Gospeb  consists  mainly 
in  purely  natvraUstic  interpretation  of  the 
minicles  and  a  depreciation  of  the  purposes 
and  personalities  of  the  early  Christians.  The 
title  of  the  7th  Fragment,  so  highly  praised  hy 
Schweitzer,  is  'The  Aims  of  Jesus  and  His 
'  Disciples.'  Its  literary  merits  are  certainly 
great,  and  it  inaugurates  brilliantly  the  long 
reign  of  the  pure&  natural  and  historical  in 
the  conception  of  Jesus,  anticipating  indeed  in 
large  measure  the  recent'  eschatologicaJ  view. 
Hence  the  remarkably  appreciative  judgment 
of  Schweitzer.  The  reaction  against  Lesung 
was  violent,  even  to  persecution.  Semler  as- 
sailed him  in' a  famous  apologue,  and  especially 
the  Hamburg  Pastor  Goeze  was  vehement  and 
unscrupulous  in  denouncing  him  for  'hostile 
attacks  upon  our  all-holiest  reli^on.*  Lessii^ 
replied  with  courage  and  brilhance,  extraor- 
dinary even  for  him,  but  was  effectively 
silenced  by  state  authority;  turning  then  to 
ttie  stage,  he  produced  'Nathan  der  Weise,' 
In  simple  truth,  the  comments  of  Lessing  had 
contrasted  very  unfavorably  in  their  reticence, 
hesitation  and  apologetic  tone  with  the  bold, 
resolute  and  uncompromising  text  itself  ol 
Reimarus;  but  this  does  not  mean  that  the 
editor  was  of  less  heroic  mold  than  the 
author,  who  enjoyed  the  incalculable  advanta^ 
of  being  dead.  Such  rationalism,  even  in  its 
ablest  representative,  H.  E.  G.  Paulus  (1761- 
1851),  however  acute  in  negation  and  however 
vibrant  with  hate  and  scorn,  with  all  its 
'natural  explanations*  does  not  advance  ui 
very  far  toward  a  comprehension  of  the  New 
Testament.  Feeling  how  weak  it  was  in 
construction,  David  F.  Strauss  (1808-74)  re- 
nounced it  utterly  in  his  'Leben  Tesu*  (1834- 
1835),  and  deveioned  a  mythical  theory,  which 
saw  in  the  Gospel  accounts  only  reflections,  in 
the  excited  minds  of  Messianic  enthusiasts,  of 
the  historic  and  prophetic  utterances  or  the 
Old  Testament,  or  else  Messianic  ideas  modi- 
fied by  the  personality  of  Jesus,  whose  human 
and  historic  character  it  did  not  occur  to 
Strauss  to  deny.  Whenever  in  the  Gospel  he 
read  "That  it  might  be  fulfilled,'  Strauss  be- 
held an  incident  devised  by  the  Messianic 
imagination  of  the  evangelist,  as  the  flight  into 
■      .  fulfil  the  words  of  Hoaea   (xi,  1), 


lated  word  of  Zachariah  (ix,  9),  'Thy  king 
Cometh  —  riding  upon  an  ass  and  upon  a  colt 
the  foal  of  an  ass.'  This  work,  marked  by  a 
pitiless  acumen,  and  pushing  German  criticism 
suddenly  over  a  precipice  on  which  it  had 
long  been  hovering,  was  passionately  rejected 
on  all  sides*  by  German  theologians,t  but  its 
most  important  reaction  was  in  the  mind}  of 
F.  C.  Baur  (1792-1860),  pre-eminent  in  the 
annals  of  theology  as  the  founder  of  its 
Tiibingen    Sdiool,    who    rightly   objected   that 

*  3chwAtc«r'B  inoumptetA  tiat  cuaa  i 
Stzmoia  And  cisbty-flre  of  Renmit. 

t  Of  >bam  UilisuD  iliould  be  itcaiied  m 
refut«   CHiiloriKhoderMythiscli?'  18311). 

JOi,  at  lawt.  apperentir    "in  the  work" 


Strauss  had  prematurelv  criiidied  the  Gospels 
as  history,  before  he  nad  criticized  them  as 
literature,  and  hence  without  any  pro^r 
understandii^  of  their_  origin  and  meaning. 
By  a  most  comprehensive  study  of  the  New 
Testament  and  early  Christian  literature  in 
general,  he  was  led  to  develop  in  a  long  series 
of  publications  his  own  idea  of  the  genesis  of 
the  New  Testament  as  an  example  of  Hegelian 
Thesis^ Antithesis-Synthesis,  the  unfolding  in 
successive  stages  of  a  primary  contrast  and 
conHict  between  two  opposing  views  of  primi- 
tive aristianity,  the  Conservative  or  Petrine 
and  the  Liberal  or  Pauline.  In  terms  of  this 
Petrine-Pauline  antagonism  and  of  successive 
efiorts  at  reconciliation,  culmiuHtin^  In  the 
Fourth  Gospel,  he  interpreted  practically  the 
whole  body  of  early  Christian  writings.  His 
constructian,  often  exceedingly  ingenious,  was 
also  noted  for  the  late  dates  assigned  to  the 
great  majority  of  the  New  Scriptures, — 
wherein  he  was  partly  anticipated  by  the  pre- 
mature Edward  Evanson,  who,  in  his  'Dis- 
sonance, etc'    (1792)^  adds  (pp.  255-289)   "my 


Epistles  to  the  Seven  Chur^es  of  Asia* 

in  Revelation,  a  seed  of  thought,  which,  like  so 
many  in  England,  fell  among  stones.  Baur's 
influence  has  descended  in  great  strength 
through  the  preceding  even  into  the  present 
century,  though  it  is  now  generally  recognized 
that  the  New  Testament  problem  is  far  too 
complex  and  profound  for  the  amplication  of 
bis  two-term  formula:  but  in  unity  and  com- 
prehensiveness no  otoer  single  fonnula  has 
taken  its  plaee. 

Ilie  learned  labors  of  Baur  commanded 
wide  approval  and  almost  universal  admir^' 
tioD.  Far  different  the  fate  of  his  deep- 
thou^ted  contemporary,  Bruno  Bauer  (1809- 
1882),  whose  ten  cumbrous  and  lumbering  vol- 
umes of  *Kritik'  of  the  New  Testament  (1840- 
1852,  followed  by  more  popular  statements  in 
1874  and  1877)  not  only  cost  him  bis  career 
and  his  position  (his  "vfinia  docendi' '  was 
withdrawn  in  1842)  but  also  provoked  almost 
unanimous  rejection  and  even  abhorrence.  He 
who  anticipates  is  lost.  Of  all  his  genera.tion 
furthest  into  the  real  problem  of  the 


environmentally  determined,  as  issuing  from 
the  total  complex  of  historical  conditions, 
social  and  cultural,  of  that  imperial  age  His 
critical     construction*     were     indeed     almost 


country,  bis  thought  found  welcome 
among  foreigners,  especially  in  Holland,  with 
A.  D.  Loman,  the  Teiresias  of  the  North, 
with  Pierson  and  Naber  (Veristtnilia,  1886) 
and  later  Van  Manen  (Paulus,  1890),  and 
Bolland,  with  R.  Steck  (Der  Galalerbrief, 
1888)  and  Edwin  Johnson  ('Antiqua  Mater,' 
1887).'  At  last  he  has  been  restored  to  Ger- 
many, as  by  Wrede  (<I>as  Messiasgehetmnis,* 
1901)  and  the  authoritative  Schweitter's  'Le- 
ben-jesu-Forschung'  (1906,  19]l),-^in  which 
he  figures  second  only  to  Strauss,  and  irtiere 
we  read:  "Bauer's  'Criticism  of  the  Gospel- 
History*  is  worth  a  goo4  dozen  'Lives  of 
Jesus'  .  .  .     For   his  contemporaries  he  was 


Digitized  b,  Google 


vealed  to  no  man  in  such  comprehensive  iii 
ner  that  primitive  a.n[)  earl^  Christianity  c 
not  be  understood  as  the  simple '*  -* 


Since  Paul,  no  one  had 
seized  with  such  power  on  the  mystical  in  the 
superpersonal  being  of  Christ,  and  Batier, 
translating  this  into  history,  made  the  Roman 
empire,  as  it  lay  in  throes  of  death,  into  a 
'Body  of  Christ.'  ■  , 

If  Bauer's  'Kritik*  was  despised  and  re- 
jected of  men,  the  like  could  not  be  s^d  of 
'La  Vie  de  Jfaus'  {1863),  by  the  supreme  lit- 
erary genius,  Ernest  Renan  (1823-92).  Be- 
Bin  in  Syria  at  the  bidding  of  his  noble  sister 
enriette,  before  their  fatal  exploration  of 
the  upper  Lebanon,  with  intent  to  'evoke 
from  the  past  the  Origins  of  Christianity,*  by 
an  Hebraist  of  the  first  order,  it  is  steeped  in 
the  romance  and  mystery  of  the  East;  through 
the  far-off  ha»e  of  legendary  marvel  looms 
up  in  its  pages  (he  spectral  figure  of  the 
•noble  founder,"  the  'incomparable  man.' 
It  is  not  likely  that  such  exact  antiquarian 
knowledge  and  high  imaginative  power  and 
rare  charm  of  style  will  ever  again  unite  in  the 
efFort  to  produce  a  convincing  portrait  of  the 
Jesus  of  the  Gospels  as  an  extraordinary  car- 
penter. But  its  failure  could  scarcely  be  more 
complete.  Though  60,000  copies  were  sold  in 
four  months,  and  though  it  shook  all  Chris- 
tendom with  its  echoes,  it  is  now  seldom 
named,  its  permanent  value  lay  almost  solely 
in  the  proof  by  example  that  the  task  it  at- 
tempted could  never  be  performed.  Close  on 
the  heels  of  Renan 's  'Life  of  Jesus'  catne 
Theodore  Keim's  'History  of  Jesus  of  Nai- 
ara>  (3  vols.,  1867;  1871;  1872),  written  with 
far  greater  critical  knowledge  and  conscien- 
tiousness, but  with  far  less  literary  skill;  it 
strives  hard  to  find  a  history  proper,  a  devel- 
opment in  the  Gospel  story ;  it  tells  about  "the 
Holy  Youth,"  "the  Galilean  Spring,"  'the 
Galilean  Storms/  "the  Signs  of  Downfall,* 
and  many  such,  in  the  effort  at  historic  plausi- 
bility, but  an  its  learning  and  skill  do  not  blur 
the  fact  that  it  builds  a  house  of  cards  on  a 
base  of  mirage. 

Since  New  Testament  criticism  passed  out 
of  the  sign  of  Baur  and  Tubingen,  and  l^  that 
of  Renan,  its  course  has  been  steadily  onward 
tbou^  at  times  erratic.  For  a  while  there 
seemed  to  be  an  era  of  disintegration :  not  only 
did  the  Scriptures,  in  particular  the  Gospels  and 
Revelation,  crumble  under  incessant  probing 
and  analysis,  but  the  problems  themselves  be- 
came more  sharply  separate  and  distinguished; 
investigation  deliquesced  in  every  direction 
into  various  problems,  and  each  of  these  pre- 
sented its  diverse  phases.*  Among  the  key- 
words of  controversy  should  be  noted:  (1) 
"The  Marcan  Hypothesis" — that  'Mark's' 
Gospel  is  the  earliest,  nearest  to  fact,  and  his- 
torically the  most  plausible,—  propounded,  1838. 
bv  the  continuator  of  Strauss,  the  philosopher, 
C.  A.  Weisse,  in  "Die  evangelische  Geschichte,* 
confirmed  by  C-  G.  Wilke  in  'Der  Urcvangelist' 

•TlHivh  nKh  m*  Otto  Pflciderv  |1S3»-1908>  contiDuiil 
to  RDup  them  kll  u  >  unit  CDm  tJichrirtcntum',  187S. 
1902.  Eni.tr.  1WW). 


(1838),  since  when  it  has  gained  increanng 
recognition  approaching  general  acceptance  in 
some  form,  though  opposed  by  Tiibingen,  in 
particular  bj-  A.  Hilgcnfeld  (I8Z3-1907);  (2) 
■the  Two-Source  Theory*  —  that  an  origin j 
'Mark'  and  the  'Oracles'  or  'Logia'  were  the 
prime  elements  out  of  which  our  present  Gos- 
pels were  derived  and  compoundni;  (3)  'the 
Son-of-Man  Question"  —  as  to  meaning  and  use 
of    the    term    Bar~Naska    (Son-of-Man),   and 


Worte  Jesu'  (1896)  and  N  Schmidt's  exhaus- 
tive treatment  in  the  'Encyclopaedia  BiUica' 
(4705-40);  (4)  ■the  Johanninc  question"- 
concerning  date,  authorship,  composition  and 
aim  of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  ebborated  by  Bacon 
(1905)  and  much  illumined  by  recent  publica- 
tions of  Schwarz,  Wellhausen,  Soltau,  Wcnd- 
land  and  others;  (S)  "the  ProbloB  of  Acts,'- 
authorship,  date,  composition,  earliest  form, 
later  editions  —  advanced  by  F.  Blass ;  (6) 
*the  Pauline  question,"  —  authorship,  date, 
structure  of  the  PauHne  epistles,  especiallj 
'Unto  Romans'  :  the  latest  i^ase  of  this  hi^ 
argument  was  opened  by  the  Dutch  seer,  A.  D. 
Loman  in  'QuEcstiones  Paulinx'  (1882),  fol- 
lowed by  Pierson  and  Naber  in  'Vcrisinulia' 
(1886),  then  by  Michelscn,  Steck,  Volter,  Van 
Manen  (who,  at  first  an  opponent,  passed  over 
to  Loman's  side  in  his  'Paulus  IL  Dc  Brief 
an  de  Roraeinen'  (1890),  the  most  complete 
statement  for  the  2d  century  date),  by  W.  B. 
Smith  and  others  named  in  Van  Manen  s  article 
on  'Romans'  in  'Encyclopaedia  Biblica'  (4127- 
4145,  1903),  also  in  Schweiticr's  'Paulinische 
Forschung'  (1913]J;  (7i  'the  Apocalyptic  ques- 
tion" —  dealing  with  tne  elements  blended  in 
"Revelation,'  their  dates,  origins  and  meanings, 
matters  largely  cleared  up  by  Volter,  Vischcr  and 
their  successors ;  (8)  ■the  Eschatological  view' 
—  that  Christianity  originated  in  a  semi -political 
Messianic  movement  started  by  the  Baptist, 
continued  by  Jesus,  in  a  Palestinian  yearning  or 
striving  for  a  kingdom  of  God  as  the  end,  the 
last  thmgs  {eichala), —  a  view  championed  liy 
J.  Weiss  and  A.  Schweitzer  and  much  in  vogue, 
espeeiaUy  in  Great  Britain;  (9)  lastly,  opposed 
thereto,  'the  Hellenistic  or  comparative  view'— 
that  early  Christian  doctrine  and  ritual,  espe- 
cially Pauline  portions,  were  deeply  dyed  with 
elements  derived  from  the  cults  and  mj-steries 
then  flourishing  in  the  Roman  empire, —  a 
view  favored  by  Cumonl,  Gunkel,  Pfleidercr. 
and  particularly  recommended  by  the  philolo- 
gist K.  Reitzenstein.  To  these  must  now  be 
added  (10)  'the  Indian  question:*  Does  the 
New  Testament  contain  Buddhistic  tjlemenls? 
Passing  by  the  extravagant  claims  of  R.  Seydel 
and  others,  criticism  now  settles  down  in  the 
conviction  that  in  at  feast  four  items  —  Simeon 
(Luke  ii,  23-35),  Temptation,  Peter's  Walking 
on  Water,  Miracle  of  Loaves  —  the  Gospel  ha; 
drawn  from  the  well  of  Buddha.  R.  Gaitc 
admits  as  much  in  his  'Indien  und  d&s  Chrii- 
tentum'  (pp.  \2-b\,  1914),  and  is  now  prepared 
to  concede  still  further  the  dependence  he  )ai 
earlier  denied  in  lolo.  Indeed,  it  seems  highly 
probable  that  John  ix,  1-3  must  swell  the  list 
since  only  the  doctrine  of  Karma  can  explain 
the  question,  'Did  this  man  an  (or  his  parents), 
that  be  was  born  blind?"  In  this  long  batik 
the  American  scholar  A.  J.  Edmimds  has  woo 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


especial  distinction  ('Buddhist  and  Christian 
Gospe1s,>  1902,  1905,  I90S-09J,  as  well  as  the 
Hollander,  van  Eysinga. 

However,  it  is  now  seen  more  and  more 
clearly  that  all  these  riddles  are  at  last  only 
on%  mey  are  different  facets  of  the  same  poly- 
hedron, the  varying  aspects  of  one  fundamental 
question:  «What  think  ye  of  the  Christ?* 
What  was  the  origin  and  content  of  proto- 
christianity?  Since  this  latter  is  far  away  the 
most  imposing  as  well  as  the  most  mysterious 
»ngle  phenomenon  of  man's  history,  it  seems 
clear  that  this  question  yields  in  interest  to 
none  that  has  ever  engaged  his  attention.  It 
may  be  well,  then  to  note  the  different  altitudes 
that  may  be  and  actually  are  assumed  in  its 
presence. 

The  Traditional  view,  too  familiar  in  all 
the  creeds  of  Christendom  to  callfor  more  than 
the  briefest  mention,  is  very  imposing.  It  re- 
ffards  Scripture  as  the  inspired  and  authorita- 
tive depositary  of  God's  self -revelation  to  man, 
having  in  view  secondarily  the  instruction, 
civilization  and  moralization  of  mankind,  but 
primarily  the  salvation  of  the  immortal  souls 
of  all  the  family  of  heaven,  the  church  of  the 
redeemed.  The  original  single  vehicle  of  this 
revelation  was  the  People  Israel,  as  represented 
especially  in  Moses  and  the  prophets,  authors 
of  the  Old  Testament;  but  the  later  bearer  was 
the  Son  of  God  Himself,  in  the  form  of  the 
son  of  Mary,  'very  man  and  very  God,"  along 
with  His  Immediate  disciples  and  apostles  in- 
cluding all  the  authors  of  the  New  Testament. 
Both  »ese  forms  of  the  one  continuous  re  vela- 


forces  and  processes  of  the  universe  as  every^ 
where  else  m  operation. 

The  second  attitude,  that  of  Liberal  criticism, 
rejects  this  last  thesis  of  Tradition  and  insists 
on  understanding  the  whole  body  of  Scriptures, 
with  all  their  attendant  history,  as  normal  his- 
toric products  of  human  activity  under  extraor- 
dinary but  strictly  natural  and  intelligible 
conditions,  and  Christianity  itself  as  the  most 
richly  gifted  of  the  family  of  four  (Islam, 
Zoroast nanism,   Buddhism   beiuR   the   others  — 


Founder,  the  Carpenter- Prophet  of  Nazareth, 
as  an  enthusiast  or  revivalist  of  whom  scarcely 
anvthing  can  be  said  with  confidence  (cp. 
Scnweitzer's  'Leben-Jesu-Forschung,'  2d  ed.). 
At  this  point  the  new  Radicalism  joins  issue 
and  enters  protest.  Liberal  critics,  after  a  cen* 
tury  of  incessant  endeavor,  can  find  not  one 
point  of  common  consent  in  their  figure  of 
Jesus  (Jesusbild),  and  the  attempt  to  account 
for  the  immediate  and  world-wide  progress  and 
success  of  the  Christian  propaganda  tn  terms  of 
a  bundle  of  contradictory  guesses  seems  to  the 
Radical  to  be  not  only  grotesque  but  even  cen- 
surable trifling;  in  partKular,  it  leaves  the  cen- 
tral fact,  the  worship  of  the  Jesus  as  God,  en- 
tirely unexplained  and  unexplainable,  besides 
degrading  Christianity  down  to  the  most  irra- 
tional and  unworthy  of  all  great  religions,  to  a 
mere  man- worship,  a  ridiculous  compost  of  de- 
lusion and  fraud.  Such  degradation  could  be 
allowed  only  imder  compulsion  of  logic  and 
of  the  surest  and  exactcst  facts,  but  the  Lib- 
erals present  no  such  facts,  not  one  on  which 


they  themselves  can  even  nearly  agree.  Despite 
the  immense  learning,  devotion  and  ability  by 
whicii  it  is  recommended,  liberal  criticism  ap- 
pears to  the  Radical  to  be  utterly  impotent  in 
presence  of  the  larger  facts  of  early  Chris- 
tianity. 

On  the  contrary.  Radicalism  (as  in  'Ecce 
Deus'  and  'Der  vorchristliche  Jesus')  regards 
all  cosmic  history  as  the  struggle  of  the  indi- 
vidual spirit  to  realize  its  own  universality,  i 


of  Israel  (set  forth  in  the  Hebrew  Scriphtrc) 
as  one  signal  phase  of  the  general  monistic 
striving,  as  the  continuous  national  effort  to 
form,  appropriate  assimilate  and  finally  propa- 
gate the  conception  of  God  as  One,  and  in 
second  line  as  dwelling  (coming  to  conscious- 
ness) in  His  chosen  people,  that  had  come  to 
know  Him.  Consistently,  Radicalism  regards 
the  proto- Christian  propaganda  as  the  final 
phase  of  this  national  effort,  at  length  become 


of  this  same  Monoth 
cited  to  enthusiastic  evangelism  by  contact  with 
Hellenic  philosophy,  especially  in  the  doctrine 
of  the  Oneness  of  God,  a  doctrine  reaching  in 
a  long  line  of  thinkers  as  far  back  as  Amcno- 
phis  fV  (Ikh-Naton,  1370-13SO  b,c.),  and  rami- 
fying through  all  the  higher  enlightenment  of 
Greece  and  her  pupil  Rome.  This  monotheistic 
propaganda,  zealously  preached  from  shore  to 
shore  of  die  Mediterranean,  by  missionaries 
(apostles)  of  the  Dispersion,  at  first  secretly 
under  many  devices  and  slogans,  finally  con- 
creted around  the  figure  and  m  the  worship  of 
the  Saviour-God  Jesus,  i.e..  of  God  as  Jesus. 
Soter,  Saviour,  under  the  aspect  (or  person) 
of  Saviour  from  sin  (i.e.,  idolatry,  the  supreme 
sin  of  unfaith  to  God).  It  was  also  combined 
with  the  purer  Jewish  doctrine  of  the  Messiah 
(Christ),  and  at  the  same  time  deeply  tinged 
with  elements  derived  from  venerable  faiths 
sanctified  in  the  mysteries  of  contemporaneous 
cults.  The  ■Eternal  Gospel'  of  this  early,  even 
prechristian,  propaganda  is  clearly  proclaimed 
in  Rev.  xiv.  7,  as  'Fear  God  and  give  him 
eloty,"  whicn  is  pure  monotheism,  recalling  the 
last  words  of  the  Preacher,  xii,  13:  "Fear  God 
and  keep  his  commandments,  for  that  is  the 
du^  of  every  man.* 

In  looking  back  over  the  wav  we  have 
come,  it  seems  exceeding  long  ana  often  ex- 
ceeding steep,  and  one  might  wonder  whether 
it  was  all  really  worth  while,  whether  cither  in 
the  process  or  in  the  result  there  was  any 
justification  for  the  prodigious  expenditure  of 
energy,  for  the  concentrated  endeavor  of  so 
many  minds  for  so  many  hundreds  of  years. 
For  him  that  measures  life  in  terms  of  bread 
and  butter  and  fine  linen  and  yachts  and  motor 
cars  and  opera  boxes,  the  answer  mav  be  a 
decisive  No.  Not  however  for  him  that  re- 
gards the  soul  as  worth  more  than  food  and 
raiment,  and  the  revelation  of  Spirit  as  the 
increasing  purpose  of  unending  time.  To  him 
it  may  well  seem  worth  while,  and  all  the 
lingering  stages  in  the  monotheization  of  the 
world  will  appear  guite  as  justified  and  neces- 
sary as  the  geologic  ages  that  have  fitted  tiie 
earth  for  the  kingdom  of  Man,  and  Man  tor 
the  kingdom  of  GoA. 


NuiAAU  BENjAmtT  Skith. 


,  Google 


BIBLE.  VerakmB  of  the*.  No  other  book 
has  received  the  honor  of  such  frequent  trans* 
lation  as  the  Biblft  The  history  of  thi»  im- 
mense and  immensely  imporlajit  body  of  hu- 
man effort,  easy  to  expand  into  volumes,  but 
here  to  be  compressed  into  a  few  columns, 
naturally  falls  into  two  divisions  concerning, 
respectively,  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New, 
and  the  former  again  into  two  sections  treat- 
ing, respectively,  of  Jewish  and  of  Christian 
translations. 

Jewish  Translations  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment—Already, under  Text  Criticism,  it  has 
been  staled  that  the  elder  portions  of  the  Old 
Testament  existed  first  in  the  Canaanite  script 
of  which  the  scantiest  traces  survive.  Says 
the  Babylonian  Talmud  (Sanh.  21b)  :  <At  first 
the  law  was  given  to  Israel  in  Hebrew  script 
and  in  the  holy  tongue.  Again,  in  the  days  of 
Ezra  it  was  given  to  them  in  the  Assyrian 
[le.,  Syrian]  script  and  in  die  Aramaic 
ton^e.  Israel  chose  for  themselves  the  As- 
syrian script  and  the  holy  tongue,  and  they 
left  to  the  idiots  IKuthim,  Samaritans]  the 
Hebrew  script  [libona'ah]  and  the  Aramaic 
tongue* 

This  change  of  script  from  "Libonxan* 
or  da'as  (chiseled)  to  our  present  square 
[mentbba']  Hebrew  was  almost  in  effect  a 
translation,  at  present  quite  beyond  us  to  con- 
trol or  appraise.  We  cannot  get  behind  the 
existent  square  form,  not  even  by  help  of 
Samaritan  manuscripts  or  monumental  Samari- 
tan derived  from  the  earlier  script.  Deep- 
thoughted  Rabbis  have  feigned  that  the  Law 
was  originally  given  to  all  nations  (but  re- 
jected) and  engraven  in  all  tongues  on  the 
altar  stones  (Jos.  viii,  32).  But  the  first 
real  call  for  translation  was  heard  when  Israel 
put  away  Hebrew  and  adopted  the  sister  Ara- 
maic, first  in  the  north,  then  in  the  south,  a 
change  speedily  effected  among  Jewish  mili- 
tary colonists  at  Elephantini  (6th  century 
S.C.),  but  passing  over  Palestine  gradually 
throu^  800  years.  The  Targum  (translation, 
especially  into  Aramaic])  was  made  at  first 
orally  by  the  appointed  interpreter,  Tdrgeman  ■ 
(whence  "dragoman'),  as  the  Law  was  read 
■verse  by  verse,  or  the  Prophets  section  by 
section.  Written  Targums.  at  first  disfavored 
if  not  forbidden  for  public  use,  were  allowed 
in  private,  whence  they  forced  their  way  into 
tfic  Synagogue.  Gradually  yemshalmi,  the 
Palestinian  Targum  of  the  Pentateuch,  took 
deiinite  form,  to  be  displaced  gradually  by  the 
Babylonian  (Babli).  now  known  through  the 
\ersion   called  of   Onkelos    (Aqylas,  Aqnila). 


Di     looser    preucccssorsj    inc    oiocr    siraui    gu 

back  to  Aqiba  (ca.  135  a. a).  The  surviving 
'Yemshalmi,'  miscalled  'of  Jonathan.*  is  later 
than  the  Pentateuchal  Babli,  but  i 


Old  elements,  along  with  much  sermonic  en- 
richment. Tliere  is  also  a  Babli  o!  the  Proph- 
ets, ascribed  to  a  Jonathan  ben  Uziiel,  disci- 
fle  of  Hillet,— a  mixture  of  old  and  new, 
aithful  in  the  Earlier  prophets,  paraphrasing 
the  Later;  also  a  Palestinian  Taryum,  never 
officially  adopted,  of  the  Writings  (Kclhubim, 
Psalms   to   Chronicles),   and   another,   in   scant 

*  Sever^  of  the  mor«  important  V«ruDii>  have  MinaAr 
txcn  diioaasd  imadcntsllT.  but  anly  in  tlieir  teit-cTitical 
aipecta  mnd  vgnificance;  it  ii  the  niitorical  uid  titerory 
fararci  that  matt  now  ncein  toam  •tuatioii. 


fragments,  oi  the  Frofdiets.  Very  characteristic 
of  all  is  toe  tendency  to  tone  down;  to  amootli 
out  the  asperiti^  of  the  original,  especially 
by  removing'  anthropomorphisms  (to  guard 
the  gloiy  OI  God)  and  many  compromising 
phrases  (to  shield  the  honor  of  Israd),  as 
well  as  the-  bold  beauties  of  personification  in 
general.  Thus  they  approadi  the  common- 
place, but  remain  extremely  eloqiKnt  wit- 
nesses to  the  growth  of  the  Jewish  soul 

The  worltfwide  Dispersion  of  the  Jews 
^ve  them  all  tongues  of  the  Gentiles  (Acts 
u,  S-11),  and  accordingly  the  translations  of 
their  Scriptures  were  numerous,  but  all  have 
vanished, —  unless  some  fragments  of  the 
Egyptian  be  preserved  in  the  Christian  Coptic 
version, —  with  the  illustrious  exception  of  the 
Septuagint.  already  treated  in  Text  (Criticism 
(q.v.).  As  rendering  possible  the  Christian- 
ization  of  the  ancient  worid,  the  day  of  its 
birth  was  a  fast  day  in  Palestine  and  com- 
pared to  the  natal  day  of  the  golden  calf. 
Some  at  least  of  the  Seventy  showed  acquaint- 
ance with  Gredc  literature  (as  in  Joh),  whence 
the  extremely  interesting  question  as  to  how 
and  where  the  Old  Testament  reflects  (say) 
the  Iliad,  on  the  average  five  centuries  older. 
A  reaction  from  the  Septuagint,  taken  over  by 
the  Christians,  was  the  translation  of  the  Pon- 
tic proselyte  Aquila  (guided  by  Rabbis  Joshua 
and  Eliezer),  almost  by  syllables;  a  supposed 
reaction  from  this  was  the  Christian  para- 
phrase of  Symmachus,  while  the  Jewish  prose- 
Me  Thcodotion  aimed  to  avoid  both  extremes. 
Herewith  opens  a  chasm  of  i»ear]y  12  cen- 
turies in  Jewish-Greek  translation.  Not  tiU 
the  14th  century  did  Jewish  learning  again 
essay  to  turn  the  Hebrew  into  (Attic)  Greek, 
the  Aramaic  of  Daniel  into  Doric.  A  New- 
Greek  version  (in  Hebrew  characters)  ap- 
peared in  Constanttnople,  1547.  The  next 
great  attempt  to  vocalize  'Hebrew  Truth'  in 
the  world  was  made  by  the  famous  Gaon 
Saidya  (892-942)  in  his  Arabic  translation 
still  owned  and  read  Iw  exiled  Jews  of  Ye- 
men, adapted  by  Abu  Said  in  ttie  11th  cen- 
tury to  the  needs  of  Samaritans,  and  highly 
valued  by   the  competent,     Sa&dya's   foes,   the 


translation  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  save  in  de- 
tached passages  scattered  throu^  Rashi's 
Commentary,  and  others',  as  well  as  in  vari- 
ous glossaries.  Through  the  Postilltt  Per- 
pttWB  (Rome,  1471-72)  of  the  Christian  con- 
vert Nicholas  de  Lyra  (1270-1340).  Rashi 
made  a  deep  impress  on  Luther's  (icnnan 
translation. —  Spanish-Jewish       learning       also 

fuarded  zealously  without  translating  the  He- 
rew  text,,  thou^  Hayyuj  of  Cordova  (?950- 


lingulstics,  and  the  physician,  Ibn  Janach 
(?SfeS-104S?)  "Greatest  of  Medieval  Hebra- 
ists," by  his  grammatical  studies,  paved  the 
path  toward  a  comprehension  of  the  Bible; 
The  itreat  eve-opener,  Ibn  Eira.  biased  the 
way  for  modem  criticism,  but  did  not  trans- 
late ;  neither  did  the  Kimchis ;  Jewry  had  not 
forgotten  the  lesson  of  the  Septnagint  But 
at  the  close  of  the  I4th  centuiy  a  Jew  tamed 
Isaiah,  Jeremiah  and  part  of  Ezekiel  into  Per- 
sian and  the  Peacateuch  in  Persian  by  Rabbi 


t,zcd=y  Google 


1 


'a 

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mnili 

iffife, 
'  llfllf 


■i-Sil?-" 


. 


12 


oogle 


Jacob  Tawos  (honored  with  a  place  in  Wsil- 
ton's  Poly^tt,  VoL  IV)  appeared  at  Byian- 
tium,  -ISiS.  The  next  year,  along  with  the 
New-Greek,  appeared  the  Spanish  venion, 
also  in  Hebrew  letters.  In  1553  appeared 
a  noted  Spanish  translation,  the  Ferrara  Bi- 
Me,  Rabbi  Am^'s  version  (1422)  revised,  in 
two  editions,  one  for  Christians,  (»ie  for  Jlews, 
made  at  Catholic  command,  with  Franciscan 
help.  Ore  unorinted  partial  J«  wish-Germ  an 
version  dates  from  1421,  another,  printed,  of 
the  Pentateuch,  by  the  Christian  Jew,  Michael 
Adam,  appeared  at  Constance  1S43,  and  Elijah 
Leviu  tr&oskted  the  Psatms  (Venice  1545'). 
At  Amsterdam  in  1649  appeared  the  Jewess's 
Bible,  Teutsch-Homesch  (German-Penta- 
teuch), and  30  years  later  two  other  such  Jew- 


(1492),  where  Jewish  learning  had  flowered 
in  splendor,  Bible-study  stagnated  for  cen- 
tories  amot^  the  Jews,  who,  with  few  excei>- 
tions,  sank  themselves  in  the  Talmud.  The 
Renaissance  of  the  Jews  was  marked  by  a  re- 
tnm  to  Scripture,  especially  by  Moses  Meo- 
delssohn's  epochal  translation  of  the  Penta- 
teuch into  German  (1783).  Still  better  He- 
braists (called  Bi'urists,  interpreters),  as  David 
Frtedlander  n750-18M),  translated  and  an- 
notated Pronhets  and  Writings,  in  sober  ra- 
tionalistic spirit,  with  no  great  critical  keen- 
ness or  historic  sense.  But  the  whole  move- 
ment was  revolutionary  enough  to  arouse  the 
resolute  opposition  of  Conservatism,  and 
there  followed  the  (German  translation  of 
Zuni  (mainly  the  wodc  of  his  friends),  \S37- 
38.  A.  Geiger  did  not  translate,  but  in  iua 
'Urschrift  und  Obcrsetumgcn*  (1851)  he 
profoundly    interpreted    text-histoiy    and    the 


lution  of  his  ,-.  --    . 

issued  in  I.  S.  Re^io's  Italian  Pentateuch 
translation  with  Hebrew  commentary  (Vienna 
1S21),  and  later  in  founding  a  rabbinic  school 
in  Padua,  headed  by  the  chief  modem  Jewish 
biblicist,  Samuel  David  Luuatto  (1800-65),  who 
raised  biblical  criticism  to  a  profession  amon^ 
his  people.  Though  strongly  conservative,  faia 
Italian  translations  of  Isaiah  Job  (1855,  1853) 
and  the  Pentateuch  (posthumous,  1871-76) 
show  deep  and  exact  pnilology  aloog  with  a 
scientific  conscience,  So  muii  caa  hardly  be 
said  of  S.  R.  Hirsch's  German  version  of  the 
Pentateuch  or  of  others,  learned  and  acute,  but 
straitened  in  spirit.  Not  less  erudite  but  far 
more  daring  is  the  eight-volumed  work  of 
A.  B.  Ehrlich  (1905,  1908-14). 

As  the  wails  fellaway  and  the  Jews  emerged 
into  19th  centuiy  life,  translations  multiplied 
rapidly.  Leading  the  van  is  the  French  (1831- 
1851)   of  S.  Cahen;  also  the  people's  version 


('1861-69).  Less  significant  was  a  sticcesaton  of 
versions  in  German,  Dutch,  Russian,  Hurga- 
riaa  As  early  as  1789  Delgado  corrected  the 
English  Authorized,  and  in  1839  SeliR  New- 
mann  emended  it,  as  did  Michael  Friedlander 
(1^).  Kalisch  commented  on  the  Law,  and 
Benisch  published  a  complete  English  version 
(1851-56).  In  America  Isaac  Leeser,  footing 
on  the  Authoriied.  with  help  of  German  ver- 
sions, issned  a  translation  (Philadelphia  1853) 
generally  used  in  the  synagogue,  English  and 


American.  But  very  recently  the  great  design, 
conceived  1892,  of  the  Jewish  Publication  So- 
ciety (organized  1888)  has  at  last  been  ac- 
complished (1917)  mainly  through  the  un- 
wearied zeal  of  M.  Margolis,  sustained  by  the 
munificence  of  the  Jewish  Mxcenas,  Jacob  H. 
ScbiS  —  being  nothing  less  than  a  thorough  re- 
vision, suited  for  the  synagogue,  of  the  Revised 
Version  of  1885,  wherewith  has  been  spoken 
the  latest  and  best  word  of  Tewidi  scholarship 
in  the  translation  of  the  Ola  Testament. 

Christian  TranalationB. —  Inasmuch  as  the 
two  Testaments  have  held  equal  rank  in  the 
Christian  consciousness  for  17  centuries,  it 
would  serve  no  useful  purpose  to  separate  them 
in  this  discussion ;  accordingly  we  shall  treat 
them  together,  except  where  distinction  is  ex- 
pressly made.  As  we  have  seen,  the  sole  ob~ 
ject  of  Jewish  translations,  the  all-imporlant 
Septuagint  only  partially  excepted,  was  to  bring 
the  Holy  Writ  to  the  understanding,  not  of  the 
Gentile  but  of  die  Jew  himself,  to  whom  the 
Gentilic  tongue  was  vernacular.  Likewise,  the 
aim  of  early  (Christian  translations  was  to 
bring  the  pure  "Hebrew  truth*  home'  to  the 
mind  and  heart  of  the  Christian.  As  the  new 
religion^  the  ■Eternal  Gospel,"  "Fear  (Jod  and 
give  Him  glory*  (Rev.  xiv,  7),  was  from  the 
start  a  crusade  against  idolatry,  a  zealous  prop- 
aganda of  monotheism,  from  the  first  the 
audience  was  mainly  pagan,  composed  mostly 
of  'God-fearing  Gentiles'  and  proselytes  to 
Judaism.  Of  these,  in  great  part,  the  faith  was 
built  on  some  Greek  version  of  the  Scripture, 
particularly  the  Septuagint  and  it  was  in  Greek 
that  the  first  public  preaching  was  spoken  and 
the  first  records  thereof  committed  to  writing, 
thou^  some  very  early  Christian  compositions 
may  well  have  been  Aramaic.  For  nearly  two 
centuries  the  Christian  seems  to  have  rested 
content  with  the  Septuagint,  subject  to  slight 
alterations,  but  when  the  Jew  disclaimed  it  as 
incorrect  or  inadequate^  substituting  the  liters 
alism  of  Aquila,  the  logical  loss  was  keenly  felt, 
and  a  reply  seems  made  in  the  loose  rendering 
of  Symmachus.  This  also  was  soon  found  in- 
snflicient,  and  in  the  first  great  critical   essay. 


the  sacred  goal  of  aboriginal  "Hebrew  Truth.* 
As  this  came  more  and  more  to  be  regarded  as 
altogether  unique  and  indispensable,  the  one 
and  only  record  of  primitive  history,  the  single 
depository  of  divine  will,  purpose  and  power, 
to  the  more  enlightened  the  need  seemed  im- 
perative of  ascertaining  it,  if  possible,  with 
absolute  exactness  and  completeness.  (3rigen, 
the  most  competent  explorer,  failed,  however, 
to  find  it,  and  the  search  seemed  little  hopeful. 
Nevertheless,  sufficient  appeared  to  be  known. 
But  the  (jreek  was  not  the  only  early  Gen- 
tile-Christian consdousness.  The  noble  Syriac 
language,  a  variety  of  the  Aramaic,  was  widely 
spoken,  and  various  attempts  were  made  at  a 
Christian  Targum  in  this  tongue,  even  now  not 
numbered  among  the  silent.  Of  these  the  most 
successful  was  the  so-called  Peshitia  ('simple,* 
■common"),  at  once  faithful  and  elegant,  tinged 
with  traditions  of  the  Jews  (whose  help  made 
it  possible),  but  often  under  the  spell  of  the 
Seventy.  Far  away,  in  north  Africa  and  other 
western  provinces  of  the'  em^ure,  at  an  early 
date    Latin    had    begnn    to   displace    Greek, 


•gk 


and  the  pressing  need  of  a  venion  in  that 
tongue  was  met  in  various  ways ;  there  is  no 
Old  Latin  version,  but  many  Old  Latin  ver- 
sions, «3iying  indelinitely  with  the  knowledge 
and  skill  .of  the  translator  and  the  text  of  the 
Greek  copy  at  his  hand.  It  was  Lachmann  that 
first   restored   these   modest    versions   to   thei 


coming  to  full  recoEptition.  All  were  strictly 
popular,  rustic  in  their  Latinih^  already  depart- 
ing from  the  classic  norm  at  Rome  toward  the 
varied  Romanic  speech  of  to-day.  Gradually 
even  the  speech  of  the  Capital  fell  away  from 
the  Greek,  and  the  need  was  felt  of  an  au- 
thoritative Latin  Version.  By  far  the  prince 
of  Giristian  scholars  was  Jerome;  to  him  Pope 
Damasus  (346-420)  committed  the  task  of  re- 
vision. He  began  at  Rome  by  setting  a  gentle 
hand  to  the  Psalms  (383),  and  Saint  Peter's 
still  resounds  with  his  Roman  Psaher,  intro- 
duced at  once  by  Damasus.  In  392,  as  Hermit 
of  Bethlehem,  he  re-revised  by  the  Hexapla,  and 
this  Psaller,  first  introduced  in  Gaul  and  hence 
called  Galltcan,  still  holds  its  place  (against 
his  third  version,  the  Hebraic)  in  the  Vutgale. 
On  this  latter  he  toiled  at  intervals  for  IS  years, 
learning  Hebrew  in  Palestine  under  Jewish 
teachers  and  guides.  Slowly  at  first,  but  stead- 
ily, his  translation  (complete  but  for  certain 
Apocrypha,  which  he  too  lightly  esteemed)  won 
its  way  to  universal  recognition  over  all  others, 
the  greatest  single  work  of  Catholic  scholar- 
ship, and  in  the  fourth  Tridentine  session  (fi 
April  1546)  it  was  stamped  with  the  signet  of 
exclusive  authority.  Jerome  aimed  to  be  faith- 
ful to  the  sense,  but  classic  in  style.  Sli^t  as 
b  the  critical  value  of  this  Vulgate,  its  in- 
fluence upon  the  relif^ous  life  of  western  Eu- 
rope is  beyond  estimation.  An  authorized 
CathoUc  translation  is  the  Rkeims  and  Douay 
Version,  made  by  English  refugees  and  called 
the  DoutK  Bible    (1609).    Intended 


Latin*  to  be  idiomatic  English,  and  as  a  terti- 
ary^ product  has  no  critical  worth ;  nevertheless 
it  is  happy  in  some  turns  of  expression  and 
seems  to  have  molded  the  Authorized  Version 
a.t  certain  points.  There  are  many  such  trans- 
lations of  translations,  in  Arabic,  Armenian, 
Coptic,  English,  Ethiopic,  (Georgian,  Gothic, 
Persian  and  other  tongues,  ranging  over  a 
thousand  years.  Conspicuous  is  the  (kithic  pre- 
served in  fragments  on  the  silver-lettered  purple 
Codex  Argenteus  (ca.  500?)  in  the  Upsala  Uni- 
versity; Philostorgius  (b.  364),  as  quoted  by 
Pholius  (c.  820-91),  ascribes  the  Gothic  transla- 
tion of  the  whole  Bible  (except  Kings,  omitted 
as  too  warlike)  to  Wulfilas,  Apostle  of  the 
Goths,  which  is  stoutly  gainsaid  oy  L.  Wiener 
in  his  revolutionary  'Commentary  to  the  Gkt- 
manic  Laws  and  Mediaeval  Documents,'  which 
with  his  'Contributions  toward  a  History  of 
Arabico-(^thic  Cuhure>  (1,  1917)  would  over- 
turn the  structure  of  (Germanic  philology. 
Through  all  the  watches  of  the  mediaeval 
nighl  Jerome  reigned  in  the  West,  the  Seventy 
in  the  East.  As  new  tongues  budded  forth  on 
the  Latin  stem,  rude  parajuirases  ^peared,  often 
as  interlinear  glosses,  especially  in  the  Psalms, 
the  book  of  devotion,  and  these  were  gradually 
improved  but  remained  quite  devoid  of  author- 


ity, jealously  reserved  by  the  Church  for  the 
Vulgate.  During  the  uneasy  slumber  of  the  13tb 
century  premonitions  of  awakening  were 
faintly  heard  in  widely  scattered  and  far  mort 
earnest  attempts  to  get  nearer  the  divine  tnith 
in  vernacular  versions,  as  the  partial  Walden- 
sian  in  Provencal  and  the  first  complete  French 
translation  (c.  1250).  Similar  stirrings  were 
felt  in  Italy  in  the  14th  century,  but  the  first 
complete  English  Bible  goes  back  only  to  John 
WycHf  and  his  friends  (138Z),  in  which  his  own 
share  is  problematic  A  ■curiaiisi"  till  1374,  in 
the  last  10  years  of  his  life  he  won  the  fame 
of  a  reformer  (politico-religious)  and  the 
father  of  English  prose,  the  latter  rather  by 
his  'Setinons,'  for  his  English  version  is  poor 
and  slavish  to  the  "Latyn.*  Germany  mean- 
while was  prolific  of  translations,  and  John 
Hus,  following  WycUf  alon^  so  manv  lines, 
among  the  many  improprieties  for  which  he 
suffered  at  the  stake  (Constance,  6  July  1415), 
produced  a  vernacular  version  for  his  Bohe- 
mians. Movable  type  (1448),  Iw  lessening  cost, 
gave  wings  to  the  Word.  The  Vulgate  was  the 
first  to  leave  the  press  (I452-S6),  then  over  a 
dozen  Carman  editions,  then  the  Complutensis 
(1517-20),  then  the  Aldine  (Venice  1519). 
Morning  was  now  on  the  mountains,  and  edi- 
tion after  edition  appeared  in  Hebrew,  21  be- 
fore Luther's  rupture  with  Rome  {10  Dec. 
1520),  among  these  the  first  great  Rabtunic 
Bible  (Venice  1S16),  dedicated  to  Leo  X  by  the 
Christian  Jew,  Felix  Pratensis.  Catholics  now 
felt  the  need  of  a  new  version,  and  many  not 
without  merit  were  made.  These,  being  Latin, 
were  still  voiceless  to  the  people,  who  cried  for 
the  Word  in  their  own  tongue.  Luther  in  his 
(jerman  translation  (from  the  Hebrew,  in  Hit 
Brescia  edition  of  1494)  gave  the  first  great 
national  answer.  Himself  hardly  equal  to  the 
task,  he  leaned  heavily  on  Nicholas  de  Lyra: 
but  he  laCored  loi^  and  conscientiously  and 
well,  translating  not  for  scholars  but  for  the 
man-in-the- street,  occasionally  in  a  controver- 
sial spirit,  and  finally  (1530-34)  erecting  an  en- 
during monument  of  German  literature  and 
determining  in  large  measure  the  set  of  Or- 
man  speech,  as  well  as  the  form  of  various  fol- 
lowing translations  into  other  Teuton  tongues.* 
txAuty  and 


a  of  tbc  Old  1 


.Iptunl  helpK  fromUie  Greek  (thiwsb  M«  _  .. 
•ayi  Sahak  lued  the  Syriac).  between  J9T  uid  430.  anc 
later.  Perhaps  ■  century  older  and  lience  valuable 
inc  to  Tertullian'i  "id  vcriiu  quod  prnia."  ■■  the  A 
venion  nf  the  New  Teatainent  made  from  the  P«f..._  ._. 
wu  alio  the  related  Georsian).  but  reviBHl  fruiti  tbe  Grtiek 


ThoG 


e  GcDf^ian  alphabei.     The  Annb 
'  -irilh  teitadapted 

IT33).  WM  em 


to  the  Vutnte  (Amsterdani  lAM 
eriticBllT  edited  by  Zohrab  (Veni 

pottance  are  idbdv  vetaions  darivea  man  uie  Aramsa 
(noted  iu  Scrivener'*  'Introduction'  and  Gregory'!  'Pny 
Icsomeiu').  and  nicb  u  the  Phikncenian  float  eiceiit  1  PeUr. 
2  and  3  John.  Jude  and  Revelation),  of  SOS.  a  Syrian  pam- 
phraae  reviaed  {filS)  into  ilaviah  Sdelity  by  Thomas  uf 
Heraldea  Chence  in  thia  ronn  called  "  Harklean  ").  and  the 
"Paleitinian."  a  lectionary  of  the  filh  wnturr.  fomierlr 
lefmed  to  JeruvilBm,  hrit  now.  fotlowing  Burkitt.  to  Antiocb. 
Fiance  oms  her  earUeat  vernon  (I1M)  to  the  Waldeu- 
san  chiej  Ptem  de  Vniid.  tbe  neit  to  GuvBrd  de*  Moultni 
(tI94,  pnUtahed  Parii  I4R8).  At  Lyoni.  I4T7.  appeaml  the 
flnt  TaBtaDient  in  French  piint.  (allowed  in  1MT  by  the 
Btately  Bible  dedicated  to  Charlea  VIII  and  by  othera  BiliDar. 


•  The  Swiu  "Zurich  Bible"  (l5»-30).  rerlaed  frequently 
and  H  Late  ai  1893,  wae  -  ■  ■-  -  -  ''  "^  - -- 
Lutber'a  venion. 


BTlaed  frcqwntfy 


:,  Google 


riiohttr  I 


ic  the  TertMmU  of  D'Buptn  (New, 
jb:  Doui.  1S30).  Hwle  Erom  tbs  Vidnits, 
1  (kt  Lddvub)  la  1S50,  and  ■■•'ii  1°  IMS, 

.... iishpR»EribKlial5M.(tu«b«*maUu  poptilmr 

ji  Catholic  Trance.     More  modemiieil  woe  Lcmai*- 

tn'i  hnge  Pon-Roya]  Bible  (1061-87)  and  R.  Simon'i  New 
Ttetaaient  (t7<U).  LaeeeiVe  Ooepcla  <1U7),  acsDunted 
•leeOeDt.  leikd  of  ecckeiBatie  approvu.  The  iecein4 
Pratataot  vereioo  fby  Calvin'e  ctnmn,  P.  R.  Olivetan, 
pubtuhed  in  1S35  by  WaldeniH  end  imprond  ixtmt).  was 
RlilMl  in  ISM  by  Gcnevaa  paatcm  and  oaed  by  Aatiac 
(1153);  modetniied  (1124,  lT4ti  byj.  P.  OMcmld.  it  wae 
aaata  reriml,  the  Old  Tcatameat  in  IKS.  tb*  New  Testunent 
in  1B35.  Stin  lata  and  btttw,  Uw  reviaone  by  Oltramar* 
(ISTl),  Scttood  (1814,  imO).  the  Ftoicb  Bible  SodMy  (ISU). 
-id  nunr  ottien.  eepecdaUy  Subbi  Cabeo'i  (Hebnw-fteniA} 
litionid  ISJaandCnunpOD'i,  reviled  by  ^eJeaolU(190n. 
-  -  _.__  _  ^.._t = .  — i^      1  j5J  p    -     

(~  C^DflDO  '  BiUa  is 


Md  the  whole  Bible  ai 
with  tl     "■       ~    - 

154*.     

trandatinu,     'fhe    Dutch  official ' 

M     "SlaatcB-Bibd"  in   163«.     Sa. . 

the  "Sraod  Bible"  a  revinon  at  nqneat  by  Ku 
(NewlManwnt  tSM.OIdTeltaineiit  1R9T-1«>^). 

Though  pAtta  of  the  aeflptarae  were  tamed  ixtto  Svmrt- 

appcared  in  Daniah  firet  in  1534,  untur  Christian  II.  and  in 
ISMPeUceeni  New  Ttstament  md  Pealoi*,  bettered  in  1591 . 
ain>*eiiBl  at  Antwerp  and  met  with  more  favor.  Latimr** 
Goman  Bible  paaed  over  into  Etaniah  in  1530.  was  nviaed 
in  1405-0?.  arain  in  IBIS  and  18TJ.  end  for  Norway  lwa>- 
anted  from  Denmark  1814)  in  ISW,  18ST-M,  I8W.  IM4 
(N*w  Teetunent),  beadea  a  sew  Dopalai  varnon  (New 
Tstamait)  in  1889  and  18»9.  Lalher'a  New  Teatament 
went  into  Swediih  at  [he  hand*  of  Andrae  and  Petri  (Stock- 
holm. 1520)  parta  of  the  Old  Tertanxnt  10  ytan  later,  the 
whole  Bible  nIS40-41.  followed  by  varioDa  ravidonl.  A 
new  reviiioa  by  Siindber^,  Tom,  and  Johanaon  received 
official  Lutheran  unction  in  1SS5.  Many  individual  tiana- 
lation*  of  one  or  both  Taatamentl  have  met  with  favor, 
tboee  (d  P.  O.  Myrheis  being  accoonlad  flnt  in  ■eholanlup 
and  literary  quohty.  The  Icelandic  New  Teatament  (1540) 
and  Bible  (ISB4)  were  reviwd  in  1044  and  often  dnce. 

PaiBRg  by  the  eiaaya  of  the  bnithera  Methodiua  and 
Cnil  (8SJ-70,  wfaene*  the  Cinillic  alphabet),  wa  find  a 
Slavic  varaion  (or  Rimian*  600  yean  Uer.  first  printed  at 
Oitrog  (1581)  at  inrtance  of  Princa  Conatantine.  rcviacd  at 
Moacow  1065.  again,  more  eanfally.  at  comrnand  of  Eliiabcth 
ITM,  modsniiol  at  tiddinc  of  tha  Holy  Synod  bat 


^,  m  completed 
received  their  fint 
d  to  be  in  Vienna  a 
:  made  in  1578  by 
__..itian(,  1495;  Pole*, 
I,  1555;  Bulgara.  1818; 


1  Paabn  appmwl  in  10«2i  the 


181.  thoo^  there 

jf  tbe  md  ToU 

order  df  Bmpffor-lCinf  Wincealav; 

Serba.  IS47.  'The  Magyar  jlew  Teatament  was  printnl  fltat 
in  JS4I,  the  Od  TaRamant  in  1590;  i  '- 

hAnd.     The  Pinniah  New  Teatament  ai 
Bible  m  1047  and  a  new  trantUti'"'  <«  ( 
Lettiih  New  Teatament  and  fti 
Lapp  Bible  data  from  lB38~ia 

The  oldest  Italian  veiaioa  (1270)  ia  the  Waldenaian  of 
Jacque*  de  Voragine;  NicolJ  de  Malherbi  wu  firm  to  print 
a  Bible  in  Italian  (Venice.  1471);  BDDciofa''a  better  vnnn 
tram  the  original  toncuv  (Venioa  15JO-31)  was  puMnbed. 
StiU  other  versions  appeared  at  Venice.  Zaccaria'i  1552. 
Giglio'i  1551,  A  Protestant  New  Testament  in  Italian, 
appeared  the  same  year  at  Lyons,  and  tbe  iriiole  Bible  at 
Gnevft  in  ISOl  and  b  1007  (traniUtnd  by  Giov.  Diodali,  a 
famoua  work).  The  Turin  version  1^  Aichbithop  Martini 
(1776)  pleawd  the  Church,  was  adopted  bv  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  and  iaaned  in  luman  Catholic  reviaion. 


'Plough  a  CaUdonian  vi 

(Old  Teatamcnl)  were  coni 
ntinted  at  Valencia  in  147 


mon  in  Castile,  and  a  Bible  was 
14TB.  the  arel  printed  Spani^  New 
III  at  AnlwRp  in  1S45,  the  ortxt  at 
It  Old  Temament  al  Perram  in  f5SJ, 
(ne  nm  wddk  diuk  in  Spanish  (Reyna's)  at  Basel  in  1569 
(revised  at  Aouterdam,  1601)—  booka  prosoribed  in  Spain, 
At  length,  m  1790.  the  Roman  Cfttbolie  Miguel  published  at 
Valencia  the  pnpular  Spnnish  Bible  adopted  in  1828  by  the 
British  and  Porcign  Bible  Society.  Similarly,  in  1681.  J. 
R.  d' Almeida  dared  to  publish  in  Portuouese  tbe  New  T«- 
laniHit  and  in  1712-19  tlie  Mosaic  andlfiatorical  Books  of 
the  CM  Trstamenl  —at  AmiterrlaTn.  At  laM  in  17TS, 
A.  P.  Pigneiredo  printtd  the  BiUe  for  the  tifst  time  in  Porta- 
onl  tl^iEfln),— a  versian  linee  adoplad  by  lh«  British  and 
Porriim  Bible  Society. 

The   Irish   New   Teatament  datn  fnm    1995,   the  <^d 
Is  0'K*ne-(  Nfiw  Toea- 


nwnt  (ISSB.      In  GaUc  the  New 

169a  the  Bible  in  1TS>-1S01.  and  misad  m  1826,  ISOO,  ItBO. 
In  Cymric.  tlH  New  Teatamnt  appaared  in  1567,  tba  Bibb 
inl568.  rbcHaniv«siandat(B&oni  1770-72.  A  Btctoo 
New  Testament  appeared  in  1I2T,  another  in  1847,  and  tba 
BiUeiniaoO. 

Immeduteiy  upon  the  appearance  of  Luther*! 
work  tbe  centre  of  interest  in  translations  was 
shifted  to  die  English,  tfaou^  not  to  England, 
for  Willyam  Tyndale  finding  *no  place  m  all 
Englonde*  to  ply  his  task,  such  was  the  con- 
servatisin  of  die  isUnd,  retired  to  Germany, 
where  under  Luther's  shadow  he  printed  the 
New  Testament  in  EJosUsh  (3,000  copies,  oct, 
at  Worms  152S>,  though  stopped  at  Colasne  by 
Johann  Cochlxus.  In  1530  appeared  his  Penta- 
teuch, in  1531  his  Jonah.  In  his  Belgian  prison 
he  begged  for  a  Hebrew  Bible,  grammar  antl 
lexicon,  along  with  warmer  clothino,  and  held 
out  true  to  the  end  (6  Oct  1536),  wnen  he  wai 
strangled  and  burned,  the  pre-enunent  hero  of 
Bible  translation.  His  noble  work,  though 
often  faulty,  remains  the  unshaken  basis  of  all 
subsequent  English  versions,  80  per  cent  of  hi* 
Old  Testament  and  90  per  cent  of  his  New 
Testament  being  retained  in  the  Authorized 
Version.  France,  Spain,  Italy,  Holland,  Bo- 
hemia all  had  their  vernacular  Bibles  before 
1509,  and  Germany  hers  printed  in  146&  re- 
printed 17  times  before  Luther.  But  Tyndale's 
New  Testament  was  the  first  part  of  an  Eng- 
lish Bible  in  print  (1525),  and  the  first  EngUsh 
Bible  printing  was  done  in  England  in  1538.  In 
1535-36  appeared  the  first  complete  printed 
English  Bible,  based  not  on  originals  but  *OUt 
of  Douche  and  Latyn,'  with  the  hel^  of  *five 
interpreters*  (doubtless  Luther.  ZiJnch  Bibl^ 
Vulgate,  Pagninus,  T^dale),  by  the  Augus- 
tinian  friar  Michael  Coverdale,  undertaken  at 
the  bidding  of  Thomas  Cromwell  and  dedicated 
to  Henry  VHl,  Coverdale  was  not  made  of 
such  stuff  as  Tyndale,  but  his  work  contributed 
to  the  fineness  and  felicity  of  the  English. 
Under  the  pen-name  of  'Thomas  Matthews*  in 
1537  John  Rogers,  who  was  to  Tyndale  what 
Purvey  was  to  Wyclif,  published  the  "Mat- 
thew's Bible,*  being  Tynoale's  work  published 
and  unpublished,  supplemented  by  Coverdale'^ 
annotated  by  Rogers,  for  all  of  which  he 
*broke  the  ice  valiantly*  at  the  Smithfield 
stake,  4  Feb.  1555.  The  book  appeared  and  was 
sold  on  Cranmer's  petition,  through  Cromwell'* 
influence,  1»;  Henry's  authority.  Revision  fol- 
lowed revision ;  one  by  Coverdale,  exploiting 
Miinster's  Latin  version  (1534-35),  was  called 
the  Great  Bible,  or  the  Chained  BtbU.  was  in- 
troduced into  every  church,  and  often  chained. 
Public  interest  was  intense  and  the  clergy  com- 
plained bitterly  that  even  at  divine  service  the 
people  -would  read  English  Scriptures  rather 
than  hear  En^ish  sern(ons.  This  Great  Folio, 
begun  in  Pans,  'Fynisshed  in  Aptyl  11,  Anno 
M.CCCCCXXXIX  *  shows  Henry  on  tile  title 
page,  giving  the  'Word  of  God*  to  Cranmer 
ajid  Cromwell,  to  give  to  the  rest.  The  second 
of  seven  editions  (1539-41)  in  1540,  called 
Cranmer's  Bible,_  from  Cranmer's  long  preface, 
contains  the  addition  'Tliis  is  the  Byble  apoynt- 
ed  to  the  use  of  the  Churches,"  since  then  for 
nearly  four  centuries  familiar.    After  1546  this 


Google 


the  d^pree  of  yeomen  .  .  .  husbandmen  or 
labourers  should  read  or  us«  any  part  of  the 
Bible  under  pain  of  fines  and  imprisonment." 

Fleeing  from  the  flames  that  broke  foith 
under  Mary,  the  Puritan  Reformers  eathered 
with  John  Knox  at  Geneva,  home  of  Calvin 
and  Beia,  and  there  headed  by  WhittindianL 
revised  the  Great  Bible  into  the  more  literal 
Geneva  or  Breeches  Bible  (so-called  from  its 
adopting  Wyclif's  rendering  of  ckagoroth  in 
Gen.  iii,  by  breeches  instead  of  aprons  or 
gWdlis).  Annotated,  divided  into  verses  (for 
Ae  first  time  in  Engliah),  and  convenient  in 
size,  this  Bible  from  the  start  (1557-60)  won 
the  hearts  of  the  people,  reaching  160  editions 
in  50  years.    But  as  Genevan  it  could  never 

iilease  the  bishops,  who  under  the  lead'  of  the 
earned  Archbishop  Parker  tried  to  displace  it 
with  their  (eight)  'Bishops'  Bible*  (l^-<58), 
but  failed  for  lade  of  umson,  too  many  cooks 
spoiling  the  broth. 

After  such  manifold  preparation  the  time 
was  ripe  for  the  Revision  of  1611,  first  sug- 

g;sted  to  King  James  by  the  Puritan  Dr.  John 
eynolds  in  conference  (Hampton  Court,  Janu- 
ary 1604),  on  'things  pretended  to  be  amiss  in 
the  church.*  Working  under  instruction*  from 
James  to  follow  the  Bishops'  Bible  wherever 
possible,  to  retain  old  ecclesiastic  terms,  to  re* 
ject  marginal  notes  except  in  explanation  of  the 
Greek  or  Hebrew*,  to  translate  severally  and 


bridge  each,  47  in  all,  with  'three  or  four  of 
the  most  ancient  and  grave  divines*  in  consul- 
tation, they  completed  the  whole  work  in  33 
months,  revised  it  in  nine  additional,  and  in 
1611  gave  it  to  the  world  fulsoroely  dedicated 
to  the  King,  and  with  a  remarkable  preface  \ts 
Miles  Smidi. 

As  may  be  inferred,  its  critical  authority  is 
feeble,  but  its  literary  charm  and  its  emotional 
appeal  are  irresistible ;  its  hallowed  rhythm 
still  entrances  the  heart  that  no  longer  under- 
stands. In  general  faithful  to  the  sense,  to  the 
form,  and  even  to  the  color  of  the  original,  in 
its  idiomatic  flavor  it  sets  up  a  standard  of  ex- 
cellence in  English  style  that  the  modem  reader 
regards  with  delight  tempered  with  despair. 

To  perfect  a  work  of  such  unrivalled  mas- 
tery by  the  'great  helps*  of  incomparably  supe- 
rior knowledge,  and  enlarged  and  corrected  his- 
torical perspective,  is  a  difficult  though  not  an 
impossible  task.  But  for  many  years  the  rest- 
less progress  of  thought  and  study  along  the 
whole  circuit  of  biblical  inquiry  had  made  it 
evident  that  this  Authoriied  Version  (so-called 
though  never  publicly  sanctioned  by  King  or 
Convocation  or  Privy  Coundl  or  Parliament) 
could  no  longer  in  reason  be  held  authoritative. 
Not  a  few  private  attempts  were  made  to  pro- 
vide translations  at  first  of  particular  books, 
afterward  of  the  whole  Bible,  more  fitted  to 
meet  at  once  the  more  exacting  critical  de- 
mands and  the  altered  literary  feeling  of  the 
age ;  but  ot  course  all  such  were  predoomed  to 
failure,  though  some  were  not  laclcing  in  merit. 
At  length,  at  instance  of  the  Convocation  of 
Canterburyj  February  1870,  a  thorough  revision 
undertaken  and 


Canterbury,  February  1 
of  the  Authorized  Vers 


•  The  oamber  o(  ta/tt,  h 


carried  to  completion  in  1885  (diou^  the 
Apocrypha  did  not  appear  tQl  10  years  laterj. 
The  revisers  worked  in  four  grou^ts,  two  to 
England  (on  the  Old  Testament,  appointed  nine, 
invited  18'  on  the  New  Testament,  apointed  six, 
invited  22),  two  (advisory)  in  America  (the 
second  in  each  dealing  wiOi  the  Apocrypha), 
including  such  masters  as  Cheyne,  Davidson, 
Driver,  Field,  Ginsburg,  Sxvca  and  the  two 
Smiths  (R.  P.  and  W.  R.).  On  the  New  Testa- 
ment their  meetings  were  407  up  to  May  1881 ; 
on  the  Old  Testament  792  up  to  20  June 
1884;  every  verse  was  minutely  discussed  and 
the  whole  submitted  to  three  revisions.  A  deli- 
cate and  dangerous  undertaking  I  No  wonder 
that  four  of  the  invited  decUned,  and  that  10 
died  before  its  completion.  Tlu  result,  not 
seldom  disappointing,  has  not  passed  undial- 
lenged  but  has  been  subjected  to  a  severe  cross- 
fire of  criticism,  in  large  measure  intemperate 
and  unjust.  A  complete  reconciliation  of  older 
eestbetic  with  newer  critical  claims  has  not  in- 
deed been  effected,  but  undoubted  progress  was 
made,  and  the  enormous  labor  was  far  from 
thrown  away.  The  Revised  Version  is  steadihr 
forcing  its  way  to  general  recognition,  tbouen 
it  has  by  no  means  displaced  its  predecessor. 
The  American  advisers  were  much  more  pliant 
to  critical  pressure  than  their  English  brethren, 
and  the  Standard  American  edition  (1901)  em- 
bodies many  changes  unaccepted  by  the  latter. 
Nevertheless^  even  tliis  latest  revision  is  far 
from  final.  While  ttie  conservatism  of  accept- 
ing the  received  Hebrew  text  should  not  be 
cotidemned,  it  seems  certain  that  a  thorou^ 
revision  of  that  text  is  demanded  no  less  im- 
periously than  of  the  English  translation.  To 
be  sure,  the  task  is  one  of  extreme  difficulty, 
for  which  the  time  is  not  full,  and  generations 
or  even  centuries  may  wait  on  its  fulfillment; 
a  wholly  satisfactory  result  may  be  attainable 
only  by  altering  profoimdly  the  statement  of 
the  problem;  but  a  very  notable  advance  is  evta 
now  practicable  at  many  points.  Similar  but 
less  serious  and  significant  was  the  Lutheran  re- 
vision projected  at  the  £isenach  Church  Con- 
ference (1861-63).  The  result  {'ProbelBbel') 
tentatively  printed  in  1883,  finally  revised  at 
the  Halle  Conference  (1890),  published  in  1891 
and  circulated  by  the  Wiirtemberg  Bible  So- 
dety,  was  welcomed  rather  coolly  in  North 
Germany.  Meantime  independent  scholarship 
has  been  brave  and  unwearied  in  work.  Fore- 
most stands  the  noUe  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament  (with  notes)  by  Ed.  Reuss  (in 
French  1874-81,  in  (Jerman  1892-94)  followed 
and  In. minute  scholarship  surpassed  by  that  of 
Emil  Kautzsch  and  his  fellows  (1890-94,  3d 
ed.  1909-12),  and  the  paralld  Dutch  work  of 
Hooykaas,  Rosters  and  Oort  (1894-1901),  both 
from  carefully  revised  Hebrew  texts.  The 
valuable  Vanorum  of  Cheyne  and  Driver 
n87&<88)  contents  itself  with  appending  to  the 
Authorized  Version  suggested  variations  in 
text  and  translation,  nor  does  it  present  the 
later  and  more  learned  views  of  these  scholars. 
Noteworthy  and  admirable  is  the  Gertnan  New 
Testament  of  Cart  Weizsacker  (1822-99), 
which,  begun  in  1874,  reached  the  ninth  edition 
in  1906.  The  learned  new  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  by  James  Moffatt  (1913), 
from  von  Soden's  text,  is  valuable  for  its  dear 
recognition  in  print  of  the  metrical  chancier  of 


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BIBLICAL  ASCHfiOLOOY 


J»T 


large  portions  of  ncarlr  all  the  documents;  the 
form  of  the  Scripture  is  har<lly  less  important 
than  the  substaoce. 

A  labor  of  Hercules  is  the  Fol;chTome  or 
Rainbow  fiible  ('lUgenboKEnbibel")  of  Paul 
Haupt  and  his  company,  which  would  visualize 
the  composite  character  of  the  Old  Testament 
by  printing  "otdcr  incorporated  documents  or 
later  sections  ...  on  back  grounds'of  differ- 
ent colors,*  both  text  and  translation.  The 
spectral  enect  is  very  striking,  and  some  way  of 
Distinguishing  the  sources  in  type  seems  desir- 
able, and  various  devices  have  been  employed. 
However,  though  the  composite  structure  is  be- 
)[ond  serious  iusput<^  the  complete  disintegra- 
tion and  just  distribution  of  components  are 
still  very  far  from  perfect,  the  most  plausible 
CO  lor- scheme  is  at  best  provisional.  But 
Haupt's  S.  B.  O.  T.  (Sacred  Boolcs  of  the  Old 
Testament)  is  a  monument  of  erudition,  inval- 
uable to  the  student. 

Attempts  to  modernize  the  Bible  into  jour- 
nalese, to  make  the  ancient  —  whether  his- 
torian, legendist  or  mythopoet,  whether  moral- 
ist or  parabolist,  whether  prophet  or  apostle  ~ 
speak  the  language  of  the  street,  not  to  say  the 
gutter  — all  such  attempts  are  so  ill-advised 
3nd  proceed  from  conceptions  i^ne  so  far 
astray  that  they  may  be  passed  by  in  silence. 

Examples  of  translations  named  from  certain 
peculiarities  have  already  met  us ;  such  too  is 
ihc  Douaij  reading  at  Jer.  viii,  22  'Is  there  no 
rosin  in  Galaad?'  and  thence  called  the  'Rosin 
Bible.'  The  tale  of  such  may  be  found  in  the 
great  dictionaries.  Often  the  translator  stands 
before  the  alternative  of  being  understood 
amiss  or  not  at  all.  "The  Father  of  lights, 
with  whom  there  is  no  variableness,  neither 
shadow  of  turning"  (Jas.  i,  17).  The  reader  is 
content  to  think  of  'the  least  bit  of  turning!' 
The  American  revision  gives  'variation'  and 
'shadow  that  is  cast  by  turning,'  which  bewild- 
ers the  reader,  who  stiil  finds  no  hint  of  astro- 
nomical 'parallax'  and  'eclipse.'  Again,  he 
seems  to  understand  the  Authorized  'course  of 
nature,'  but  hardly  the  Revised  "wheel  of 
nature"  or  "birth,"  for  he  is  not  prepared  for 
Orphism  in  Jas.  iii,  6.  The  false  notion  that  the 
Bible,  at  least  the  New  Testament,  is  crude 
and  artless,  the  naive  record  of  simple  and 
unlearned  men,  gives  rise  to  endless  misunder- 
standing. 

In  modem  times  the  original  motive  of 
Giristianity,  the  "conversion'  of  the  world  of 
potytheists  and  idolaters  to  Monotheism^  the 
worship  of  the  One  God,  has  reasserted  itself 
in  a  consuming  missionary  zeal,  which  has  ex- 
pressed itself  in  a  determined  effort  to  bring 
the  Word,  as  the  power  of  salvation,  to  the 
mind  and  heart  of  all  men,  by  translations 
into  every  tongue  under  heaven,  so  that  mod- 
frn  evangelicism  reminds  one  of  the  angel 
hearing  the  "Eternal  Gospel*  "Fear  God  and 
Give  Him  Glory"  (Rev.  xiv,  7).  Far  in  the  van 
is  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
(founded  1B04)  credited  with  translations  into 
over  450  tongues,  followed  by  the  American 
Bihte  Society  (1806,  1816)  with  a  credit  of  over 
ISO  tongues.  Of  course,  there  is  here  no  mies- 
tion  of  critical  accuracy  or  correct  comproien- 
<;ion,  but  rather  of  difficult  adaptation,  as  when 
"Lamb'  becomes  "Liltie  Seal'  in  Eskimo,  hut 
these  devoted  labors  have  at  least  borne  not- 
able philologic  fruit 


In  glaadng  back  over  this  immense  range  of 

translations  we  behold  three  towering  apart, 
above  and  beyond  all  others:  the  (jreek  (Scp- 
tuagint),  the  Latin  (Vulgate),  and  the  English 
(Auihoriied).  Of  these,  the  chief  in  import- 
ance is  the  Greek,  since  it  conditioned  the  ap- 
pearance and  triumph  of  Christianity ;  next  is 
the  Vulgate,  the  authoritative  voice  of  the 
Roman  Church  to  so  many  millions  for  so 
many  years;  last  in  importance  though  £rst  in 
literary  excellence  is  the  English,  which  now 
perhaps  speaks  to  a  larger  audience  than  any 
other,  than  even  the  Vulgate  itself.  Next  in 
eminence  is  the  German  (Lutheran),  and  tar 
below  it  next  the  Syriac  Peshitla.  Of  all  five 
the  (German  bears  most  distinctly  the  stamp  of 
the  individual  spirit,  and  in  much  less  measure 
the  Latin,  whereas  the  Greek  is  a  growth  of 
centuries,  and  the  English  the  issue  of  a  collec- 
tive effort  consummating  the  long-drawn  labors 
of  nearly  nine  generations.  The  common  con- 
sciousness has  passed  into  the  Three  Oiief 
Translations  and  therein  found  expression;  and 
in  spite  of  errors  which  the  following  years 
will  constantly  detect  and  expose  in  number, 
these  versions  will  scarcely  be  surpassed  by  any 
future  rivals.  The  corrosion  of  time  may  wear 
down  these  mountain  summits,  but  it  is  very 
unUkely  that  the  energies  of  the  national  Spirit 
will  ever  upheave  any  others  to  such  solemn 
and  commanding  heights. 

For  bibliography  see  article  Bible. 

WiLUAu  Benjamin  Suith. 

BIBLICAL  ARCHEOLOGY.  Old 
Testamentv— Archaeology  is  literally  "ac- 
count of  the  old,"  but  it  has  become  limited  in 
application,  first,  to  the  old  in  relation  to  man, 
thereby  distinguished  from  geology  and  palx- 
ontology,  and  secondly,  to  man  as  a  creator  of 
civilization,  thereby  distinguished  from  palxol- 
Dgy  and  {Mlxethnology.  As  an  account  of 
ancient  civilization,  archaeology  itself  divides 
into  antiquarian! sm,  dealing  with  antiquities, 
the  mere  physical  products  and  agents  of  ancient 
civilized  life,  such  as  houses,  temples,  tombs, 
tools,  arms,  household  articles  and  Uie  like,  and 
other  artifacts,  and  epigraphy,  whkh  deals  with 
the  written  legacies  of  ancient  peoples,  such  as 
inscriptions  on  stone,  brick,  papyrus,  pottery, 
vellum,  parchment.  The  former  makes  appeal 
to  our  artistic  nature,  but  the  documents  are 
laden  with  far  richer  and  more  definite  infor- 
mation and  historic  content.  Biblical  archa;- 
ology  dmws  upon  both  for  the  illumination  of 
the  Scriptures,  but  in  far  larger  measure  upon 
the  second. 

The  history  of  the  Holy  Land,  and  therewith 
the  peculiar  significance  of  the  people  Israel 
-with  its  literature  and  religion,  were  decidedly 
conditioned,  though  not  determined,  by  the 
geographic  singularity  of  its  lying  on  the  high- 
road of  nations,  midway  between  the  two 
cradles  of  civilization,  Effi^t  and  Mesopotamia, 
the  ever-growing  deposits  of  the  Nile  and  of 
the  Twin  Rivers.  The  independent  civiliza- 
tions of  these  valleys  reach  back  in  high  devel- 
opment to  remote  epochs,  being  definitely  cer- 
tified in  Egypt  4240  B.C.  (beginning  of  the  first 
Sothic  Cycle,  of  1460  (i.e..  4x365)  years,  circuit 
of  New  Year's  day  through  the  year),  and  the 
Nippur  tablets  carry  back  the  Mesopotamian 
perhaps  still  further.  Between  these  two  lay 
Canaan,    for  millenniums  apparently  little  i 


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BIBUCAL  ARCHEOLOGY 


fluenced  by  either,  but  graduall;^  drawn  into 
die  widening  vortex  of  their  ambition  and  em- 
pire. The  earliest  Hebrew  tradition  recognized 
this  double  dependence,  reaching  out  one  hand 
to  the  Nile,  and  the  other  to  the  Euphrates. 
According  to  Gen,  xi.  27,  xii,  4,  Abram 
hailed  from  Chaldean  Uz,  or  Haran,  ivhence 
he  went  into  Canaan  at  the  hest  of  Yahveb. 
Again  it  is  to  Paddan-Aram  (Gen  xxviii, 
2)  that  Isaac  sends  Jacob  to  get  him  a 
wife  among  his  own  dansmen.  Such  early 
contact  of  East  and  West  is  not  unlikelj',  since 
the  inscriptions  attest  that  Lugalzaggisi,  King 
at  Erech  of  all  Babylonia  about  2800  B.C.,  ex- 
tended his  sway  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the 
Western  Sea,  and  his  successor,  the  great 
Sargon,  is  even  said  to  have  crossed  it.  But 
again,  even  Abram  is  brought  into  close  rela- 
tions with  Egypt :  he  goes  thither  in  time  of 
famine  (Gen.  xii,  10) ,  dwells  tbere^  departs 
thence,  and  his  concubine,  Sarah's  maid  Hagar, 
is  an  Egyptian,  Much  more,  however,  the  most 
outstandmg  facts  in  the  racial  consciousness 
would  seem  to  be  the  descent  of  Jacob  and 
his  family  into  ^ypt,  the  sojourn  and  perse- 
cution there,  above  all  their  deliverance  throu^ 
the  high  hand  and  outstretched  arm  of  Yahveh, 
followed  by  the  legislation  at  Sinai  and  the 
wandering  in  the  desert.  It  would  appear  then 
that  Egypt  bulked  far  larger  than  Mesopotamia 
in  the  national  imagination,  but  this  does  not 
quite  prove  that  the  ties  of  blood  and  history 
were  really  stronger.  Indeed,  as  already  ob- 
served, it  is  not  certain  that  Egypt  is  always 
meant  by  the  M-s-r-m  of  the  Hebrew  text,  and 
critics  of  the  highest  eminence  suspect  a  con- 
fusion of  geographic  names  at  the  base  of  the 
whole  Egyptian  story. 

When  now  we  ask  about  the  witness  of 
archaeolofry  to  these  BibUcal  statements,  which 
undoubtedly  represent  the  popular  Hebrew 
consciousness,  the  answer  is  somewhat  disap- 
pointing. Palestine  is  geokigically  a  huge  fault 
in  the  earth-crust,  the  western  strata  having 
slipped  down  nearly  a  mile  and  become  ex- 
tremely crumpled  m  the  dislocation.  Hence 
has  resulted  its  extraordinary  variety  of  sur- 
face, climate  and  production,*  well  matched  by 


the  caves  that  afford  glimpses  of  man  10,000 
years  ago.  Since  as  early  as  a.D.  333,  the  Holy 
Land  has  been  a  goal  of  pious  pilgnmage  and 
loving  inquiry  and  exploration,  A  little  later 
the  learned  Eusebius  composed  (and  the  still 
more  learned  Jerome  turned  into  Latin)  the 
'Onomasticon,'  a  careful  list  of  the  places  in 
Palestine  tllat  are  named  in  the  Bible,  identify- 
ing as  many  as  possible  and  adding  data  con- 
cemins  distances  and  events.  His  general 
method,  though  not  his  alphabetic  order,  has 
been  followed  by  many  travelers  and  culminated 
{1841,  1856)  in  the  capital  'Biblical  Researches' 
of  Eaward  Robinson,  professor  in  Union  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  who  explored  the  Holy 
Land  In  1838  and  18S2.  armed  with  "no  instru- 
ments, except  an  ordinary  surveyor's  and  two 


•  That  the  Biblinl  p 
■ppun  from  thE  uMmin' 
wha  fled  thither  ahqut  IViu. 
Yu  (Auh?  G«.  »vi.  14.  I  CY 
Tina.  More  mbaaduit  thnii  i 
hofley,  plentCDUB  its  oil:  All  fniii 
mi  there  utd  spelt,  AD  cattle 


Ml;  Pi^ 


t  ciMgerBted 


pocket  compasses,  a  thennometer,  telescope], 
and  measuring  tapes* — not  with  spade;  it  vis 
Renan  (I860)  who  suggested  but  only  feebly  ex- 
emplified the  supreme  value  of  this  latter.  About 
the  same  time  (1S48)  the  depression  of  die 
Dead  Sea,  first  recognized  in  1837,  was  deter- 
mined by  another  American,  Lieut.  W.  A.  Lynch 
of  the  nayy,  as  nearly  a  quarter-mile  below  the 
Mediterranean.  Religious  zeal  soon  began  to 
organize  itself  for  minute  study  of  Palestinian 
topography,  in  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund 
(London  1865)  followed  by  the  American  Ez- 
ploration  Society  (1870),  and  American  Pales- 
line  Exploration  Society  (October  1870),— one 
object  of  whose  efforts  was  attained  in  die 


J _y  Warre-  „  _ ,.- 

Hill,  Jerusalem,  and  laying  bare  the  funout 
■Robinson's  arch" ;  but  not  till  1890  did  the 
scientific  use  of  the  spade  be^n  in  Palestine,  at 
Tell_  el-Hesy  (the  ancient  Lachish),  under  di- 
rection and  often  under  the  hands  of  the  re- 
nowned William  M.  Flinders  Petric,  in  service 
of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund.  His  prac- 
ticed eye  recognized  the  potsherds  exposed  bj 
the  corrosion  of  an  intermittent  stream  on  the 
side  of  the  120  feet  hig^  mound  as  indicating 
the  ruins  of  by-gone  ages,  and  his  excavaiioni 
published  in  1891^  continued  in  1892  by  Dr.  F.  J. 
Bliss,  revealed  city  upon  city,  ei^t  in  number, 
the  oldest  founded  about  1700  B.C,  all  stratified 
by  the  mounting  and  falling  waves  of  history 
during  nearly  1,400  years.  Since  then  mound 
after  mound  has  been  dug  up  and  sifted,  as  at 
Tell  es-Safi  (Gath?),  by  Bliss  (1901)  and  es 
pecialiy  at  Tell  el-Jazar  (Gezer,  according  to 
Qermont-Ganneau)  by  R.  A.  S.  Macalister, 
which  he  found  had  been  inhabited  from  3000 
to  2500  B.C.  by  non-Semitic  cave-dwellers  of  the 
Stone  Age,  not  taller  than  five  and  one-half  feet, 
and  afterward  by  Semites  (Amorites?)  till  the 
fall  of  the  Hebrew  state  (586),  and  also  four 
centuries  afterward,  in  Seleucid  times.  Of  all 
Palestinian  mounds  this  has  been  most  exten- 
sively examined  (about  half  of  it,  190Z-4S, 
1907-09)  and  has  yielded  the  longest  and  fullest 
record  of  history,  A  tunnel  cut  throtwh  the 
rock  94  feet  deep  to  a  cave-well,  now  120  feel 
below  the  surface,  gives  some  idea  of  the 
energy  and  ability  of  the  men  of  3,700  years 
offo,  while  the  "high  place*  with  its  monolithic 

SiUars,  from  five  and  one-half  to  nearly  11  feet 
igb,  its  votive  plaques  of  Ashtoretb,  and  its 
chamcl-house  of  new-born  babes,  many  in  jars 
sacrificed  as  first-bom  to  the  worshipped  god, 
throws  a  lurid  light  upon  the  Palestinian-Phoe- 
nician religion.  At  Tell  el-Mutesellim  (Ue- 
S'ddo),  the  Germans  under  Schumacher  have 
sinterred  (1903-05)  a  stone-built  city  of  40 
centuries  past,  and  beiow  it  mad  structures  of 
still  earlier  date,  surmounted  by  strata  on 
strata,  all  pre-Christian,  to  the  number  of  seven. 
At  Tell  Taanek  (Taannach)  Professor  Sellin 
in  1902-03  readied  a  stratum  that  he  dates  from 
2500  B.C  At  Jericho  also  he  found  a  jar 
handle  whose  scarab  stamp  indicates  the  12th 
Egyptian  dynasty,  about  2000  B.C.  The  ttle  of 
such  exbumationfi  stretches  out  almost  indefi- 
nitely.     Most    recently    (1905)    die   Gena«ni 


.lOO' 


g[e 


THE  BLACK  ARCHAIC  BABTLOHUN  TABLET 


tizcdbyGoOl^Ie 


3le 


BIBLICAL  ARCHiEDLOGY 


069 


have  uncovered  at  Tell  Hmo  (Capernaum)  a 
synagogue  of  the  4th  century  a.i>.,  and  below  it 
the  floor  of  an  older  structure  which  some 
fancy  may  be  mentioned  in  Luke  vii,  5.  H.  Clay 
Trumbull,  followed  by  C.  M.  Cobem  and  many 
others,  has  thought  to  identify  the  Kadesh- 
Bamea  of  Numbers  xxxii,  8,  with  the  present 
Ain  Kades,  which  Woolley  and  Lawrence  holly 
contest  in  the  interest  of  Kossima  ('The 
Wilderness  of  Zin,'  1912).  Also  the  Assump- 
tionist  Fathers  of  Notre  Dame  de  France  have 
uncovered  streets  on  the  western  hill  sloping 
east,  south  of  the  present  city  wall  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  think  they  have  found  the  house  of 
Caiaphas  (John  xviii,  24;  Matt,  xxvi,  3). 

It  is  seen  that  the  spade  has  made  wonder- 
ful revelations,  widening  immensely  the  horizon 
of  Palestinian  history,  but  has  dug  up  tittle  of 
direct  bearing  on  the  Bible,  beyond  a  long 
array  of  objets  d'arl  too  numerous  lo  mention 
or  even  classify.  Civilization  after  civilization, 
often  of  no  mean  order,  is  revealed  surging 
over  Canaan,  the  Hebrew  monarchy  (1000-^) 
appearing  only  as  a  comparatively  brief  inter- 
lude in  ttie  grand  drama  of  history.  The  He- 
brews themselves  seem  to  be  of  dubious  antece- 
dents and  connections,  and  we  are  startled  at 
recalling  the  repeated  chai^  of  Ezekiel 
(a^inst  Jerusalem)  :  'Tlw  birth  and  thy  na- 
tivity is  of  the  land  of  the  Canaaniie;  the  Amor- 
ite  was  thy  father,  and  thy  mother  was  a  Hit- 
tite"  (xvi,  3,  45).  The  Amorite  has  long  been 
known  as  the  elder  inhatntant  of  the  land, 
and  the  Hittite  emerges  slowly  from  the  mists 
of  antiquity  as  a  composite  race  wide- scattered 
from  the  Agean  to  me  Tigris,  from  the  Eux- 
ine  to  the  Jordan.  The  conquest  of  Canaan 
looks  like  the  work  of  centuries  and  of  widely 
separated  but  related  tribes  invading  at  various 
times  from  different  and  distinct  quarters  and 
with  varying  and  uncertain  success.  Coming  to 
closer  quarters,  we  ask  what  does  archaeology 
tell  us  of  Bible  history  and  worthies,  and  first 
of  Abraham?  On  a  tablet  dating  from  1965  B.C. 
it  is  written  that  *Abarama,  son  of  Awel-lshtar, 
For   one    month    has    hired  One    ox 

broken  to  the  yoke.*  Again  'Concerning  the 
400  shares  of  land,  the  field  of  Sin-idmam, 
Which  to  Abamrama  To  lease,  thou  hast  sent 
.  .  .  .■  Again  *One  shekel  of  silver  Of  the 
rent    of    his    field  .  brought    Abam- 

rama»  .  .  .  These  tablets  and  two  others 
in  which  Abamrama  is  mentioned  as  owning  a 
field  come  from  Dilbat  opposite  Babylo 


Babylonian,  and  the  region  agrees  with  the 
Bible  text,  but  there  is  no  suggestion  of  iden- 
tity between  this  humble  tenant-peasant  and 
the  patriarch-  in  Genesis.  Over  a  thousand 
years  later  Sheshonk  (Shishak)  speaks  of  a 
place,  "The  field  of  Abiam'  (near  Hebron?), 
but  this  does  not  enlighten  us.  Still  another 
tablet,  of  the  Hammurapi  era,  records  the  lease 
of  a  wagon  for  a  year,  declaring  'Unto  the 
land  of  Kittim  He  shall  not  drive  it,"  which 


unneedcd  witness 
between  Mesopotamia  and  the  western  coast.  A 
far  more  important  historical  relation  has  ap- 
peared to  some  in  Gen.  xiv,  the  account  of  the 
triumt^iaiit  foray  of  Abram,  dwelling  by  the 
terebinths  of  Uamre,  with  318  trained  men  of 
his  household,  against  the  four  eastern  kings 
already  victorious  over  the  five  kings  of  Pen- 


tapolis.  Sdirader,  followed  by  many,  identified 
"Amraphel  King  of  Shinar"  with  "Hammurapi 
King  of  Sunset"  (Mar-tu),  through  a  supposed 
corruption,  Amrapi.  But  later  scholarship 
questions  or  denies  outright  any  such  connec- 
tion. Similarly,  the  Chedorlaomer  of  Gen. 
xiv  has  been  identified  with  the  "King  of  Elam 
Kukumal'  (read  "Kudurlakhmal"  by  Sayce. 
and  others,  in  the  cuneiform  inscription).  But 
the  reading  is  unwarranted  and  fails  to  iden- 
tify. Again,  the  same  Chedorlaomer  has  been 
sought  but  not  found  in  "Kudur-Mabug,  'Fath- 
er' of  Sunset*  (Mar-lu)  in  another  wedge- 
writing,  where  'Sunset'  or  *Westland*  means 
not  Palestine  but  Babylonia.  Other  imagina- 
tive identifications  are  'Arioch,  King  of  Ella- 
sar,*  with  Arad-Malkua  (read  as  Sumerian, 
Eri-eaku),  and  "Tidal,  king  of  nations,"  with 
•Tudkhula,  son  of  Gazza."  But  the  tablets  of 
the  4th  century  celebrate  Babylon's  overthrow 
by  Elam,  Kukumat's  conquest  of  Hammurapi's 
capital  I  They  doubtless  deal  with  centuries 
after  Abraham.  But  even  if  the  identifications 
were  complete,  it  would  only  discredit  Genesis; 
for  that  Abraham  with  318  househola  servants 
should  attack  and  discomfit  the  victorious 
armies  of  the  four  kings  and  "return  from  the 
slaughter  of  Chedorlaomer"  is  too  heavy  a  tax 
upon  our  faith.  If  the  whole  account  be  not  in 
some  way  symbolic,  but  semi-historic,  the  facts 
in  the  case  are  too  deeply  disguised  for  recog- 

When  we  turn  to  the  West  and  ask  con- 
cerning the  early  Egyptian  connections  of 
Israel,  the  gleanmg  is  scanty.  "Sargon  the 
mighty  king,  king  of  Agade'  tells  of  his  ex- 
posure *in  a  basket  of  reeds*  and  of  his  rescue 
by  "Akki^  waterman.*  There  need  be  no  copy- 
ing of  this  in  the  account  of  Moses,  but  rather 
independent  ekboration  of  a  favorite  motif; 
the  Freudians,  of  course,  understand  it  all  as  a 
part  of  the  dream-myth  of  the  hero-birth,  the 
basket  as  the  womb,  and  etc.  Hitherto,  King 
Merenptah  (122S-15)  has  enjoyed  the  ill-fame 
of  being  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus;  but  in 
18%  Petri e  discovered  a  stele  inscribed  with 
his  pxan  of  triumph  in  which,  proclaiming  hit 
victory  over  Lybians,  Hittites,  Canaan,  Phcc- 
nicia,  he  adds:  "Ytzrael  is  wasted,  his  seed 
(fruit  crops?)  is  not.*  Yet  it  is  uncertain, 
from  the  absence  of  the  •determinalivei' 
whether  a  settled  people  be  meant.  In  any  case, 
the  implication  that  Israel  had  been  overthrown 
in  Palestine  is  puzzling  and  seems  to  call  for 
revision  of  previous  ideas.  Hardly  less  be- 
wildering is  the  frequent  reference  in  the  Tell 
el-Amama  letterst  (to  Amenophis  III  and  IV, 
from  the  vassal  King  of  Jerusalem,  Abdt- 
Hipa)  to  the  inroads  of  Habiri,  who  seem  to 
be  Hebrews,  nearly  150  years  before  the  sup- 
posed Exodus.  The  implication  seems  to  be 
that  the  Hebrew  invasion  was  a  century-long 
process  with  no  apparent  outset  from  Egypt  — 
a  view  not  antecedently  improbable.  Of  nearly 
the  same  date  is  a  letter  exhumed  by  Scllin  at 
Tell  el-Taaneh  (1903)  and  containing  the  proper 
name  Ahi-ya-mi,  apparently  the  Babylonian  for 
the  Hebrew  Ahijah  or  Ahi-Yahveh,  attesting 
(as  Barton  thinks)  the  knowledge  of  the  Holy 

•Or  Kudur-laRhghamM. 

tPmr  hundrBl  clay  tablets  in  Satiylonran,  digcoTend 
(tBST-tS)  oa  the  nta  of  the  new  copiUl  of  Amenophk  IV.— 
it  i*  iwd.  by  in  Egyptian  vcman.  accidaiMUy,  laA  teU 
for  two  shillings  I 


t,zcd=y  Google 


BIBLICAL  ARCH.SOLOGY 


Name     Yahvdi     at     the     early    *  period     in 

Of  somewhat  similar  purport  is  the  dis- 
covery of  the  name  •Yakub-ilu*  (in  Hebrew, 
Jacob-el)  of  three  men  in  Babylonia  as  early 
as  2161-44.  Under  Hammurapi,  a  fourth  gave 
his  father's  name  as  Yakub,  the  first  antedating 
•Abarama"  by  190,  the  last  by  75  years.  Seven 
hundred  years  later  (1478-46)  Thothraes  III 
records  the  conquest  in  Palestine  of  a  city 
Jacob-el  {in  Egyiitian  Ja-'k-b'-ra),  which  com- 
bined with  the  biblical  history  of  Jacob  sua- 
g;esls  the  partial  derivation  of  the  Chosen  People 
in  Palestine  from  immigrants  from  the  North 
East  Similar  conjecture  is  suggested  by  the 
similar  presence  in  a  Babylonian  document 
{a  2200)  of  the  name  Yashub-ilu  (Joseph-e!), 
along  with  the  city  name  Ya-sha-p'-ra  (Jo- 
seph(?)-el)  in  Thothmes'  list.  The  Bible  ac- 
count seems  to  point  toward  a  powerful  more 
or  less  independent  Josephine  element  in  the 
Chosen  Race.  The  touching  story  of  Joseph 
and  his  temptation  is  remarkably  paralleled  in 
the  Egyptian  <Tale  of  the  Two  BrotWs'  (writ- 
ten for  the  crown-prince,  afterward  Seti  II, 
1209-45),  as  well  as  in  the  case  of  Bellerophon 
and  Anteia  (II.  vi,  16011)  and  elsewhere;  but 
again  it  does  not  seem  lo  be  borrowing,  but 
rather  independent  exploiting  of  an  obvious 
and  favorite  motif.  Among  the  El-Amama 
Letters  are  two  of  the  Amorite  vassal,  Aziru, 
to  Diidu  (Hebrew,  David),  a  Semite,  apparently 
all-fKiwertul  favorite  of  the  King  Amenophis. 
Again,  an  inscription  published  by  Brugsch 
(1891),  dating  from  Ptolemy  X  (117-89),  tells 
how  King  Zoser  (2980)  prayed  lo  Khnum,  ^od 
of  Yeb,  in  time  of  famine,  caused  by  the  Nile's 
failure  to  overflow   for  seven  years,  while  an- 


J,  distributed  corn,  etc.,  much  as  we  read 

of  Joseph.  Whence  it  appears  that  the  historical 
badcground  u^n  which  the  pleasing  picture  in 
(jcnesis  is  pamted  is  sufficiently  justified  and 

If  the  illumination  shed  by  archseology 
on  the  times  of  the  patriarchs  and  the  Exodus 
is  faint,  scattered  and  uncertain,  the  light  cast 
on  the  period  of  the  Judges  is  almost  'dark- 
ness visible.'  Only  a  remarkable  report  of  one 
Wen-Amon,  sent  from  Egypt  to  procure  logs 
from  Lebanon  'for  the  great  and  august  barge 
of  Araon-Re,*  mi(^t  do  honor  to  a  modem 
consul  or  special  envoy  and  sets  forth  in  lively 
biles  the  difficulties  and  dangers  of  primitive 
commerce ;  but  beyond  confirming  the  repute 
of  Lebanon,  attesting  the  disorganization  of  the 
maritime  Palestinian  dependencies  of  Egypt, 
and  presenting  a  parallel  to  "Saul  also  among 
the  proiJiets*  in  a  noble  youth  whom  'the  (rod 
saied  and  cast  into  frcn^,*  this  admirable 
state  paper  offers  no  points  of  contact  with  the 
contemporafv  Israel  of  Gideon  and  Deborah, 
The  fame  of  the  Lebanon  cedars  far  antedates 
these  Judges.  Nearly  2500  years  B.C.  Gudea,  the 
noted  ruler  of  the  Baliylonian  Lagash,  in  re- 
storing the  temple  of  Nlngirsu,  "brought  from 
Amanns,  mountain  of  cedar^  cedar  wood 
whereof  the  length  was  60  cubits,"  as  well  as 
■great  cut  stones  from  Umanu  .  ,  .  mountain 
of  Amorilcs.*  Such  was  ihc  enterprise  of  the 
Is  I  Not  till  after  the  establishment  of 
lonarchy    does    the    Hebrew    step    forth 


— /,  25,  having  plimdered  Jerusalem  in  the  fiith 
year  of  Refaoboam,  pictured  his  victory  on  the 
walls  of  his  pylon  at  the  Kamak  temple,  affix- 
ing a  list  of  conquered  towns.  120  still  legible, 
indicating  conquests  of  botn  Southern  and 
Northern  kingdoms,  even  beyond  Jordan. 
Ashumasirpat  (884-860)  boasts,  'In  the  great 
sea  I  washed  my  weapons,*  but  seems  to  have 
passed  by  Canaan.  But  his  son,  Shalmeneser 
III  (860-825)  claims,  perhaps  with  eza8K<^n- 
tion,  to  have  vanquished  (854)  an  extensive 
alliance  including  *2,000  chariots,  iOfXtO  men  of 
Ahab,  the  Israelite"  and  '1,200  chariots  1,200 
horsemen,  20,000  men  of  Hadad-Idri*  (Ben- 
hadad,  in  1  Kings  the  determined  foe  of  Ahab). 
This  king  has  chronicled  many  campaigns  and 
set  up  a  black  obelisk  depicting  *Jdiu  son  of 
Omri,"  of  whom  be  'received  tribute,*  bowed 
and  kneeling  before  him.  Scripture  is  silent 
concerning  ttiose  exploits.  Again,  Adad-niraii 
(810-782),  unnamedm  the  BiUe.  boasts  of  hav- 
ing 'conquered  .  .  .  the  land  of  Omri  ...  to 
the  coasts  of  the  great  sea."  The  warlike  Tig- 
lath-pileser  IV,  whose  inscriptions  were  sadly 
marred  by  Esarfaaddoii,  vaunts  a  victory  over 
•Azariah  the  Yaudean,»  "of  Yaudi"  <?38),  but 
this  was  perhaps  Axariah  of  Yadi  in  Nortli 
Syria,  named  again  in  Sargon's  inscription  of 
717;  the  Assyrian  conqueror  is  the  Pul  to  whom 
Menahem  of  Israel  'gave  a  thousand  talents  of 
silver*  as  tribute,  the  price  of  his  throne  Six 
years  later,  Put  swept  again  in  full  triumph 
over  the  west,  Judah  bdnv  saved  only  by  the 
tribute  by  (Jeho)  Ahaz  (2  Kings  xvi,  7-10). 
presented  in  ^rson  at  Damascus.  The  muti- 
lated inscription  declares  *The  country  of  Ae 
house  of  Omri  ...  all  its  people  ...  I  carried 
away  unto  Assyria.  Pekah  their  king  thev  had 
overthrown.  Hoshea  .  .  .  over  them  I  placed. 
10  talents  of  gold  ,  .  .  talents  of  silver  I  re- 
ceived as  tribute  from  them.'  This  greatlv 
overlaps  the  statement  of  2  Kings  xv,  29. 
Hoshea  rebelled,  and  Shalmeneser  V  (727-22) 
besieged  him  in  Samaria  but  did  not  live  till 
his  capture,  recorded  by  Sargon' (721-706)  for 
•my  first  ycar,» — ■27,2!m  people  from  its  midst 
I  carried  captive,'  which  accords  reasoaably 
well  with  2  Kings  ivii,  1-& 

The  deportation  was  small,  even  when  aug- 
mented by  that  of  Pul,  far  less  than  has  oc- 
curred in  recent  cultured  times.  It  vas  rather 
by  absorption  at  home  that  the  'ten  tribes  were 
lost.'*  For  ages  this  Sargon  was  known  from 
Is.  XX,  1  as  conqueror  of  Ashdod  (711).  His 
name  was  next  discovered  when  Botta  exhumed 
his  palace  in  1845.  It  is  Sennacherib  (706^1) 
that  bulks  largest  in  Judah's  history.  Hil  in- 
scription relating  to  his  campaign  of  701  tctls 
of  his  delivering  Ekron's  long  'FPadi  my  all);* 
from  'Hczekiah,  the  Judtean,*  —  to  whom  his 
people  "had  delivered  him'  in  "fetters  of  iron,' 
—  ■out  of  the  mid.it  of  lerosalem'j  th»t  he 
captured  '46  of  his  (Heaekiah's)  strongiwlds,* 
■200,150  people,  ...  I  brought  otit  of  their 
midst*  with  countless  "booty.*    ■Himself  I  shut 


1.  iUti  6M  to 


I  A-%  muld  be  AMTinn  for  the  Hefano  Va,  a 
lu.  the  coTTihining  form  of  Yshveh  in  f  ~ '  " 
n  A-u-idihia  would  he  for  Ja-naUmt 

ice  it  ■  tfam^Ait  tlMie  tat>1pta  mBaiA  i . 

91  tribe*  " —  enfised  in  the  tramler  «(  htinian 


the  Old  Ti 
■■    (VehTi 


iS^Stelt 


A  Someiiaii-BabTkiaivi  Dlctionair,  Two  Sectiasi  of  Fimt  Cohmuu  Each  (Cl  MM  B.  C).  Ths 
cohuuu  cooUin  mpectiTalT  At  cluuactM  and  ID  imdw;  the  tat  and  fonrlh  iMMCttralr  tt 
Mtyloniaa  oqulnlftat*.—  Rom  Oh  Tala  CoDection,  br  couitMr  of  Profon  Albst  T.  Claj 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


DijilizcdbyGoOl^le 


BIBLICAL  ARCUJEOLOGV 


asi 


op  like  a  taged  bird  in  Jerusalem.^  'Deserted* 
by  *Urbi  and  his  favoritE  soldiers,*  Hezdciab 
«wilh  30  taltnts  of  gold,  800  talents  of  silver,* 
and  endlesi  treasures,  *alGo  bis  daugjitiers,  the 
women  of  his  palace,  male  and  fonate  musicians 
he  sent  after  me  to  Nineveh,  my  capital,  and 
sent  his  messenger  to  present  the  gift  and  to 
do  homage.'  From  this  much-debated  inscrip- 
tion it  would  appear,  quite  in  accord  with 
Is.  Exxvi,  xxxvii,  and  2  Kings  xviii,  xix,  that 
Jerusalem  did  not  actually  fall  to  the  Assyrian, 
irat  that  he  departed  to  Nineveh,  leaving  his 
army  b^nd.  However,  the  extent  of  Hezelaah's 
disaster  is  onl};  vaguely  hinted  in  the  Scrip- 
ture, and  no  intimation  of  the  angelic  slaughter 
of  185,000  Assyrians  is  found  in  the  wcdge- 
writit^.  Some,  as  Meinhotd,  would  accept  this 
latter,  whose  minuteness  inspires  credence,  at 
its  face  value  and  regard  the  Biblical  account 
at  confused  or  garbled;  others,  as  Winckler, 
refer  2  Kings  xix,  9-36,  to  a  second  expedition, 
about  661  (when  Tirlukah  £rst  ascended  the 
Ethioiasn  throne),  and  the  inscription  to  the 
first  exipedition  only, —  though  this  seems  im- 
possible, as  the  return  of  Sennacherib  to 
Ntneveb  (2  Kings  xix,  36)  is  clearly  implied  in 
the  close  of  his  inscription.  This  latter  how- 
ever Btn>ngly  suggests  that  samelhing  happened 
to  the  Assyrian  to  call  him  away,  and  G.  A. 
Smitth  followed  by  others,  in  view  of  a  passage 
in  Herodotus  (II,  141)  telling  how  E^pt  was 
delivered  from  Sennacherib's  host  by  field-mice 
dat  ate  up  their  (jiiivers,  bowstrings  and  shield- 
straps  *in  the  night,"  conjeclures  that  it  was 
the  bubonic  plague  that  paralyzed  the  *might  of 
the  (jcntilCj*  and  became  in  the  Egyptian  tradi- 
tion a  "multitude  of  field-mice^*  vehicles  of  the 
pestilence,  but  in  Hebrew  imagination  the  Angcl 
of  Yahvch.  In  these  accounts,  then,  we  *see 
men  as  trees  walking.*  An  inscription  of  Esar- 
haddon  (680-669)  names  *liiaaassah  Kin^  of 
Judea'  as  seoond  among  *22  kings  of  Hittite 
lands,"  whOia  'I  overthrew,'  confirming  2  Cbr. 
xxxiii,  11,  and  Ewa  iv,  2.  Asurbanipal  (669^ 
626)  also  appears  in  Ezra  iv,  10,  diaracteristi- 
cally  disguised  as  "the  great  and  noble  Osnap- 
par.*  In  Is.  xxxix,  1,  2  Kings  xx,  12,  2  Chr, 
xxxii,  31,  we  £ud  Merodach-Bolaaan  sending 
an  embassy  to  congratulate  Hezekiah  on  re- 
coveiy  from  illness;  Sennacherib's  inscription 
of  703  tells  of  the  overthrow  of  the  former 
at  Kish ;  the  embassy  was  doubtless  to  induce 
the  latter  to  rebel.  The  many  inscriptions  of 
the  bi^ly  religious*  Nebukadrezar  (Nabu- 
kudurn-aiur,  "Nabu,  border-mine  defena")  re- 
late cWefly  to  his  buildings  (Dan.  iv,  30)  and 
pass  by  his  Judsean  conquests. 

Inscriptions  that  merely  contain  Bible  names 
are  too  abundant  for  any  specification.  The 
Stloam  inscription,  which  may  illustrate  2  Kings 
XX,  20,  has  already  been  mentioned.  The  cele- 
brated "Stone  of  Mcsha*  the  King  of  Moab 
mentioned  in  2  Kings  iii,  4,  discovered  by  Klein 
1868,  and  after  serious  mishap  finally  lodged  in 
the   Louvre,   contains    a   long   inscription   con- 

•  WitncH  hk  ItuusDml  priver  and  tximptzt  with  Solo- 
nHjD'a  IJ  Kkisa  nii.  22--<ll):  "Ruler  etansl.  onivmal  Lonl, 
grant  that  tha  naou  of  tbc  lona  vhom  thou  loveat.  Those 
namv  thou  hast  prodaimed.  mayproap^T  as  pleaaeg  the«. 
Condaet  faim  aloiis  the  path  cif  rifihteiinsTiaii.  I  am  the 
priiKia  devoted  to  Uite,  the  Beatace  of  ihr  hand.  Me  hut 
thou  cnatad.  and  kvdihip  over  men  hut  committad  to 
me.  .  .  .  The  fear  of  Ihy  godheul  lay  thoD  in  mv  hearc 
VDEcbaafe  me  vhat  eeeueth  good  udIo  tbee,  fci  Uiou  art 


finning  the  subjection  of  Moab  to  the  bouse  of 
Omri  "for  for^  years*  and  its  deliverance  un- 
der Mesha,  whose  narrative  is  at  best  tangent  to 
that  in  2  Kings;  the  two  scarcely  at  all  overlap, 
their  viewpoints  being  wide  apart 

It  remains  to  add  that  the  mscriptions  show 
clearly  enough  that  Babylon  fell  to  Cyrus  under 
the  tuurper  Nabuna'idu  (not  to  Darius,  as  in 
Dan.  V,  31,  not  under  Belshazzar,  as  in  Dan. 
V,  30),  who  (and  not  Nebukadrezzar  as  in 
Dan.  V,  11-18)  was  father  of  Belrfiaziar.  They 
also  make  clear  how  the  later  Isaiah  could 
speak  so  knowingly  of  Cyrus  (xliv,  2S-xlv,  5). 
On  the  other  hand.  Pinches  and  Clay  have  pub- 
lished two  tablets  which  may  indicate  that  Bel- 
shazzar was  io  some  way  associated  with  his 
father  Nabuna'id  in  sovereignty.  On  the  whole, 
it  seems  likely  that  the  author  of  <DanieP  was 
too  far  removed  from  Che  situation  to  write 
of  it  with  correctness.  The  famous  inscription 
of  Cyrus  celebrates  how  he  triumphed  as  the 
chosen  instrument  of  Marduk  (not  of  Vahveti, 
as  in  Ezra  i,  1-4),  how  he  took  "Babylon  with- 
out war  or  battl^"  how  he  established  a  rule 
of  mercy  and  justice,  how  he  reversed  the  stern 
policy  of  Tiglath-pileser  IV,  for  two  centuries 
prevalent,  and  restored  the  deported  to  dwell, 
the  people  "in  their  homes,'  the  gods  'in  their 
eternal  shrines,*  Such  was  hia  general  policy, 
not  his  special  favor  toward  the  Jews.  A  special 
decree  in  favor  of  the  latter  (as  in  Ezra  i, 
1-4)  seems  possible  but  unlikely.  Such  are  the 
main  points  of  historical  contact  hetwecn  the 
Bible   and   the   inscriptions. 

Another  important  matter  is  that  of  literary 
rtsembloKce  or  contrast.  The  vast  Egyptian 
and  Assyrian  literatures  continually  emerging 
to  light  raise  this  question  afresh  at  each  new 
dedimertnent  With  the  first  chapters  in  Gen- 
esis ono  must  compare  the  Seven  Tablets  of  the 
Babylonian  Epic  of  Creation.  Minute  treatment 
is  not  possible  in  this  comiection;  snflice'  it  that 
critics  fed  sure  that  there  is  intimate  relation 
at  a  number  of  points,  tboi^  the  discrepancies 
arc  far  greater  and  more  numerous.  Thus, 
the  two  accounts  a^ree  in  assuming  a  prinueval 
chaos  of  waters,— in  Hebrew  TehSm,  in  Ba^- 
lonian  (Mummu)  Tiam~al,  cognate  terms,  like 
English  morrotv  and  German  Morten.  Dgt--' 
Genesis  is  monotheistic,  while  the  epic  is  piify- 
theistic,  and  though  vivid  in  its  depiction  of 
the  god  Uarduk's  struggle  and  triumph,  it  by 
no  means  awroaches  the  serene  sublimity  of 
the  fiats  of  Elohim,  Yet  the  notion  of  cosmic 
Creation  as  a  victorious  struggle  against  Chaos 
had  a  charm  of  its  own  and  seems  to  appear 
here  and  there  in  the  Scriptures,  as  in  lob  ix, 
li-14,  where  "Rahab's  helpers*  seem  to  be  "the 
helpers*  of  TIamat  in  Tablet  IV.  105-18.  Also 
in  Ps.  Ixxxix,  ID,  and  Is.  1i,  9,  Rahab  is  like 
Tiamat.  Similarly  Job  xxvi,  13.  seems  to  recall 
Marduk's  cleaving  of  Tiamat  (IV,  93-104,  13S- 
140).  Once  more,  the  "Leviathan*  of  Ps.  \xxiv, 
13,  14,  Job  iii,  8;  xli,  19-21,  Is.  xxvii,  1,  remind 
us  of  Kingu  in  the  Tablets,  the  sponse  of 
Tiamat,  Lastly,  to  the  present  writer  the  noble 
93d  Psalm,  es^ially  in  verses  3, 4,  appears  to  re- 
echo and  glorify  the  triumph  of  the  cosmogonic 
(iod  over  the  turbulent  diaos  (of  TehOm).  In 
another  tablet  is  found  a  distant  resemblance  to 
the  second  account  of  creation  in  (Jen, 
ii,  4ff,  as  well  as  in  the  great  Gilgamesh-epic, 
where  "Aruru  laved  her  hands,  Clay  sbi  pinched 
off  and  spat  thereon,  Eabani,  a  hero  she  createtL 


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«ee 


BIBLICAL  AKCIUBOI.OOV 


Exalted  offsprii^,  with  Ninib's  might'  Once 
more  in  the  myth  of  Adapa.  who  "broke  the 
Southwind's  wing,"  critics  delect  sundry  sugges- 
tions of  the  fail  of  man  in  Gen.  iii.  In  spite 
of  countless  disparities,  the  atmospheres  are 
alike,  lloreover,  the  antediluvian  patriarchs  are 
matched  in  the  lang-livcd  Babylonian  kings  of 
the  tablets  and  of  Berossos,  and  eTen  their 
names  have  beea  equated  by  Barton,  extremely 
interesting  results,  which  cannot  be  detailed  in 
these  columns,  very  striktng  resemblances  to 
the  account  of  the  Flood  in  Genesis  are  found 
in  the  205  lines  of  the  immense  Gilgamesh-epic 
dating  from  Babylon,  7th  century,  but  doubtless 
elaborating  far  older  materiaT.  Ut-Napisbtim 
(day-life),  or  in  the  Nippurian  version,  Ztu- 
giddu  (life-day  prolot^^)  figures  in  place  of 
Noah.  The  essential  features  of  the  Bible  story 
all  app«ir  in  the  Babylonian,  along  with  plentiful 

Elythdstic  additions :  the  warning  from 
aven  to  the  hero  alone,  the  buil<ung  and 
fiitching  of  the  v«ssel  of  safety,  the  embarka- 
tion,   the    *migbty    rainstorm,''    the    ruin    it 


state  of  sociefy  than  the  Hebrew,  tboa^  more 
than  a  millenmum  older.  The  consciousness 
that  dominates  them  is  moral  and  jural,  whereas 
that  of  the  Pentateuch  is  ritual  and  religious. 
It  cannot  be  made  out  that  the  latter  has  bor- 
rowed directly  from  the  former,  hut  a  cmmnan 
consciousness    is    distinctly    soown    in    many 


tion,    —      ,—„— ^     ,      — 

wrouelit,  the  cessation  when  'the  sea  calmed, 
the  destruction  abated,  the  flood  ceased,*  the 
settling  on  the  mount  (Nizir),  the  sending  forth 
and  return  of  dove  and  swallow,  the  non-return 
of  the  raven,  the  disembarking  and  sacrifice, 
not  however  the  rainbow  (but  compare  the 
<Iliad,>  XI,  27f: 

Thne  on  •  uds,  snd  ttwy  lOceiMd    to   minbowi    wt    ol 

Kronioii 
Eiab,  on  11  cloud,  u  B  nurvel  lo  mortali  urticulkts-viaak- 

Another  more  fragmentary  version  of  the 
Flood-story  from  earlier  than  2000  b.c.  has 
been  found  at  .Nippur  and  recently  published 
(1914),  and  there  are  still  others.  The  Baby- 
lonian poem  is  well  worth  reading  as  literature 
far  surpassing  the  Biblical  in  vividness  and 
vigor,  but  as  far  surpassed  in  the  inaccessible 
monotheistic  sublimity  of  the  latter.  The  cer- 
tainly of  community  of  origin  in  this  case  is 
reflected  upon  other  parallels  less  exact  The 
Flood  seems  to  have  been  a  favorite  theme  for 
Oriental  ima^ning,  but  its  pritnitivc  meaning 
has  not  yet  been  made  clear. 

Very  recently  (1915)  Stephen  Langdon  has 
published  'The  Sumcrian  Epic  of  Paradise,  the 
Flood,  and  the  Fall  of  Mankind'  from  a  Nip- 
purian tablet  antedating  2000  B.C.  -  It  differs 
very  widely  from  the  accounts  already  men- 
tioned, but  Langdon's  interpretation  is  very 
vigorously  rejected  by  other  scholars,  such  as 
Barton,  Jastrow,  Prince,  who  find  nothing  about 
ParaoUse,  Flood  or  Fall,  but  rather  an  imagina- 
tion concerning  the  origin  of  a  city  and  of 
social  life  and  the  beginning  of  Agnculture,— 
a  view  certainly  favored  by  their  translations. 
"ITie  likeness  of  Tagtug  (or  Takku)  to  Adam 
and  Noah  is  faint.  One  of  the  most  important 
discoveries  ever  made  amid  the  monuments  was 
that  of  the  Code  of  Hammurapi  (2104-2061), 
on  a  block  of  black  diorite  in  three  pieces,  ex- 
humed (December  1901,  Januar,'  1902)  by  the 
French  under  de  Morgan  at  Susa,  whither  it 
had  been  taken  from  Marduk's  temple  in  Baby- 
k«i,  where  the  Semitic  version  of  elder  Su- 
merian  laws  was  set  up  for  the  Semitelo  read 
Uiem.  These  judge-made  statutes,  282  in  num- 
ber, the  oldest  known,  present  very  many  points 
of  agreement  with  the  Mosaic  law,  and  naturally 
very  many  more  of  difference.  They  contem- 
plate 8  far  more  complex  and  highly  organized 


tly     BtM 
notable  parallels     A  similar  remark, 
more  emphatic,  may  be  made  toucbi 
thaginian  law  of  Sacrifices  (of  Sth 


4th  c 


tury  B.C.)  in  its  relation  to  tic  Levitical. 

It  is  a  far  cry  from  the  Pentateuch  to  the 
Psalms,  and  we  are  prone  to  think  of  the 
Psalter  as  the  most  peculiar  book  of  a  peculiar 
literature;  yet  it  is  exactly  at  this  pomt  that 
the  HebreW'Babylonian  approach  is  nearest 
The  wedge-writing  abounds  in  Psalms,  espe- 
cially the  penitential,  which  often  r«veal  the 
soul  and  a  sense  of  sin  with  great  distinctness. 
In  general  they  are  frankly  polytheistic — yet 
intensely  earnest,  god  after  god  being  asked  to 
intercede  with  some  other,^thou^  sometimes 
henotheistic,  as  when  Bel  or  the  Uoon-^oid  Sin 
is  passionately  and  exclusively  invoked  in  hi^ 
wrought  imageiv  and  exalted  conceptions,  or  in 
the  Akkadian  Hymn  to  Marduk*  (c.  3000): 
■Who  shall  flee  from  before  thy  might?  Tfay 
will  is  eternal  mystery.  Thou  makest  it  plain 
in  heaven  and  on  earth.  Bid  the  sea,  and  the 
sea  obeys  thee.  Command  the  tempest,  and  the 
tempest  is  calmed.  Command  the  curves  of 
the  Euphrates,  and  Marduk's  will  shall  stay  the 
floods.  Lord,  thou  art  holy  I  Who  is  like  unto 
thee?  Marduk,  thou  hast  honor  among  gods 
that  are  named.*  The  reader  will  note  the 
familiar  chords.  Finest  are  the  bj^mns  to  the 
stm-god  Sbamash,  extolling  his  justice  and 
righteousness:  "Thou  guidest  the  law  of  the 
hosts  of  men.  Forever  righteous  in  heaven 
art  thou.  The  righteous  wisdom  of  the  lands 
art  thou.*  Especially  splendid,  even  in  its  ruins 
is  the  great  hytnn  to  Shamash,  of  four  coltunns, 
424  lines,  lauding  his  goodness  and  glory  and 
mi^t.  The  repetend,  with  which  we  are  famil- 
iar in  certain  Hebrew  Psalms,  as  'For  his  mercy 
endureth  forever,*  characterises  also  the  Baby- 
lonian (and  especially  the  magic-fortnuUe)  thus: 
"  My  god,  who  is  tord  of  prayer,  may  he  pmsBt  mr  tnra 


"God 


^sn«ven 


1,  [he  lad  at  Eridu,  may  he  la 


In  many  of  these  Psalms  the  note  of  anguish 
is  loud,  but  it  is  the  anguish  of  the  individual 
sufferer-  the  grander  note  of  national  distress, 
where  the  voice  of  the  whole  people  swells  to 
heaven,  remains  silent  in  Babylonia,  the  privi- 
lege of  Israel.  However  beautiful  many  of 
Babylon's  Psalms,  they  scarcely  equal  the 
Egyptian,  some  of  which  approach  monotheism, 
which  was  even  fully  attained  under  Amenophis 
IV  (Ikh-n-Aton,  "Man  of  Aion,"  as  he  called 
himself),  who  reached  almost  the  topmost  peak 
of  religious  consciousness  in  his  long  and  won- 
derful hymn  to  Alon  (the  sun's  disc,  symbol  of 
the  One  God)  :  "Thou  art  in  my  heart;  There 
is  none  other  knows  thix.  Save  thy  son  Ildi-n- 
Aton*  (Matt,  xi,  27). 

From  the  Psalms  one  passes  naturally  to  the 
Proverbs,  thoug^i  by  a  steep  religions  descent, 

*  The  nobteet  r^i^knia  prolecttDn  of  Meaopotemian  mm- 
logi.  in  hii  humanity  and  ModenuiH  rrnninir  ■(  tinw«  tha 
God  of  the  New  T 


t,zcd=y  Google 


IRSCBIPTION  OF  THE  TEN  WORDS  OP  CRBATION 
Pmm  lid  K  kurid 


Digitized  by  GOOI^IC 


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lizcdbyGooi^le 


BIBLICAL  AfiCHAOLOGY 


Piah-Hotep'  reach  far  back  into  the  3d  millea- 
nium  B.C.,  a  record  of  experience  already  hoaty. 
and  the  gnat  libivy  of  Ashurbanipal  teemea 
with  proverbial  phtloso^y.  The  Assyriaa 
secnu  rather  clo*er  both  m  form  and  in  spirit 
to  the  Hdimr  than  is  the  Egyptian.  ■Before 
thy  God  m^rst  thou  have  a  ptire  heart.  For 
that  is  be&tting  a  godhead*  "The  fear  <o£ 
God)  begets  favor,  Offering  enriches  life.  And 
prayer  brings  forgiveness  of  sin.'  Plah-Hotep: 
*If  llwu  pKiweit  and  (here  is  growth  in  the 
field,  the  god  ^ves  it  as  increase  in  thy  land. 
Satisfy  iftit  thine  own  mouth  beside  tlq'  Idn." 
*Love  tfa(y  wife  without  alloy.*  'Justice  is 
mighty,  inunutable,  fixed'  "To  please  the  mas- 
ter greatly,  let  us  do  for  him  more  than  he  has 
bid*  which  recalls  the  Gospel  saying.  Since  in 
the  proverb  it  is  mainly  a  matter  of  practical 
pruoeDce  rather  than  religious  sentiment,  it  is 
not  strange  that  the  Assyrian  and  Egyptian  rank 
well  with  the  Hebrew,  thou^  overtoned  by  the 
voice  of  Wisdom  in  Proverb  viii  The  cumax 
of  ancient,  at  least,  Egyptian  morality  is  found 
in  the  'Book  of  the  Dead'  dating  in  form 
from  the  I8th,  in  ideas  from  the  3d  dynasty, 
and  the  Jud^ent  Scene  with  its  three  sessions 
of  Introduction,  Disavowal  and  Address  to  the 
underworld  gods,  reminds  us  at  points  of  the 
picture  (Mt  XXV,  31ff)  that  inspired  the  'Dies 
Ira;.'  The  soul  says:  "l  live,  1  feed  upon  right 
and  truth ;  I  have  given  bread  to  the  hungry, 
and  water  to  the  tliirsty,  and  raiment  to  the 
naked  .  .  .  therefore,  let  it  be  said  'Come  in 
peace.  Come  in  peace.'  ■  Compare 'also  *I  have 
not  caught  fish  with  bait  made  of  fish  of  thur 
kind*  with  *Thou  shalt  not  seethe  a  kid  in  its 
mother's  milk.' 

It  was  especially  ia  prophecy  that  Israel  sur- 
passed all  otber  peoples,  yet  was  not  quite  alone. 
As  Samuel  (1  Sam.  iii,  3^)  and  Zechariah 
(i,  7,  8)  had  visions  of  Yahvdi  in  the  night,  and 
Isaiah  (vi,  1)  in  the  temple,  so  in  the  stress  of 
Asfaurbanipaf's  victorious  struggle  with  Tiu- 
man,  Kin^  of  Elam,  *a  seer  lay  down,  he  saw 
a  prophetic  dream*  of  Ishtar,  armed  I3ce  Arte- 
mis and  Athena,  promising  her  invincible  help 
to  her  faithful  worshii»er,  the  Assyrian  Ktn^. 
As  the  prophets,  in  particular  Amos  and  Isaiah, 
denoimce  Oie  avarice,  luxu^  and  oppression  of 
the  upper  classes,  so  does  the  sense  of  common 
right  and  social  justice  find  powerful  and  pas- 
sionate utterance  in  the  nine  *Pleas  of  the 
Peasant'  in  Egyptian  story.  In  the  prophets, 
the  basis  is  always  religious,  such  is  the  will 
of  Yahreh ;  but  the  peasant  Hunanup's  appeal 
more  than  a  thousand  years  older  is  to  the  level 
scales,  to  the  abstract  and  eternal  principles  of 
truth  and  equity:  *Speak  the  truth;  for  it  is 
great,  it  is  mighty,  it  is  everlasting.'  Most 
characteristic  of  prophecy  is  the  messianic  ex- 
pectation, the  vision  of  a  king  of  justice  and 
holiness,  who  shall  restore  to  its  pristine  beauty 
the  marred  visage  of  creation  and  establish  a 
universal  reign  of  righteousness  and  peace. 
Characteristic,  but  not  peculiar,  nay.  almost  as 
universal  as  the  yearning  of  tlie  soul  of  man. 
The  classic  peoples  longed  for  the  return  oF 
the  Golden  Age.  In  hb  famous  'Eclogue*  it 
was  proclaimed  as  at  hand  by  Virgil,  and  the 
circummedilerranean  world  hailed  even  Augus- 
tus as  such  a  Saviour-Padficator.  But  ^000 
years  before,  such  aspirations  had  found  expres- 


sion in  the  musings  of  the  Egyptian  Ipuwer. 
However,  Uie  distinctly  religious  and  mono- 
theistic setting,  along  with  the  national  con- 
sciousness of  world-mission  and  destiny,  re- 
mains unique  in  the  Hebrew  prophecies. 

On  the  other  hand,  wo  rid- weariness,  if  ges- 
Nmistic,  may  easily  pass  over  into  hedonism 
or  even  sensuaTism,  the  'carpc  diem"  of  the 
Roman  poet;  such  was  not  only  the  case  with 
Qoheleth  (the  Preacher),  as  in  ix,  7-9,  but  also 
of  the  Babylonian  scribe  of  2000  b.c,  who  ex- 
horts Gilgamesh,  "Day  and  night  be  joytid 
Daily  ordain  gladness,  Day  and  Night  make 
merry  and  rioL  Let  thy  garments  be  bright. 
Thy  head  purity  ...  a  wife  enjoy  in  thy 
bosom* — quite  in  the  manner  of  the  Hebrew 
moralist  Oose  akin  to  this  wo  rid- weariness, 
whether  pessimistic  in  the  Preacher  or  optimistic 
in  the  Prophets,  is  bewilderment  at  the  moral 
government  of  the  earth,  at  the  sufferings  of 
the  righteous  and  the  prosperity  of  the  vricked 
.  This  problem  of  Good  ana  Evil  is  grappled  in 
the  book  of  'Job, —  apparently  with  an  eye  on 
the  misfortunes  of  the  people  Israel, —  perhaps 
the  finest  product  of  the  Hebrew  mind  but 
1,500  years  earlier,  the  Nippurian  Tabu-utul- 
Bel,  a  righteous  and  religious  ofiicial  ^*praycr 
was  my  wisdom,  my  sacrifice,  my  digni^') 
'advanced  in  life,*  appears  to  have  fallen  on 
evil  days  and  slanderous  tongues :  'All  day 
long  the  pursuer  pursues  me.  In  the  watches  of 
the  night  lets  me  breathe  not  a  moment ; 
Througn  torture  my  joints  are  torn  asunder, 
...  On  my  couch  I  welter  like  an  ox.  .  .  .  My 
enemy  beard,  his  face  did  gladden'— which 
reminds  us  not  only  of  Job,  but  of  the  sufCerer 
in  the  Psalms.  The  wonderful  central  mass  of 
the  Hebrew  drama  is  without  parallel  in  Baby- 
lonian, and  its  dose,  perhaps  an  addition,  sur-  - 
passes  the  account  of  how  the  Nippurian  was 
cured  by  the  messenger  from  Marduk.  Thus 
the  tale  of  the  polytheistic  ma^-practising  offi- 
cial sinks  far  below  the  empyrean  flight  of  the 
Hebrew,  but  the  parallel  is  none  the  less 
important. 

Altogether  by  itself  in  Scripture  is  the  Song 
of  Songs,  a  cento  of  love-lays,  lively  and  beauti- 
ful, if  often  indelicate  in  their  suggestions. 
Similar  ditties  have  been  heard  in  the  tast  and 
taken  dowit  in  modem  times,  but  the  like  were 
also  heard  in  Egypt  nearly  4,000  years  ago,  and 
remind  us  vividly  of  many  passages  in  the  Song, 
thus:  •!  am  thy  darling  sister.  To  thee  like 
a  bit  of  land,  Each  shrub  of  grateful  fragrance. 
...  A  beautiful  place  to  wander.  Thy  hand  in 
my  hand  My  soul  inspired  My  heart  in  bliss. 
Because  we  go  together.*  Compared  with  Cant. 
V,  1 ;  vi.  2,  3,  these  lines  show  (bat  the  elder 
bard  has  not  only  rivaled  the  Hebrew  but  also 
the  moderns  in  celebrating  the  tendu-  passion. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  the  use  of  the  term  "sis- 
ter,' intelligible  enough  in  Egyptian,  clears  up 
in  a  measure  the  use  in  the  Hebrew. 

Lastly  the  great  finds  of  papyri  (dated  49+- 
400  B.C.)  at  Yeb  or  Elephantine- is  land  (in  the 
N'ilc,  near  the  first  Cataract)  (published  Lon- 
dori  1906;  Leipzig  1911)  show  that  the  Jewish 
military  colony  establisned  perhaps  by  Psam- 
metik  II  of  Egypt  (593-88)  had  built  a  "temple 
of  Yahu-god'  there  before  Cambyscs'  conquest 
(S25).  A  letter  to  Bagohi  (407)  tells  how  this 
temple  had  Iain  three  years  in  ruins,  destroyed 
by  "wicked  Waidrang."  Having  appealed  in 
vain  to  the  High  Priest,  Jehohttn^,  at  Jenisa- 

,11-  .1  .Google 


664 


BIBLICAL  ARCHJEOLOOY 


lem,  they  turned  successfully  to  the  Persian 
governor  Bagoas  (Bagohi)  and  to  the  two  sons 

ot  Sanballat,  Governor  of  Samaria,  to  order  its 
rebuilding.  The  bearing  of  these  facts  on  the 
dale  of  Deuteronomy  is  disputed.  It  is  possible 
that  Isaiah  xix,  19-22,  may  refer  to  this  temple 
and  not,  as  hitherto  supposed,  to  that  of  Onias 
(170  B.c).  Another  letter  (419)  from  a  cer- 
tain Hananiah  instructs  the  Jews  of  Yeb  con- 
cerning the  Passover,  which  seems  to  imply 
their   Ignorance   of    the   Pentateuch,   as   critics 


Such  are  the  more  important  connections  of 
Hebrew  with  profane  literature,  as  they  are 
recogniied  in  me  works  of  even  conservative 
scholars,  such  as  Rogers  (1912)  and  Barton 
(1916).  Pan-Babyloitism,  however,  goes  very 
much  further  in  the  learned  works  of  Gunkel 
('Schopfung  und  Chaos  in  Urzeit  und  End- 
leit*),  Winckler  in  his  new  edition,  with  Zim- 
mem,  of  Schrader's  'Keilinschriften  und  das 
Alte  Testament,'  his  "Israelitische  Geschichie,' 
and  numerous  monographs,  Zimmem  in  the 
same    edition    of     Schrader,    and    elsewhere. 


_.  Winckler,  in  his  'Das  Alte  Testament 
Licht  des  Orients,'  and  especially  Jensen,  who 
in  his  colossal  work  on  the  Gilgaraesh-Epos 
would  seem  to  regard  nearly  all  "wo rid- litera- 
ture' as  au  outgrowth  from  the  Babylonian 
legend,  even  the  gospel  with  its  Christ.  _  Less 
enthusiastic  scholarship  reduces  such  claims  to 
far  more  modest  dimensions.  With  more  rea- 
son Zimmem,  in  his  contribution  to  the  "Jesus- 
Question,"  finds  remote  suggestions  of  New 
Testament  teaching  in  primitive  Babylonian 
ideas,  and  Gunkel  finds  the  aboriginal  cos- 
mogonic  struggle  reflected  in  the  Apocalyptic 
visions  of  the  final  consummation.  The 
Winckler-Tercmias  theories  contain  perhaps 
many  goloen  grains  of  truth,  but  it  will  require 
years  to  sift  them  out,  'Under  the  whistle  of 
wind  and  the  swing  ot  the  winnower's  shovel.* 
The  eagerly  expected  publication  of  Ed.  Glaser's 
North  Arabian  inscriptions  may  shed  light  on 
many  dark  places. 

In  conclusion,  the  revelations  of  the  spade 
have  undoubtedly  wrought  a  profound  trans- 
formation in  our  conceptions,  both  of  the  his- 
tory and  of  the  literature  of  Israel.  The  former 
is  seen  to  have  unveiled  itself  upon  a  world- 
Stage  ot  extraordinary  range  both  in  time  and 
in  space.  Though  dominated  outwardly  by  the 
colossal  empires  that  towered  on  both  sides  far 
above  it,  though  it  caught  and  reflected  iheir 
tight  at  various  angles,  and  was  all  but  lost  in 
their  shadows,  it  still  maintained  its  individ- 
uality in  a  ta^ion  and  not  only  conserved  but 
magnified,  purified,  and  even  glorified  its  unique 
ideals.  Though  Ikh-n-Aton  may  appear  as  the 
first  great  monotheistic  reformer,  yet  his  refor- 
mation was  lost  in  the  sand;  though  Delitzsch 
may  be  right  in  holding  that  Babylonia  attained 
or  approached  the  idea  of  the  One  God,  of 
whom  the  many  gods  wcr«  only  partial  and 
inadciiuate  phases,  yet  the  idea  never  became 
effective  in  Mesopotaroian  thought  or  hf  e,  Israel 
still  shines  as  the  elect  vehicle  in  history  of  the 
monotheistic  conception.  Similarly  with  respect 
to  the  Hebrew  literature,  wc  can  no  longer 
regard  it  as  wholly  unique  and  peculiar,  the 
pure  efHux  of  an  isolated  fountain,  a  well  in 
the  wilderness,  li  flows  through  a  wcll-watcred 
land  and  is  fed  from  many  sources.    It  is  a  tree 


on  which  indeed  few  grafts  are  set,  but  it 
spreads  its  roots  far  and  wide  and  draws  its 
sap  from  distant  and  ancient  rivers.  On 
the  outstretched  finger  of  time,  this  litera- 
ture shines  not  indeed  as  a  solitaire  but 
still  distinct  and  conspicuous  in  a  brilliant 
cluster.  The  imperial  libraries  of  Ashur 
and  Egypt  art  immense  in  extent  and  by 
no  ineans  always  inferior  in  literary  quality; 
but  the  solitary  sublimity  of  monotheistic  rc- 
hgion  and  the  inextinguishable  national  con- 
sciousness of  world-mission  and  world-destiny 
still  invest  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  with  a  beauty 
and  a  majcitv  all  their  own.  We  must  indeed 
recognise  fully  the  utter  tneptness '  of  such 
"Thoughts"  as  Pascal's  (Art  XIV,  ed.  Lahore, 
VII,  Bossut),  unwarranted  even  when  first  they 
were  penned,*  but  the  present  relation  of  the 
Bible  and  archsology  need  in  no  way  disturb 
the  reverent  and  enligiitened  spirit,  whether 
Jewish  or  Christian,  that  rightly  regards  it 
For  biblit^^phy  see  article  Bisle. 

WnxjAM  Bknj.-imik  Smith. 
BIBLICAL  AKCHiGOLOGY.  New 
TcBtament. —  The  contribution  of  archxology 
to  the  understanding  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment has  not  been  less  but  rather  more 
than  to  that  of  the  Old,  since,  while  it  has  in- 
.  deed  come  from  various  quarters,  yet  the  largest 
element  has  proceeded  from  a  source   tar  less 

frolific  in  case  of  the  one  than  ot  the  other. 
t  is  the  recent  finds  of  Egyptian  papyri  that 
have  cast  the  broadest  light  upon  the  lite  of  the 
first  Christian  centuries,  at  least  on  the  banks 
of  the  Nile,  but  the  discovery  and  decipher- 
ment of  numerous  inscriptions  m  other  regions, 
especially  in  Asia  Minor^  have  also  cleared  up 
many  questions,  while  mdeed  starting  many 
others. 

The  use  of  papyrus  in  writing  is  thought 
to  date  back  nearly  or  quite  5,000  years,  and 
the  oldest  preserved  specimen,  about  4,500 
years  old,  to  be  the  copy  of  an  oriRiiial  a  mil- 
lennium older.  Such  writing,  though  a  govern- 
ment monopoly  till  Alexander's  conquest,  was 
the  constant  occupation  of  numerous  scribes. 
Papyrus  rolls  were  of  course  very  perishable, 
and  it  was  Hercnlaneum  that  first,  in  1752, 
yielded  some  charred  ones  written  in  Gredc, 
which  however  were  little  valued.  Twenty-six 
years  later  a  roll  discovered  (along  with  40  oT 
50  others)  in  an  earthen  pot,  lo-  Arabs  in  Egypt. 
was  brought  to  Europe,  where  it  excited  small 
interest.  Forty-two  years  then  passed  before 
the  Serapeutn  at  Memphis  yielded  die  mass  of 
manuscripts  of  the  2d  century  B.C.,  which  sup- 
plied local  color  (or  Ebers'  novels.  The  next 
year  (1821)  the  so-called  Bankes  Homer  (Book 
XXIV  of  the  Iliad),  purchased  near  Eletian- 
tin^  was  brought  to  England;  thenceforth  the 
finds  enriched  more  and  more  the  treasury  of 
the  classics,  and  in  1839  the  British  Museum 
published      44      papyri.     The      recrait      period, 


•  Spoten  r»thi 

The'PmsAa''    .._.        .    _      .. 

foor  yearm'  progi'eaaivft  invalLdiim;  thouh  VfiiiwuoD 
of  WDn,  thoy  (ketch  the  anndeM  kpoiooy  liy  the  m 
mind  ever  enlisted  in  the  mvice  of  Indition.  But  no 
the  ten  yean  of  h^Hh.  alsatso  v«ialy  cnved.  eoulde^ 
jiBti&d  eather  tbs  farnaatt  or  tbe  meUicidf  o(  Pnood. 
■uit  Etienne  Fatiet. '  Ptttux'  uul  fa  ipTfimeai  ol  crj 
tlw  '  Appeodice  M-  "-- -'— 


Google 


BIBLICAL  ARCH.XOLOOY 


esteemed  as  non- literary  fragments  from 
Byzantine  times;  many  others  of  the  first  three 
Christian  centuriM,  better  preserved  and  ■with 
interestinK  contents,  were  found  in  1892  on  the 
site  of  toe  neiehborinR  village  of  Socnopaei 
Nesus.  But  already  in  1890  the  fint  great 
papyrus  sensation  had  been  felt  in  the  dis- 
covery of  Aristotle's  'Constitution  of  Athens,' 


Esyptian  farm,  78-79, 
inches,  a  book,  when  translated,  of  116  pans, 
startling  by  the  strange  light  cast  on  the  pobt- 
ico-legislative  history  of  Athens.  In  1891  Ken- 
yon  of  the  British  Museum  published  a  volume 
of  'Classical  Texts  from  the  Papyri,*  indud- 
ing  seven  mimes  of  HerodiU  (found  in  1889), 
and  the  next  decade  witnessed  a  rivalry  among 
mnseums  in  the  purchase  and  puhticati<»)  of  the 
long  neglected  j)apyri,  adding  to  the  Greek 
classics  masterpieces  of  Hypereides,  Bacchy- 
lides  and  Timotheus,  the  'Persai'  of  the  latter 
found  at  Abiisir  near  Memphis  (Weidemann, 
1902)  in  a  co&in  with  a  corpse  and  dating  from 
the  4th  century  B.C.,  being  the  oldest  Greek 
manuscript  book  yet  known.  In  1892  Ed. 
Naville  oisdosed  a  whole  library  in  a  govern- 
ment registration  office  at  Thumuis  in  the  Delta, 
but  the  charred  rolls  defied  dedpherment  until 
1915,  when  the  editors  of  the  Greek  papyri  in 
the  John  Ry lands  library,  Manchester,  suc- 
ceeded in  midcing  80  of  them  legible  in  publica- 
tion, thereby  disclosing  an  ancient  book-lceeping 
comparable  with  die  best  of  to-day.  'Still 
earher  (1888-90)  the  illustrious  W.  1^  Flinders 
Pelrie  had  unwound  extremely  instructive 
panrri-manuscripis  (of  the  3d  century  b.c.) 
from  the  faces  of  mummies  in  the  Hawara 
cemetery.  Trained  by  him  (18»M»S),  B.  P. 
Grenfel^  with  A.  S.  Hunt,  began  digging 
(1895)  m  the  Fayum  (sunken  oasis,  30  miles 
across,  40  miles  south- southwest  of  Cairo), 
and  in  1897  at  Oxyrbynchus  (south,  on  the 
canal  supplying  the  Fi^um  with  water)  in  (he 
heaps  of  rubbish  that  gird  this  town,  like  others 
of  the  East,  ihey  began  the  series  of  discoveries 
that  have  restored  so  vividly  the  life  of  (he 
Fayum  from  Philadelphus  (^O  b.c.)  to  the  3d 
century  a.d.  (when  irrigation  ceased  and  the 
desert  sand  resumed  its  sway),  and  have  con- 
tributed no  little  to  our  comprehension  of  New 
Testament  Greek.  These  remarkable  finds  have 
been  published,  text  and  translation,  in  a  stately 
series  of  14  volumes  entitled  'tJxyrhynchus 
Papyri'  (1898-1918).  While  the  great  mass  of 
these  and  similar  publications  by  the  same  and 
other  scholars  concerns  only  Uie  private  life 
of  that  time  and  clime  (letters,  accounts,  re- 
ceipts, deeds,  tax-hsts  and  (he  like),  not  a  few 
contain  verses  of  the  Scriptures,  particularly 
the  New  Testament.  Of  these,  five  date  ap- 
parently from  the  3d  century  (90  verses),  two 
others  from  the  3d  or  4th  century  (33  verses), 
and  very  many  from  the  4th,  5th  and  6th  cen- 
turies, while  from  the  7th  comes  a  treasure  in 
some  ways  still  more  remarkable,  20  fra^ents 
of  a  gospel  lectionary,  possibly  a  contmuous 
text,  written  by  three  poor  Christians  not  on 
papyrus  but  on  much  cheaper  pottery.  Such 
oslraka,  long  disre^rded,  are  now  carefully 
collected  and  studied,  since  the  great  work  of 
U.  Wilcken  ('Greek  Ostraca  m  Egypt  and 
Nubia,'  1899)  and  W.  E.  Crum  ('Coptic 
Ostraca,'  1902) 


Altogether,  the  New  Test&moit  finda  of 
recent  years  reach  the  imposing  total  of  28 
New  Testaments  (17  on  skin,  II  on  papyrus), 
14  parchment  manuscripts  (listed  by  C  R. 
Gregory,  1909),  20  papyrus  manuscripts  (Ketir 
yon  and  Miiligan,  1912-'13),  with  countless  frag- 
ments in  bopelesi  dismetnberrnent,  an  array 
constantly  swollen  by  frequent  additions. 
dhief  among  all,  however,  is  the  'Wasfaington 
Codex,>  bought  (19  Dec  1906)  widi  three 
others*  by  (3iarles  L,  Freer  of  Detndt  from  (be 
Arab  dealer  Ali,  in  Giidi,  near  Czini,  who  got 
(Sanders),  or  possib^  iiom  near  Akhmim, 
it  from  some  ruined  monastery  in  the  Delta 
prolific  of  manuscripts  (Schmidt).  Critically 
edited,  with  facsimile,  by  H.  A.  Sanders  (1912), 
it  takes  its  place  beside  the  other  three  great 
manuscripts,  Alexandrine  (A),  Vatican  (B), 
Sinaitic  (h),  dating  probably  from  the  4th 
century  and  bringing  strong  and  unsuspected 
support  to  the  *Westem*  text  of  the  New 
Testament,  hitherto  chiefly  represented  by  the 
almost  outlawed  Codex  Beta  (D).    Almost  a 


Mmes.  Agnes  SmiA  Lewis  and  Margaret  Gib- 
son, in  Saint  Catherine's  Convent,  Mount  Sinai, 
overwritten  (778)  with  lives  of  women  saints. 
Mrs.  Lewis,  having  detected  the  words 
EvoHgtlion,  Mathi,  Luca,  in  the  underwrit- 
ing, guessed  that  it  was  the  Syriac  Ciospels, 
a  guess  that  Professor  Bensly  was  the  first  to 
confirm  on  examining  the  photographs  made 
from  it  by  the  two  sisters  on  Mount  Sinai. 
The  interesting  question  of  the  relative  author- 
ity of  (his  ancient  Syriac  version  compared' 
with  oldest  known  Greek  text  remains  yet  de- 
bated and  debatable.  Five  more  recent  visits 
of  Mrs.  I.ew)s  to  the  Convent  have  resulted  in 
various  interesting  finds,  none  comparable  in 
importance  with  the  first. 

Less  weighty  are  the  rapidly  multiplying 
Coptic  New  Testaments  in  the  various  dialects: 
(Sahidic)  of  southern,  (Bohairic)  of  northern, 
( Fayum- Althmimic)  of  middle  Egypt.  Nearly 
the  whole  New  Testament  may  now  be  piecea 
tc^^ether  out  of  fragments  in  Bohairic;  lately 
has  also  been  found  a  manuscript  (not  com- 
plete) of  the  (Jospels  in  Bohairic  with  Paul's, 
Peter's  and  John's  Epistles  in  Sahidic  pos- 
sit^  representing  a  text  older  than  B's  or'  k'g; 
and  Dr.  Budge  has  pubhsbed  (1912)  the  oldest 
known  copy  (350?)  of  any  translation  of  any 
large  part  of  the  Greek  New  Testament  (the 
Acts  and  the  Apocalypse)  in  Sahidic  (found 
1901).  Besides  Proverbs  and  the  Minor 
Pro^ets  (the  latter  not  yet  published),  not 
mudt  of  invortaoce  is  offered  ui  F!«yum-Akh- 

More;  if  not  most,  importAt  textually  are 
die  Old  Latin  versions,  especially  current  in 
North  Africa.  These,  displaced  (384-400)  by 
Jerocne's  Vuk^e,t  reach  back  into  (he  2d  cen- 
tury, but  on&  of  iUe  arc  coming  into  their 
rights  as  witnesses.  Of  the  18  fragmentary 
nunuscripls  5  date  from  (he  5th  or  even  the 
4th  century.  Thus  far  their  voice  has  been 
faint,  but  very  recent  criticism,  as  represented 
by  E.  S.  Buchanan  and  others,  gives  them  full 


■Afto-  niection  by  Gi 

t  Of  which  th*  aidMi     .     .... 

OS  vfts  of  one  leaf  of  %a  uncuJ  LAtm  Nci 
i,  IS-M,     ■  ■ 


ratnntcript  a  of  ths  Mh  cntnrT. 


iizodsi  Google 


BIBUCAL  ASBCHJBJOUQQY 


ear  and  would  revise  thereby  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  tbe  most  radical  maimer,  claiming  a 
Latin  origina]  for  Mark's  Gospel  and  regard- 
ing the  present  accepted  New  Testament  text 
as  the  result  of  a  systematic  corruption  by  the 
hierarchy  in  a  semi- rationalistic  sense.  What- 
ever may  be  the  final  verdict  of  criticism  it 
seems  certain  that  the  deeper  study  of  the  Old 
Latin  texts  is  both  imperative  and  hopeful. 
Hardly  less,  nay,  even  more  important  than 
Grenfell  and  Hunt's  unearthing  of  New  Testa- 
ment texts  was  their  discovery  (1896)  of  seven 
'Logia'  or  Savings  of  the  Jesus,  copied  in  the 
3d  century  ana  referred  directly  to  the  Jesus  by 
tbe  recurring  formula :  "The  Jesus  sajrs* 
{i  'l^ovf  Wyti),  seeming  to  indicate  high  antiq- 
uity. Several  such  were  already  known  from 
extra-canonical  sources:  but  the  newest  seemed 
to  form  part  of  a  nandsome  volume  and 
breathed  a  more  mystical  speculative  s(Hrit 
thair  prevails  in  the  Canonic  Gospels.  In  1903, 
Grenfell  and  Hunt,  on  returning  to  Oxyrhyn- 
chus,  exhumed  five  more  such  ancient  Oracles 
(42  tines),  written  on  ^e  back  of  a  list  of 
land-surveys  not  later  dian  300  A.D.,  oracles  of 
highly  Christian  but  not  quite  canonic  ton& 
veering  still  more  from  the  Synoptics  toward 
the  mystical  Fourth  (^spel.  In  collected  form 
these  'Logia'  seemed  to  be  not  later  and  most 
probably  much  earlier  than  140,  in  fact,  quite  as 
primitive  as  any  Gospel,  if  not  indeed  present- 
mg  the  very  earliest  known  form  in  which  'The 

S  Doctrine)  concerninc  the  Jeans*  (ri  i"pi  roB 
VeoD)  was  reduced  to  writing. 
This  momentous  find  has  been  supplemented 
in  various  directions.  It  had  long  been  known 
that  Tattan,  the  Syrian  rhetorician  and  friend 
of  Justin  Martyr,  had  produced  about  the 
year  I70  (180?)  a  'Diatessaron,'  a  Idnd  of 
(lospel  Harmony,  which  in  s^te  of  criticism 
and  in  spite  of  the  virtual  absence  of  the 
human  in  its  Jesus,  ^most  displaced  the 
C^nonics  in  the  Syrian  Church  (especially  at 
Edessa)  and  vras  laid  by  Ephraem  Syrus  at 
the  base  of  his  Gospel  Commentary  (4th 
century),  though  itself  displaced*  in  ibe  5lh 
century  by  the  Pcshitta  version  of  the  Edessan 
Bishop  kabbula  (411-35).  But  TaUan's 
'Diatessaron*  was  known  only  from  one  in- 
complete manuscript  of  an  Arabic  version  C14th 
century),  a  Latin  veruon  (Fuldensis,  6th 
century),  and  the  Commentary  of  Ephrann  till 
1688,  when  Ciasca  published,  with  Latin  trans* 
lation,  a  far  better  Arabic  text  (11th  century) 
translated  from  Syriac  in  the  9th  century,  which 
omitted  the  last  12  verses  of  Mark  as  well  as 
ike  Lucan  incidents  of  the  bloody  sweat  and 
prayer  on  the  cross  (xxii  43-44,  xxiii,  34).  The 
'Diatessaron,'  by  its  early  testimony  to  a  Four- 
fold Tradition,  has  brought  tbe  orthodox  much 
satisfaction  not  untemjiered  with  keen  regret 
that  in  stressing  the  divinity  it  has  slighted  the 
humanity  of  the  Saviour.  Far  more  important 
the  discovery,  announced  1875  by  Bishop  Philo- 
tbeus  Bryennios  in  the  library  of  the  Jerusalem 
Monastery  of  the  Most  Holy  Sepulchre  in  the 
Phanar  of  Constantinople,  of  a  parchment 
volume    (copied  and  dated  11   June  1056,'  by 

■  Tbe  SrriHi  Tbaodont  of  ADtiocb,  biibee  el  Cytrhiu, 
•Tote  in  M3.  rcfernnc  to  Mw  'DiatTcn'!  I  hm  (oond 
marc  tban  200  tvA  books  hndilr  ouamsd  by  tht  churdM 
in  our  pMt  of  tha  mrld.  Thae  I  luv>  ooUactcd  uid  rW 
•trored.  cvtry  oo*.  and  nib*titHt«d  tbe  Ootptli  of  tlu  Potir 


the  *notary  and  sinner,'  Leon)  of  120  leaves, 
containing  besides  the  so-called  Epistles  of 
Clement  to  the  Corinthians  and  other  less  in- 
teresting matter.  10  priceless  pages  written 
with  the  'Teacning'  {Didachi),  a  long-lost 
document  of  two  parts,  often  mentioned  in 
early  Christian  literature,  composed  probaUjr 
before  lOO  and  containing  matter  far  more 
primitive.  Published  in  1^3,  after  a  strangely 
accurate  forecast  by  Adam  Krawuticky,  ISS^  It 
startled  all  Christendom  with  its  voice,  silent 
for  16  centuries.  The  earliest  manual  of 
Christian  theory  and  practice^  it  is  full  of 
parallels  to  the  teaching  of  tne  New  Testa- 
ment, agreeiM  striking  in  phraseology  with 
the  (^pels,  but  with  hardly  the  alif^tcst  al- 
lusion to  the  familiar  narrative  element  Of 
course,  it  has  been  a  storm-centre  of  discussion, 
but  its  witness  remains  unimpeacfaed  and  m- 
equivocaL 

Scarcely  less  significant  are  the  64  leaves  of 
Syriac  discovered  and  pubUshed  (1909)  as 
'Odes  and  Psalms  of  Solomon,'  hy  }.  Rendel 
Harris.  Of  these  the  Ptalnu  are  a  Phsrisak 
collection  (P  50  B.C.),  long  known  in  another 
form,  but  the  Odes,  uitknown  for  1,^)0  years, 
are  Christian,  at  least  in  their  recension,  and 
recall  the  Palestinian  soul  of  the  1st  century 
in  its  deeper  mystical  muiin^,  its  hi^er  poetic 
flints,  and  its  wider  spintual  visions,  with 
frequent  suggestion  of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  as 
the  'Teaching*  suggests  the  Synoptics.  As  a 
parallel  to  the  New  Testament  these  Odes  are 
m valuable,  though  like  the  'Didach^  they 
know  little  or  nothing  at  all  of  the  evangelic 
story.  A  dense  cloud  of  books,  pamphlets  and 
articles,  nearly  200  in  number,  has  gathered  and 
still  gathers  around  this  *Hymn-Book.* 

Somewhat  similar  in  spirit,  though  far  more 
artificial  and  less  profound,  is  the  'Shepherd 
of  Hermas,*  a  vade  memm  at  2d  and  3d  cen- 
tury Christians,  a  product  of  the  Roman  soul, 
known  only  as  cited  or  translated  till  18S6, 
when  Tischendorf  discovered  one-fourth  of  it 
in  a  manuscript  of  the  4th  century,  on  Sinai, 
and  1888,  when  S.  Lambros  found  the  other 
12  leaves,  of  the  3d  century.  But,  in  1901^ 
seven  mote  leaves  were  published,  and  in  1907 
Kirsopp  Lake  published  'Athos  Leaves,  etc,* 
facsimiles  of  the  Herm as- fragments  found  on 
Mount  Athos,  as  welt  as  the  'Codex  Sinaiti- 
cus'  in  J91I.  Taylor  has  translated  all  and 
striven  hard  to  show  that  this  Pastor  (dating 
from  near  100)  is  saturated  with  covert  allu- 
sions to  the  New  Testament  and  with  ils  phra- 
seology disguised, —  all  of  which  the  natural 
eye  fails  wholly  to  discern  and  especially  any 
reference  to  the  Synoptic  story. 

Other  early  Christian  documents  have  been 
unearthed,  too  numerous  to  mention,  such  as 
the  'Gospel  of  Peter,'  a  'Revelation  of  Peter,' 
also  various  'Acts,'  as  of  Peter,  John  and  Paul 
(secured  at  Akhmim  by  Reinhardt,  1896),  the 
'Book  of  Revelation,'  ascribed  to  Bartholomew, 
and  various  others, —  all  evidently  products  of 
religious  fancy.  Some  were  excee£ngly  popu- 
lar in  their  day,  like  a  modem  "best  seller,'  as 
also  a  noted  book  of  devotion,  'The  Ring  of 
Pope  Xystus.'  written  not  later  than  150,  but 
first  translated  into  English  and  edited,  in  191(^ 
by  F.  C  Conybeare. 

Also  certain  long-lost  works  of  the  Falters 
have    come    lately   to    tight,    as    in    1904   the 


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DijilizcdbyGoOl^le 


BIBLICAL  JUtCRBOLOGT 


'Apostolic  Preaching'  of  Iremetis,  tiotabtc'for 
establishing  New  Testament  iAddents  from  Old 
Testament  prophecies ;  also  37  pasBages  from 
an  unsuspected  treatise  of  Orisen  on  Revela* 
tion  were  found  1911  in  the  Meteoroti  Mon^ 
astcry  in  nofth  Greece.  Far  richer,  howcrer, 
the  wetdth  exhumed  of  Giristian  Sermons 
(250-600),  bearing  witness  in  general  to  a  fervid 
imagination  directed  with  riietorical  skill,  to  » 
highly  medtanica)  and  extravagant  orthodoxy, 
and  much  more  to  an  all-pervading  tendency 
to  symbolic  interpretation*  of  Scripture  stories, 
— a  very  clear  Indication  of  the  atmosphere  in 
which  these  were  bom.  Deficient  as  they  were 
in  knowledge,  die  preachers  of  old  do  not  yield 
In  mental  power  to  their  successors  of  to^y. 
Numberless  Amulets  (bearing  Gospel  ireiwons 
Kke  beads,  with  prayers  for  heallne)  show  that 
paganism  and  magic,  especially  in  me  use  of  the 
•Name*  had  de|>aned  not  wholly  from  the  fir»t 
Christian  -"—■-■^  — J  —' 1 e-»'--  ;- 


The  great  hymn  of  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
long  accoimted  the  oldest  of  Christian  songs, 
consisting  almost  wholly  of  a  lucccsnon  of 
poetic  epithets  of  the  Jesus,  is  now  at  last 
■-ivalled  in  antiquity  by  one  similarly  discovered 


disclose  a  strong  movement  toward  Mariolatry, 
as  the  devotee  mused  on  the  mystery  oi  the 
Virgin  birth.  Many  (Hiristian  letters  recently 
dect^ered  give  welcome  and  intimate  glimpses 
at  Ue  eariy  disciples ;  along  with  whidi  are 
others  pagan,  bnt  so  nearly  tike  the  Christian 
hi  language  and  spirit  as  to  be  scarcely  dis- 
tinguishable. One  gets  the  impression  that 
these  souls  were  Christian  because  they  were 
Doblc,  rather  than  noble  because  they  were' 
Oiristian.  In  the  descent  toward  the  7th  centuiy 
the  eariy  simplicity  degenerates  into  biock 
modesty  and  binnlMeness.  Christian  epitaphs, 
found  m  great  numbers,  are  strangely  enough 
often  hard  to  discriminate  from  the  pagan, 
though  in  general  soundincf  a  clearer  note  of 
hope.  Some  have  established  model  forms  ia 
use  even  to  this  day.  Least  attractive  of  all 
such  relinous  relics  are  the  'libelli,'  c«rti&- 
cates  of  Christianity  disclaimed,  of  whxh  Kr^bi 
detected  the  first  (1893}  in  the  British  Uuseum, 
(^renfell  and  Hunt  the  fourth  in  1904,  dating 
from  the  Dedan  persecution  (ca.  250),  and 
Meyer  published  19  others  (1911)  i  sdll  later 
the  nuniber  has  risen  to  about  30,  mostly  from 
Theadelphia.  It  remains  possible  that  such 
disclaimers  may  have  proceeded  from  sincere 
pa^ns  falsely  reported  as  Christiana.  It  is 
remarkable  Uiat  the  persecuting  emperors, 
Trajan  (112),  Aureiios  (176),  Septimus 
Severus  (202),  Decius  (250),  were  among  the 
noblest  that  adorned  the  Roman  throne;  they 
regarded  the  new  religion  as  anti'pa  trio  tic 
While  Egypt  has  yielded  papyri,  it  is  Asia 
Minor,  and  particularly  Phrj^a,  that  has  most 
enriched  the   fund  of  inscriptions.     Palestine 

Lthai^ia  identifia  tha 
e  loofl  •niq  of  EcripCDrA 


.  Ojkw. 


iDthcA; 


might  indeed  have  been  expected  to  speak  most' 
ekKjaently  of  early  Chnstianity;  Out  nay; 
diou^  U  cities  have  been  excavated  attd  called 
to  witness,  they  are  dumb;  the  decipherments 
of  Itehnan,  Sdmildt,  and  others  do  not  hark 
back  beyond  die  4th  century.  The  greatest 
single  interpreter  of  Grseco- Roman  life  ia 
Pompeii,  but  its  testimony  is  too  early  to  il- 
luminate Protochrisdanity.  It  is  the  stupendous 
excavatitms  at  Rome  that  shed  light  upon  the 
1st  century,  whence  dates  the  earhest  Christian 
inscription   (72)  of  the  oldest  Catacombs  (of 

Domitilla,      Priscilla,      Comi 

Ludna)  yrlxilK  the  muority  a 

tnry  and  the  latest  from  the  time  of  Alaric 
(410).  The  output  of  Catacomb-inscriptioas 
has  been  enormous  in  number  (15,000  of  De 
Rossi  alone)  rather  than  significant  or  instrttc- 
tive:    The  temper  of  the  people  ii  revealed  as 


form  of  a  beautiful  shepherd  ytmth)  and  as 
abotmdinK  in  symbols,  their  morality  as  pure, 
their  ritual  as  simple,  their  an  as  classic  and 
excellent.  Connections  wirti  the  New  Testa- 
ment or  Palestine^  if  any  at  all,  seem  veir 
remote. 

As  yet  the  papyri  bear  no  clear  witness  to 
Quirinius  as  governor  of  Syria  before  6  A.n., 
but  they,  have  yidded  decisive  information 
touching  the  Roman  census  (Luke  ii,  3),  from 
which  U.  Wilcken  has  shown  (Hermes,  1893) 
that  the  regular  registration  fell  on  each  14th 
year  from  20  a.b.,  and  possiMy  from  6  a.d.,  or 
even  8  B.c  The  enrolment  was  by  housdiolds, 
and  naturally  all  members  of  a  family  were  ex- 
pected to  be  at  home  at  the  taking.  An  order 
to  this  effect,  in  No.  408  of  the  Greek  Papyri 
in  the  British  Museum,  reads  thus  (trans- 
lations of  the  suiqilied  portions  of  the  mutilated 
text  being  inclosed  in  brackets,  and  the  initials 
of  the  Ws  capiuliied):  «G(aius  Vibiu)s 
Maximus  (pret)ec(t)  (Of)  Egypt  (saysj  Be- 
cause of  me  (ini)niin(ent  census  by)  house 
(holds)  Necessary  (it  is  for  all  tha)t  any  time 
for  a(ny)  rea(son  have  departed  from  their 
own)  Nomes  to  be  no(Iifi)ed  to  r(etu)Kn  unto 
theirow(n  he)aTth  stones  tha(t)  Also  the  accus- 
tomed (dis)pensation  of  th(e  en)RoIment 
they  may  fulfil  and  to  the  farmland  be(loa,')- 
ing  to  them  may  firmly  adher(e).'—  This  edict 
recaltt  to  tkeir  ovm  bretent  homes  the  peasants 
that  have  gone  out  (iiurrikri).  In  spite  of  learn- 
ed attempts  to  wrest  its  meanmg  into  the 
exact  opposite,  it  gives  not  the  slightest  hint 
of  going  to  ■ancestral  abodes*  (Luke  ii,  4),— 
as  it  a  Kansas  farmer  should  return  to  Vermont 
to  register  1 

In  Egypt  also  the  symbolism  of  the  Good 
Shejtherd  appears,  the  ancient  burial  rites  were 
christianized  and  preserved,  the  figure  and 
functions  of  Osiris  are  supplanted  by  similar 
ones  of  the  Saviour,  the  two  being  sometimes 
indistinguishable,  and  Isis  nursing  Horus  is 
transformed  into  the  Madonna  with  the  Child. 
The  venerable  swastika,  welfare  symbol  of  the 
Age  of  Bronze,  is  everywhere  sanctified,  and 
even  Anubis  and  Apuat  adorn  the  'skirts  of  a 
(Hiristian  burial- robe.  So  tenacious  of  life 
were  the  mythologic  motifs,  and  so  they  have 
remained.  If  one  may  trust  the  inscripticms,  it 
w«s  in  Asia  Mmor,  and  mainly  in  Phrygia, 
that  Christianity  took  its  firmest  and  mdeit 


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BIBLICAL  ASCHADLOOY 


bold.  A  region  largely  inhabited  by  Jew*, 
many  of  them  wealthy  and  promineni,  deaoend- 
ants  (says  the  Talmud)  of  the  Ten  Lo«t 
Tribes,  2,000  bavitiR  been  imported  from 
Babylon  by  Antiochua  Magnus  (ca.  200 
B.C.),  who  had  become  in  lat^c  measure 
paganized  and  so  were  open  to  the  universalistn 
of  the  Gospd.  Herc^  too,  flourished  tho 
mystery-cults  of  Atys,  Adonis  and  others, 
whose  deep  imprints  on  New  Testament  phra- 
seology ai  well  as  ecclesiastic  dogma  and 
ritual  are  daily  becoming  more  visiUe.  This 
region  has  been  the  favorite  haunt  of  exca- 
vators, conspicuous  among  whom,  at  least  for 
zeal  and  production,  is  Sir  William  M.  Ramsay, 
whose  intense  pursuits  led  him  to  the  famous 
South  Galatian  Theoiy  '■■  answer  to  the  puzzling 
query,  Who  were  Paul's  'foolish  Galatians'r 


of    the    North    (^latian    Theory. 

northern  Syria,  also,  numerous  cities  have  been 
exhumed,  as  well  as  the  extensive  Qiristian 
cemeteries  of  Salona,  die  ancient  Adriatic  port 
of  Dalmatia,  but  their  revelations  are  more 
important  in  artistic  and  sociologic  than  in 
biblical  bearings.  Great  interest  has  attached 
to  explorations,  notably  the  Austrian  (1897- 
1913),  at  Ephesus,  especially  because  of  the 
uprxiar  narrated  m  Acts.  The  title  there 
(xix,  35)    given  to    ihe  city,    'temple- warden 

of  . . .  Artemis*       (veuKdpov       .     .  , .       'Aprffuiot) 

is  confinned  by  a  dedication  exhumed,  and 
Dr.  Hicks  (half-supported  by  Ramsay)  fancies 
he  finds  the  Demetrius  of  Acts  xix,  24  at  the 
head  of  Ephesian  magistrates;  an  official  in- 
scription speaks  of  Julius  Osar  as  "God  made 
manifest  .  .  .  saviour  of  human  life* ;  a 
Christian  tablet  tells  of  a  'deceiving  image  of 
die  demon  Artemis*  and  of  a  'God  thaj  ban- 
ishes idols,*  where  the  identificatioa  of 
■donon*  with  heathen  god  sheds  light  on  the 
(jospel  'demons*:  neither  is  it  strange,  iu  a 
city  given  to  the  worship  of  the  'Great 
Mother*  and  the  chaste  Artemis,  that  many 
inscriptions  attest  an  early  reverence  for  the 
Virgin  Mary. 

Touching  the  moot  question.  Was  any  altar 
at  Athens  inscribed  "To  an  Unknown  (Jod'? 
answered  negatively  by  E.  Norden  in  'A«nos- 
los  Theos>  (1913),  Deissmann  lus  pubhshed 
<1911)  a  picture  of  an  altar  uncovered  (1909) 
in  Pergamon,  'To  Gods  Unkfnown],"*  where 
the  added  's*  makes  a  difference;  but  endless 
explorations  al  Athens  have  discovered  nothing 
Christian  of  importance.  At  Delphi,  however, 
a  fragment  (found  1903),  inscribed  with  a 
letter  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  dates  the 
Achaian  proconsulship  of  Gallic  from  the 
summer  of  51;  Paul  then  would  seem  to  have 
left  Corinth  the  autumn  of  51  and  to  have 
reached  it  early  in  50  (Acts  xvlii,  11,  12)  :  an 
important  synchronism,  throwing  back  the 
beginning  of  his  mission  almost  to  the  received 
date  of  the  penteeostal  wonder.  Remembering 
that  Paul  did  not  inaugurate  the  Gentile  mis- 
sion, but  found  it  in  full  flood  and  was  up- 
borne by  its  current  (Bousset,  'Kyrios  Chris- 
tos,'  p.  93).  one  sees  that  this  mis'iion  dates 
practically  from  the  first  dawn  of  (Thrislianity. 


At  Antioch  (in  Syria)  some  i.. 
exhumed  (1910)  a  silver  chalice  oi  c 
bawl  of  rude  woHonanship  but  covered  with 
a  silver  sheet  on  which  amid  exquisite  grape- 
vine decorations  are  wrought  'portiait- 
&KUre«*  of  Cihrist  and  10  Apostles,  said  to  be 
of  exceedins  excellence.  Pious  imagination 
has  dated  this  sheet  between  57  and  87  and 
haa  even  thought  to  recognize  in  the  central 
figure  a  genuine  portrait  of  the  head  of  Girist 
From  numberless  other  excavated  cities  various 
glints  are  cast  Upon  the  New  Testament  and 
Frotochristianity,  as  when  'life'  and  •light* 
are  found  on  the  door-post  of  Artemis'  temple 
at  Sardis,  or  at  Assos  an  inscription  of  the 
soldiers'  sacrament  to  Caligula  (37)  :  'We 
swesr  tw  the  Saviour  and  God,  Cssar  Augus- 
tus, and  by  the  Pure  Virgin,*  i.e.,  Athena 
Polias  (Cityward),  to  whom  the  temple  was 
built.  Very  interesting  and  important  are  the 
revelations  of  the  life  and  soul  of  the  emmre, 
which  make  plain  that  fonner  notions  oi  its 
depravity  were  gross  exa^e  rations.  Many 
centuries  of  war  and  conquest  had  indeed 
hardened  the  Roman  in  bis  native  cruelty  and 
bloody-mindedness, —  much  less  time  has  suf- 
ficed in  other  cases, —  and  licentious  self-in- 
dulgence flourished  then  perhaps  even  more 
than  now  in  the  ruling  and  predatory  classes; 
but  Ihe  heart  of  the  people  was  still  sound,  the 
homely  virtues  were  still  prized  and  honored 
and  cultivated,  and  public  benefactors  were 
not  less  numerous  or  generous  than  to-day. 
Civic  spirit  and  social  charity  were  indeed  at 
their  height,  and  almost  a  fren^  of  philan- 
thropy seemed  to  possess  the  empire  under  the 
Antonines,  when  philosophy  sat  upon  the 
throne.  Under  a  slight  scarcity  of  provisions, 
in  time  of  great  national  danger  and  endeavor, 
profiteering  has  run  amuck  among  us,  prices 
have  doubled  or  even  tripled,  and  ships  offered 
eariicr  for  sale  at  $65,000  and  $60,000  have  been 
patriotically  sold  to  the  government  for  $^(k- 
000  and  $800,000.  Compare  herewith  the 
Ephesian  public  inscription  in  honor  of  three 
wealthy  men  who  had  sold  their  stores  of 
wheat  at  cost  during  a  famine.  Undoubtedly 
the  Grzco-Roman  consciousness  furnished  a 
soil  not  unfit  for  the  sowing  of  the  Gospel.* 

Linguistically,  it  has  come  clearly  to  li^t 
that  Oio  language  of  the  New  Testament  was 
not,  as  so  lon^  imagined,  a  more  or  less  sacred 
ton^e  or  dialect,  but  was  the  alt-prevalent 
Kami,  the  every-<jay  speech  of  the  people,  not 
untinctured  with  the  mystic  phraseology  of  the 
mystery-cults,  and  soaring  at  times  into  solemn 
sublimity  on  the  wings  of  a  missionary  spirit 
of  religious  zeal.  The  net  result  of  these  ex- 
humations, which  future  researches  are  sure 
to  enlarge  and  confirm,  putting  a  ouictus  on 
all  rationalistic  attempts  to  denve  Christianity 
from  'The  Carpenter  of  Nazareth,*  has  been 
to  delocaliie  and  depersonalize  our  conception 
of  the  origin  and  early  progress  of  the  Chris- 
tian movement.  In  the  words  of  Professor 
Gurlitt,  'The  rapid  spread  of  Christianity, 
hitherto  an  insoluble  riddle,  receives  a  start- 
lingly  simple  explanation,  and  indeed  the 
whole  speech  of  the  New  Testament  becomes 


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BIBLICAL  CRITICISM 


now,  for  the  first  time,  understandable.*  The 
setting  ROW  suppKed  for  the  world-revolution 
is  nothing  less  than  the  Judeo-GfEeco-Roman 
world.  The  religion  of  the  Jew,  the  art, 
science  and  philosophy  of  the  Greek,  the  law 
and  administration  of  the  Roman, —  the  ethical 
monotheism  of  the  cultured,  the  mystkism  of 
the  Asiatic  cults,  the  passionate  longing  for 
union  with  God  in  the  Mysteries,  die  sense  of 
Brotherhood  fostered  in  the  guilds  and 
thiasoi,  the  seething-  cauldron  of  hopes  and 
fears,  of  superstitions  and  sufferings  in  the 
multitude, —  all  these  and  far  more  mingled 
their  elements  in  the  mit^ty  Birth  of  19  cen- 
turies ago.  In  this  new  "Light  from  the  East* 
the  Palestinian  portrait  bursts  its  miniature 
frame  and  spreads  away  into  the  measureless 
canvas  of  the  circuramediterranean  world. 

For  bibHograpfay  see  article  Bible. 

Willi  A  If  Benjamin  Smitr. 

BIBLICAL  CRITICISM.  Textual  Crit- 
icism  of  the  Bible.— The  object  of  Textual 
Criticism  is  to  ascertain  the  original  text  of  a 
literaiy  work,  as  written  by  the  author  or 
authors.  Since  its  objects  and  principles  do 
not  vary  essentially  in  different  fields  of 
operation,  its  application  to  the  Bible  gives  it 
no  special  characteristics.  literary  works 
vary,  of  course,  in  the  nature  and  amount  of 
the  materials  available  tor  textual  criticism, 
this  being  true  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments in  comparison  with  each  other,  and  also 
of  the  individual  books  or  even  parts  of  books. 
Textual  Criticism  is  sometimes  called  Lower 
Criticism,  in  distinction  from  Hi^er  Criticism. 
The  term  Textual  Criticism,  however,  is  more 
exactly  descriptive,  and  hence  to  be  preferred. 

The  materials  available  for  the  textual 
criticism  of  the  Bible  mas  be  classified  under 
three  beads,  <1)  Manuscnpts.  These  are  the 
principal  source  in  the  New  Testameui,  more 
than  3,000  being  in  existence  which  con- 
tain the  whole  or  a  part  of  die  New  Testa- 
ment, of  which  the  earliest  are  assigned  with 
much  Confidence  to  the  4th  century  a.p.  In  the 
Old  Testament  the  manuscript  material  is  of 
comparatively  little  importance,  since  the  oldest 
manuscript,  of  a  part  of  the  Old  Testament,  is 
dated  in  916  a.d.,  and  the  manuscripts  show 
but  few  variations  of  importance.  An  excep- 
tional position,  however,  is  occupied  by  the 
Samaritan  manuscript  of  the  Pentateuch.   This 


Vtrsions,   that   is,   translations 

guages  than  the  origina].  Several  of  these 
have  a  real,  though  subordinate,  value  for  New 
Testament  work,  the  Syriac  and  Old  Latin 
being  most  important.  In  the  Old  Testament, 
however,  they  are  the  principal  documentaiy 
source;  The  chief  of  these,  in  the  order  b«>th 
of  age  and  importance,  are  the  Septwgint,  a 
Greeic  translation,  made,  at  least  for  the  most 
part,  in  the  3d  and  2d  centuries  a.c;  the 
Peshitta,  a  Syriac  translation  belonging  prolv 
ably  to  the  4th  century  a.d.,  but  based  on 
i  as  early  as  the  2d  century;  the  Vul- 


are   Aramaic   translations,   first   oral   and 

written,  these  belonging,  in  the  written  form, 
to  the  period  from  the  5th  to  the  9th  cen- 
turies A.D.     (3)   QuolatioHj.     Thoae  from  the 


Old  Testament  wUcb  are  soSiriently  kncient  to 
be  of  value  are  in  die  Talmud  and  other 
Jewish  writiiws,  but  the  textual  variations  they 
exhibit  are  of  minor  importance,  although  they 
would  doubtless  repay  more  careful  study  in 
reference  to  this  matter.  Those  of  value  in 
relation  to  the  New  Testament  are  fotmd  in 
the  early  Church  fathers,  and  these  have  been 
studied  with  considerable  thoroughness  but 
have  not  fuinisbed  much  material  of  im- 
portance. 

The  textual  criticism  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment has  been  the  subject  of  much  careful 
work  which  has  produced  results  of  great 
vahie.  Among  those  specially  prominent  and 
succeisful  in  this  study  may  be  mentioned 
Uichaelia,  Tregeltes^  Tischendorf,  Wcstcott 
and  Hort,  and  Von  Soden. 

Textual  critidsm  is  necessary  because  of 
textnal  corruption,  Ganges  from  die  original 
form  of  the  text  This  textual  coiruption  has 
arisen  in  latwe  measure  from  the  scribal  copy- 
ing by  hoMO,  but  pertly  also  as  a  result  of 
corrections,  so-considered,  of  manuscripts 
already  copied.  The  corruption  is  either  de- 
liberate or  accidental.  Deliberate  corruption 
includes  principally  grammatical  corrections, 
assimilation  to  parallel  passages,  explanatory 
additions,  usually  first  written  in  the  margin 
and  later  put  in  the  text  and  dogmatic  changes, 
the  last  bdng  undoubtedly  round  but  not 
numerous.  Accidental  corruption  is  quite  cer- 
tainly more  frequent  and  more  important  than 
deliberate.  This  results  from  the  carelessness 
that  is  in  some  measure  inevitable  in  copying 
by  band. 

The  following  are  the  principal  forms  of 
corruption  that  are  due  to  accident:  (1^  Dit- 
to gra^ky  and  Elision.  Dittography  ts  the 
repetition  of  letters  or  words,  and  elision  is 
the  omission.  Both  are  usually  due  to  the 
occurrence  of  the  same  or  a  similar  combina- 
tion of  letters  or  words  at  two  points  near 
together,  the  scribe  unconsciously  passing  from 
one  to  the  other.  (2)  Additions,  not  of  the 
nature  of  dittography.  These  are  usually 
scribal  explanations  on  the  margin,  and  hence 
at  first  deliberate ;  but  the  reception  into  the 
text  is  usually  accidental.  (3)  Conflation. 
This  results  when  a  scribe  or  corrector  is 
acquainted  with  two  readings  and  is  tmcertain 
wmch  is  correct  so  that  he  includes  both.  Here 
the  inclusion  itself  is  deliberate,  but  the  cor- 
rupted text  on  which  it  is  based  is  ordinarily 
accidental  (4)  Changes,  This  is  frequently 
by  mistake  for  a  wora  that  is  similar  eitner  to 
the  sight  or  die  hcariBa,  as  manuscripts  were 
copieiT  in  both  ways,  and  sometimes  also  by 
oustake  for  a  word  of  similar  meaning.  It 
sometiines  arises,  also,  from  the  illegibility  of 
the  manuscript  that  is  bdng  copied. 

The  methods  of  textual  criticism  are  two, 
comparison  of  documentary  evidence,  and  con- 
jecture. Where  material  for  die  former  is 
abundant,  as  in  the  New  Testament,  the  latter 
has  little  place.  Where  MicJi  material  is  scanty, 
as  in  the  Old  Testament,  conjecture  must  be 
used,  although  it  should  always  be  with  caution. 

The  chief  principles  generally  recognized 
in  die  employment  of  documentary  evidence 
are  the  folknvin^:  (1)  The  weight  of  manu- 
script evidence  is  to  be  considered,  aldiougfa 
this  alone  cantiot  be  decisive    The  weight  of 


.Google 


ero 


BIBLn:AL  CRinCttM 


evidence  docs  not  cotne  from  a  mere  enurnera- 
tion  of  manuscrmts,  but  roust  take  into  con- 
sideration their  diTiiion  inio  classes  and  rela- 
tion to  each  other,  with  special  reference  to 
their  genealoKical  reUtion,  that  ts,  the  deriva- 
tion of  one  from  another  or  of  two  or  more 
from  a  common  earlier  manuscript  The  result 
of  such  study  is  that  some  manuscripts  are  to 
be  regarded  as  of  much  greater  value  than 
others.  But  any  estimate  of  the  value  of  a 
manuscript  is  itself  based  in  large  measure 
upon  the  question  ol  the  correctness  of  its 
readings.  Hence  such  judgments  can  be  only 
tentative  or  there  is  dai^^r  of  reasoning  in  a 
drcle.  (2)  The  most  comprehensive  and 
generally  accepted  principle  ia  this,  that  read- 
mm  is  to  be  preferred  which  best  explains  the 
o^ers.  A  special  application  of  this  is  often 
stated  thus,  the  more  difficult  reading  is  to 
be  preferred-  But  that  is  by  no  means  uni- 
versally the  case,  it  applies  particularly  to 
deliberate  changes^  and  is  of  comparativdy 
little  importance  in  relation  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. (3>  The  reading  should  be  suiuble  to 
the  context.  On  diis  point,  however,  there  is 
obviously  an  especially  wide  opportunity  for 
difference  of  of>inion. 

Higher  Criticism  of  the  Bible,  Histori- 
cally Conaidered.—  For  a  discussion  concern- 
ing the  nature  of  Hi^er  Criticism  see  the 
article,  Higher  Chiticism,  The  employment  of 
Higher  Criticism  must  have  characterized 
Biblical  study  from  the  earliest  tiroes,  no  thor- 
ough study  could  be  made  without  its  use  in 
some  measure.  A  few  of  the  early  Giurch 
fathers,  notably  Origen,  particularly  illustrate. 
this.  But  such  early  use  was  unsystematic  and 
comparatively  unimportant.  It  is  only  in 
modem  times  that  Higher  Criticism  has  become 
one  of  the  most  important  elements  in  Biblical 

Higher  Criticism,  being  a  study  of  internal 
evidence,  proceeds  by  an  inductive  method. 
The  use  of  inductive  methods  is  one  of  the 


cism  in  modem  times  is  simply  one  phase  of  the 
general  scientific  progress  of  this  period,  it  is 
the  application  of  scientific  methoa  of  literary 
Study. 

The  evidence  used  in  Higher  Criticism  tnay 
be  conveniently'  classified  as  of  three  kinds, 
literary,  histoncal,  and  that  arising  from  the 
thought.  In  the  historical  development  of 
Higher  Criticism  these  three  varieties  of  evi- 
dence have  become  successively  prominent  in 
the  order  named. 

Especially  at  first  the  use  of  Higher  Criti- 
cism was  much  greater  in  connection  with  the 
Old  Testament  man  with  the  New  Testament, 
although  the  genera.)  historical  development  was 
similar  in  the  two  cases.  Hence  in  this  brief 
historical  account  it  is  the  application  to  the 
Old  Testament  that  will  be  more  largely  con- 
sidered. 

Some  use  of  Higher  Criticism  was  made  at 
the  time  of  the  Reformation  and  after.  But 
the  beginning  of  any  tystematic  use,  and  so  of 
the  really  modem  period,  should  be  put  in 
17S3.  In  that  year  Jean  Astruc,  a  French  phy- 
»c]an,  published  'Conjectures  sur  les  mimoires 


presents  the  v 


V  that  Moses  in  writing  Genesis 


made  use  of  two  earlier  doentMlita,  in  one  of 
which  God  was  known  as  Idtovah  and  in  the 
other  as  EUdibn.  The  eviaence  he  presents  is 
thus  purely  literary.  J.  G.  Eichhom  in  his 
<Einlcitnng  ms  Alte  Testament'  (178(^83). 
called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  Jehovah  and 
Elohim  sections  were  also  characterized  by  dif- 
ferences of  stylft  and  that  the  same  documents 
are  to  be  discerned  in  the  remainder  of  the 
Pentateuch.  He  first  called  this  method  by  the 
name  'Hi^er  Critidsm,*  and  treated  the  whole 
Old  Testament  from  this  standpoint.  The 
general  type  of  view  which  he  presented  has 
been  callMi  the  'document-theory.*  The  'frag- 
ment-theory* of  Alexander  Geddes,  which  ap- 
pears in  <Thc  Holy  Biblei  or  Ae  Books  ac- 
counted Sacred  by  Jews  and  Christians,  etc.* 
(1792-97),  does  not  differ  from  it  in  principle, 
but  contemplates  smaller  documents^  or  frag- 
ments. Others  followed  alopg  the  line  of  eadi 
of  these  views. 

The  second  stage  was  introduced  by  W.  M. 
L.  De  Wette  in  'Kritik  der  israetitischen 
Geschichte>  (ISO?),  and  in  other  books.  He 
made  use  of  histoncal  evidence  in  addition  to 
hterary.  His  specific  view  .is  called  the  'sup- 
plement-theory,* because  he  thought  that  the 
writer  of  Genesis  made  use  of  one  principal 
Elohistic  document  which  he  supplemented  by 
the  use  of  various  Jehovistic  documents.  De 
Wette  gave  particular  attention  to  the  origin  of 
the  documents,  in  connection  with  his  special 
study'of  historical  evidence. 

The  third  stage  was  marked  by  the  promi- 
nent use  of  the  evidence  from  thought,  in  addi- 
tion to  that  of  a  literary  and  historical  nature. 
This  means  that  a  tat^e  amount  of  attention 
was  given  to  the  development  of  reli^ous 
thought,  particularly  in  the  Old  Testament. 
The  philosophical  theory  of  evolution  has 
stronglT  influenced  the  way  in  which  this  evi- 
dence has  been  used.  The  beginning  of  this 
stage  appears,  in  two  worics  puDlished  in  1835, 
that  of  Wilhelm  Vadte,  'Die  Biblische  Theol- 
ogie  wissenschaftlich  dargestellt,*  and  of  Leo- 
pold George,  "Die  Alteren  Judisdie  Feste.* 
Eduard  W.  E.  Reuss,  of  Strassburg,  became 
one  of  the  most  eminent  of  the  teachers 
of    this    phase    of    the    study.      A    pupil    of 


priority  of  Deuteronomy  to  the  Priest  Cod^ 
the  latter  being^  dated,  in  his  ultimate  view, 
after  die  exile,  Abraham  Kuenen,  in 
'Historisch-critisch  Onderioek  naar  bet  ont- 
staan  en  de  veriameling  van  de  boeken  des 
Ouden  Veriwnds'  (1861-65),  gave  special  at- 
tention to  the  details  of  the  religious  develop- 
ment. The  theory  of  Graf  was  elaborated  by 
Julius  Wellhausen,  in  'Die  Composition  des 
Iexateuchs>  (18S!>),  which  had  been  published 
earlier,  in  1885,  as  a  part  of  the  series  Skiczen 
und  Vorarbeiten.  His  view  of  the  documents 
of  the  Hexateudi,  including  Joshua  with  the 
Pentateuch,  is  that  they  consist  of  J,  Yahwist 
or  Jehovist,  the  work  of  a  Judean  prophet  or 
prophets,  written  about  800  B.C. ;  E,  Etohist,  a 
prophetic  work  of  Israel,  written  atmut  750;  D, 
embracing  the  most  of  Deuteronomy,  written 
shortly  before  621;  and  P,  the  Pnest  Codt 
composed  at  various  times  mostly  during  and 
after  the  exile  and  completed  by  Eira  about 
444.  This  view  in  substance  is  ttie  prevailmg 
one  to  the  present  day. 


t,zcd=y  Google 


BIBLE  IN  SPAIN 


While  the  Pmtateuch,  or  Hexateuch,  has 
been  the  chief  subject  matter  for  the  develop- 
ment of  Higher  Criticism,  more  and  more  the 
whole  Old  Testament  has  been  included  within 
its  scope.  The  discussion  of  the  authorship  of 
the  several  portions  of  the  book  of  Isaiah  be- 
gaa  soon  after  that  concerning  the  Pentateuch, 
and  has  had  many  phases. 

The  more  recent  study  has  been  devoted,  in 
the  case  of  the  Hexatetich,  to  a  more  mtnate 
study  of  the  details  of  the  analysis  and  to  more 
careful  study  of  the  relation  of  the  documents 
to  the  history  and  the  development  of  thought. 
The  whole  Old  Testament  has  been  studied, 
from  llie  standpoint  of  Higher  Criticism,  with 
increasii^  attention  to  detail.  The  result  is 
that,  in  the  view  of  many  critics,  nearly  all 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  arc  considered  to 
contain  elements  of  diverse  dates,  the  ori^nal 
writing  having  been  supplemented  by  various 
additions,  ana  in  several  books  two  or  more 
documents  are  believed  to  have  been  combined. 
Manjr  English  and  American  writers  have  been 
prominent  in  the  later  discussions. 

The  pioneer  work  in  the  development  of 
Higher  Criticism  has  been  done  for  the  most 
part  in  the  Old  Testament.  New  Testament 
criticism  is,  therefore,  in  large  measure  an  ap- 
plication of  methods  and  lines  of  evidence  in 
use  in  the  Old  Testament,  although  in  recent 
years  the  Higher  Criticism  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment has  acquired  great  prominence.  Eich- 
horn,  who  has  been  mentioned  earlier  as  con- 
spicuous in  reference  to  the  Old  Testament,  b 
one  of  the  early  leaders  in  New  Testament 
criticism.  In  his  'Historiseh-kritische  Einlei- 
tung  ins  Neue  Testament'  (1804),  he,  tor  the 
first  time,  clearly  grasped  the  synoptic  problem 
and  proposed  the  hypothesis  of  an  original 
gospel  before  the  present  gospels.  The  work 
of  De  Wette  was  noWble  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment as  well  as  on  the  Old,  the  results  being 
seen  in  his  "Lebrbuch  der  historisch-kritischen 
Einleitung  in  die  kanoniscben  Bucher  des 
neuen  Testamentes'    (1825). 

Almost  simultaneously  with  the  beginning 
of  the  third  stage  of  Old  Testament  cnticism, 
and  corresponding  to  it,  came  a  strongly-marked 
movement  in  New  Testament  study.  This  was 
the  work  of  F.  C.  Baur,  JDie  Christuspartei 
in  der  Corintfaiscben  Gemeindc,*  in  the  ZHt- 
schrifl  fiir  Theologie  (1831),  and  later  books; 
this  IS  sometimes  called  the  Tubingen  criticism. 


authorship,  aditing  and  sources  of  the  synoptic 
gospels,  die  gospel  of  John,  the  book  of  Acts 
and  the  book  of  Revelation.  See  Apocalyptic 
Litebatuke;  Bibl£;  Hicuer  Criticism;  Penta- 
teuch, and  the  various  articles  on  the  books 
of  the  Bible. 

Bibtiography. —  Astruc,  T.,  'Conjectures 
sur  les  m^oires  originaux  oont  il  paroit  que  ' 
Moyse  s'est  servi  pour  composer  le  livre  de  la 
Genase'  (Bruxelles  1753);  Baur,  F.  C,  'Die 
Christuspartei  in  der  Corinthi^chen  Gemeinde' 
(in  Zeitsckrifl  fnr  Theologie,  Tubingen  1831)  ; 
Briggs,  C.  A.,  '  General  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Holy  Scripture*  (New  York  1899)  ; 
De  Wette,  W.  M.  L„  'Lchrbuch  der  historisch- 
kritischen  Einleitung  in  die  kanonischen  Bucher 
des  neuen  Testamentes'  (Basel  1826);  'Kritik 
der  israe  litis  chen  Gescnichte'  (Heidelberg 
1807)  ;  Eichhom,  J.  G.,  'Einleitung  ins  Alte 
Testament'  (Jena  1780-83)  :*Historisch-krit-  ■ 
ische    Einleitung   ins    Neue   Testament'    (Got- 


Oiristians,  etc.*  (London  1792-97);  George,  L., 
'Die  Alteren  Judischen  Feste'  (1835)  ;  Graf  K. 
H„  "Die  Geschichllichen  Biichcr  des  Altcn  Tes- 
tamentes' (1866);  Kuenen,  A.,  "Historisch- 
critisch  Onderzotit  naar  het  ontstaan  en  de  ver- 
lameling  van  de  boeken  des  Ouden  Verbonds' 
(Leyden  1861-65 ;  translated  by  Weber,  Th.,  as 
'Historiseh-kritische  Einleitung  in  die  Biicher 
des  alten  Testaments,'  Leipzig  1887-92)  ;  Nash, 
H,  S.,  'The  History  of  the  Higher  Criticism 
of  the  New  Testament'  (New  York  1901); 
Nestle,  E..  'Introduction  to  the  Textual  Criti- 
cism of  tne  Greek  New  Testament*  (London 
1901)  ;  Vatke,  W.,  'Die  Biblische  Theologie  wis- 
senschaftlieh  dargestelh'  (1835);  WelBiausen, 
J.,  'Die  Composition  des  Hexateuchs*  (Berlin 
1889)  ;  Zenos,  A.  C,  'The  Elements  of  the 
Higher  Criticism'  (New  York  I89S), 

George  R.  Bebhy, 


._,.__         „    ,  -  .  .  s  theory  of 

development  that  history  moves  through  the 
three  processes,  thesis,  antithesis  and  synthesis, 
llie  principal  position  of  Baur  was  that  the 
New  Testament  shows  the  conflict  between  two 
parties,  original  Christianity  which  was  a  Jew- 
ish sect,  and  Paulinism  which  had  the  broader 
spirit.  His  position  aroused  violent  discussion, 
the  theory  being  generally  held  to  be  extreme ; 
it  has  now  been  entirely  abandoned.  Baur 
rendered  great  service,  however,  in  putting 
emphasis  upon  the  necessity  of  seeing  the  New 
Testament  in  its  relation  to  the  whole  thought 
of  the  time. 

The  principal  problems  of  the  Higher 
Criticism  of  the  New  Testament  which  have 
been  considered  in  recent  times,  in  addition  to 
those  relating  to  epistles  called  Pauline  which 
have  always  been  prominent,  arc  those  of  the 


Profe 
His 

BIBLE  IN  SPAIN,  The.  'The  Bible  in 
Spain'  (1843)  is  an  account  of  the  experiences 
of  the  author,  George  Borrow,  in  the  Spanish 
Peninsula  in  the  years  1835  to  1840,  as  agent 
for  the  English  Bible  Society,  In  his  rather 
quixotic  but  highly  congenial  task  of  distribut- 
ing copies  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  ver- 
nacular Borrow  encountered  a  series  of  sur- 
prising adventures  among  rude  peasants, 
smugglers,  bandits  and  Spanish  gypsies  whicli 
are  duly  recorded  and  lose  nothing  in  the  tell- 
ing. Many  portions  of  the  narrative,  as,  for 
instance,  the  account  of  the  journey  from 
Badajos  to  Madrid  in  the  company  of  the 
mysterious  gypsy.  Antonio,  read  more  like  the 
adventures  of  a  Sir  John  Mandeville  than  like 
the  real  experiences  of  a  modem  traveler  in  a 
civilized  land,  yet  we  are  assured  by  Sorrow's 
recent  biographer  that  this  book,  like  'Lav- 
engro'  and  'The  Romany  Rye,'  is  a  faithful 
record.  Whatever  may  be  the  relation  of  fact 
and  fiction  in  Borrows  work  (and  the  matter 
can  hardly  be  said  to  have  been  settled)  il 
reveals  as  no  other  book  has  done  the  wonder 
and  the  mystery  of  romantic  Spain.  Sorrow's 
linguistic  facility  and  his  truly  remarkable 
power  of  placing  himself  on  a  footing  of 
equality  wita  the  strange  persons  whom  he  en- 
countered enabled  him  to  see  their  lives  from 


.Google 


ers 


BIBLE  SOCIBTy 


the  most  intifnate  standpoint.  By  the  gypsies 
he  was  regarded  as  one  of  their  own  brother- 
hood, '"nie  Bible  in  Spain'  is  one  of  the 
stran^st  books  that  was  ever  written  and  one 
of  the  most  fascinating.  Good  editions  of 
'The  Bible  in  Spain'  arc  published  in  English. 
Consult  Walker,  Hugh,  'The  Literature  of  the 
Victorian  Era>   (1042ff.). 

James  H.  Hamtord. 
BIBLE  SOCIETY,  a  religious  society 
organized  and  maintained,  for  the  translation, 
publication  and  distribution  of  the  Bible  or 
parts  thereof  at  home  and  abroad,  in  English 
and  in  many  other  languages.  Naturally  the 
Bible  Society  is  a  Protcslant  effort.  It  grew 
out  of  the  attempts  of  the  various  Protestant 
denominations  to  make  known  the  general 
principles  of  Protestantism  and  the  particular 
views  of  the  numerous  Protestant  sects.  The 
invention  and  perfection  of  the  printing  press 
made  these  eltorts  effective.  All  denomina- 
tions of  Protestants  were  anxious  to  spread 
abroad  a  knowledge  o(  the  Scriptures.  Numer- 
ous Protestant  societies  made  a  business  of 
distributing  free  copies  of  the  Scriptures 
at  a  very  early  date  on  the  history  of  the 
Reformation  and  the  growth  of  Protestant- 
ism; but  none  of  these  efforts  were  con- 
trolled and  directed  by  the  one  motive,  that 
■of  the  handling  of  the  Scriptures.  As  early 
as  the  time  of  Spencer,  Baron  Hildebrand 
von  Con  stein,  a  close  friend  of  the  latter, 
along  with  other  Protestants,  founded  a 
society  for  providing  copies  of  the  Bible  for 
those  not  able  to  purchase  them.  This  society 
liad  given  away  or  sold,  at  a  price  often  below 
cost,  nearly  3,000,000  Bibles  and  more  than 
2,000,000  New  TesUmenls,  before  the  modem 
Bible  societies  came  into  the  Aeld.  In  England 
in  1780  there  was  formed  an  association  for 
the  distribution  of  the  Bible  among  soldiers 
and  sailors  under  the  name  of  'The  Bible 
Society*.  Later  the  title  was  changed  to  its 
present  designation,  'Naval  and  Military  Bible 
Society.'  Twelve  years  later  the  French  Bible 
Society  was  formed  in  London  for  the  pur- 
pose of  distributing  Bibles  printed  in  French. 
No  attempt  was  made  to  print  the  French 
Bibles  in  England  but  the  funds  collected  by 
the  Society  were  sent  to  France.  During  the 
French  Revolution  the  premises  and  plant  of 
the  Society,  together  with  its  funds,  were  taken 
possession  of  by  the  revolutionary  party  and, 
for  the  most  part,  destroyed.  After  two  years 
of  effort  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
was  formed.  Its  estanlishment  was  due,  in  great 
part,  to  the  enthusiasm  of  Thomas  Charles, 
a  Welsh  minister,  who  urged  the  Religious 
Tract  Society  to  supply  the  lack  of  Bibles  which 
he  found  everywhere  among  the  poor  people  in 
Wales.  The  hint  was  followed  up  and  a 
society  for  the  supply  of  Bibles  in  all  parts  of 
the  world  was  the  direct  result.  All  Protestant 
denominations  were  invited  to  help  in  the  work. 
The  Society  grew  rapidly  and  extended  its 
sphere  of  action  and  influence.  In  1912-13 
its  expenditures  amounted  to  almost  £270,000. 
But  this  was  but  a  small  part  of  its  work;  for 
auxiliary  societies  '  sprang  up  everywhere 
throughout  the  British  domains;  and  these  now 
number  in  the  neighborhood  of  6,000.  The 
Society  publishes  both  the  authoriied  and  the 
revised  version  of  the  Bible.    Naturally,  owing 


to  the  influence  under  which  die  Sode^ 
started,  it  gave  great  prominence  to  the  dis- 
tribution of  Bibles  in  Great  Britain  in  both 
English  and  the  Gaelic  languages.  But  gradu- 
ally it  extended  its  s^^re  until  now  it  trans- 
lates (where  necessary)  and  prints  the  Bible 
in  all  languages  and  even  dialects  where  there 
is  a  call  from  missionaries  for  such  work.  The 
Bible,  or  parts  thereof,  is  now  printed  and  dis: 
tributed  in  over  450  languages  and  dialects  and 
the  work  of  distribution  requires  more  than 
1,200  agents  and  distributors.  One  fact  alone 
shows  the  vaitness  of  this  undertaldnc ;  over 
50  different  alphabets  or  modifications  of  alpha- 
bets are  employed  in  the  printing  of  the  Bible. 
or  parts  thereof,  issued  by  the  Society.  In  a 
recent  year  the  work  of  the  Society  stood  a^ 
follows : 

Nil   iirhiigiiilii       ^^<^(*< 
pnitod  in        diitribatRi 

New  TatamenU.'.".'.'.  108  1  ,SMI»I 

PvUcfBibte 231  4,B41.nt 

The  total  issue  of  the  British  Society  during 
its  existence  up  to  the  close  of  1916  was,  in 
round  numbers,  250,000,000  copies.  So  broad 
has  become  the  work  of  the  Bible  Society  thai 
there  is  scarcely  a  country  or  pan  of  the  world 
where  its  agents  are  not  at  work  whether  thej- 
are  missionaries  or  lay  distributors. 

In  Scotland  the  various  Bible  societies  have 
been  united  into  the  National  Bible  Socicfy 
of  Scotland  since  1861 ;  while  in  the  United 
Stales  the  principal  work  of  the  Association  i? 
carried  on  by  the  American  Bible  Society.  In 
Germany,  though  there  are  a  number  of  Bible 
societies,  that  of  chief  importance  is  the  Prus- 
sian Central  Bible  Society  of  Berlin  founded 
in  1814.  It  has  branches  in  many  parts  of 
Prussia  and  distributes  over  100,000  Bibles  a 
year.  All  the  other  divisions  of  the  German 
empire  have  also  Bible  societies.  Some  of  the 
German  Bible  societies  do  not  print  their  own 
Bibles  but  get  them  from  London,  from  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  or  from  Beriin 
Society.  However  the  German  societies  have 
of  late  been  extending  their  sphere  of  influence 
and  broadening  their  efforts  until  now  the 
Lutheran  version  of  the  Bible  is  to  be  met  with 

The  one  great  country  where  the  Bible 
Society  has  had  but  little  effect  upon  the 
masses  of  the  people  i.';  Russia.  There  the 
work  of  its  300  or  more  agencies  is  confined 
almost  exclusively  to  the  foreign  population. 
This  condition  is  due  to  the  attitude  of  the 
government  and  that  of  the  Greek  Church. 
both  of  which  took  the  position  in  1826  that 
the  task  of  supplying  the  Scriptures  to  the 
people  could  properly  be  performed  only  by 
the  Holy  Synod.  This  resolution  automatical^ 
stopped  all  secular  work  in  the  distribution  of 
Billies  to  the  members  of  the  Greek  Church 
throughout  Russia  and  confined  the  efforts  of 
the  Bible  Society  to  looking  after  the  ^eat 
mass  of  non-Greek- Church  foreigners  within 
the  hounds  of  the  empire.  So  die  Bible  still 
remains  to  be  translated  into  most  of  I  be 
languages  and  dialects  spoken  by  the  vast  un- 
homo^ncoiis  population  of  the  Ruasias.  In 
Austria  the  influence  of  the  Bible  Sodeiy  has 
been  even  less  than  in  Russia;  for,  since  1S17 
its   operation   througboot   the  Austrian   empire 

.mz.d.,  Google 


BIBLE  STATISTICS 


678 


has  been  rendered  illegal  Iw  restrictions  on  the 
part  of  the  government.  The  issue  of  Bibles 
by  the  American  Bible  Society  shows  a  steady 


and    rapid    increase, 
demonstrates ; 

Ymu 

s    the    foil 

:   l:?U:S^ 

9,llfi,SlS 

wing    table 

iil^i»( 

In  1661  John  Elliot  translated  the  New 
Testament  into  the  AlKOnquian  Indian  laa- 
guage  and  had  it  piintea  at  Cambridee,  ThU 
was  the  bwinninK  of  activity  in  this  worlc 
which  was  oestineO  to  assume  vast  proportiaus. 
Two  years  later  he  finished  the  translation  of 
Ihc  complete  Bible  into  Algooquian  and  pub- 
lished  it.  It  wai  not  until  80  years  later  that 
a  Gcnnan  edition  of  the  Bible  was  published 
at  Gcimantown,  Pa.  The  first  English  Bible 
published  in  America  appeared  in  Philadelphia 
in  1782.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  progress 
of  the  work  of  printing  Biblical  literature  in 
America  was  veiy  slow  in  the  years  of  colonial 
life.  The  estabhshment  of  the  first  American 
Bible  society  in  Philadelphia  in  1808  was  fol- 
lowed by  considerable  activity  in  the  same 
woilc  in  other  places.  In  1809  New  York 
Boston,  Princeton  and  Hartford  all  established 
Bible  societies.  The  next  seven  years  saw 
54  new  Bible  societies  started  in  the  United 
States,  making  in  all  a  total  of  59.  In  Ais 
latter  year  (1816)  35  of  these  societies  meeting 
in  New  York,  organized  the  American  Bible 
Society  with  the  subscribincr  Bibk  societies  as 
local  organiiations.  This  Society  was  Incor^ 
pointed  in  1841;  and  11  years  later  the  Bible 
House  was  opened  at  Astor  Place,  3d  and  4th 
avenues,  where  the  work  of  printing,  publish- 
ing and  carrying  on  the  distribution  of  Bibles, 
Testaments  and  par's  thereof  was  proceeded 
with  tnnch  as  in  England.  The  Society  now 
has  one  of  the  most  complete  printing  plants 
in  the  United  States.  The  Association  Is 
managed  by  a  board  of  36  laymen,  one-fourth 
of  vrtiont  are  elected  every  year.  All  the 
publications  of  the  American  Bible  Society  are 
sold  at  costj  under  cost,  or  given  away  and 
vast  quantities  of  these  have  been  scattered 
broadcast  over  the  United  States  in  84  Un- 
guals. The  energy  of  the  American  Bible 
Society  also  aims  to  reach  out  to  alt  peoples, 
races  and  countries  of  the  world.  See  Amer- 
ican Bible  Societv,  The. 

With  the  growth  of  American  foreign  mis- 
sions the  woric  of  the  Society  in  foreign  lands 
has  increased  enormously  until  in  1916  it  issued 
almost  5,053,406  copies  for  foreign  distribution. 
Since  its  establishment  it  has  issued  71,536,305 
copies  at  home  and  4^151,286  abroad.  This 
is  an  average  well  over  1,000,000  a  year,  for 
every  year  of  its  existence.  The  publications 
of  the  Society  are  issued  in  over  150 
distinct  languages,  and  this  number  is  being 
yearly  added  to.  Not  all  the  printing  and 
publishing  of  the  Bible  Society  is  done  in 
New  York,  considerable  of  it  being  issued 
from  branch  establishments  in  various  foreign 
countries,  where  the  facilities  for  accurate 
work  are  greater  than  in  America. 

The   American  and  Foreign   Bible  Society 


and  the  American  Bible  Union  are  two  Baptist 
Bible  societies  which  are  very  active  in  the 
printing  and  distribution  of  Bibles  and  the 
carrying  on  of  Biblical  propa^nda  and  mis- 
sionary work.  The  publication  and  other 
work  of  these  two  societies  is  now  united  and 
carried  on  by  the  American  Baptist  Publioation 
Society. 

BIBLE  STATISTICS,  an  interesting 
compilation,  said  lo  be  the  fruits  of  three 
years'  labor  by  the  indefatigable  Dr.  Home, 
and  given  by  him  in  his  introduction  to  the 
study  of  the  Scriptures.  The  basis  b  an  old 
English  Bible  of  the  King  James  version. 

Old  Testament,— Number  of  books,  39; 
chapters,  929;  verses,  23,214;  words,  593,493; 
letters,  2,728,100. 

New  TcBtamenL— Number  of  books,  27; 
chapters,  260;  verses,  7,959;  words,  181,253; 
letters,  838,380. 

The  Bihle.— Total  number  of  books,  66; 
chapters,  1,189;  verses,  31,173;  words,  773,746; 
letters,  3,566.48a 

Apocrypha.— Number  ot  books,  14;  chap- 
ters, 184;  verses,  6,031:  words,  125,185. 

Old  Testament,— The  middle  book  ot  the 
Old  Testament  is  Proverbs.  The  middle 
chapter  is  Job  xxii.  The  middle  verse  is  2 
Chronicles  xx,  between  verses  17  and  18. 
The  shortest  book  is  Obadiah.  The  shortest 
verse  is  1  Chronicles  i|  25.  The  word  «and" 
occurs  35,543  times.  Ezra  vii,  21  contains  aU 
the  letters  of  our  alphabet.  The  word  «Selah» 
occurs  73  times  and  only  in  the  poetical  books. 
2  Kings  xix  and  Isaiah  xxxvii  are  alike.  The 
book  of  Esther  does  not  contain  the  words 
God  or  Lord.  The  last  two  verses  of  2 
Chronicles  and  the  OMnin^  verses  of  the  book 
of  Ezra  are  alike.  Ezra  li  and  Nehemiah  vii 
are  alike.  There  are  nearly  30  books  men- 
tioned, but  not  found  in  the  Bibte^  consiMing 
of  civil  records  and  other  ancient  writings  now 
nearly  all  lost.  About  26  of  these  are  alluded 
to  in  the  Old  Testament. 

New  Testament,— The  middle  book  is  2 
Thessalonians.  The  middle  chapter  is  between 
Romans  xiii  and  xiv.  The  middle  verse  i* 
Acts  xvii,  17.  The  smallest  book  is  2  John. 
The  smallest  verse  Is  John  xi,  35.  The  word 
■and*  occurs  10,684  times.  The  name  Jesus 
occurs  nearty  700  times  in  the  Gospels  and 
Acts,  and  in  the  Epistles  less  than  70  times. 
The  name  Christ  aJone  occurs  about  60  times 
in  the  Gospels  and  Acts^  and  about  240  times 
in  the'  Epistles  and  Revelation.  The  term 
Jestis   Chnsl   occurs  5  times   in  the  Gospels. 

The  Bible.— The  middle  book  is  Micah. 
The  middle  (and  smallest)  chapter  is  Psabn 
CKvii.  The  middle  verse  is  Psalm  cxviii,  8. 
The  middle  line  is  2  Chronicles  iv,  16;  the 
largest  book  is  that  of  the  Psalms ;  the  largest 
chapter  is  Psalm  cxis.  The  word  Jehovah 
for  Lord)  occurs  6,855  times.  The  word 
"and*  occurs  46,227  times.  The  number  of 
authors  of  the  Bible  is  50  The  Bible  was 
not  until  modem  times  divided  into  chapters 
and  verses.  Tht  division  of  chapters  has  been 
attributed  to  Lanfranc,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, in  the  reign  of  William  I;  but  the  rej 
author  of  this  mvision  was  Cardinal  Hugo  de 
Sancto-&ro,  about  1236.  The  number  of 
languages  on  earth  is  estimated  at  3,000;  the 
Bible  or  parts  of  it  have  been  rendereA  Itito 


L.700glC 


BIBLIA  PAUPERUM  — BIBLIOGRAPHY 


over  450  languages  and  dialects  together.  The 
first  English  translation  complete  of  the  Bible 
was  by  Wydif  b  1382.  The  first  American 
edition  was  printed  in  Boston  in  1752. 

BIBLIA  PAUPERUM  (Bible  of  the 
poor),  the  name  for  block  books  common  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  consisting  of  a  number  of 
rude  pictures  of  Biblical  subjects  with  short 
explanatory  Latin  text  accompanying  each 
picture.  A  similar  work,  but  more  extended 
and  with  rhymed  text,  was  the  'Speculum 
Humange  Salvationis'  or  'Mirror  of  Human 
Salvation.'  Prior  to  the  Reformation  these 
two  books  were  much  used  by  the  preaching 
monks,  and  as  such  orders  as  the  Franciscans, 
Carthusians,  etc,  were  styled  'Paupercs 
Christi,'  the  first  named  book,  so  popular  with 
tbem,  came  to  be  known,  therefore,  as  the 
'Bihiia  Pauperum.'  Many  manuscripts  of  these 
works  have  been  preserved  in  dine  rent  lan- 
guages. The  'Biblia'  was  one  of  the  first 
books  printed  in  Germany  and  the  Netherlands 
both  from  blocks  and  from  types.  The  chief 
proof  of  the  discovery  of  printing  in  Haarlem 
IS  derived  from  early  impressions  of  the 
'Biblia'  and  'Speculum.*  The  'Biblia  Pau- 
perum* has  been  reprinted  in  facsimile  several 
times.  There  is  an  edition  by  Unwin,  with  a 
preface  by  Dean  Stanley  issued  in  London  is 
1884. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY.  A  leadinz  contribu- 
tion in  'The  Papers  of  the  Bibliogiaphical 
Society  of  America'  (Vol.  X,  No.  4,  October 
1916),  simplies  the  observation  that  may  vetj 
well  stand  at  the  beginning  of  a  studjr  of  diis 
subject  Mr.  Feipel  writes  that  'bibliography, 
or  the  compilation  of  bibliographies,  is  one  of 
the  most  important  branches  of  bibliology,  or 
the  science  of  books.  It  is  the  chief  source 
of  information  for  seekers  after  book  knowl- 
edge, and  is  as  varied  iu  its  resources  as  the 
questions'  [brought]  to  it  are  multifarious.* 
That  elastic  statement  makes  room,  as  we 
shall  show,  for  the  most  complete,  though  brief, 
characterization  —  which  he  gives  afterward  — 
of  the  art  or  science  of  bibliogn^hy  as  it  is 
understood  in  our  own  times. 

But,  desiring  for  our  present  purpose  a 
more  explicit  introductory  statement,  we  turn 
to  a  definition  that  seems  to  us  admirable  — 
the  one  put  forward  by  James  Duff  Brown  in 
'A  Manual  of  Practical  Bibliography'  (Lon- 
don and  New  York  1906,  pp.  3,  4).  «For  the 
purpose  of  this  book,'  Mr,  Brown  writes, 
■the  definition  of  bibliography  as  the' science 
which  treats  of  the  description,  cataloguing 
and  preservation  of  books  is  ample.  Within 
these  limits  are  included  practically  every- 
thing which  relates  to  the  externals  and  regis- 
tration of  books,  without  trespassing  on  the 
Erovince  of  criticism,  historical  typography, 
brarianship,  palsography,  or  any  other  special 
department  which  deals  more  particularly  with 
the  archa;o1ogy,  qualities,  and  circulation  of 
books.  A  smirp  distinction  must  be  drawn 
between  bibliography  and  li brarianship,  which 
are  too  often  confounded.  The  former  is  the 
science  which  relates  to  the  history,  materials, 
and  description  of  books  in  general.  The 
latter  is  concerned  chieHy  with  the  collection, 
preservation,  classification,  and  maldng  publicly 
available  the  books  in  a  particular  collection. 
The  one  is  universal,  and  considers  the  per- 


sonal history  of  all  books;  the  other  is  re- 
stricted to  uie  elucidation  and  cUstribution  of 
the  comparatively  small  collection  whidi 
forms  a  library  or  mere  selection  of  books.* 
The  same  writer  holds  that  'for  bibliographical 
purposes  it  does  not  matter  whether  a  bodt 
has  commanded  a  fabulous  ^rice  in  an  auction 
saleroom  or  whether  it  is  a  pamphlet  of 
yesterday  dealing  with  some  unimportant  local 
controversy.  Tne  business  of  bibltc^rai^y," 
he  asserts,  *is  to  take  heed  of  ail  publications, 
old  or  new,  great  or  small,  cheap  or  dear, 
and  to  describe,  and  catalogue,  and  mdcx  them 
in  such  a  clear  and  sufficient  manner  that  the 
whole  literature  of  the  world  on  any  given 
subject,  or  by  any  given  author,  shall  be  I^ed 
at  the  service  of  the  humblest  Inquirer.  This,* 
he  admits,  "may  seem  an  unattainable  ideal, 
bnt  it  lus  the  practical  advantage  of  being 
some^ng  definite  at  which  to  aim.* 

Ripe    scholarship,    however,    does    not    ip- 
variably    or    unhesitatingly   go    quite    to    that 
Wilberforce    Fames,    for    ex- 


Sabin's  ^Dictionary  of  Books  Relating  to 
America'— is  not  averse  to  a  more  promptly 
utilitarian  practice  in  some  portions  of  the 
wide  biUiografriiic  field;  and  a  discriminating 
lign'ification  may,  we  also  think,  quite  property 
be  added  to  the  definition  of  the  word  bibliog- 
raphy. To  him  it  seems  ri^i  that,  in  some 
instances  at  least,  lists  of  books  for  common 
use  should  be  lists  of  carefully  seUcttd  boi^. 
The  service  that  aucfa  lists  render  is  to  guide 
the  reader  to  works  of  positive  value,  instead 
of  sending  him  perhaps  on  a  fool's  errand 
in  quest  of  a  volume  that  may  be  difficult  to 
procure  simply  because  it  never  was  liiorougfaly 
well  worth  die  reading.  And  this  eminent 
collector  and  scholar  thinks  that  it  is  some- 
times hdpful  to  add.  after  the  more  strictly 
bibliographic  data,  brief  literary  notes  giving  a 
synoptical  view  of  the  contents  together  with 
a  general  impression  of  the  character  of  the 
listed  works. 

The  interest  in  this  science  has  never  been 
so  widespread  and  so  systematically  active  as 
in  recent  years.  In  all  &e  leading  countries 
of  the  world  we  now  find  bibliographical  so- 
cieties; and  their  publications,  as  well  as  die 
periodicals  devoted  to  book  and  library  ques- 
tions, or  giving  to  these  mattors  special  promi- 
nence, bear  testimony  to  a  general  and  genuine 
public  interest  in  the  subject.  *As  to  the 
practical  value  of  a  knowledge  of  bibliog- 
raidiy,'  Mr.  Feipel  says,  *there  can  indeed  be 
little  room  for  doubt*;  and  he  quotes  from 
the  J.  D.  Brown  'Manual'  as  follows:  "In 
every  possible  avenue  of  research  or  inquiry, 
bibliography  plays  an  important  part-  An  ac- 
ciuaintanoe  with  bibliographical  writings,  con- 
joined with  access  to  the  best  examples,  is  a 
kind  of  master-k^  which  will  unlock  the 
stores  of  knowledge  of  all  ages,  and,  when 
used  with  intelligence,  has  the  power  of  open- 
'"-  up  sources  of  information  which  might 
jected  or  n^lected.*  When 
iography  assists  the  student 
to  sucn  an  extent,  we  must  also  realise  that 
to  the  librarian,  who  is  consulted  by  all  sorts 
of  students  in  regard  to  the  actual  or  possible 
provision  of  books,  it  b  wholly  indispensable 


ing  L,    --    - 

otherwise  be  unsuspected  or  n^lected.* 
we  realize  that  bibliof       '  ■  -     .■  - 


Google 


9IBLI0aRAFHY 


9T9 


The  etymDlogy  of  the  word  may  afford 
some  explanation  of  a  tendency,  observed  in 
certain  quarters,  to  revert,  little  by  little,  to 
the  older  meaning  of  ^i^Aioj-pa^Ia  which, 
in  post-classical  Greek,  was  usecL  says  Mr. 
Feipel,  *to  mean  the  writing  of  books;  and, 
a*  late  as  1761,  in  Fenning's  'English  Diction- 
ary,' a  bibliographer  is  defined  as  'one  who 
writes  or  copies  books.'  The  transition  from 
the  meaning  'a  writing  of  books'  to  that  of 
'a  writing  about  books'  was  accomplished  in. 
France  in  the  18th  centuiy.  An  ideal  of 
bibliography — an  ideal  which,  it  is  needless  to 
say,  will  never  be  achieved,  but  which  may  be 
closely  approximated— is  the  description,  in 
minute  detail,  ol  all  the  books  of  the  world.* 
Bibliography  may,  according  to  the  views  of 
diis  writer,  be  regarded  as,  first,  the  art  of 
discovering  and  imparting  to  others  informa- 
tion about  booksj  second,  the  great  mass  of 
literature  containing  such  information;  third, 
'  a  compilation  of  book  information  concerning 
a  narticufar  thin^,  person,  place,  period,  etc 
*Tiie  relation  existing  between  these  vario\is 
connotations  is  that  of  means  and  end  ^- the 
first  constituting  the  means  by  which  the  last 
two  are  produced.  It  follows,  therefore,  that 
the  perfection  of  the  art  of  bibliog:raph]r  con- 
sists in  adapting  the  means  to  (he  end  in  the 
most  satisfactory  manner  possible,  and  in 
order  to  do  this  a  thorough  study  oi  the  prin- 
ciples underlying  the  art  is  essential." 

Again,  if  we  have  in  mind  especially  the 
utilitarian  aspects  of  the  several  kinds  of 
bibliographic  work  (as  it  is  eminently  proper 
to  do),  we  may  distin^ish  and  discriminate 
the  four  classes:  historical,  eclectic,  commer- 
cial and  inventorial.  Of  lliese,  *the  first  (wo 
are  essentially  cultural  and  altruistic  in  their 
appeal,  while  the  latter  two  are  practised  pri- 
marily for  the  bentit  of  the  practitioner' — 
as  the  following  differentiation  clearly  shows: 
Works  of  the  class  first  mentioned  serve  pri- 
marily the  needs  of  hook-collectors  and  of  the 
students  oE  the  art  of  printing;  those  of  the 
class  termed  eclectic  are  m^nly  directed 
toward  the  appraisal  of  the  subject  matter 
contained  in  books,  with  a  view  to  determining 
their  relative  values  for  purposes  of  study  or 
recreation.  On  the  other  hand,  commercial 
bibliography  serves  as  an  indispensable  me- 
dium of  exchange  of  books  between  bookseller 
and  book  buyer,  and  works  of  the  class  last 
mentioned,  the  Inventorial,  are  prepared  by  or 
for  the  owners  of  books,  manuscripts,  etc,  for 
the  sake  of  r^stcrin^  such  possessions  as 
may  be  called  literary,  in  the  widest  sense  of 
that  word.  The  aims  of  those  who  are 
especially  active  in  the  field  of  historical 
bibliography  may  be  summarired  as  follows : 
(1)  tracing  the  origin  of  books,  (2)  describing 
tneir  form  and  contents,  (3)  recording  the 
events  connected  with  their  "careers,*  so  to 
speak.  In  other  words,  historical  bibliography 
deals  with  books  in  a  manner  resembling  that 
in  which  history  deals  with  nations  or  biog- 
raphy and  genealogy  deal  with  persons. 
"When  properly  executed,  historical  bibliog- 
raphy not  only  supplies  information  about 
various  books  but  also  reflects  the  state  of 
civilization  of  the  eras  to  which  the  books 
belong" —  its  material  comprising  both  primary 
and  secondary  sources.    "Primary  sources  con- 


stitute   the    bulk    of    contemporaiy    historical 

bibliograpt^,  while  the  secon<&r^  sources  con- 
stitute liie  great  body  of  antiquarian  book 
knowledge"^  a  subdivision  that  will  be  the 
theme  of  the  next  paragraph.  "The  primary 
sources  are  to  be  found  m  the  private  and 
public  documents  of  the  persons  and  iiistitu- 
tions  concerned  in  (he  production  of  books. 
They  comprise  journals  and  correspondence  of 
authors  and  their  friends,  and  subsequently 
the  correspondence  and  documents  exchanged 
between  authors  and  publishers.  Then  follow, 
if  the  book  is  published,  advertisements  and 
announcements,  including  those  carried  by  the 
book  itself  and  such  as  appear  elsewhere. 
These  arc  finally  supplemented  by  reviews  and 
news  items  in  the  journals  of  the  day.  If  the 
book   continues    to    live    in   the   minds   of    the 


spondingly   i     .     _ .   .  .    .  „„    „.- .    _ .    —  _ 

foregoing  constitutes  the  storehouse  from 
whicn  succeeding  ages  must  derive  their  l^b- 
liof^raphical  information,  and  without  which 
antiquarian  bibliography  would  be  an  im- 
possibility.* 

Now,  the  aim  of  those  literary  workers  who 
devote  themselves  to  antiquarian  bibliography 
is  to  construct  authoritative  descriptions  and 
accounts  of  the  books  of  former  times;  and 
here  the  varieties  are  found  to  range  from  ex- 
tensive histories  of  the  literature  of  a  nation  to 
a  brief  paragraph  throwing  additional  light  on 
a  single  book  or  on  a  single  phase  of  its  his- 
tory. The  essential  features  of  this  kind  of 
bibliography  are  (I)  the  comparative  antiq- 
uity of  the  book  or  books  concerning  which 
information  is  being  imparted,  and  (2)  the 
fact  that  this  information  is  derived  from  ac- 
knowledged authoritative  sources. 

A  few  words  may  be  added  in  re^rd  to  the 
eclectic,  the  commercial  and  the  inventorial 
divisions  or  classes.  Of  these  three,  the  first 
is  regarded  as  peculiarly  the  province  of  the 
educator,  since  it  strives  to  suppress  the  bad 
and  to  advance  the  good ;  and  essential  require- 
nients  for  the  proper  practice  thereof  are,  of 
course,  impartialilv  and  sound  jui^ment  The 
second  is  referrea  to  as  a  i^ase  of  salesman- 
ship, or  as  advertising  ability  applied  to  the 
sale  of  books.  The  third  —  inventorial  bibli- 
ography-~  is  requisitioned  wherever  a  valuable 
collection  of  books  is  deposited,  and  exemplifies 
the  application  of  accounting  methods  to  books 
considered  as  personal  property. 

We  shall  now  consider  in  turn  the  leading 
characteristics  of  Subject  and  Class  Bibh- 
ographies,  of  National  Bibliographies,  of  fliWi- 
ographicai  Encyclopedias,  of  Handbooks  of 
Literary  Curiosities,  and  of  Bibliographies  of 
Bibliographies ;  and  for  the  reader's  ccmvcnience 
a  number  of  titles  of  representative  works  will 
be  included. 

A  large  place  in  bibliographical  literature 
is  held  by  the  bibliographies  of  special  subjects, 
of  literary  forms  and  of  classes  of  books;  and 
it  has  been  well  said  that  such  bibliographies 
arc,  to  the  literatures  of  their  special  fields, 
what  an  index  is  to  a  book  — if  the  index 
chosen  for  comparison  be  decidedly  ample. 
They  show  the  extent  and  character  of  their 
respective  literatures ;  they  assemble  and  make 


Google 


fl?e 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


readily  accessible  the  scattered  fragments  of 
book  knowledge.  But  obviously  the  resemblance 
to  an  index  ceases  whenever  they  become 
markedly  selective  and  designed  to  serve  a 
didactic  purpose.  Guides  to  the  best  books  in 
some  chosen  field,  outlines  of  courses  of  study 
and  library  bulletins  of  various  kinds  are  given 
as  representatives  of  the  bulk  of  didactic  woric 
among  subject  and  class  bibliographies.  *0f 
thesCj  manuals  and  textbooks  of  iiterawre  are 
especially  adapted  to  ihe  narrative  form.  Other 
varieties  usually  take  the  catalogue  form.^  An 
example  of  the  latter  may  be  studied  in  the 
'Catalogue  of  the  A.  L.  A,  Library'  (Washing- 
ton 1905) ;  and  the  wide  range  of  the  subjects 
of  other  bibliographical  works  may  be  at  least 
suggested  by  the  following  list :  Acland,  A. 
H.  D.,  *Guide  to  the  Choice  of  Books'  (Lon- 
,don  1891)  ;  Baker,  E.  A.,  'Descriptive  Guide  to 
the  Best  Fiction'  (London,  1903)  ;  Banner, 
J.  C,  'Bibliography  of  Clays  and  the 
Ceramic  Arts';  Borchard,  E.  M.,  "The  Bib- 
hography  of  International  Law  and  of 
Continental  Law' ;  Bowker,  R.  R.,  and  lies,  G., 
•Reader's  Guide  in  Economic  and  Political 
Science'  (New  York  1891)  ;  Brocket!.  P.,  'Bibli- 
ography of  Aeronautics'  :  Gregory,  J.,  "Cata- 
logue of  Early  Book  on  Music' ;  lies,  G.,  ed., 
"Annotated  Bibliography  of  Fine  Art :  Paint- 
ings, Sculpture,  Architecture,  Arts  of  Decora- 
tion and  Illustration,  by  Russell  Sturgis,  and 
Music  by  H.  E.  KrehbieP  (Boston  1897); 
Johnston,  R.  H.,  'Railway  Economics:  A  Col- 
lective Catalogue  of  Books  in  Fourteen  Ameri- 
can Libraries';  Lamed,  J.  N.,  ed..  'The 
Literature  of  American  History :  A  Biblio- 
graphical Guide'  (Boston  1902)  ;  Leypoldt,  A. 
H.,  and  lies,  G.,  'List  of  Books  for  Girls  and 
Women  and  Their  Clubs'  (Boston  1895); 
Nield,  J.,  "Guide  to  the  Best  Historical  Novels 
and  Tales'  (London  1904)  ;  Monroe,  P.,  'Bibli- 
ographies of  Education'  (in  "Cyclopedia  of 
Education,'  New  York  1914)  ;  Perkins.  F.  B.. 
and  Jones,  L.  E.,  "The  Best  Reading'  (tour 
series,  Boston  1872,  1875,  1886,  1895) ;  Sargent 
J.  F.,  'Reading  for  the  Young;  A  Classified 
and  Annotated  Catalog'  (Boston  1890  and  sup- 
plement 1896). 

National  bibliographies  are  very  numerous, 
but  commonly  either  incomplete  or  out  of  date. 
Among  those  mentioned  by  Mr.  Feipel  are 
Lowndes'  'Bibliographer's  Manual  of  English 
Literature'  (originally  published  in  1834,  but 
now  best  known  in  the  revised  edition,  Lon- 
don 1857-64) ;  the  'Bibliothcca  Britannica,' 
complied  by  Robert  Walt  and  {>ublished  at 
Edinburgh  in  1824;  Sabin's  'Dictionary  of 
Books  Relating  to  America'  (in  20  vols,.  New 
York  1867-92),  to  which  we  have  already  re- 
ferred; and  Boorbach's  "Bibliothcca  Ameri- 
cana' (New  York  1849-61).  Continental  na- 
tions of  Europe  have  produced,  among  many 
other  works  of  this  order,  the  following : 
Brunn,  C.  V.,  'Bibliothcca  Danica'  (3  vols., 
CopetihaRen  1872-95) ;  Haeghen,  F.  Van  der, 
'Bibliothcca  Belgira'  (Ghent  1879-98)  ;  Hein- 
sius.  W.,  'Allgemeincs  Biicher-Lexicon'  (19 
vols..  Leipzig  1812-94);  HidalRO,  D.,  'Diceio- 
nario  general  de  biMiografia  espafiola'  (7 
vols.,  Madrid  18M^1)  ;  Linnstrom,  H.,  'Svenslct 
Boklexikon'  (2  vols.,  Stockholm  1867-S4)  ;  Pat- 
tersen,  H.,  'Norsk  Boglexikon'  (Christiania 
1899.  in  progress)  ;  QuSrard,  J.  M.,  'La  France 


littiraire'  (12  vols.,  Paris  1827-64) ;  Silva,  J.  F. 
da,  'Diccionario  bibliogra£co  portuguez'  (16 
vols.,  1858^3) ;  Thieme,  H.  P.,  'Guide  Bibli- 
ographique  de  la  Litterature  Fran^aise  de  1800 
a  1906'   (Paris  1907). 

Bibliographical  encyclojiedias,  or  universal 
reference-works  of  book  information,  should, 
if  the  promise  of  the  title  were  fulfilled,  con- 
tain standard  descriptions  of  all  books  of  liter- 
ary, historical  or  typographical  interest,  not 
only  as  they  first  issued  from  the  press  but 
also  as  they  subsequently  appeared  m  all  the 
variant  editions ;  but  in  very  few  instances  has 
any  approach  been  made  to  the  realization  of 
that  ideal  in  the  past,  and  at  tiie  present  time  the 
number  of  such  standard  worte  is  very  small, 
owing  partly  to  the  greater  and  more  accurate 
detail  now  demanded,  and  partly  to  the  absence 
of  any  sufficiently  extensive  or  quite  adequate 
system  of  co-operation  among  libraries.  The 
nearest  approach  to  such  a  -work  is  the 
'CaUlogue  of  Printed  Books  in  the  British 
Museum,'  which  was  begun  in  1881,  and,  al- 
though completed  as  far  as  the  original  alpha- ' 
additions  continuously. 


of  the  'Bibliotheque  Nationale'  of  Paris  is 
still  in  course  of  preparation.  Georgi's  'Allge- 
meincs Europaischcs  Biicher-Lexicon,'  in  11 
volumes,  was  published  at  Leipzig  in  1742-5& 
Especially  noteworthy  as  a  bibliography  of  the 
best  and  rarest  editions  of  books  is  J.  C 
Brunei's  'Manuel  du  Libraire,'  the  original 
edition  of  which  was  published  in  1810.  Its 
5th  edition  (Paris  1860-65)  was  issued  in  six 
volumes,  and  two  supplementary  volumes  ap- 
peared in  1878-80.  We  mention  also  the  'Trfaor 
de  Livres  Rares'  by  J.  G.  T.  Giaesse  (7  vols^ 
Dresden  1859-*9)  and  Santander's  'Dictionnaire 
Bibliographique'    (Brussels   1805-07). 

The  dictionaries  of  anonymous  and  pseu- 
donymous works,  the  lists  of  prohibited  works, 
eh:.,  following  "me  many  unexplored  or  partly 
explored  by-paths  of  literature,*  form  a  not 
unimportant  branch  of  bibliography,  and  are 
usually  classified  as  handbooks  of  Ulerary 
curiosities. 

In  'Bibliographies  of  Bibliographies,'  by  .A 
G.  S.  Josephson  (2d  ed,  on^nally  published  in 
the  BulieUn  and  concluded  in  the  'Papers'  of 
the  Biographical  Society  of  America),  may  be 
found  a  list  of  works  devoted  to  the  catalogu- 
ing of  bihliogrsphies  on  all  kinds  of  subjects. 
Among  these  are  Peignot's  'Ripertoire  de 
tnbliographies  sp6ciales,  curieuses  et  instruc- 
tives'  (Paris  1810) ;  Petiholdfs  "Bibliotheca 
Bihliographica'  (Leipzig  1866) ;  Stein's  "Man- 
uel de  bibliographic  gen*ra!e'  (Paris  1898), 
and  Valine's  < Bibliographic  des  Bibliographies' 
(Paris  1883-a7). 

The  Chief  BiblioKrapher  of  the  Library  of 
Congress,  Mr,  H,  H.  B.  Mwer,  calls  special 
attention  to  the  value  of  such  publications  as 
'The  Readers'  Guide  to  Periodical  Literature' 
and  its  supplement,  to  'The  Cumulative  Book 
Index,'  'The  Index  of  Legal  Periodicals,*  the 
'Magazine  Index'  and  the  'Engineering  In- 
dex.' Everv  student  of  bibliography  is  glad 
to  acknowledge  his  obligations  also  to  the  bibli- 
ographical periodicals,  ■bibliographical  litera- 
ture in  magazine  form,  constituting  a  great 
storerhouse  of  hook  information*;  to  the  notices 


BIBLIOIdANCy  —  BIBLIOMANIA 


and  criticisms  of  new  books  in  the  publications 
of  a  Rcneral  and  popular  character;  and  to 
those  'inventories  of  particular  collections  of 
books,*  the  printed  catalogues  of  libraries  large 
and  &mall,  public  and  private. 

In  rq^ard  to  the  compilation  oE  bibliogra- 
phies, Mr.  Feipel  writes  that  the  various  biblio- 
Rraphic  details  fall  into  the  more  or  less  well- 
defined  groups  or  categories :  authorship,  title. 
subject,  literary  form,  place  and  date  of  publi- 
-caUon,  siie,  binding,  pnce,  typography,  number 
of  copies  prbted,  eution,  etc. ;  and  upon  the 
scope  and  aim  of  the  particular  piece  of  bibli- 
ograf^c  work  depends  the  decision  to  omit  or 
to  include  any  of  these  details.  Naturally  the 
perfection  of  the  work  when  completed  will  be 
found  to  depend  in  great  measure  upon  the 
good  judgment  manifested  in  such  careful  se- 
lection of  the  items.  Moreover,  good  judgment 
must  be  shown  in  deciding  whether  to  cast  the 
bibliography  in  the  narrative  form  or  the  cata- 
logue form,  the  choice  depending  —  in  this  mat- 
ter also  —  upon  the  object  to  be  attained  and 
the  scope  of  the  work.  The  narrative  form  is 
'particularly  adapted  to  treatises  intended  to 
be  read  as  a  whole,  while  the  catalogue  form  is 
better  suited  for  occasional  or  particular  ref- 
erence. In  either  case,  a  logical  arrangement 
of  the  subject-matter  is  essential  for  proper 
presentation  and  consultation.  In  short,  the 
ideal  of  biUiographical  exposition  is  that  which 
supplies  the  greatest  number  of  wants  with  the 
least  expense  of  time  and  effort  on  the  part  of 
the  user.  .  .  ,  Schobriy  bibliography  usually 
involves  a  great  deal  of  research  on  the  part  of 
the  compiler;  and  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
bibliographical  sources  and  authorities,  as  well 
as  of  general  reference  books,  is  of  prime  im- 
portance.* 

In  conclusion  we  refer  once  more  to  the  all- 
important  consideration  of  the  utility  of  this 
art;  and  shall  treat  briefly  of  the  requirements 
of  librarians,  of  private  book  collectors  and  of 
students  —  the  three  chief  groups  of  persons 
who  profit  by  bibliography  most  directly. 

The  librarian  considers  both  the  contents 
and  the  externals  of  the  books  he  collects,  fbr 
his  aim  is  naturally  to  supply  the  wants  of  all 
comers.  Theoretically,  it  ■  is  his  privilege  to 
strive  to  have  his  library  contain  books  on  all 
topics  and  representative  works  —  or  even  all 
the  work  —  of  all  good  writers;  "but  since  this 
is  an  unattainable  end  as  well  as  an  ideal  of 
questioitable  worth,  he  works  Up  to  it  as  rea- 
sonably as  he  sees  fit  and  as  nearly  as  his  re- 
sources allow.  And  for  his  work  of  buying, 
making  sure  that  the  books  arc  complete  and  of 
the  best  editions,  cataloguing  them,  and  filling 
up  gaps  in  the  collection,  bibliography  is  without 
doubt  his  most  essential  tool."  Now,  the  pri- 
vate book  collector,  not  bein^  obliged  to  take 
account  of  the  tastes  and  requirements  of  other 
people,  but  on  the  contrary  devoting  his  leisure 
to  the  quest  of  such  books  as  he  himself  cares 
for,  very  often  appraises  his  acquisitions  "not 
according  to  their  use  as  reading-matter,  but 
according  to  their  origin,  their  history  and  their 
scarcity.  They  are  prized  not  so  much  for 
what  they  contain  as  for  what  they  are,  namely, 
specimens  of  an  art  that  can  never  be  replaced.* 
For  him,  then,  bibliography's  utility  is  measured 
by  the  correctness  of  its  replies  to  these  or 
similar  questions:     What  books  exist?    What 


a  guidt 


constitutes  a  complete  copy  of  each?  Which 
are  rare  and  which  abundant?  But  the  student's 
wants  are  unquestionably  those  that  have  re- 
ceived most  solicitous  attention ;  and  the  fact 
has  been  clearly  recognized  that  bibliography 
serves  him  far  less  as  a  technical  description  of 
books,  far  more  as  a  guide  to  literature:  "It 
ide  to  the  contents  of  book.s,  rather  than 
itemal  peculiarities,  that  he  re- 
quires.*   See  Bibliomania. 

Hakhion  Wacox. 
BIBLIOMANCY^  divination  performed 
by  means  of  the  Bible,  also'  called  iortes 
biblica,  or  sortes  sanclontm.  It  consisted  in 
taking  passages  at  hazard,  and  drawing  indi- 
cations thence  concerning  thin^  future.  It 
was  much  used  at  the  consecration  of  bishops. 
It  was  a  practice  adopted  from  the  heathens, 
who  drew  the  same  kind  of  prognostications 
from  the  works  of  Homer  and  Vir^l.  In  456 
the  Council  of  Vannes  condemned  all  who 
practised  this  art  to  be  cast  out  of  the  com- 
munion of  the  Church ;  as  did  the  councils  of 
Agdc  in  506  and  Auxerre.  But  in  the  12th 
century  we  find  it  emploj-ed  as  a  mode  of  de- 
tecting heretics.  In  the  Galilean  Church  it  was 
long  practised  in  the  election  of  bishops;  chil- 
dren being  employed,  on  behalf  of  each  can- 
didate, to  draw  slips  of  paper  with  texts  on 
them  and  ihat  which  was  thought  most  favor- 
able decided  the  choice.  A  similar  mode  was 
pursued  ax  the  installation  of  abbots  and  the 
reception  of  canons;  and  this  custom  is  said 
to  have  continued  in  the  cathedrals  of  Ypres, 
Saint  Omer  and  Boulogne,  as  late  as  the  year 
1744.  In  the  Greek  Church  we  read  of  the 
prevalence  of  this  custom  as  early  as  the  con- 
secration of  Athanasius,  on  whose  behalf  the 
5 residing  prelate,  Caracalla,  archbishop  of 
licomedia,  opened  the  Gospels  at  the  words, 
"For  the  devil  and  his  angels*  (Matt,  xxv, 
41).  The  bishop  of  Nice  first  saw  them  and 
adroitly  turned  over  the  leaf  to  another  verse, 
which  was  instantly  read  aloud:  "The  birds 
of  the  air  came  and  lodged  in  the  branches 
thereof"  (Matt,  xiii,  32).  But  this  passage 
appearing  irrelevant  to  the  ceremony,  the  first 
became  gradually  known,  and  the  Church  of 
Constantinople  was  violently  agitated  by  the 
most  fatal  divisions  during  the  patriarchate. 
It  has  persisted  in  a  measure  in  modem  times 
and  devout  persons  have  used  this  means  of 
seeking  guidance.  Tennyson  makes  use  of  the 
custom  iQ  'Enoch  Ardcn.' 

'BIBLIOMANIA  <"book-madness»).  a 
word  formed  from  the  Greek  and  signifying 
a  passion  for  possessing  rare  or  curious  books. 
The  true  bibliotnanist  is  determined  in  the 
purchase  of  books  less  by  the  value  of  their 
contents  than  by  certain  accidental  circum- 
stances attending  them.  To  be  valuable  in  his 
eyes  they  must  belong  to  particular  classes,  be 
made  of  singular  materials  or  have  something 
remarkable  in  their  history.  Some  books  ac- 
quire (he  character  of  belonging  to  particular 
classes  from  treating  of  a  particular 
subject ;  others  from  something  peculiar  in 
their  mechanical  execution  (as  the  omission 
of  the  word  "not"  in  the  seventh  command- 
ment, which  gives  the  Wicked  Bible  its  name), 
or  from  the  circumstance  of  having  issued 
from  a  press  of  uncommon  eminence,  or  be- 
cause tbey  once  belonged  to  the  library  of  a 


=y  Google 


678 


n.  But  there  are  certain  fashions 
in  bibliomania  and  books  much  sought  at  one 
time  may  at  another  be  comparatively  neglect- 
ed Some  collections  of  books  may  possess 
or  have  possessed  much  intrinsic  value;  such 
as  collections  of  the  various  early  editions  of 
the  Bible ;  collections  of  editions  of  single 
classics  (for  example,  those  of  Horace  and 
Cicero)  ;  the  editions  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
classics  in  usum  Delphini  and  cxim  notis  vario- 
rum; die  editions  of  the  Italian  classics  printed 
by  the  Academy  delta  Crusca;  works  printed 
by  the  Elzevirs  and  by  Aldus;  the  clasMCS 
published  by  Maittaire  or  Foulis ;  and  the 
celebrated  Bipont  editions,  with  others.  It 
perhaps  was  more  customary  in  former  times 
ihan  at  present  to  make  collections  of  books 
which  have  something  remarkable  in  their  his- 
tory (for  example,  books  which  have  become 
very  scarce  and  such  as  have  been  prohibited), 
yet  various  scarce  books  arc  highly  prized  on 
account  of  nothing  but  their  rarity,  the  original 
(1786)  Kilmarnock  edition  of  Bums'  Poems, 
for  instance.  First  editions  may  be  ranked  in 
the  same  class.  Books  distinguished  for  re- 
markable mutilations  have  also  been  eagerly 
sought  for.  Those  which  appeared  in  the  in- 
fancy of  typography  called  incunabula,  from 
the  Latin  cuing,  a  cradle,  and  among  them  the 
first  editions  (edilioncs  frincipes)  of  the  an- 
cient classics,  are  still  in  general  request.  An 
enormous  price  is  fr«|Uently  given  also  for 
splendid  proof  impressions  of  copperplate  en- 
gravings and  for  colored  impressions,  for 
works  adorned  with  miniatures  and  illuminated 
initial  letters;  likewise  for  such  as  are  printed 
upon  vellum.  Works  printed  upon  paper  of 
uncommon  materials  or  various  substitutes  tor 
paper  (asbestos,  for  Instance),  have  been 
much  sought  after ;  likewise  those  printed  upon 
colored  paper.  Other  books  in  nigh  esteem 
among  bibliomanists  are  those  which  are  print- 
ed on  large  paper,  with  very  wide  margins. 
In  English  advertisements  of  rare  books  some 
one  is  often  mentioned  as  particularly  valuable 
on  account  of  its  being  "a  tall  copv'.  It  the 
leaves  happen  to  be  uncut  the  value  of  the 
copy  is  much  enhanced.  Other  works  highly 
valued  by  bibliomanists  arc  those  which  are 
printed  with  letters  of  gold  or  silver  or  ink 
of  singular  color;  for  example;  (1)  'Fasti 
Napolconei>  (Paris  1804,  4to),  a  copy  on  blue 
vellum  paper  with  golden  letters;  (2)  *Magna 
Charta'  (London  1816,  fol.),  three  copies  upon 
purple-colored   vellum,   with   golden   letters. 

Bibliomania  often  extends  to  the  binding. 
In  France  the  bindings  of  IDerome,  Padeloup 
and  Bozerian  are  highly  valued;  in  England 
those  of  Charles  Lewis  and  Roger  Payne, 
among  18th  century  binders ;  while  Hayday, 
Riviere,  Bedford  and  Zaehnsdorf  may  be 
mentioned  as  among  the  notable  craftsmen 
of  the  19th.  Even  the  edgies  of  books  are  often 
adorned  with  fine  paintings.  Many  devices 
have  been  adopted  to  give  a  fictitious  value  to 
bindings.  Jcffery,  a  London  bookseller,  had 
Fox's  'History  of  King  James  IP  bound  in 
fox-skin,  in  allusion  to  the  name  of  the  au- 
thor; and  the  famous  English  bihliomanist, 
Askew,  even  had  a  book  bound  in  human  skin. 
In  the  library  of  the  castle  ot  Konigsberg  are 
20  books  botmd  in  silver  (commonly  called  the 
sih-er  library).  These  are  richly  adorned  with 
Urge  ^d  beautifully  engraved  gold  plates  in 


the  middle  and  on  the  comers.  To  the  exterior 
decoration  of  books  belongs  the  bordering  of 
the  pages  with  single  or  double  lines,  drawn 
with  the  pen  (exemplaire  rigli),  commonly  of 
red  color  —  a  custom  which  we  find  adopted 
in  the  early  age  of  Drinting  in  the  works 
printed  by  Stephens.  The  custom  of  coloring 
engravings  has  generally  been  dropped,  except 
in  cases  where  the  subject  pamctilarly  re- 
quires it  (for  instance,  m  works  on  natural 
history  or  the  costumes  of  different  nations). 
because  the  colors  conceal  the  delkacy  of  the 
engraving. 

Other  means  of  idle  competition  being  al- 
most all  exhausted,  a  new  method  of  gratify- 
ing the  bihliomanist  taste  was  adopted,  that 
of  enriching  works  by  the  addition  of  engrav- 
ings,—illustrative  indeed  of  the  text  of  the 
book,  but  not  particularlj;  called  for, —  and  of 
preparing  only  single  copies.  Books  are  often 
mutilated  in  this  way  to  enrich  some  other 
book.  Such  •grangerized"  copies  have  long 
been   well  known. 

Among    recent   books   valued    as    specimens 


Morris.  Biftlio mania,  which  flourished  first 
in  Holland  (the  seat  likewise  of  the  tulipo- 
mania)  toward  the  end  of  ttie  17th  ccntuiy, 
has  prevailed  in  England  to  a  much  greater 
extent  than  in  France,  Italy  or  Germany.  The 
modem  Mbliomania  is  very  different  from  the 
spirit  which  led  to  the  purchase  of  books  b 
the  Middle  Ages  at  prices  which  appear  to  us 
enormous.  External  decorations,  it  is  true, 
were  then  held  in  high  esteem;  out  the  main 
reason  of  the  ^eat  sums  then  paid  for  books 
was  their  scarcity  and  the  difficulty  of  procur- 
ing perfect  copies  before  the  invention  of  the 
art  of  printing.  Consult  Dibdin,  'Biblio- 
mania' (London  1811)  ;  Fitzgerald.  'The  Book 
Fancier*  (ib.  1886) ;  Lary,  'The  Library' 
(1886);  Burton,  'The  Book  Hunter'  (New 
York  1882)  ;  Field,  'The  Love  Affairs  of  a 
Bibliomaniac'  (ib.  1896)  ;  Ferguson,  'Some 
Aspects  of  Bibliography*  (Edinburgh  1900); 
Lang,  A,,  'The  Library*  (London  1881); 
Mcrryweather,  'Bibliomania  of  the  Middle 
Ages'  (London  1849,  reprint.  1900)  ;  Pollard, 
'Fine  Books'  (New  York  1912);  Fletcher, 
'An  Index  to  General  Literature'  (Boston 
1901);  Gusterie,  'Guide  to  Periodical  Litera- 
ture' (2  vols.,  Minneapolis  1910);  Poole,  'In- 
dex to  Periodical  Literature,'  covering  the 
period  after  1802. 

BIBRA,  be-bra,  Ernst,  Baron  von,  Get^ 
man  naturalist  and  writer :  b.  Schwebhcim, 
Bavaria,  9  June  1806;  d.  Niiremberg,  S  June 
1878.  Being  left  an  orphan  with  a  large  fortune 
at  an  early  age,  he  devoted  himself  to  physical 
science,  and  published  various  works  that 
brought  his  name  before  the  public.  He  studied 
taw  at  the  University  of  Wiirzburg.  He  trav- 
eled in  South  Amenca,  taking  home  with  him 
important  natural  history  and  ethnological  col- 
lections. He  wrote  several  works  on  chemistry, 
including  'CThemische  Untersochungen  iiber  die 
Knochen  und  Zahne  der  Menschen  und  der 
Wirbeltiere*  (Schwemfurt  1844)  :  'Chemische 
Fragmente  uber  die  Leber  una  die  QaXW 
(Brunswick  1849) ;  'Die  Bronzen  und  Kupfer- 
legierungcn  der  alt  en  und  atlesten  Volker' 
(Erlangen  1869).    Among  his  numeroni  works 


.Google 


BIBULUS  —  BICHAT 


America  and  Europe'  (2  vols,  Jena  1874). 

BIBULUS,  Luciua  Calpumiiu,  Rornao 
politician:  d.  near  Corcyra,  Greece,  48  ac. 
His  wife  was  Porcia,  daughter  of  Cato  of 
Utica.  In  45  a.C  Porcia  married  M.  Jumus 
Brutus  and  thus  young  Bibulus  was  brought  up 
in  the  home  of  Ae  future  murderer  of  Caesar. 
He  was  consul  with  Julius  Qesar  in  59  S.C., 
which  ofiice  he  acquired  through  the  influence 
o£  the  aristocratic  parpf.  After  his  opposition 
to  Gesar's  Agrarian  Law  had  failed,  he  se- 
cluded himself  in  his  house,  whence  he  issued 
edicts  against  the  measures  oE  Cxsar.  In  49 
B.C.  Pompcy  appointed  him  commander  of  the 
fleet  in  ihe  Roman  Sea.  Bibulus  look  part  in 
the  battle  of  Phiiippi  and  was  made  prisoner 
by  Antony.  The  latter  afterward  made  him  his 
legate  in  Syria.  He  composed  a  little  volume 
of  'Memoirs'  of  Brutus.  It  was  extant  in 
Plutarch's  time  but  has  since  been  lost. 

BICAMERAL  SYSTEM,  or  two-cluim- 
bered  system,  the  universal  form  of  the  State 
legislature.  The  upper  house  is  invariably 
called  the  senate  and  the  lower  house  is  usually 
termed  the  assembly  or  house  of  representatives 
or  house  of  delegates,  the  former  differing  from 
the  latter  chiefly  in  number  of  members,  in 
special  duties  and  in  greater  length  of  tenure, 
while  in  Congress  and  some  of  the  States  there 
is  also  a  difference  in  the  systems  of  repre- 
sentation in  the  two  bouses.  The  bicamci^ 
system  was  in  vogue  in  England  when  America 
settled  but  local  needs  as  welt  as  a  desire  to 


framed  in  1787,  the  members  of  the  Coi 
decided  to  retain  the  system  since  the  powers  of 
the  legi&lature  were  increased  and  the  members 
believed  in  a  government  of  checks  and  bal- 
ances. Without  question  the  system  has  tended 
to  minimize  the  evil  of  over-le&islatioa  by 
giving  opportunity  for  sober  second  thou^  on 
proposed  legislation,  though  it  has  resulted,  too, 
in  friction  and  unnecessary  delays  with  divided 
responsibility  for  compromised  legislation.  See 
CoNCHESS ;  Assembly,  Legislative  ;  Senate; 
House  of  Representatives.  Consult  Bryce, 
James,  'American  Commonwealth'  C4th  ed., 
1910);  Reinsch,  Paul  S.,  'American  Legisla- 
tures and  Legislative  Methods'  (1907);  Wil- 
son, Wood  row,  'Congressional  Government' 
C188S). 

BICANERB,  bik-a'ner.  India,  a  town, 
capital  of  a  principality  of  the  same  name,  240 
miles  west  by  south  from  Ddhi.  With  its 
battlemented  walls  and  large  citadd,  both 
flanked  with  roimd  towers,  and  its  temples,  one 
of  which  rises  to  a  great  height,  it  presents  a 
magnificent  appearance  to  the  traveler  approach- 
ing it  ibrough  tba  desolate  tract  of  country  in 
wnicb  it  stands;  but  a  nearer  inspection  dispds 
the  illusion,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  houses 
are  found  to  be  hovels  of  mud,  painted  red. 
Water  is  obtained  from  wells. 

BICARBONATE.     See  Cabbon. 

BICCI.  ErtiHo.  be'che,  Ir-9§l'y5.  It«lian 
poet :  b.  1845.  He  studied  in  Florence,  and 
became  professor  of  Italian  literature  in  the 


Vers 

BICE,  bice,-  or  BISE,  tbe  name  of  two 
colors  used  in  painting,  one  blue,  the  other 
green,  and  both  native  carbonates  of  copper, 
though  inferior  kinds  are  also  prepared  arti' 
ficialTy.  As  other  artificial  pigments  are  often 
so  called,  the  word  is  now  of  doubtful  value  and 
has  become  almost  obsolete.  Blue  bice  is  known 
as  mountain  blue  or  ongaro,  and  green  bice  as 
Hungarian'  green,  verde  de  Spagna,  etc. 

BICEPS  (biceps  fiexor  cubiti),  the  prin- 
cipal Bexor  muscle  of  the  arm,  the  muscle  pop- 
ularly shown  as  evidence  of  muscular  develop- 
ment At  its  upper  end  it  consists  of  two  part^ 
one  being  attached  to  the  coracoid  process  of 
the  scapula,  and  Ihe  other  to  the  margin  of  the 

fllenoid  fossa,  about  the  joint.  This  latter,  the 
ong  head,  passes  over  the  head  of  the  humerus 
as  a  tendon  and  unites  with  the  short  head  to 
form  the  belly  of  the  muscle.  The  lower  end 
of  the  biceps  is  inserted  for  the  greater  part  to 
the  radius,  and  a  smaller  tendonous  expansion 
is  inserted  in  the  fascia  of  the  forearm.  The 
action  of  the  biceps  is  to  bring  the  forearm  to 
the  arm  and  to  turn  the  intumed  hand  outward. 
BICETRE,  be-satr,  France^  village  a  httle 
to  the  southwest  of  Parts,  with  a  famous  hos- 
pital for  old  men  in  indigent  circumstances,  and 
an  asylum  for  lunatics,  together  forming  one 
vast  establishment,  containing  over  2,700  beds. 
This  establishment  was  originally  founded  by 
Louis  IX  as  a  Carthusian  monastery,  became 
later  a  castle,  which  was  demolished  in  1632, 
after  being  lon^  in  a  ruinous  state,  and  was 
restored  by  Louis  XlII,  and  destined  as  a  re- 
treat for  infirm  officers  and  soldiers.  When 
Louis  XIV  afterward  erected  the  great  Hotel 
Koyal  des  Invalides,  Bicetre  became  a  general 
hospital,  and  it  continued  as  such  down  to 
the  Revolution,  and  contained  also  a  house  of 
correction.  Tne  establishment  was  then  en- 
tirely altered  and  converted  to  its  present  use. 
The  poor  persona  admitted  must  be  at  least  70 
years  of  age  or  incapacitated  by  some  incur- 
able disease  from  earning  a  livelihood.  The 
lunatics  are  such  as  belong  to  the  department 
of  the  Seine.  They  are  attended  to  with  the 
greatest  care  and  fabricate  neat  little  articles 
of  wood  and  bone,  known  in  France  by  the 
name  of  "Bicetre  work.* 

BICHAT,  be'sha,  Marie  Frangc^B  Xavi«r, 
French  physician :  b,  Thoirette,  department  of 
Jura,  14  Nov.  1771 ;  d-  22  July  1802.  His  father, 
a  physician,  early  initiated  him  into  tbe  study 
of  medicine,  which  the  young  Bichat  prosecuted 
at  Lyons  and  Paris,  where  he  studied  under  the 


tended  the  publication  of  his  surgical  works, 
and  in  1791  began  to  lecture  upon  anatomy  in 
connection  with  experimental  physiology  and 
surgery.  From  this  period,  amidst  the  pressing 
calls  of  an  extensive  practice,  he  employed  him- 
self in  preparing  those  works  which  spread  his 
reputation  through  Europe  and  America,  and 
which  had  the  most  beneficial  influence  Upon 
medical  science  generally.  In  1800  appeared 
his  'Treatise  on  the  Membranes,'  which  passed 
through  numerous  editions,  and  immediately 
after  publication  was  translated  into  almost  an 


Google 


BICHIR  ~  BIGK&KSTBTH 


£ura[)can  len^agcs,  and  'Researches  Concern- 
ing Life  and  Death,'  followed,  the  next  year, 
by  his  'General  Anatomy'  (4  vols.,  8vo) — a 
complete  code  of  anatomy,  physiology  and  med- 
icine, which  was  translated  into  English  by  Dr. 
G.  Hayward,  and  published  in  3  vols.  8vo.  In 
1800  be  was  appointed  physician  of  the  Hotel- 
Dieu,  in  Paris,  and  with  the  energy  character- 
istic of  true  genius  began  his  labors  in  patho- 
lo^cal  anatomy.  In  a  single  winter  he  opened 
no  less  than  600  bodies.  He  had  likewise  con- 
ceived the  plan  of  a  great  work  upon  pathology 
and  therapeutics ;  and  immediately  upon  com- 
mencing his  duties  as  physician  to  the  Hotel- 
Dieu  he  began  his  researches  in  therapeutics 
by  experiments  upon  the  effects  of  simple  medi- 
cines. In  the  midst  of  his  activity  and  useftil- 
ness  he  was  cut  off  by  a  malignant  fever,  prob- 
ably the  consc<juence  of  his  numerous  dissec- 
tions. His  friend  and  physic iati^  Corvisar^ 
wrote  to  Napoleon  in  these  words:  "Bichat 
has  just  fallen  upon  a  field  of  battle  which 
counts  more  than  one  victim ;  no  one  has  done 
so  much,  or  done  it  so  well,  in  so  short  a  time.* 
He  was  the  creator  of  pereral  anatomy,  or  of 
the  doctrine  of  the  identity  of  the  tissues  of  the 
different  organs,  which  is  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  modem  medicine. 

BICHIR,  be-sher'  one  of  the  African 
mudfishes  (Polypterus  bichir),  which  inhabits 
the  upper  Nile  and  its  tributaries,  and  is  re- 
garded as  die  best  food-fish  of  those  waters. 
It  may  attain  the  length  of  four  feet,  and  is 
one  of  the  few  remaining  species  of  the 
great  nearly  extinct  group  Ganoidea,  and  is 
related  to  the  American  gar-pike.  It  is  not 
truly  a  mudfish  in  its  habits,  tiiough  it  haimts 
the  deeper  holes  of  the  Nile.  Its  swim-bladder 
opens  ventrally  and  is  double,  simulatinj;:  a  pair 
of  lungs  in  many  respects,  though  the  fish  can- 
not live  long  out  of  water.  See  Mud-Fish; 
Reed-Fish  ;  Icthyolocy, 

BICHLORIDE  OF  GOLD,  a  substance 
formed  by  the  action  of  chlorine  gas  upon  dry 
metallic  gold  that  has  been  previously  thrown 
down  in  the  form  of  an  impalpable  powder,  by 
chemical  means.  Some  authorities  formerly 
asserted  that  the  substance  so  formed  is  a  true 
chemical  compound,  having  the  fonnuU  AuCli: 
however,  it  is  a  mere  mixture  of  metallic  gold 
and  the  well-known  trichloride,  AuCU. 

BICKELL,  GuBtav  Wilhebn  Hago,  Ger- 
man dleologian  and  Orientalist,  son  of  J.  W. 
Bickell  (q.v.) :  b.  Cassel,  7  July  1838;  d. 
Vienna,  l5  Jan.  1906.  At  the  age  of  24  he  be- 
came tutor  of  Semitic  and  Indo-Germanic  phi- 
lolc^y  at  Marburg.  He  became  a  convert  to 
Roman  Catholicism  in  1865,  was  ordained 
priest  in  1867  and  appointed  professor  of  Orien- 
tal languages  at  Munster.  In  1874  he  accepted 
a  similar  post  at  Innsbruck,  and  finally  settled 
in  Vienna  in  1891.  Bickell  wrote  a  great  num- 
ber of  theological  treatises,  a  Hebrew  gram- 
mar and  made  several  translations ;  also 
'De  indole  ac  ralionc  versionis  Alexandrinx  in 
interpretando  libro  Job'  (1862);  'Grounds  of 
the  Infallibility  of  the  Head  of  the  Church' 
(1870);  'Mass  and  Pasha'  (1872);  'Metrices 
biblioe  rtguix  exemplis  illustrate*  (1879) ; 
'Synodi  Brlxinenses  saeculi  XV»  (1880) ; 
'Hebrew  Poetry'  (1883);  <A  Papyrus  Frag- 
ment   of    a    noo-Canonical    Gospel'     (1885) ; 


BICKBLL,  Johann  WiUielm,  German  ec- 
clesiastical }unst:  b.  Marburg  1799;  d.  Cassel 
1848.  He  became  professor  of  jurisprudence  at 
the  age  of  25;  at  33  be  was  s^ipotnted  coun- 
sellor of  the  High  Court  of  Appeal  in  Cassel 
and  vice-president  in  1845.  BickeU  gave  the  im- 
petus to  the  modem  devclopmrat  of  ecclesias- 
tical law,  leading  to  extended  researdies 
among  the  writings  of  early  authorities.  Of 
his  great  work,  'History  of  Ecclesiastical  Law' 
(Giessen  1844),  only  one  volume  was  com- 
pleted Among  his  other  works  are  'Corpus 
juris  canonici'  (1825)  ;  'De  paleis  quae  in 
Gratiani  decreto  inveniuntur'  (1827);  'Reform 
of  the  Protestant  Church  Constitution'   (1831). 

BICKERSTAFFE,  Isaac^  Irish  dramatic 
writer:  b.  Ireland,  about  1735;  d.  about  1812. 
At  the  age  of  11  he  became  wge  to  Lord  Ches- 
terfield, lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland.  Later  he 
was  officer  of  marines,  but  was  dismissed  be- 
cause of  some  escapade.  In  1772  he  was  sus- 
pected of  a  capital  crime  and  fled  abroad  Lit- 
tle is  known  of  his  later  life,  save  that  he  lived 
for  a  time  at  Saint  Malo  under  an  assumed 
name.  He  wrote  many  successful  pieces  for 
the  stage,  some  of  which,  such  as  the  operas 
of  'Love  in  a  Village'  and  'The  Padlock,' 
are  still  presented.  His  celebrated  comedy  of 
'The  Hypocrite,'  adapted  from  Colley  Gib- 
ber's 'Nonjuror,'  which  was  again  borrowed 
ia_  its  leading  incidents  from  Moliere,  long  re- 
tained its  place  on  the  stage,  with  its  well- 
known  characters  of  Mawworm  and  Dr.  C^nl- 
welL  The  music  of  many  of  BukerstafFe's 
pieces  was  composed  by  Charles  Dibdin.  Most 
of  his  comedies  and  light  musical  pieces  were 
produced    under   the   management   of    (jarrick 

BICKERSTETH,  Bdimrd,  EngUsh  clergy- 
man: b.  Kirby  Lonsdale,  Westmoreland,  19 
March  1786;  d.  28  Feb.  1850.  He  was  educated 
in  the  grammar  school  of  his  native  town,  and 
became  successively  a  postal  official,  clerk  to  a 
London  attorney  and  flourishing  solicitor  in 
Norwich.  Influenced  by  a  new  and  powerful 
impulse,  he  began  in  180S  to  exert  himself  in 
I>romoting  the  diffusion  of  the  truths  of  re- 
ligion among  his  fellow  men.  After  publishing 
successfully  in  1814  'A  Help  to  the  Study  of 
the  Scriptures,'  be  resolved  to  enter  the  min- 
istry of  the  Church  of  England.  The  Church 
MissionaiY  Society  wished  to  send  him  abroad 
on  a  special  mission  to  Africa,  and  in  this  view 
his  bishoi),  dispensing  with  the  usual  course  of 
a  university  education,  admitted  him  to  orders 
in  1815,  and  a  fortni^t  afterward  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  full  orders.  Mr.  Bickersleth  there- 
upon, with  his  wife,  proceeded  to  Afric*,  from 
which,  after  accomplishing  the  objects  of  his 
mission,  he  returned  in  the  following  autumn. 
He  filled  afterward  the  office  of  secretary  to 
the  Church  Missionary  Society  with  ceal  and 
distinction  until  1830,  when  he  became  rector 
of  Watton,  in  Hertfordshire.  He  was  a  strong 
Protestant,  warmly  evangelical,  and  an  ardent 
Millenarian.  One  of  the  founders  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Alliance,  he  was  the  author  of  a  series 
of  publications  which  had  an  immense  circula- 
tion, including  his  famous  cotnpilation,  'The 
Christian  Psalmody,*  which  went  throiis^  59 


Google 


BICKBKSTBTH  _  BICYCLE 


editions  ID  seven  years.  A  collected  edition  of 
his  works  appeared  in  1853. 

BICKERSTETH,  Edward  Henry,  Eng- 
lish divine  and  hymn-writer:  b.  25  Jan.  1825; 
d.  London.  16  May  1906.  His  father  was  a 
Church  of  England  dergvman  and  at  the  age 
of  14  he  decided  to  take  noly  orders.  Though 
not  eminently  successful  in  other  subjects  dur- 
ing his  university  career,  he  won  the  diancel- 
lor's  medal  for  English  three  ^ears  in  succes- 
sion -^  a  unique  feat.  Ordained  priest  in 
1849,  Bickersteth  held  several  church  livioES 
before  he  became  vicar  of  Christ  Church, 
Hampstead,  in  London,  where  he  reqiained  30 
years.  Here  he  established  daily  services  and 
engsged  actively  in  missionary  work.  He  made 
journeys  through  India,  Palestine  and  Japan. 
Of  extremely  broad-mindcd  views,  he  aided  and 
encouraged  many  church  and  diocesan  societies 
which  lacked  the  prescribed  evangelical  sanc- 
tion. His  writings  in  prose  and  verse  were 
very  numerous.  He  published  in  1866  'Yester- 
day, To-da^  and  For  Ever;  a  poem  in  12 
books,'  which  quickly  achieved  a  world-wide 
popularity.  Nearly  30,000  copies  were  sold  in 
Great  Britain,  and  twice  that  number  in  Amer- 
ica. In  1858  he  published  'Psalms  and  Hymns,' 
based  on  his  father's  'Christian  Psalmody.' 
Some  30  hymns  of  Bickersteih's  own  composi- 
tion are  in  popular  use,  the  best  known  being 
•Peace,  Perfect  Peace'  (1883)  and  '0  Broth- 
ers, Lift  Your  Voices.'  In  1885  he  was  ap- 
pointed dean  of  Gloucester,  and  shortly  after- 
ward was  nominated  lushop  of  Exeter.  Be- 
sides sennons,  charges  and  j>ocms,  he  wrote  a 
'Practical  and  Expository  Commentary  on  the 
New  Testament'  (1864),  of  which  over  40,000 
copies  were  soid.  'The  Rock  of  Ages;  or 
Scripture  Testimony  to  the  one  Eternal  God- 
head of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost'  (1859-60);  'The  Lord's  Table' 
(1884);  'The  Second  Death;  or  the  Certainty 
of  Everlasting  Punishment'  (1869).  Consult 
Aglionby,  F.  K..  'Life  of  E.  H.  Bickcrstcth' 
(1907). 

BICKNELL,  Erneet  Percy,  American 
puUic  official  and  social  worker :  b.  near  Vin- 
ccnnes,  Ind,  23  Feb.  1862.  After  graduating 
from  Indiana  University  he  became  a  news- 
paper reporter  in  IndianapoUs.  In  1893  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  State  board  of 
chanties  of  Indiana,  and  five  years  later  he 
became  general  superintendent  of  the  Chicago 
bureau  of  charities.  In  1908  he  became 
national  director  of  the  American  Red  Cross 
Society,  whose  principal  agent  he  was  in  San 
Francisco  after  the  great  £re  in  1906.  He  was 
also  active  in  behalf  of  this  organization  in 
Sicily  and  Calabria  after  the  earthquake  of 
1909.  In  1914  he  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  United  States  Government  Commission 
sent  to  Europe  to  assist  Americans  stranded  in 
the  war  zone.  He  is  a  member  of  the  execu- 
tive board  of  the   Boy  Scouts  of  America. 

BICKNELL,  George  Aoeuatua,  retired 
rear-admiral  of  the  United  States  navy:  b. 
Batsto,  N.  J.,  15  May  1846.  As  a  midshipman 
he  saw  much  active  service  during  the  Civil 
War.    At  fhe  conclusion  of  hostilities  he  entered 


order  at  YokcJtama.  During  the  Spanish- 
American  War  he  commanded  the  Niagara,  and 
during  the  Boxer  uprisings  in  China  in  1899  he 
was  in  command  of  the  Monocacy.  From 
19CC  until  1904  he  was  commandant  of  the 
Naval  Station  at  Key  West,  Fla.,  after 
which  he  commanded  the  battleship  Texas 
for  two  years,  flagship  of  the  United 
Stales  coast  squadron.  In  1906  he  was 
appointed  commandant  of  the  Pcnsacola  and 
Portsmouth  navy  yards,  which  position  be  re- 
tained until  1908,  when  he  was  retired,  having 
been  promoted  to  the  rank  of  rear-admiral  the 
year  before. 

BICKNELL,  Thonus  Williams,  Ameri- 
can author,  educator,  historian:  b.  Barrington, 
R.  I..  6  Sept.  1834.  He  was  educated  at  Thet- 
ford  Academy,  1850-53;  Amherst,  1853-54: 
Brown  University,  1858-60.  He  was  school 
teacher  and  principal,  1860-69:  commissioner 
of  education  for  Rhode  Island,  1869-75.  He 
founded  the  new  Normal  School,  Rhode 
Island,  in  1871.  He  was  the  founder,  editor 
and  publisher  of  the  New  England  Journal  of 
Education,  Education  and  Primary  Teacher. 
He  founded  the  New  England  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, 1876;  was  a  member  of  the  Rhode 
Island  house  of  r^rescntatives,  1860,  and  of 
the  Massachusetts  house  of  representatives, 
1883-90;  cofounder  of  the  town.  New  England, 
N.  D.;  founder  (1880)  and  president  0880- 
84)  of  the  National  Council  of  Education; 
president  of  the  American  Institute  of  Instruc- 
tion,.  1877-78 ;  president  of  the  International 
Sunday  School  Association,  1884;  president  of 
the  Rhode  Island  Citizens'  Historical  Associa- 
tion since  1904:  founder,  secretary  and  reg- 
istrar oi  the  National  Society  of  Sons  and 
Daughters  of  the  Pilgrims,  1908;  founder  and 
secretary  Providence  Founders  Society^  1911. 
He  has  pubUshed  'Biography  of  William  L. 
Noyes'  (1867)  ;  'Reports  as  School  Commis- 
sioner' (1869-75);  'Annals  of  Barringlon.  R. 
L'  (1870) ;  'The  Bicfcnells'  (4  vols.,  1880^)  ; 

aohn  Myles  and  Toleration'  (1888)  ;  'The 
istory  of  Barrington,  R.  I.'  (ia»)  ;  'Barring- 
ton  in  the  Revolution'  (1898);  'Sowams' 
(1908):  'Bicknell  Family  Genealogy'  (1913): 
'History  of  the  Rhode  Island  Normal  School' 
(1912);  'The  Story  of  Dr.  John  Clarke, 
Founder  of  Civil  and  Rchgious  Liberty  in 
Rhode  Island.  1638'  (1915),  and  many  histori- 
cal addresses  and  poems. 

BICYCLE^  a  light  steel  vehicle  consisting 
of  two  wheels  arranged  tandem,  united  by  a 
frame  with  the  rider's  seat  upon  it;  propelled 
by  his  feet  acting  on  the  pedals  connected  with 
one  of  the  axles,  at  present  that  of  the  rear 
wheel;  and  steered  by  a  handle-bar  guiding  the 
direction  of  the  front  wheel.  As  at  present 
constructed  the  wheels  are  of  eaual  size;  the 
driving  mechanism  is  usually  a  cJlain  with  the 
links  fitting  over  a  sprocket-wheel,  but  about 
one  in  25  are  chainless,  mainly  with  a  shaft  and 
bevel  driver;  the  weight  is  23  to  27)4  pounds, 
complete;  the  frame  is  of  hollow  cold-drawn 
tubing,  with  brazed  joints;  the  wheels  are  sus- 
pension, with  crossed  taiujent  spokes,  wooden 
rims,  pneumatic  tires  ana  ball  bearings.  The 
name  dates  from  about  1865,  though  first  so 
spelled  in  a  patent  of  8  April  1869,  and  else- 
where called  "bysicle,"  "bicircle,*  •blcycular 
velocipede/  etc.;  but  prior  to  1870  the  form 


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of  the  machine  was  usually  called  a  velocipede, 
a  French  name  dating  from  1779. 

The  pedoraotor  itself  goes  back  perhaps  to 
Egyptian  and  probably  at  least  to  classic  times, 
wmged  fibres  astride  of  a  slick  connecling  two 
wheels  bemg  found  in  the  frescoes  at  Pompeii. 
In  the  17th  century  it  suddenly  appears  with 
surprising  frequency;  there  is  a  picture  of  a 
bicycle  in  a  stained- glass  window  at  Stoke 
Pogis,  England;  in  August  1665,  John  Evelyn 
wnles  in  his  diary  of  *a  wheele  to  nin  races 
in";  in  1690  a  Frenchman  named  De  Sivrac 
invented  a  two- wheeled  cllirif^re  having  a 
horse-shaped  wooden  body  with  a  saddle,  and 
steered  by  the  rider's  feet;  in  1W3  Ozanam  de- 
scribed before  the  Royal  Society  a  vehicle  ped- 
aled by  a  foot  traveler.  In  1761  the  Universal 
Magazine  describes  a  similar  one  invented  by 
an  Englishman  named  Ovenden ;  in  August  1769 
the  Loudon  Magasine  describes  "a  chaise  to 
go  without  horses."  On  27  July  1779,  Le  Jour- 
nal de  Paris  describes  a  viiocipide  invented  by 
MM.  Blanch  3rd  and  Magurier,  which  is  merely 
the  cilirifire  with  an  upright  bar  to  support 
the  hands ;  this  gained  considerable  vogue. 
From  France  and  England  the  idea  spread  to 
Gennany,  which  added  (o  it  the  one  idea  needed 
to  vivify  it.  In  March  1784  one  Ignaz  Tre^ifer, 
of  Grat:;,  Austria,  invented  a  pedomotor  cred- 
ited with  the  speed  of  a  galloping  horse  — un- 
questionablj;  meaning  down  hill.  But  the  di- 
rect progenitor  of  the  modem  bicycle  was  one 
built  in  1816  by  Baron  Karl  von  Drais.  Freiherr 
von  Saucrbronn  (1784-1851).  chief  forester  to 
the  Grand  Duke  of  Baden  (to  whose  memory 
in  1891  the  bicyclers  erected  a  monument  at 
(Karlsruhe),  often  called  *lhe  father  of  the 
bicycle,'  It  was  designed  to  aid  him  in  his 
daily  journeys.  The  whole  was  of  wood;  the 
wheels  of  equal  size,  connected  by  a  perch, 
astride  which  the  rider  sat  in  a  saddle,  and  to 
the  fore  end  of  which  was  swiveled  a  fork  into 
which  the  front  wheel  was  axled ;  the  rider 
proKlIed  it  on  level  ground  or  up  hill  by  strik- 
ing the  ground  with  his  feet,  and  coasted  down 
hill  But  the  significant  feature,  the  germ  of 
the  bicycle,  was  the  pivoting  of  the  front  wheel 
and  its  steering  by  a  handle-bar;  tor  which 
there  was  a  stuffed  arm-rest  on  an  elevated 
cross-piece.  Drais  patented  this  in  Paris,  1816, 
and  claimed  that  it  would  go  up  hill  as  fast  as 
a  man  could  walk,  on  a  level,  after  a  rain,  at 
six  or  seven  miles  an  hour,  or  courier's  pace, 
the  same  when  dry  at  eight  or  nine  and  down 
hill  at  a  horse's  gallop.  It  excited  much  atten- 
tion and  was  called  the  "draisine* ;  and  in  1816 
one  Dennis  Johnson  patented  in  England  an 
improved  form  called  the  "pedestrian  curricle,* 
with  adjustable  saddle  and  elbow-rest.  Mean- 
time, in  June  1819,  the  curricle  had  been  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States  and  became  a 
craze  in  Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  etc, ; 
and  many  riding- schools  were  opened.  On  26 
June  1819  William  K.  Oarkson  was  granted  a 
patent  for  an  "improved  velocipede* ;  but  the 
excitement  soon  subsided  here  also. 

The  real  ancestor  of  our  bicycle,  the  crank- 
driven  vcloci^de  that  led  straight  to  better 
thin^,  arose  in  France :  the  honor  of  the  in- 
vention is  hotly  disputed.  According  to  one 
account  it  belongs  to  Ernest  Micbaux,  the  son 
of  a  Parisian  carriage  repairer  (to  whom  a 
a  erected  in  1894)  ;  but  if  so,  he 


did  not  make  it  public  and  it  led  to  nothing,  and 
it  is  generally  accredited  as  theory,  where  it 
belongs  as  practical  result,  to  Pierre  Lallement, 
a  Parisian  blacksmith,  said  to  have  been,  in 
Michauz's  employ.  It  sprang,  in  fact,  not  from 
Michaux's,  if  that  existed,  but  from  a  multi- 
cycle invented  in  1865  by  one  Marechal ;  a  five- 
wheeler,  each  wheel  having  an  independent  axle 
with  cranks,  loose  pedals  and  a  separate  seat; 
the  front  was  the  guide-wheel,  but  it  could  be 
ridden  by  one  or  many.  In  September  MM. 
Woirin  and  Leconde  patented  a  tricycle,  with 
two  smaller  rear  wheels  on  the  same  axle,  and 
a  large  front  one  with  cranks  and  loose  pedals, 
the  whole  connected  with  a  wooden  horse- 
shaped  body  like  De  Sivrac's,  on  whose  back 
the  rider  sat  well  over  the  front  wheel ;  this 
was  the  progenitor  of  the  modem  tricycle. 
Lallement,  against  the  judgment  of  his  friends 
who  thought  that  keeping  one's  balance  would 
be  impracticable  on  two  wheels  tandem,  applied 
the  principle  thus  the  same  year,  learned  the 
art  of  balancing,  and  exhibited  his  machine  and 
hb  skill  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  that  year; 
but  thought  too  little  of  it  to  patent  it.  The 
next  year  (1866)  he  came  to  the  United  States 
to  look  for  worl^  made  a  velocipede  and  rode 
it  about  New  Haven,  Conn,,  and  was  induced 
by  one  James  Carroll  to  patent  it  with  him, 
which  was  done  20  November.  It  had  two 
wooden  wheels,  the  front  one  slightly  the 
larger,  with  iron  tires;  was  a  front-driver,  and 
the  saddle  was  on  a  steel  spring  midway  be~ 
tween  the  wheels.  But  it  was  too  crude  and  ud- 
pleasurable  to  attract  much  notice.  In  France, 
however,  great  improvements  were  shortly 
made  on  it,  and  In  the  winter  of  1867  it  became 
the  sensation  of  Paris ;  riding  schools  sprang 
up  all  about,  and  straps  to  fasten  the  machines 
were  part  of  the  equipment  of  the  great  places 
of  amusement.  This  continued  til!  the  Franco- 
German  War  temporarily  destroyed  the  busi- 
ness, which  had  developed  a  large  manufactur- 
ing interest.  Meantime,  in  England,  Edward 
Gilman  in  1866  had  patented  a  rear- driver 
with  a  single  treadle,  and  the  chain  gear 
had  been  broached.  In  1864  the  im- 
proved velocipede  and  the  reflex  of  the 
French  enthusiasm  brought  it  into  sud- 
den vogue  in  the  United  States,  and  American 
inventiveness  was  turned  toward  perfecting  it: 
at  the  time  the  "boom*  burst  in  1870  the  Patent 
Office  was  receiving  half  a  dozen  applications 
for  new  patents  every  week.  The  sport,  how- 
ever, collapsed,  with  the  suddenness  of  a  finan- 
cial crash,  witnin  a  single  week;  thousands  of 
machines,  worth  $100  to  $150  one  day,  could 
not  be  sold  at  any  price  the  next,  and  were  . 
ultimately  disi>osed  of  to  boys  or  the  poorest 
classes  at  nominal  prices,  or  allowed  to  become 
old  iron ;  and  manufactories  crowded  with 
orders  had  them  countermanded  in  a  mass.  It 
was  nearly  a  decade  before  America  took  it  up 
again  in  any  general  way,  and  then  with  a  dif- 
ferent wheel,  the  bicycle  proper. 

Meantime  a  great  development  had  gone 
on  in  England,  where  the  hard,  smooth 
macadam  roads  and  beautiful  by-paths  for 
c^'clers  without  disturbing  horses  made  all 
conditions  more  favorable.  The  bicycle  under 
that  name  was  patented  8  April  1869;  it  had 
steel  rims  and  solid  rubber  tires,  round  or 
half  round.    To  gain  speed  the  front  wheel  « 


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gradually  enlarged  and  the  rear  reduced  I6 
a  mere  sleerer,  till  the  Ordinary  was  attained 
in  1871  with  a  40-  to  4&-inch  frotu  wheel  and 
16-inch  rear.  The  front  wheel  was  gradually 
raised  in  proportion  to  the  rider's  height  and 
skill,  and  m  the  earl^  eighties  attained  60  and 
even  64  inches.  It  still  remains  the  perfection 
of  grace  and  simplicity  in  bicycle  construction ; 
the  motive  power  being  apolied  direct,  and  the 
wheel,  with  cranks  and  peoals,  forming  a  solid 
body.  It  is  also  the  most  exhilarating  to  ride, 
given  strength  and  sfcil). 

The  Ordinary,  however,  could  not  be  the 
tncycle  of  die  future.  It  was  hard  to  mount, 
except  in  favorable  spots,  and  if  the  rider  was 
dismounted  had  often  to  be  walked  long  di»- 
tances  on  streets  or  hillsides ;  both  from  this 
and  the  great  air  resistance  due  to  the  rider's 
elevation,  it  was  merely  the  sport  of  a  few 
athletic  men,  mostljr  young ;  headers  vere 
frequent  from  the  rider's  mass  centre  being 
directly  over  that  of  the  lar^  wheel,  and 
liable  to  be  serious  from  his  high  seat,  t&ough 
the  danger  was  exasperated.  A  safer  build 
was  therefore  mootea  The  lirst  idea  was  to 
bring  the  rider's  centre  below  that  of  the 
driving  wheel;  this  could  only  be  accom- 
plished by  operating  the  pedal  with  some  kind 
of  leverage,  and  a  rear-driving  safety  with 
lowered  front  wheel  was  patented  in  1879  by 
H.  T.  Lawson  of  England.  A  similar  type, 
called  the  *Bicyclctte,"  followed  in  1880.  In 
the  same  year  the  "Star,'  a  reversed  Ordinarv 
with  the  small  wheel  in  front,  was  introduceo. 
A  more  popular  form,  which  had  high  racing 
speed  and  made  new  records,  was  Starley  s 
'Kangaroo*  (1883),  with  diamond  frame,  inde- 
pendent crankshafts  and  two  chains  gearing 
them  to  the  front  wheel,  followed  io  1884  by 
Slarley's  famous  and  still  speedier  "Rover,* 
for  a  long  time  the  popular  term  for  'safeties" 
of  any  pattern.  Here  the  cranks  and  pedals 
were  on  a  separate  axle,  connected  with  the 
driving-wheel  by  a  single  chain  which  was 
therefore  permanently  tight;  the  seat  was  far 
back  over  the  rear  wheel,  so  that  headers  over 
the  handle-bar  were  absolutely  impossible.  The 
front  wheel  was  about  one-Iourth  larger  than 
the   rear;   later  they  were  made  of   practically 

back  to  the  velocipede,  and  making  its  general 
utility  possible.  This  advent  of  the  "safety* 
has  carried  the  bicycle  into  everyday  business 
and  the  lite  of  every  household;  carriers,  police- 
men, messengers,  etc.,  find  it  of  great  service. 
The  enormous  brain-power  devoted  to  its  per- 
fection is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  the  United 
States  alone  7,573  patents  had  been  granted  up 
to  1900  for  cycles  and  their  parts,  and  prob- 
ably double  that  in  the  world  altogether.  Of 
these,  only  16  had  been  issued  before  186S,  and 
the  great  majority  were  granted  after  1890.  In 
1892  the  applications  had  grown  so  numerous 
diat  a  special  department  of  the  Patent  OfKce 
was  created  for  them. 

The  greatest  of  all  single  inventions,  and  the 
one  which  has  revolutionited  the  business  and 
made  cycling  a  delight  rather  than  an  exertion, 
is  the  pneumatic  tire:  It  was  originallv  in- 
vented, not  for  bicycles,  but  road  wagons,  hy  an 
Engliin  civil  engineer  named  R.  W.  Thompson, 
in  1843,  and  was  patented  in  the  United  States 
in  1847;  but  was  allowed  to  lapse.    The  first 


bkyde  tires  were  iron  or  steel ;  dien  a  strip 
of  rubber  was  fastened  over  the  tire;  later,  a 
round  or  halt-round  piece  of  solid  rubber 
was  cemented  or  fastened  into  the  hollow  of 
the  rim.  But  in  1889  an  Irish  veterinary  sur- 
geon, Dr.  John  B.  Dunlop.  fitted  a  piece  of 
rubber  hose  on  his  son's  Hcycie;   it   worked 


same  time  P.  W.  Tillinghast,  of  Providence, 
R.  I.,  patented  a  hollow  tire  in  this  country. 
But  even  this  would  have  been  ineffectual  save 
for  the  enormous  reduction  in  weight  by  the 
use  of  Steel  weldless  tubing  and  wire,  so  that 
a  machine  of  the  incredibly  small  weight  of 
nine  pounds  has  been  used  for  racing,  with  a 
wheel  on  whose  spokes  four  men  can  stand 
without  injuring  it :  these  machines  are  too 
frail  for  road  use,  but  even  the  average  road- 
ster docs  not  reach  28  pounds,  while  in  1873  6S 
pounds,  and  even  in  1^,  48  was  thoi^t  fair, 
and  27  a  racing  wonder. 

The  ball-bearing,  invented  hv  an  Englishman 
named  Bonn,  is  another  epoch-making  inven- 
tion. The  earliest  bicycle  bearing  was  a  plain 
one  with  a  sleeve,  known  as  the  parallel  bea^ 
ing.  The  friction  was  so  heavy  tliat  the  roller 
bearing  was  substituted,  but  did  not  work  well; 
the  next  was  the  adjustable  cone,  which  for  a 
time  was  in  universal  use.  But  in  all  solid-sur- 
face bearings  the  grinding  of  the  sand  which 
worked  in  made  tlicm  irregular  and  rattling 
after  a  while,  and  the  layers  of  gudgeon  grease 
required  a  steady  tax  on  time  for  cleaning.  In 
the  ball-bearing,  the  conical  axle  bears  against 
a  row  of  steel  balls  in  a  circle,  tangent  to  flie 
bearing  surface  and  to  two  other  surfaces  at 
right  angles,  so  that  the  friction  is  only  against 
three  points,  and  the  bearing  parts  roll  over 
insteaa  of  sliding  upon  each  other.  The  wear 
of  the  balls  is  astonishingly  sli^t,  and  from 
the  constant  change  of  surface  there  is  little 
irregularity,  and  from  the  small  contact  points 
scarcely  any  making  of  axle  grease. 

A  fundamental  invention  was  the  suspension 
wheel,  of  which,  in  die  words  of  an  English 


happens  to  be  uppermost,  instead  of  being  sup- 
ported, as  is  usual,  by  the  spokes  that  hapjwn 
to  be  under  the  axle-tree* — a  principle  in- 
vented by  Leonardo  da  Vinci  before  1490,  re- 
invented as  above  stated,  and  in  France  in  1864. 
Spring  seats  have  abolished  the  saddle-galling 
which  was  one  of  the  worst  tortures  of  the 
■bone- shaker,*  and  even  of  tHe  earlier  bicycles. 
The  wooden  rim  takes  two  and  a  half  pounds 
off  the  weight  of  the  machine,  but  is  not  used 
in  England,  the  roads  being  too  wet.  The  drop- 
frame  for  ladies'  use  is  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant single  advance  made  on  the  velocipede, 
so  far  as  the  increase  of  social  pleasure  is  con- 
cerned. The  coaster-brake  is  another  import- 
ant advance.  The  chain  gearing  which  made 
the  "safety*  possible  has  been  noted;  later, 
much  ingenui^  has  been  employed  to  get  rid 
of   it,  but  not   with   complete   satisfaction,  the 


I  chief  devices  for  chainless  machines  are 
he  pin-wheel  gearing,  which  works  smoothly 
mt  lacks  durability;  and  die  bevel  gear,  which 
E  very  difficult  to  cut  so  that  the  teetti  shall  fit 


.Google 


e64- 


BIDA  —  BIDDEFOKD 


exactly,  but  is  said  to  increase  ia  both  accurst^ 
and  ease  of  driving  with  use,  as  the  surfaces  of 
the  teeth  grow  to  fit  each  other.  In  the  chain 
gear  the  cose  is  the  reverse,  as  the  links  and 
rivets  wear  and  dust  grinds  them  ofi. 

In  the  United  States  the  bicycle  did  not  ap- 
pear after  the  collapse  of  1870  till  the  Centen- 
nial Exposition  of  1876,  when  some  English 
machines  were  imported  and  exhibited.  Col. 
Albert  A.  Poj>e  of  Boston  saw  them  and 
thought  of  reviving  the  business  here;  went  to 
Eiagland  to  study  the  industry,  brought  back 
some  English  wheels,  and  had  W.  S.  Atwell  of 
Boston  build  him  one,  weiring  70  pounds  and 
costing  $313.  Again  visiting  England,  he  de- 
cided that  conditions  here  warranted  their 
manufacture  for  the  market,  and  in  1878  he  bad 
the  Weed  Sewing  Machine  Company,  of  Hart- 
ford, Conn.,  make  some  "Columbias"  for  him 
in  a  comer  of  their  shop,  the  first  bicycles 
made  in  America.  From  the  first,  these  have 
been  the  American  model  of  durability  and  ex- 
cellence of  make,  as  well  as  of  advanced  in- 
vention in  construction  and  fittings,  and  unsur- 
passed in  the  world:  and  they  still  maintain 
that  position.  The  business  soon  grew  into  one 
of  the  great  manufactures  of  the  country,  and 
the  Pope  Company  was  the  chief  among  those 
merged  in  the  American  Bicycle  Company  a 
few  years  ago.  The  'safety"  brought  the  same 
expansion  here  as  elsewhere ;  bt:t  since  about 
1895  there  has  been  a  severe  decline.  The  slack- 
ening of  demand  produced  a  severe  crisis  in  the 
business,  but  it  eventually  settled  upon  a  firm 
though  more  limited  basis  of  practical  service 
and  e very-day  pleasure.  The  census  returns 
show  the  remarkable  changes  that  have  taken 
place.  In  1890  there  were  27  establishments 
engaged  in  making  bicycles  in  the  United 
States;  the  capital  invested  being $2,058,072 ;  the 
number  of  employees,  1,797,  and  the  value  of 
the  product,  $2,5^326.  By  1900,  the  business 
bad  so  extended  that  the  number  of  establish- 
ments had  increased  to  312;  the  amount  of  cap- 
ital invested  to  $29,783,659,  while  the  17,525 
workmen  employed  received  an  annual  wage  of 
$8,189,817.  The  cost  of  material  in  that  year 
was  $16,792,051  and  the  value  of  the  product 
$31,915,908.  Five  years  later,  when  the  special 
census  of  American  manufacturing  interests 
was  taken,  the  number  of  establishments  had 
been  reduced  to  101.  In  that  year  the  capital 
employed  was  but  $5,883,458;  the  number  of  em- 
ployees, 3.319;  the  wages  paid.  $1,971,403;  the 
t  of  materials,  $2,628,146,  and  the  value  of 


were  motorcycles.  Between  1904  and  1914  the 
tiumber  of  establishments  in  operation  de- 
creased from  122  to  94,  but  the  number  of 
workers  increased  33.7  per  cent  —  to  4.487,  and 
the  value  of  the  outmit  111.2  per  cenC~-to 
$17,667,676.      A   conwdcrable   part   of    this    " 


the    : 


there  were  62,793  of  these  machines  made,  a 
value  of  $12,30&447.  The  number  of  bicycles 
made  was  3%.899,  valued  at  $5,361,229.  The 
r«Rainder  of^thc  ou^ut  was  in  parts,  valued 


in  u«e  in  that  country:  about  one  to  each  13 


persons.  Ten  years  before  the  proportion  was 
one  to  each  30  persons. 

Sibliogrftpb^.— Alien,  J.  T.,  'Digest  of 
Cycles  or  Velocipedes,  Patented  in  the  United 
States  from  1789  to  1392'  (Washington  1892); 
Bourier,  H.,  'Cycles  et  Motocydes'  (Paris 
1911);  Clyde,  H.,  'Pleasure-Cycling'  (Boston 
1895)  ;  Garratt,  H.  A.,  'The  Modem  Safe- 
ly Bicyde>  (New  York  1899)  ■  Sharp,  An- 
drew. fBicycles  and  Tricycles >  (London  1896); 
and  the  valuable  historical  summary  in  the 
United  States  census  rijxjrts  of  1910,  'Manu- 
factures'  (Part  X,  p,  825). 

BIDA,  be'd4.  Alexandra,  French  painter: 
b.  1813;  d  2  Jan.  1895.  He  studied  in  Paris 
under  Delacroix ;  traveled  in  the  East  for  two 
years,  and  most  of  his  paintings  have  Oriental 
or  Scriptural  subjects.  He  was  at  his  best  in 
water-color  work.  Among  his  paintings  are 
'The  Slave  Market,'  'The  Massacre  of  the 
Mamelukes'  (Metropolitan  MuMum,  New 
York);  'Jews  Praying  at  the  Well  of  Sok>- 
mon'  and  'The  Field  of  Boa2.»     He  is  more 

Snerally  known  as  the  illustrator  of  Alfred  de 
usset'f  complete  works  (10  vols.,  Paris  166S~ 
66),  and  of  the  Bible,  comprising  the  'Four 
Evangelists>  (1876),  and  the  <Bo^  of  Ruth.' 

BIDAR,  bS'dar,  India,  an  ancient  to,wn  in 
the  Niiam's  dominions,  75  miles  northwest  of 
Haidarabid;  noted  for  the  metal  ware  to  which 
it  has  given  the  name  of  Bidri  or  Bidery.  It 
occupies  a  commanding  site  at>ovc  the  surround- 
ing country,  and  its  mosque  and  madrissa  or 
college  testify  to  its  former  splendor  and  im- 
portance.    Pop.   14,000. 

BIDASSOA,  be  d4s-: 

bout  45  miles  long,  the  .  .  _     

the  boundary  between  France  and  Spain.  It 
rises  in  the  mountains  of  Spanish  Navarre,  and, 
after  various  changes  of  direction,  falls  into  the 
Bay  of  Biscay  near  Fucnterrabia.  In  former 
times  Spain  claimed  not  only  the  entire  river, 
but  so  much  of  its  banks,  on  the  French  ^de,  as 
its  waters  covered  at  full  tide.  This  difference 
was  finally  settled  by  each  country  contenting 
itself  with  its  own  shore.  Near  Irun  there  is  a 
small  island  in  the  middle  of  the  stream,  called 
the  Island  of  Pheasants,  on  which,  being  neu- 
tral ground,  Louis  XI  and  Henry  IV  met  in 
1463.  Here  also  peace  was  concluded  between 
France  and  Spain  in  1659.  It  was  (he  scene  of 
two  engagements  of  the  Napoleonic  wars.  On 
1  Aug.  1813  the  Allies  defeated  the  Fren»i 
under  Soult  at  San  Marcial,  on  the  Bidassoa, 
and  in  the  following  October  Wellington  ousted 
[he  French  from  their  entrenched  positions  on 
the  northern  bank  of  the  stream. 

BIDDEFORD,  Me.,  city  in  York  Coun- 
ty, on  the  right  bank  of  the  Saco  River  six 
miles  from  the  sea,  and  on  the  Boston  &  Maine 
Railroad,  15  miles  southwest  of  Portland.  The 
river  separates  it  from  Saco  (q.v.)  and,  like 
that  city,  Biddeford  grew  up  as  a  manufactur- 
ing centre,  its  development  being  favored  by 
the  abundant  water-power  furnished  by  the 
falls,  the  stream  descending  here  about  40  fecL 
The  city  also  has  a  large  local  trade.  The 
leading  industries  include  the  extensive  manu- 
facture of  cotton  goods,  lumber,  match  blocks, 
boots  and  shoes,  maclunery,  etc.  Here  are 
some  of  the  most  important  cotton  mills  in 
New  England,  tfic  products  of  whidi  are  found 


rioogic 


BIDDING  PRATBK— BIDDLE 


in  the  markets  of  many  States.  Near  the  city 
are  granite  quarries  which  annually  produce 
large  quantities  of  superior  stone,  us«l  in  many 
parts  of  the  world.  Several  thousand  people 
are  employed  in  the  city's  industries  and  the 
flourishing  of  these  has  led  to  its  gradual 
prowih.  It  has  two  national  banks.  There 
ts  a  fine  beach  here  with  good  boating  and 
bathing  facilities  and  Biddeford  ts  becoming 
a  favorite  resort.  The  public  school  system 
is  well  organized  and  conducted  and  the  vari- 
ous religious  denominations  are  represented  by 
14  churches.  The  intellectual  life  of  the  people 
is  also  stimulated  through  useful  local  publi- 
cations and  an  excellent  public  library.  The 
city  was  named  from  Biddeford,  England,  the 
home  of  some  of  its  early  settlers.  In  1616  3 
small  settlement  was  made  at  Biddeford  Pool, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Saco,  and  Biddeford  was 
settled  under  a  patent  in  1630,  embraced  Saco 
imtil  1718  and  was  then  incorporated  under  its 
present  name.  This  was  long  the  chief  settle- 
ment  of  the  Maine  province.  In  1855  Bidde- 
ford received  a  city  charter.  The  present  gov- 
ernment includes  a  mayor  and  a  cjty  council, 
elected  annually.  The  population  in  1910  was 
17,079.  Consult  Folsom,  'History  of  Saco  and 
Biddeford'  (Saco  1830);  Qayton,  'History 
of  York  County'  {Philadelphia  1880);  Ridlon, 
'Saco  Valley  Settlements  and  FamiUcs' 
(1895). 

BIDDING  PHAYKR,  a  prayer  which  *- 
reels  that  which  is  to  be  prayed  for.  The 
form  is  very  ancient,  dating  back  to  Apostolic 
times.  In  the  ancient  Church  it  was  used  in 
the  service  after  the  departure  of  the  cate- 
chumens, the  communicants  remaining.  It 
was  offered  by  the  deacon,  each  petition  be- 

ginninf^  "Let   us   pray   for  ,•   and   the 

faithful  making  responses  at  its  conclusion. 
A  form  of  bidding  prayer  was  enjoined  by  the 
55th  canon  of  the  Anglican  Church  in  1603  to 
be  used  before  all  homilies  and  sermons.  It 
is  a  prayer  for  the  Church,  the  sovereigns  and 
others  in  hi^  station,  and  a  thanksgiving  for 
the  faithful  departed,  always  concluding  with 
the  Lord's  Prayer.  Consult  Dearmer,  'Every- 
man's History  of  the  Prayer  Book'  (Milwau- 
kee 1913)  ;  Harford,  'Prayer  Book  Mction- 
ary>  (New  York  1912)  and  Wheatlw  'Bid- 
ding of  Prayers  Before  Sermon  No  Mark  of 
Disaffection  to  the  Present  Government ;  Or 
an  Historical  Vindication  of  the  LVth  Canoa' 
(London  1718;  new  ed.,  1845). 

BIDDLB,  Anthony  Joaeph  Drexel, 
American  publisher,  journalist  and  miscella- 
neous writer:  b.  West  Philadelphia,  1  Oct. 
1874.  He  was  educated  at  a  private  school  in 
Philadelphia  and  at  Heidelberg,  Germany. 
He  lived  in  the  Madeira  Islands,  studying  con< 
ditions  there,  returning  to  the  United  States 
in  1891.  He  joined  the  staff  of  the  Philadel- 
phia Public  Ledger,  and  contributed  to  maga- 
zines and  humorous  journals.  In  1895  he  re- 
vived the  Philadelphia  Sunday  Graphic  and 
became  its  editor  and  was  president  oF  the 
Drexel  Biddle  publishing  house  in  1897-1904. 
He  is  the  founder  of  the  movement  known  as 
Athletic  Christianity  and  in  1907  founded  the 
Drexel  Biddle  Bible  Gasses,  now  numbering 
30.000  in  English-speaking  countries.  He  is 
fellow  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  and 
corresponding  member  of  the  Societi  Archje- 


ologique  de  France.  He  has  written  'A  Dual 
Bole  and  Other  Stories,'  'An  Allegory  and 
Three  Essays,'  'The  Madeira  Islands,'  'The 
Froggy  Fairy  Book,'  'AH  Around  Athletics' 
{1894)  ;  'The  Flowers  of  Life'  (1898)  ;  'Shan- 
tytown  Sketches'  (1898) ;  'The  Madeira 
Islands'  (1900)  ;  'The  Land  of  Wine'  (2  vols., 
1901). 

BIDDLE,  Arthur,  American  lawyer:  b. 
Philadelphia,  Pa^  23  Sept.  1852;  d.  8  March 
1897.  He  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1878.  Later  he  became  a  member  of  his 
father's  firm  and  devoted  much  time  to.  the 
study  of  certain  branches,  the  results  of  which 
were  published  in  his  works,  'Treatise  on  the 
Law  of  Stock  Brokers'  (1881);  'Treatise  on 
the  Law  of  Warranties  in  the  Sale  of  Chat- 
tels' (1884);  and  'The  Law  of  Insurance' 
(1893). 

BIDDLB,  Clement,  American  Revolu- 
tionary soldier:  b.  Philadelphia,  10  May  1740; 
d.  there,  14  July  1814.  He  was  educated  in  the 
tenets  of  the  Society  of  Friends  (Quakers) 
and  in  early  life  engaged  in  commercial  pur- 
suits in  his  native  cit^;  but  notwithstanding  his 
Quaker  training,  be  joined  a  number  of  Quak- 
er friends,  in  1764,  in  forming  a  military  corps 
for  the  protection  of  a  party  of  friendly  In- 
dians who  had  soni^t  refuge  in  Philadelphia 
from  the  fury  of  a  band  of  lawless  lealots 
known  as  the  'Paxton  Boys,*  who  had  recent- 
ly massacred  some  unoffending  Conestoga  In- 
oians  at  the  interior  town  of  Lancaster.  These 
banditti,  powerful  in  numbers,  had  advanced 
within  five  or  six  miles  of  the  city,  threaten- 
ing destruction  to  all  who  should  oppose 
them,  when  the  vigor  of  the  military  prepa- 
rations checked  their  further  progress.  Scarce- 
ly had  this  local  disturbance  been  quieted  when 
news  was  received  of  the  resolution  of  the 
British  House  of  Commons  to  charge  certain 
stamp  duties  in  the  colonies.  The  feeling  en- 
gendered throughout  the  whole  country  by  this 
step  and  by  the  subsequent  passage  of  the 
Stamp  Act  induced,  in  Philadelphia,  the  cele- 
brated 'non-importation  resolutions'  of  25 
Oct.  1765,  signed  by  the  principal  merchants 
of  the  city,  including  Colonel  Biddle  and  his 
brother  Owen.  When  all  hope  of  a  reasonable 
adjustment  of  the  differences  was  lost,  Colonel 
Biddle  was  greatly  instrumental  in  forming 
the  ■Quaker"  company  of  volunteers  raised  in 
Philadelphia  in  1775,  of  which  he  was  elected 
an  officer  before  the  corps  joined  the  army. 
Congress,  on  8  July  following,  elected  Colonel 
Biddle  deputy  quartermaster-general  of  the 
mihlia  of  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Maryland 
and  Delaware,  ordered  to  rendezvous  at  Tren- 
ton. Colonel  Biddle  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Trenton  at  the  close  of  the  same  year  and, 
with  another  ofKccr,  was  ordered  by  Washing- 
ton to  receive  the  swords  of  the  Hessian  of- 
ficers. He  was  also  engaged  in  the  victory 
of  Princeton,  the  surprise  and  retreat  of  Bran- 
dsfwine  and  the  unsuccessful  enterprise  of  Ger- 
mantown  and  during  the  winter  of  1777-78 
shared  the  sufferings  of  the  American  army  at 
Valley  Forge.  As  commissaiy-general  of  for- 
age under  General  Greene  he  rendered  im- 
portant service  to  the  army  in  several  critical 
junctures,  especially  during  the  famine  at  Val- 
ley Forge.  At  Monmouth  he  shared  the  suc- 
cess of  his  countrymen.    In  September^  1780, 


.Google 


owing  to  the  pressure  of  his  private  affairs,  he 
was  compelled  to  return  to  private  life.  His 
military  career,  however,  was  briefly  renewed 
in  the  capacity  of  quartermaster-general  of 
Pennsylvania  in  the  expedition  under  Washing- 
ton, in  1794,  against  the  whisky  insurgents  of 
that  Stale.  Colonel  Biddle  labored  earnestly 
also  in  the  earhr  political  movements  of  the 
patriot  party  of  his  State,  advocating  effec- 
tively the  revolutionary  State  Constitution  of 
1776  (which  his  brother  Owen  had  had,  as  a 
niember  of  the  convention,  a  share  in  fram- 
ing). He  was  also  active  in  support  of  a 
declaration  or  bill  of  rights  as  a  constituent 
part  of  the  Federal  Constitution  to  prevent 
abuse  or  misconstruction  of  its  powers.  Af- 
ter the  organiiallon  of  the  Federal  govern- 
ment under  the  Constitution  of  1787,  Colonel 
Biddle  was  appointed  marshal  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, as  an  evidence  of  the  regard  in  which  he 
was  held  by  Washington. 

BIDDLE,  Jam«,  American  naval  officer: 
b.  Philadelphia,  28  Feb.  1783;  d.  I  Oct.  1848. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Universiw  of  Penn- 
sylvania and  entered  the  navy  in  1600.  In  the 
war  gainst  Tripoli  he  served  as  a  midship- 
man, was  taken  prisoner  and  kept  in  confine- 
ment  for  19  months.  In  the  War  of  1812  he 
was  a  lieutenant  on  the  Wasp  when  she  cap- 
tured the  Frolic  and  was  later  captured  by  the 
Poictieri.  Though  a  prisoner  for  a  short  time 
at  Bermuda,  Biddle  was  exchanged  and  in 
1813  took  command  of  the  Hornet  and  cap- 
tured the  British  bri^  Peitguin  on  23  March 
1815,  being  wounded  in  actioa  He  was  made 
captain  in  1815  and  received  a  gold  medal 
from  Congress  in  reward  for  his  services.  In 
1817  he  was  sent  to  take  possession  of  Oregon 
for  the  United  States.  He  was_  afterward 
commissioner  to  Turkey  and  China  and  in 
1845  negotiated  the  first  treaty  between  the 
United  States  and  China.  He  also  served  on 
the  Pacific   coast   in   the  Mewcan   War. 

BIDDLE,  John,  English  Socinian  writer 
and  founder  of  EngUsh  Unitarianism;  b. 
Wo  I  ton -under- Edge,  Gloucestershire,  14  Jan. 
1615;  d.  London,  22  Sept,  1662.  He  entered 
Magdalen  CoHege,  Oxford,  in  his  19th  year 
and  graduated  A.M.  in  1641.  Being  led  to 
doubt  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  he  drew  up 
'Twelve  Arguments'  on  the  subject,  for 
which  he  was  committed  to  jail,  but  was  re- 
leased on  bail.  About  six  months  afterward, 
on  examination  before  a  committee  of  Parlia- 
ment, he  acknowledged  his  opinion  against  the 
divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  his  'Twelve 
Argiiments*  were  ordered  to  be  burned.  He 
persisted  in  his  opinion  and  in  1648  published 
two  tracts,  containmg  his  'Confession  of  Faith 
Concerning  the  Holy  Trinity'  and  *Testi- 
monies*  of  Irenxus,  Justin  Martyr  and  several 
other  early  writers  on  the  same  subject.  On 
this  the  Assembly  of  Divines  asked  Parlia- 
meM  to  decree  the  punishment  of  death  against 
those  who  should  impugn  the  established  opin- 
ions respecting  the  Trinity  and  to  enact  se- 
vere penalties  for  minor  deviations.  Such  a 
decree  was  passed,  but  differences  of  opinion 
in  the  Parliament  itself  and  the  penalties  to 
which  this  sweeping  measure  rendered  many 
in  the  army  liable  prevented  its  execution. 
Biddle  was  again  remanded  to  prison,  how- 
ever,  and   remained   for   some  years   in   rigor- 


ous confinement  A  general  act  of  oUivion 
in  1651  restored  him  to  libera,  when  he  im- 
mediately disseminated  his  opinions  both  by 
preaching  and  by  the  publication  of  his  'Two- 
told  Scnpture  Catechism.)  For  this  he  was 
confined  in  the  Gate  House  for  six  months. 
Cromwell  banished  him  to  Saint  Mary's  Cas- 
tle, Scilly  Islands,  assigning  him  an  annual 
subsistence  of  100  crowns.  Here  he  remained 
three  years,  until  liberated  in  1658.  He  then 
became  pastor  of  an  Independent  congrega- 
tion and  continued  to  support  his  opinions  un- 
til fear  of  the  Presbyterian  Parliameot  of 
Richard  Cromwell  induced  him  to  retire  into 
the  country.  On  the  dissolution  of  that  Par- 
liament he  preached  as  before  until  the  Res- 
toration, after  which  he  was  obliged  to  con- 
fine himself  to  private  preaching,  in  June 
1662  he  was  apprehended  at  one  of  the  pnvate 
assembLes  and  upon  process  of  law  fined  ilOO 
and  ordered  to  lie  in  prison  until  it  was  paid. 
He  fell  a  victim  to  jail  fever  and  died  in  the 
47th  year  of  his  a^e;  a  martyr  to  religious  in- 
tolerance. His  pnvate  character  was  moral, 
benevolent  and  exemplary  and  Toulmin  styles 
him  the  'father  of  the  modem  Unitarians.* 
Consult  Toulmin,  Joshua,  'Life  of  John  Bid- 
dle' (London  1789;  new  cd.,  1805)  and  Speari, 
'^Memorable  Unitarians'    (London   1906)- 

BIDDLE,  NicholM,  American  naval  of-' 
ficer:  b.  Philadelphia,  10  Sept  1750;  d.  7 
Mani)  1778.    In  1765,  while  on  a  voyage  to  the 


ited  island.  In  1770  he  entered  the  British 
navy.  When  Phipps,  afterward  Lord  Mul- 
grave,  was  about  to  start  on  his  exploring  ex- 
pedition, young  Biddle,  though  a  midshipman, 
deserted  his  own  vessel  and  shipped  as  a  sea- 
man on  the  Carcast,  serving  db  rough  the 
cruise  with  Lord  Nelson,  who  was  a  mate  of 
Phipp's  vessel.  On-  the  commencement  of  the 
American  Revolution  he  came  to  America  and 
was  made  captain  of  the  Andrew  Doria,  a  brig 
of  14  guns  and  130  men,  taking  part  in  Com- 
modore Hopkins'  attack  on  New  Providence. 
After  refitting  in  New  London  he  was  ordered 
on  a  cruise  to  the  banks  of  Newfoundland 
and  in  1776  took,  among  other  prizes,  two 
transport  ships  with  valuable  cargoes  and  a 
battalion  of  Highland  troops.  He  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  Randolph,  a 
32-gun  frigate,  in  February  1777.  In  March 
1778  he  was  wounded  in  an  action  with  the 
Yarmouth,  an  English  64-gun  ship,  near 
Charleston,  S.  C.  While  under  the  hands  of 
a  surgeon  the  magazine  blew  up  and  the  whole 
crew  of  the  Randolph  were  lost,  except  four 
men,  who  were  tossed  about  on  a  piece  of 
wreck  for  four  days  before  being  rescued. 
The  other  vessels  of  the  squadron  escaped  in 
consequence  of  the  disabled  state  of  the  Yar- 


Feb.  1844.  He  became  secretary  to  John  A™ 
strong.  United  States  Minister  to  France,  in 
1804  and  subsequently  went  as  secretarjr  to 
James  Monroe,  then  United  States  Minister 
to  England.  He  returned  home  in  1807  and 
took  up  the  practice  of  law,  was  elected  to  the 
Pennsylvania  legislature  in  1610  and  appointed 
a  director  of  the  United  States  Bank  in  1819. 


v  Google 


BIDDLB  — BIDPAI 


He  became  president  of  the  bank  in  1823  and 
managed  it  ably  down  to  the  expiration  of  its 
charter.  The  financial  trouble  precipitated 
upon  the  country  by  Jackson's  withdrawal  o£ 
the  government  deposits  in  1833  gave  an  un- 
fortunate ending  to  Biddle's  career  as  a  bank- 
er, but  while  both  his  ability  and  his  integrity 
were  questioned  at  the  time,  he  has  been  amply 
vindicated  since.  In  1836  he  became  president 
of  the  new  United  States  Banl^  but  resigned 
in  1839.  Besides  miscellaneous  writings,  he 
published  a  'Commercia)  Digest'  and  'His- 
tory of  the  Expedition  Under  Lewis  and 
Clarke  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.>  He  was  presi- 
dent of  the  board  of  trustees  for  the  funds  oE 
Girard  College  and  was  instrumental  in  es- 
tablishing that  institution. 

BIDDLE,  Richard,  American  lawyer:  b. 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  25  March  1796;  d.  Pittsburg 
7  July  1847,  He  studied  law  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  Pittsburgh.  He  was  a  member  of 
Congress  (1837-41)  and  was  author  of  a 
'Uemoir  of  Sebastian  Cabot,  with  a  Review  of 
the   History  of   Maritime  Discovery'    (1831). 


Marine  Corps,  in  which  service  he  attained  the 
rank  of  captain  in  1894.  He  was  present  on 
board  the  Olympia  with  Admiral  Dewey  dur- 
ing the  battle  of  Manila' fia^  1898.  In  1900, 
during  the  Boxer  uprisings  in  China,  he  was 
in  command. of  the  Amencan  forces  operating 
with  the  international  expedition  to  Pekin. 
From  1909  to  1910  he  was  commandant  of  the 
marine  barracks  at  New  York,  after  which  bo 
filled  a  similar  position  at  Panama.  In  1911 
he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  major-gen- 
eral and  in   1914  be  was  retired. 

BIDDULPH,  Sir  Michael  Aatbottf 
Shrapnel,  English  military  officer,  b.  Cleeve 
Court,  Somersetshire,  1^ ;  d.  London,  23 
July  1904.  He  entered  the  Rcqial  artilleiy  in 
1843  and  served  in  the  Crimean  War  at  Alma, 
Inkerman,  Balaklava  and  the  siege  oC  Sebas- 
topol.  In  India  he  commanded  the  field  force 
and  marched  to  Kandahar  and  the  Hetmund 
and  returned  by  the  Tal  Chotiali  and  Boree 
to  the  Indus,  in  1878-79.  He  was  created 
K.C.B,  in  1879  and  G.C.B,  in  1895  and  m  1896 
became  gentleman  usher  of  the  Black  Rod. 

BIDEFORD,  England,  a  market  town  and 
municipal  borough  of  Devonshire,  44  miles 
north  of  Plymouth;  situated  on  both  sides  of 
the  Torridge,  four  miles  from  the  sea,  the 
principal  portion  being  on  the  west  side,  on  a 
bold  acclivity.  A  handsome  stone  bridge  of 
24  arches  and  677  feet  in  length  connects  the 
two  divisions  of  the  town.  It  has  a  spactoua 
market  place,  an  Elizabethan  town-hall,  pnbUc 
assembly  rooms  and  music  hall.  The  Bridge 
Hall,  in  French  Renaissance  style,  contains  a 
free  library,  a  reading-room  and  a  science  and 
art  achoof.  The  most  important  church  is 
that  of  Saint  Mary,  in  Perpendicular  style,  re- 
built, except  the  tower,  in  1865,  The  chief  in- 
dustries comprise  the  manufacture  of  coarse 
earthenware,  ropes,  sails  and  collars  and  cuffs, 
tanning,  malting,  iron -founding,  etc  Timber 
and  coal  are  exported  chietly  to  Ireland  and 
Wales.  In  former  times  Bideford  had  an  ex- 
tensive shipping  trade  and-  is  said  to  have  im- 


ported more  tobacco  in  some  years  than  the 
metropolis.  From  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
century  this  trade  gradual^  dechned  and  gave 
place  lo  a  small  coasting  trade.  Vessels  ofSOO 
tons  approach  the  quay,  Bideford  dates  from 
b«fore  the  Norman  conquest  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  Sir  R.  Grenville,  a  founder  of 
Virgmia,  whose  exploit  in  attacking  a  Spanish 
fleet  is  celebrated  by  Tennyson.  Pop.  9,078. 
Consult  Watldns,  'History  of  Bideford' 
(Exeter  1792). 

BIDPAI,  bW'pI,  or  PILPAI.  When  we 
consider  the  wonderful  history  of  'fijdpai's 
Fables,*  their  fame  and  their  charm,  we  nat- 
urally invest  their  supposititious  author  with  a 
personality  and  a  name.  In  fact,  however, 
•Bidpai*  is  probably  a  changed  form  of  an 
Indian  word  for  "court-scholar,"  misunder- 
stood as  a  proper  name,  and  implying  there- 
fore neither  personality  nor  specific  date.  In 
India  from  early  times  the  parable  or  'ex- 
ample* has  been  the  recognized  method  of 
conveying  moral  instruction.  In  the  didactic 
literature,  some  general  truth  or  some  rule  of 
life  is  stated  in  the  form  of  a  maxim,  and  a 
beast  fable  or  other  story  then  added  as  a  con- 
crete instance  or  'example."  The  folk-lore  of 
which  these  tales  are  a  reflex  is  not  the  exclu- 
sive property  of  any  of  the  great  religions  of 
ancient    India,   but    is    common   to    Buddhism, 


,_red  representation  J  of  the  stories  upon  t... 
great  Buddhist  monuments  of  250  b.c.  make  it 
certain  that  the  stories  themselves  were  famil- 
iar to  the  common  people  at  that  early  date; 
and  It  is  hardly  less  certain  that  they  were  so 
known  long  before  that  lime.  The  oldest  and 
most  important  collection  of  Indian  folk-lore 
is  the  Buddhist  one  called  <Jataka'— that  is, 
'Birth-stories,'  or  storks  of  Gautama  Buddha 
in  his  previous  births :  it  consists  of  550  tales, 
each  containing  a  moral ;  each  is  placed  in  the 
mouth  of  the  Buddha,  and  in  each  the  Buddha 
plays  the  best  and  most  important  part.  It  is 
this  device  of  a  framework  or  setting  for  the 
folk-tales  that  constitutes  the  principal  essen- 
tially literary  element  of  the  collection.  Next 
in  importance  to  the  Buddhist  'Jataka'  stands 
the  Brahmanical  'Panchat antra,'  Here  the 
.material  is  not  essentially  different  in  kind  from 
that  of  the  'jalaka' ;  but  again  it  is  the  setting 
of  the  material  which  gives  the  work  its  dis- 
tinctive literary  character.  Jt  is  a  kind  of 
'Mirror  tor  Magistrates.'  Both  the  'Jataka,' 
written  in  Pali,  and  the  'Panchatantra,'  m 
Sanskrit,  are  still  extant,  and  contain  many  of 
the  stories  which  in  translations  of  transla- 
tions attained  great  currency  and  celebrity  in 
mcdiieval  literature. 

The  precise  Indian  original  of  these  transla- 
tions is  lost ;  but  we  tcnow  that  it  was  trans- 
lated into  the  literary  language  of  Per^a  (the 
Pehlevi,  or  Pahleir),  by  command  of  the  Sas- 
sanian  King,  Khosru  the  Just,  about  550  a.d. 
From  the  Pehlevi  came  two  notable  versions ; 
one  the  Old  Syriac,  called  'Kalilag  and  Dam- 
nag,'  after  the  two  jackals,  Karata)^  and 
Damanaka,  who  figured  prominently  in  the 
framework  of  the  Sanskrit  original;  and  the 
other  the  Arabic  version,  called  '  Kalilah 
and  Dimnah,'  or  'Fables  of  Bidpai,'  made 
about  750  a.d.  by  Abd-allah  ibn  al-UoqaRa,  a 
Persian    convert    to    Isfam   under    the   Caliph 


Google 


BIDWELL  —  BIBBSRSTEIN 


al-Mansor.  According  to  the  Aratnc  introduc- 
tion, Dabshelim  was  the  first  kins  of  the 
Indian  Restoration,  after  the  fall  of  tne  gover- 
nor appointed  by  Alexander  at  the  close  of  his 
campaign  in  the  Punjab,  326  B.C.  When  firmly 
established,  Dabshelim  gave  himself  over  to 
every  wickedness.  To  reclaim  the  King,  a 
Brahman  philosopher  takes  up  his  parable,  as 
did  Nathan  before  David,  and  at  last  wins  him 
back  to  virtue.  The  wise  man  is  called  in 
Arabic  bid-bah,  and  in  Syriac  bid-vag.  These 
words  are  traced  through  the  Pehlevi  to  the 
Sanskrit  vidya-pati,  'master  of  sciences.'  Ac- 
cordingly bid'bah,  which  has  become  Bidpai  or 
Pilpai  in  our  modem  books,  is  not  really  a 
proper  name,  but  an  appellative,  applied  to  a 
■chief  pandit"  or  'court- scholar*  of  an  Indian 

From  the  Arabic  are  descended,  in  the 
fourth  generation  from  the  original,  a  dozen 
or  more  versions,  of  which  three  may  be  men- 
tioned  as  noteworthy  links  in  the  chain  of 
tradition :  the  Greek  one,  made  about  1080_  by 
Symeon  Seth,  a  Jewish  physician ;  the  Persian. 
made  some  50  years  later,  by  Nasr  Allah  ol 
Ghazni ;  and  the  Hebrew,  ascribed  to  Rabbi 
Joel,  and  probably  made  before  1250.  Of  the 
descendants  in  the  fifth  degree  from  the  origi- 
nal, the  'Directorium  Humana  Vits,'  made 
about  1270  by  John  of  Capua  from  the  Hebrew, 
is  distinctly  uie  most  celebrated,  because  it 
gave  rise  in  turn  to  Danish,  Dutch,  Spanish, 
Italian  and  French,  and  above  all  to  the 
famous  German  and  English  versions  men- 
tioned below.  But  besides  the  'Directorium,' 
we  must  notice  the  'Specimen  of  the  Wisdom 
of  the  Ancient  Hindus,'  a  version  into  Latin 
from  the  Greek  Symeon,  made  by  the  Tesuit 
father,  Petrus  Possinus  (1666)-  and  the 
'Anvir-t  Suhatll*  or  'Lights  of  Canopus,*  a 
simplified  recast  of  Nasr  Allah's.  In  the  second 
edition  of  his  fables,  La  Fontaine  tells  us  that 
he  owes  the  largest  part  of  his  new  material  to 
•Pilpay,  the  Indian  sage.*  Pierre  Poussin's 
'Specimen*  was  the  one  embodiment  of  his 
shadowy  Oriental  fabulist,  and  a  French  ver- 
sion of  the  'Lights'  was  the  other.  Two  off- 
shoots of  the  'Directorium'  are  of  unrivaled 
interest  (o  the  student  of  the  beast  fable.  The 
one  is  the  'Book  of  Examples  of  the  Ancient 
Sages,*  and  the  other  is  Doni's  'La  Moral  F11- 
osophia>  (1552).  The  "Book  of  Examples' 
was  made  at  the  instance  of  Duke  Ebcrhard  in 
Bart,  whose  name  and  motto,  "-Ebcrkart  Graf 
£(»)     Wirlenberq     Attempto,'     appear    as 


two  primed  editions  without  place  and  year, 
and  enumerates  17  dated  editions  that  appeared 
between  1483  and  1592.  Four  dated  editions 
appeared  at  Ulm  between  1483  and  148S.  The 
great  number  of  editions  of  the  work  and  their 
rapid  succession  are  the  best  proof  of  its  im- 
portance as  a  means  of  instruction  and  amuse- 
ment at  the  beginning  of  the  age  of  printing. 
TTie  examples  themselves  had  doubtless  pointed 
the  moral  of  many  an  ancient  homily  long  be- 
fore the  days  of  Gutenberg;  but  the  language 
of  the  old  German  version  of  them  is  so  re- 
markable for  its  simplicity,  dignity,  strength 
and  beauty  that  we  cannot  wonder  at  its  im- 
mense popularity:   and  to  this  version,  more 


than  to  any  other,  is  Elurope  indebted  for  the 
widespread  knowledge  of  this  cycle  of  litera- 
ture from  the  last  part  of  the  ISth  to  the 
middle  of  the  I7lh  century.  The  other  offshoot 
of  the  'Directorium' — namely,  'The  tnotall 
philosophie  of  Doni :  drawne  out  of  the  aundent 
writers.  A  worke  first  compiled  In  the  Indian 
tongue  and  afterwardes  reduced  into  divers 
other  languages;  and  now  lastly  Englished  out 
of  Italian  by  Thomas  North'  (London  1570)  — 
is  most  interesting  to  us  as  English^ speaking 
people  because  it  is  *the  first  literary  link  be- 
tween India  and  England,  written  in  racy 
Elizabethan,'  a  piece  of  "Tudor  prose  at  its 
best,*  a  veritable  English  classic.  Consuh 
Browne,  E.  G.,  'Persian  Literature'  (1906); 
Deslongchamps,  'Elssai  sur  les  fables  indiennes' 
(Paris  1838);  id.,  'Li^ts  of  Canopus'  (new 
ed.,  London  1904)  ;  Hervieux,  <Les  fahulistes 
latins'  (1899);  Keith-Falconer,  'Kalilah  and 
Dimnah'  (1885)  :  id.,  'Translation  of  Wright's 
Edition  of   the  Latin   Syriac   Version   of   Bid- 


'Buddhist  Birth  Stories'  (LoiidDn  1880);  Mid- 
ler, Max,  "On  the  Migration  of  Fables*  (in 
'Chips  front  a  (jerman  Woritshop',  Vol.  3, 
London  1880)  ;  North.  'Morall  Philosophic  of 
Doni'   (ed.  Jacob  1883). 

Chables  Rockweu.  Lakman, 
Profiisor  of  Soiukrit,  Harvard  Univertity. 
BIDWBLL,  John,  American  politician : 
b.  Chautauqua  County,  N.  Y.,  5  Aug,  1819;  d 
5  April  1900.  He  went  to  California  in  1841 ; 
served  in  the  Mexican  War,  reaching  the  rank 
of  major;  was  a  member  of  the  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1849,  and  of  the  National  Demo- 
Convention  in  Charleston  in  1860.     In  the 


gress  as  a  Republican ;  in  ISM  was  a  member 
of  the  Philadelphia  convention;  in  1890  was  the 
unsuccessful  Prohibition  candidate  for  gover- 
nor of  California,  and,  in  1892,  unsuccessful 
candidate  of  his  party  for  the  Presidency. 

BIDWELL,  Marshall  Spring,  Canadian 
statesman:  b.  in  New  England  1799;  d.  1872. 
Migrated  to  Canada  in  1812  and  elected  to  the 
Upper  Canada  assembly  in  1824,  becoming 
speaker  in  1829  and  securing  re-election  to  that 
office   in   1835.     His  strong  sympathy  with   the 

Kpular  movement  which  culminated  in  the  Re- 
gion of  1837,  and  his  covert  part  in  the  rising, 
led  to  his  voluntary  banishment  from  the  coun- 
try in  1838. 

BIEBERUANN,  Gnstav  Woldemum 
von,  Bakon,  German  historian:  b.  5  March  1817: 
d.  1903.  After  graduating  from  the  University  ot 
Heidelberg,  where  he  had  studied  law,  he  prac- 
tised privately  for  a  while,  then  entered  the 
government  civil  service.  He  rose  rapidly  in 
rank  in  the  management  of  the  stale  railroads, 
finally  becoming  chief  director  of  railroads.  He 
made  many  contributions  to  the  literature  on 
Goethe,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
'Goethe  und  LeipziK'  (2  vols.,  Leipzig  1865); 
<Zu  Goethes  Gedichten'  (Leipzig  1870); 
'(^oethes  Gesprache'  (10  vols.,  1889-97). 

BIEBERSTBIN,  Adolf  Manchall  von, 
Baron,  Carman  statesman:  b.  Karlsruhe,  Ger- 
many, 1831 ;  d  Badenweiler.  24  Sept.  1912.  Son 
of  a  court  chamberlain  of  Baden,  he  s"    " 


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BIBZ>A  — BIBLA'S  COMET 


law  at  Hddelberg  uA  Fr<U>urg,  and  entered 
the  civil  service  of  bis  native  state.  In  1878 
he  waa  sent  to  the  Reichstag  as  a  Conservative 
and  appointed  representative  for  Baden  in  the 
Federal  Coundl  (18S3>.  In  1880  he  suoceeded 
Count  Herbert  Bisinarck  as  Foreign  Secretary, 
in  which  capacity  he  negotiated  the  commercial 
treaties  under  Cnancellor  Caprivi.  He  incurred 
the  bitter  hostility  of  the  Agrarians  and  certain 
court  circles,  and  was  the  subjecl  of  a  police 
intrigue  which  he  defeated.  Tne  Kaiser's  his- 
toric telegram  to  President  Kruger  over  the 
Jameson  raid  (5  Jan.  1896)  is  generally  ascribed 
to  him ;  he  also  declared  (hat  the  independence 
of  the  South  African  Republic  was  a  matter 
of  vital  interest  to  Germany.  Political  opposi- 
tion compelled  him  to  resign  the  Foreign  Secre- 
taryship in  June  1897;  four  months  later  he 
was  sent  as  Ambassador  to  Constantinople, 
where  he  revealed  most  remarkable  ability  as 
a  diplomatist.  He  consolidated  German  influ- 
ence in  Tiirke;y',  obtained  the  Bagdad  Railway 
I    which    caused    so    much    strife    be- 


with  Englmnd^  and  brou^t  about  die  downfa.. 
of  tiie  notorious  Fehim  Pasha,  a  favorite  of 
Abdul  Hamid  and  certainly  the  most  disrepu- 
table villain  in  the  Sultan's  entourage.  He  had 
overreached  himself  by  literally  stealing  a  Get- 
man  vessel  laden  with  lumber,  which  brought 
the  energetic  German  Ambassador  on  his  trail. 
When  Fehim  had  to  be  dropped,  all  Constanti- 
nople rejoiced;  the  mob  shortly  after  expressed 
their  gratification  t^  hanging  him  on  a  lamp- 
post in  the  street.  After  the  Youn^  Turk 
revolution  (1908-09)  Baron  Marschall  ingratj- 
ated  himself  with  the  new  rulers,  but  hia  posi- 
tion was  severely  shaken  by  the  Turco-Ifalian 
War — the  seiiure  of  Tripoli  being  an  equally 
bitter  disappointment  to  both  Germany  and 
Turkey.  Germany  could  tjot  well  interfere  as 
she  was  an  ally  of  both  belligerents.  On  the 
retirement  of  CoUnt  Wolff-Uettemich  (8  May 
1912)  Baion  Marschall  was  appointed  Amboo- 
sador  in  London.  It  was  hoped  in  Eagland 
that  the  strongest  man  in  German  dii^ooiacy 
would  help  to  place  the  relations  between  the 
two  countries  on  a  more  satisfactory  basis,  but 
unfortunately  he  died  four  months  later,  before 
he  had  entered  upon  his  new  duties.  His  death 
was  deeply  regretted  alike  in  London  and 
BerUn. 

BIEDA,  be'da,  the  modem  name  of  die 
ancient  Blera,  a  town  in  Italy.  It  is  noted  for 
its  extensive  Etruscan  necropolis  of  rock-hewn 
tombs,  built  in  several  terraces.  These  tombs 
are  interesting  for  (heir  imitation  of  dwellings. 
They  have  molded  doorways,  and,  within,  the 
rid^e  beams  and  rafters  of  the  roof  are  cut  in 
relief.  There  are  rock  benches  on  three  sides 
made  to  receive  the  dead  and,  besides  the  doors, 

BIBDBRHAMN,  Friedrich  Karl.  German 
author:  b.  Leipzig,  25  Sept.  1812;  d.  )9(ll.  He 
was  educated  at  Leipzig  and  Heidelberg.  He 
became  professor  of  philosophy  in  Leipzig  Uni- 
versity in  1838  and  held  this  chair  till  184S, 
when  he  was  deposed  on  account  of  his  politi- 
cal ojiinions.  In  1849  he  played  an  important 
role  in  the  Parliament  of  Frankfort ;  was 
elected  to  the  National  AssemUy.  of  which  he 
w.as  vice-president  for  a  short  term,  and  was 
reinstated   as    professor   at   Leipzig,   but   was 


again  removed  in  18U  for  political  reasoni 
In  1854  he  edited  the  DeuUche  Atinalen  and 
was  sentenced  to  a  term  of  imprisonment  and 
removed  from  his  professorship.  He  was  edi- 
tor of  the  Dmliche  Allgememe  ZeUung  (1863- 
66),  and  founded  and  edited  a  number  of  other 
liberal  papers.  His  works  include  'Wissen- 
schaft  und  Universitit'  (1836);  <Die  deutsche 
Philosopbie  von  Kant  bis  auf  unsere  Tage' 
(1842-43) ;  "Vorlesungen  uber  SozLahsmus  und 
soziale  Fragen'  (1847)  ;  'Erinnerungen  aus  der 
PauUs  Kirche'  (IS*?);  'Funfiig  Jahre  im 
Dienste  des  nationalen  Gedankens'  (1892); 
'Friedrich  der  Grosse  und  sein  Verhaltniss  zur 
Entwickelung  des  deutschen  Geistcslebeos' 
(1859);  'Vorlesungcn  iiber  Sorialigmus  und 
SozialpaUtik'  (1900);  'Ocutscbes  Volks  und 
KuUur0eschichte>  (4tb  ed.,  1901).  Consult  Us 
<Mein  Leben  und  ein  StiiclueitKeschichte  1812- 
1886>  (2  vols..  1886). 

BIEPVS,      by«f,     Bdntrd     de,     Bdgfan 

B (inter:  h,  Brussels,  4  Dec.  1809;  d.  there,  7 
eb.  18B2.  He  painted  many  portraits  and  was 
also  noted  for  his  scenes  from  history.  His 
best-known  work  probably  is  his  "Compromise 
of  the  Netherlands  Nobles  at  Brussels,  1566;' 
Among  others  are  'Last  Moments  of  Anne 
Boleyn,'  'The  Introduction  of  Rubens  to 
Charles  I  of  England,*  'Masaniello,'  'Raphael 
and  La  Fomarina.'' 

BIEL,  bel,  Gabriel,  German  philosopher: 
b.  spires  about  1425;  d.  Tiibingen  1495.  He 
was  educated  at  Heidelberg  and  Erfurt,  and 
became  a  cathedral  preacher  in  Maim.  In  1477 
he  was  made  provost  of  Urach  and  an  adviser 
b  the  founding  of  the  University  of  Tiibingen, 
where  he  became  professor  of  theology  in  1484. 
He  has  been  erroneously  called  "the  last  of  the 
Schoalmen.*  His  principal  works  are  'Coltec- 
torium  ex  Occamo  super  iv  Libros  Scnten- 
tianim'  (1495);  'Exposilio  Canonis  Missie' 
(ISIO) ;  'Sermonei  Dominicales  de  Tempore 
et  de  Sanctis  per  Totum  Annum'  (1519);  'De 
Uonetamm  Potestate  simul  et  Utilitate*  (1541). 
BIBLA,  be'la,  Wilhelm  von,  Austrian  of- 
ficer and  astronomer:  b.  Rossia,  19  March  1782; 
d.  Venice  18  Feb,  1856.  He  entered  the  array, 
reached  the  grade  of  major  and  finally  resigned 
the  profession  of  arms  to  study  the  fine  arts 
and  astronomy.  On  27  Feb.  1826  he  discovered 
at  Josephitadt,  Bohemia,  a  new  comet  >^id], 
a  few  days  later,  was  sifted  by  Gambart  from 
Marseilles.  Both  noticed  its  similarity  to 
comets  appearing  in  1772  and  1805  and  &xed  its 
period  at  between  six  and  seven  years,  but  tt 
was  named  after  Biela,  vbo  had  first  disoovered 
it  Shortly  after  its  reappearance  at  the  end  of 
1845  it  was  seen  to  divide  into  two  iwrtions.  each 
of  which  afterward  developed  a  tail  and  a  bril- 
liant nucleus,  features  wanting  in  the  original 
body.  In  August  1852  the  double  comet  reapr 
penred,  but  this  lime  the  two  portions  were 
much  farther  apart;  and  not  long  after  the 
comet   vanished   and  has   never  been   sighted 

BIELA'S    COMBT,    a    comet    of    Aort 


furnished   such   data   regarding 

as  to  convince  the  other  astrono 

that  he  had  a  proprietary  right  to  it.    The  i 

comet   had   been   noticed  8  March    1772, 


v  Google 


BIBLAOA—  BIBNAIUB 


again  in  160S.  It  was  reckoned  that  the  comet 
had  passed  its  perihelion  six  times  between  the 
two  periods  without  being  detected  by  the  as- 
tronomers. On  another  visit  it  passed  out  of 
sight  on  3  Tan.  1833.  Its  next  appearance  was 
in  July  18S.  It  was  found  again  late  in  No- 
vember 1845,  and  in  the  followtne  month  an 
observation  was  made  of  one  of  tne  mast  re- 
markable phenomena  in  astronomical  records, 
the  division  of  the  comet.  It  put  forth  no  tail 
while  this  aheration  was  going  on.  Professor 
Challis,  using  the  Northumberland  telescope  at 
Cambndge,  on  IS  Jan.  1846,  was  inclined  to 
distrust  his  eyes  or  his  glass  when  he  beheld 
two  comets  where  but  one  had  been  before. 
He  would  call  it,  he  said,  a  binary  comet  if 
such  a  thing  had  ever  been  heard  of  before. 
His  observations  were  soon  verified,  however. 
Late  in  August  1852,  the  larger  came  into  view 
and  three  weeks  later  the  smaller  one,  now 
much  fainter  than  its  former  companion,  was 
seen  about  1,500,000  miles  in  the  lead.  Schia- 
parelli's  investigations  showed  it  to  be  probable 
that  the  comet  is  the  illuminated  central  mass 
of  a  stream  of  meteorites.  The  Bielid  stream 
of  meteors  (or  Andromedes,  as  they  are  also 
known  from  the  position  among  the  stars  from 
which  they  seem  to  radiate)  revolves  around 
the  sun  in  a  period  of  13  years,  and  the  earth 
passes  their  orbit  every  year  but  meets  the  main 
swartn  only  when  pasemg  the  point  of  inter- 
section of  the  two  paths.  The  meeting  usually 
takes  place  on  the  27th  or  28th  of  November. 

BIBLAGA,  a  Russian  name  for  the  great 
European  sturgeon  {Accitenstr  htuo),  also 
called  *hausen*  and  *huso.'    See  Sturgeon. 

BIELAYA,  byfl-t-y^,  the  name  of  10  Rus- 
sian rivers,  the  most  important  of  which  is 
about  500  miles  in  length,  rises  in  the  Ural  Ridge 
and  flows  northwest  to  the  Kama  River.  From 
April  to  November  it  is  navigable  from  its 
mouth  to  the  city  of  Ufa,  about  200  miles,  reg- 
ular trade  in  minerals,  lumber  and  salt  being 
carried  on.  Of  the  other  rivers  of  this  name 
may  be  mentioned  the  one  in  the  government 
of  Irkutsk,  Siberia,  which  is  a  branch  of  the 
Angara,  and  another  in  the  government  of 
Yekaterinoslav  which  flows  t&ou^  a  coal 
region. 

BIELBFBLD  be'ie-felt,  Prussia,  a  town 
in  the  province  of  Westphalia  at  the  northern 
foot  of  the  Teuloburger-Wald,  38  mites  east 
■from  Munsler.  The  river  Lutter  divides  it 
into  an  old  and  a  new  town.  The  best  Ger- 
man linens,  are  manufactured  here^  Aax-qiin- 
ning  and  bleaching  are  largeljf  earned  on  and 
there  are  various  other  industries,  among  which 
some  of  the  chief  are  siiirt-makin^,  silk-weav- 
ing the  manufacture  of  cycles,  sewing  machines 
and  motor  cars  and  of  cigars,  ^lass,  cement, 
leather,  etc.  It  contains  a  ^^innasium,  two  hos- 
pitals and  other  ^b)ic  buildinss.  The  Bethel 
colony  for  einleptics  was  founded  here  in  1876 
and  has  now  1,600  patients.  The  castle  of 
Sparenburg,  built  in  1017,  is  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  and,  since  its  recent  restoration,  has 
been  occupied  as  a  museum.    Pop.  78,334. 

BIELGOROD,     byel'go-rot.       See     Bn- 

QOROD^ 

BIELITZ,  belits,  Austria,  town  in  the 
crownland  of  Silesta,  40  miles  southwest  of 
Cracow,  or  the  left  bank  of  the  Biala.     It  is 


separated  from  Biala  in  Galida  by  the  river, 
over  which  is  built  a  bridge.  It  is  an  import- 
ant centre  of  the  Austrian  textile  industries, 
manufacturing  large  quantities  of  woolen  goods 
for  the  trade  in  the  Orient.     Wire,  nails,  ma-  i 

chincry,    glassware,    furniture    and    paper  arc  | 

also  manufactured  in  important  qnantities. 
Pop.  18,568,  of  which  the  largest  proportion  is 

BIELO-OZERO.     bya-5-6'i»-r&     (»white  | 

lake*),  a  lake  of  European  Russia,  in  the 
govemmeot   of    Novgorod,    whose   outflow  is  i 

carried  t^  the  Cbeksna  River  to  the  VolgJ. 
It  is  of  a  somewhat  circular  form,  27  milei 
long  and  20  miles  broad,  and  has  an  area  oi  ' 

about  430  square  miles.  Its  bottom  consists 
of  a  white  clay  which  in  stormy  weather  gives 
the  water  a  milky- white  appearance,  hence 
the  name.  A  system  of  canals  connects  it 
with  Lake  Onega,  the  Dwina  and  other  rivers. 
It  also  forms  part  of  the  canal  system  which 
connects  the  Baltic  and  Casjnan  seas. 


I87&  He  received  university  trainii^  and  be- 
came director  of  the  Ossolinski  Institute  at 
Lemberg  in  1869.  Amon^  his  poetical  com- 
positions is  to  be  mentioned  the  histoHcal 
rhapsody,  'Lay  of  Henry  the  Pious.'  He 
wrote  a  'Critical  Introduction  to  the  History 
of  Poland'  (1850),  but  his  principal  work  was 
th«  publication  of  'Monumenta  Polonix 
Velustissima'  (1864-72);  a  collection  of  Polish 
chronicles  up  to  the  time  of  Duigoz,  since  his 
death  continued  by  the  Cracow  Academy  of 
Sciences.  He  also  made  several  translations 
from  Schiller.  He  edited  'Pompeii  Trogi 
Pragmenta'  0853),  fragments  of  PompeLus 
found  at  the  Oisolinsld  Library. 

BIELSHOHLB,  belz'h^M,  a  stalacthc 
cavern  in  die  Bielstien  Mountain  Harz,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Bode.  It  was  discovered 
about  1672,  but  first  made  accessible  in  1788. 
Its  entrance  is  108  feet  above  the  bed  of  die 
stream:  and  its  total  length  is  230  yards. 

BIKLSKI,  hyil'ske,  Marcin,  Polish  his- 
torian: b.  Biala,  near  Sieradi,  145"5;  d.  there 
1575.  His  'Kronika  swiata*  and  'Kronika 
Polska>  (1550  and  1564)  contain  the  first 
comprehensive  attempt  at  a  history  of  Poland. 
He  wrote  two  satirical  jwems,  'Sen  inajowy' 
(1590)  and  'Seym  niewiesci'  (1S9S),  pictur- 
; —    ;_   .u.   .1..   J j_.:—   ^f   Hungry 


.  the  degradat  ^    . 

and  calling  upon  his  countrymen  to  exhibit  ■ 
nobler  spirit  than  the  Htmgarians,  while  the 
other  gives  a  keen  analysis  of  the  condition 
of  Poland  in  his  days.  A  strategettcal  woHc, 
'Sprawa  rycerska'  (1569)j  gives  valoahle 
information  upon  the  condition  of  the  Polish 
army  and  the  character  of  Polish  tactics. 
After  serving  in  the  army  and  taking  part, 
in  1531,  in  the  bMtle  of  Obertyn,  he  de- 
voted himself,  for  the  rest  of  his  days  to  liter- 
ary pursuits.  In  1617  the  bishop  of  Cracow 
interdicted  his  'Chronicles,'  as  they  were 
suspected  to  contain  heterodox  scnttmcnts. 
His  satirical  poems  made  him  many  enemies. 
He  idealized  the  distant  past  and  regarded  his 
own  period  as  one  of  general  decadence. 

BIENAIHB,  bf-en'&-mc  Loigi,  Italian 
sculptor:  b.  Carrara  1795;  d.  Florence,  17  Apjil 
1878.     He  studied  his  art  in  Rome  under  the 


tizcdbyGoOl^Ie 


BIBMCOURT  DB  POUTRINCOURT  —BIER 


a»i 


tuition  of  the  famous  Danish  sculptor,  Thor- 
vftldsen,  with  whom  be  collaborated  later  ex- 
tensively.    He  has  been  considered  one  of  the 


now  in  the  MetrmraUtan  Museum  of  Art.  in 
New  York  city;  'Cupid  and  the  Dove,'  now  in 
Milan-  'Venus,'  in  the  Turin  Museum;  and 
several  statues  in  the  Winter  FaUce  at  Petro- 
^tad.  The  influence  of  Thorvaldsen  is  obvious 
m  all  his  works. 

BIENCOURT.  by-iri-coor.  DE  POU- 
TRINCOURT Charles:  b.  1583;  d  1624. 
Son  of  Jean  de  Poutrincourt  (qv).  He  ac- 
companied his  father  to  Port  Royal  in  1605. 
He  viiited  France  in  1611,  created  a  stir  at 
court  t^  the  announcement  of  Indiui  convcr- 
sioDS  and  brought  hack  with  him  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries.  He  administered  Acadia  from  16)1- 
23  and  partially  rebuilt  Port  Royal  after  its 
destruction  by  Arsall- 

BIENCOURT  DE  POUTRINCOURT. 
Jean,  French  soldier;  b.  France  15S7;  d.  Meiy- 
sur-Seine  1615.  In  1603  he  came  to  Canada, 
where  De  Monts  made  him  a  lieutenant,  and  in 
1604  received  8  snwt  of  Port  Royal  and  estab- 
lished there  a  colony  of  which  he  took  little 
care.  The  grant  was  confirmed  in  1607,  and 
at  the  same  lime  the  King  urged  Poutrincourt 
to  labor  for  the  cmiversion  of  the  savagei. 
Desirous  of  keeping^  the  Jesuits  from  Port 
Royal,  he  delayed  tht^r  departure  from  France, 
sent  back  glowing  accounts  of  his  own  mission- 
ary success,  and  welcomed  the  Jesuits  very 
ungraciousW.  He  went  to  France  in  1612,  and 
after  the  ^lelish  left  Acadia  sailed  thither  in 
1614,  but  without  having  done  anything  to  re- 
build Port  Royal  he  returned  to  France  later 
in  the  same  year.  Consult  Suite,  B.,  'Poutrin- 
court en  Acadie'  (in  'Royal  Society  of  Canada 
Proceedings  and  Transactions,'  Vol.  XI,  p.  31, 
1885). 

BIENER,  Christian  Gottlob,  Gennan  ju- 


became  instructor  in  law  at  the  latter 
si^  in  1776,  becoming  professor  In  1790.  His 
chief  works  are  'Commentarii  de  origine  et 
pro^ressu  legum  juriumque  germanicorum' 
(Leipzig  1787-95)  ;  'Systema  processus  judi- 
ciarii  et  communis  et  saxonici'  (Leipzig  1S}1)  ; 
'Opuscula  academica'  (2  vols.,  Leipzig  1830). 

BIBNNE,  bi-V  Switzerland,  town  in  Hit 
canton  of  Bern,  17  miles  northwest  of  the  city 
of  Bern,  on  the  north  shore  of  the  lake  of  the 
same  name,  in  the  valley  of  the  Snze;  on  the 
railroad  between  Bern  and  Basel..  It  nestles 
among  the  lower  foothills  of  the  Jura  Mountain^ 
1,400  feet  above  sea-level,  and  cable  roads  ascend 
the  mountains  nearby.  Among  its  architectural 
attractions  are  an  old  castle,  the  town-hall  and 
the  Schwab  Museum,  which  contains  an  exten- 
sive collection  of  old  Roman  and  Celtic  weapons 
and  relics  of  the  ancient  lake-dwellers.  Here, 
too,  is  located  the  West  Swiss  Technical  Insti- 
tute, which  includes  a  watchmakers'  school  and 
a  school  for  railroad  employees.  Textiles, 
tanning,  watchmaking,  machine  builiUng  and  the 
manufacture  of  paper  and  cigars  are  the  chief 
iodustries.  Attached  hrst  to  the  bishopric  of 
Basel,  it  allied  itself  with  Bern  canton  in  1352, 
then  became  a  free  city,  was  annexed  by  the 


French  in  1797,  but  awarded  to  Switzerland  in 
1815.    Pop.  A5S3. 

BIENNE.  Lake  of,  called  in  German, 
Bielersee,  a  Swiss  lake,  1,419  feet  above  sea- 
level,  about  10  miles  long  by  three  broad,  with 
a  depth  of  280  feet.  Its  scenery  is  more  beau> 
tiful  than  bold.  Being  ei^t  feet  below  the 
level  of  Lake  Neufchatel,  it  receives  its  waters 
tnr  the  Thiel  and  discharges  itself  into  the  Aar. 
On  the  islet  of  Saint  Pierre,  in  this  lake,  T.  J. 
Rousseau  resided  for  two  months  in  1765. 
That  the  lake  was  a  centre  of  population  from 
remote  times,  the  remains  of  numerous  pile- 
dwellings  prove.  At  the  northern  extremity  is 
the  town  of  Bienne  (q.v.). 

BIENNIALS,  in  botany,  plants  which  do 
not  produce  flowers  and  fruit  during  the  first 
year  of  growth,  but  store  up  a  stock  of  nour- 
ishment m  a  thickened  stem  or  root,  whence 
they  draw  the  material  for  the  growth  of  the 
second  year,  during  which  flowers  and  fruits 
are  developed  and  the  plant  dies.  Several  of 
our  commonest  foodplants,  such  as  turnip,  cab- 
bage and  carrot,  are  biennials.  Under  siiecial 
circumstances  favorable  to  rapid  growth  a 
plant  ordinarily  bieunial  may  become  an  annuat 

BIENTEVEO,  hyin-ta-v5'6,  a  flycatcher 
of  southern  South  America,  related  to  our 
kingbird  and  familiar  about  the  villages  anj 
^rdens  of  Argentina.  Its  name  comes  from 
Its  loud  and  cheerful  cry,  which  resembles 
the  Spanish  phrase  Bien  leveo,  'I  see  you  well.* 
Unlike  its  relatives  elsewhere,  it  builds  a  domed 
nest,  the  design  of  which  is  so  elaborate  that 
leveral  weeks  may  be  required  for  its  completion. 


Feb.  1680-  d.  France  1768.  In  1698,  with  his 
brother  Iberville  he  left  France  to  found  a 
colony  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  In  1700 
he  constructed  a  fort  54  miles  above  the  mouth 
of  the  river,  and  in  1701,  at  the  death  of  Sou- 
voile,  a  second  brother,  he  succeeded  to  the  di- 
rection of  the  colony,  the  seat  of  which  became 
Mobile.  In  1704  a  third  brother,  Chateaugay, 
joined  him  with  17  settlers  from  Canada,  and 
from  France  came  20  women  to  be  married  to 
the  colonists.  In  1718  he  received  a  commission 
as  governor  of  Mississippi,  and  about  this  time 
founded  the  city  of  New  Orleans.  In  1724  he 
was  summoned  to  France  and  on  9  Aug.  1726 
was  removed  from  office.  In  1733  be  was  sent 
back  to  the  colony  as  governor,  with  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-general  In  1743  he  was  again 
removed  and  returned  to  France,  where  be 
lived  in  retirement  for  25  years. 


of  Berlin,  Leipzig  and  Kiel,  after 
which,  in  1889,  he  became  a  lecturer  at  the 
latter  institution.  In  1894  he  was  appointed 
professor  and  director  of  the  surgical  clinic 
at  Greifswald.  In  1903  he  continued  the  same 
work  at  Bonn  University  and  four  years  l-.ter 
at  Berlin.  He  is  noted  for  his  original  re- 
searches, for  his  manv  innovations  in  the  jirac- 
tice  of  surgery  and  lor  his  daring  operations. 
Amon^  his  pubUcations  are  'Hypcramie  als 
Heihnittel'  (1903;  English  translation  under 
the  title  'Bier's  Text-book  of  Hyperaittie  as 
Applied    in    Medicine    and    Surgery,'    1909); 


Google 


BIBRBAUM— BIO  BLACK  RIVBR 


BIBRBAUH,  ber'bowm,  Otto  JiiliuB, 
German  poet;  b.  Griineberg,  Sitesia,  28  June 
1865.  He  is  a  rising  man  of  letters;  his  'Songs 
of  Experience'  (or  'Poems  That  Were  Lived') 
(1892),  is  »s  yet  his  most  noteworthy  volume. 
Other  works  of  his  are  'Studentenbeichten' 
(1897);  'Der  burite  Vogei  von  1897  und  1899>; 
<£jn  Kalendcrbuch>    (1896  and   1898). 

BIEKCB,  AmbroKj  American  author  and 
journalist :  b.  Meigs  County,  Ohio,  24  June 
1842;  d.  Mexico  1914.  He  served  in  the  Civil 
War  as  a  lieutenant  of  volunteers  and  was 
brevetted  major  for  gallantry.  In  1866  he  went 
to  California,  and  he  went  to  London  in  1872, 
where  he  eontributed  lo  Fttn  for  30  years.  He 
was  closely  identified  with  Califomian  journal- 
ism. He  edited  the  Argonaut  and  the  Wosfi 
and  was  a  constant  contributor  to  the  Over- 
laid  Monthly  and  San  Francisco  Exarnvter. 
His  publications  are  "Cobwebs  From  an  Empty 
atuil'  (1874)-  'Black  Beetles  in  Amber'. 
<189Z);  'Can  Such  Things  Be?'  (1893);  'In 
Itie  Midst  of  Life'  (1898).  His  most  popular 
work  was  originally  published  at  San  Frao- 
Cisco  (!891),  under  the  title  of  'Tales  of  Sol- 
diers and  Civilians'  |  'Fartaalic  Fables*  (1899) ; 
in  collaboration  with  G.  A.  Danziger,  'The 
Monk  and  the  Hangman's  Daughter'  (1892) ; 
'Shapes  of  Clay'  (1905);  'The  Cynic's  Word 
Book'  (1906)  :  'The  Shadow  on  the  DUP  and 
'Write  It  Right'  (1909).  His  collected  works 
appeared  (13  vols.)  in  1912. 

BIERNATZKI,  bEr-niltsnce,  Tohuui 
ChiiBtopb,  German  pietist,  poet  and  story 
writer:  b.  Elrashom.  Holstein,  17  Oct  179S;  d 
Fiiedricfastadt,  11  May  1840.  A  country  pastor, 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  versification  of  hit 

-.inir    ._._    ___      

'Hallig,  or  the  Adventures  of  Castaways  on 
an  Island  in  the  North  Sea,'  he  displays  a  not 
uupleasing  capacity  {or  prose  narrative. 

BIERSTADT,  ber'st^t,  Albert,  American 
painter:  b.  near  Diisseldorf,  Germany,  7  Jan. 
1830;  d.  New  York,  18  Eeb.  1902.  He  removed 
with  his  parents  to  New  Bedford,  Mass..  in 
1831;  began  to  paint  in  oils  in  1851,  and  in 
1853  returned  to  Dusseldorf  to  study  his  art, 
spending  a  winter  in  Rome,  traveling  in  Italy 
and  Switzerland  and  returning  to  the  United 
States  in  1857.  In  1859  he  accompanied  Gen- 
eral Lander's  expedition  to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains and  spent  several  months  in  studies  of 
mountain  scenery.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  National  Academy  in  1660.  In  1861  he 
finished  his  painting,  'Laramie  Peak,'  and  in 
1863  'View  of  the  Rocl^r  Mountains  — Land- 
er's Peak.'  These  at  once  gave  bim  a  na- 
tional reputation.  Among  his  main  other 
paintings  of  American  subjects  are  'Valley  of 
the  Yoseraitc'  (1866) ;  'El  Capitan' ;  'Looking 
Down  the  Yosemite'  (186S)  ;  'Great  Trees  of 
California'  (1874);  'Geysers'  (1883);  'On  the 
Saco,  New  Hampshire'  (1886)  ;  ^California 
.  Oaks'  (1886).  'A  Storm  on  the  Matlerhorn' 
is  the  b«t  known  of  bis  Alpine  subjects.  Bier- 
stadt  received  many  fortign  medals  and  deco- 
rations and  was  a  member  of  H)e  National 
Academy  of  Dedgn  from  1860. 


BIESBOSCH.  bes'bes,  a  marshy  sheet  of 
water  interspersed  with  islands,  between  die 
Dutch  provinces  of  North  Brabant  and  South 
Holland,  formed  in  November  1421  by  an  in- 
undation which  destroyed  72  villages  aiul  100^- 
000  people  and  spread  over  an  area  of  80  square 

BIESTER,  bf-i!s'tir,  Joio  Bmesto,  Por- 
tuguese dramatist:  b.  Lisbon  1829;  d.  12  Dec 
1^.  At  die  age  of  19  he  produced  his  first 
play,    not    without    some   success.      His    whole 


for  years  the  most  popular  l^ys  before  die 
Portuguese  public  Among  nis  best  known 
dramas  arc  'Mocedade  de  D.  J<wo  V>  (1858) ; 
'Primavera  etema>  (1860) ;  <Abnegacio> 
(1861);  'Uma  Viagem  pela  litteratura  con- 
temporanea'  (1856),  the  latter  being  a  critical 
review  of  dramatic  literature. 

BIBT,  byi,  Antoine,  Frendi  missionary, 
who  in  1652  accompanied  600  colonists  to  Cay- 
enne, where  he  remained  18  months.  He  was 
the  author  of  'Voyage  de  la  France  Enuinox- 
ialc  (1664),  with  a  Galibi  dtclionaiy  at  the  end. 

BIBVRK,  b^vr,  Har6chal,  (Ua^jdis 
DE),  French  writer:  b.  1747;  d.  Spa,  (^rmany, 
1789.  He  served  in  the  corps  of  die  French 
musketeers,  was  a  life-guard  of  the  King  of 
France  and  acquired  much  reputation  by  his 
puns  and  repartees.  After  publishing  several 
entertaining  works  he  composed  (1783)  'Le  S^ 
ducteur'  a  comedy  in  verse,  for  the  theatre; 
which  nas  maintamed  its  place  on  the  stage; 
although  it  is  bad  both  in  plan  and  execution. 
Met  amir,  he  said,  dyine,  I'e  tn'en  vais  de  ce  pas 
(de  Spa). 

BIFROST,  bi'fr^st  («the  trembling  way»), 
in  northern  mythology  the  name  of  the  bridge 
represented  as  stretching  between  heaven  and 
eardi  (Asgard  and  Midgard)  ;  really  the  rain- 
bow. It  was  used  by  the  gods  and  was  guarded 
by  Heimdal. 

BIO  BEN,  the  great  bell  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  London.    See  Bell. 

BIG  BETHEL,  Va.,  village  on  the  penin- 
sula between  the  York  and  James  rivers,  where 
an  unsuccessful  attempt,  directed  by  General 
Butler,  was  made  by  (jeneral  Pierce,  with  four 
regiments,  to  dislodge  outposts  of  Uagrudcr's 
Confederate  encampment  at  Yorktown,  10  June 
1861.  The  Federal  regiments,  under  "Townsend 
and  Bendix,  en  route  for  the  Kg  B«thel  camp, 
mistook  each  other  for  the  enemy  and  fired. 
This  created  great  confusion.  Pierce  arrived 
and  pushed  on  to  the  Confederate  eardiwork 
on  Back  River,  destroying  the  camp  at  Litde 
Betbet.  The  Federal  troops  crossed  Back  River 
and  charged  the  earthwork,  but  were  repulsed 
with  considerable  loss,  Maj.  Theodore  Win- 
tfarop,  the  well-knolvn  novelist,  losing  fats  life 
on  tiiis  occasion.  Consult  'CMficia!  Records' 
(VoL  II,  Washington  1881-1901)  and  'Battles 
and  Leaders  of  die  Ovil  War>  (VoL  II,  New 
York  1887). 

BIG  BLACK  RIVER,  an  affluent  of  fhe 
Mississippi,  which  it  enters  at  Grand  Gulf, 
Miss.,  after  flowing  about  200  miles,  SO  of 
which  are  tisvigable.  On  16  May  1863  a  battle 
took  place  on  this  stream  dnrinr  Grant's  pur- 
suit of  Pemberton  toward  Vidtsbarg.  The 
Confederates  were  defeated  and  lost  beavity. 


,  Google 


BIG  BOm  UCK— BIO  HOBN  HOUNTAINS 


both  in  UUed  and  captored.  UcCIchiAiid, 
swiftl]'  fallowing  the  retreating  Confederates, 
came  upon  them  drawn  op  on  both  sides  of  the 
BiK  Black  River.  McCleniam]  led  10^000  Fed- 
erals, Pcinberton  8,000  Coitfederates,*  his  main 
coautuind  havingr  gone  on  toward  VidotmiK- 
McQemand  began  die  fight  He  was  for  a 
time  onsiNceBslul,  but  Lawler,  discovering  a 
weak  spot  in  the  Confederate  line,  immediate^ 
took  advantage  of  it  and  charged  tn^etnomly. 

BIO  BONB  LICK,  a  salt  spring,  in  Boone 
County,  Ky.,  11  miles  sou*  of  Burlin^on, 
where  fossil  remains  of  mastodons  and  other 
extinct  fauna  have  been  found.  These  animals 
are  supposed  to  have  resorted  here  to  lick  the 
salty  earth  in  the  vicinity  of  the  spring. 

BIG  BROTHER  UOVEMENT,  The. 
This  movement  was  founded  in  19(M  by  Ernest 
K.  Coulter,  Esq.,  in  New  York  city.  Since 
that  time  the  work  has  been  taken  up  in  over 
100  cides.  There  is  a  small  staff  of  paid  work- 
ers, supplemented  by  volunteers  —  lawyers, 
physicians,  ineFchants,  executives,  teacbert  — 
all  busy  men,  selected  because  of  their  good 
will  and  natural  abiliw  to  do  effective  work. 
The  tittle  brothers  are  boys  referred  by  parents, 
hospitals,  police,  courts,  by  boys  who  have 
been  helped.  _  They  are  the  sons  of  widows, 
inebriates,  prisoners,  o£  careless  or  ignorant 
parents  —  boys  who  are  largely  the  victims  of 
their  environmenL  The  ta^k  is  to  ascertain 
:  of  the  trouble  — whether 


ancy,  stealing,  lying,  running  away  from  borne, 
etc. ;  then,  with  tue  co-operation  Of  parents, 
dirout^  the  mediation  of  the  Big  Brothers, 


build  up  within  the  boy  a  sense  of  honor 
good  citizenship.  Every  possible  agency  is  em- 
ployed to  secure  results  ^  hospitals  for  exam- 
ination or  operation,  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  church 
and  settlement  gymnasiums,  industrial  classes 
and  boys'  clubs,  Boy  Scouts,  trade  schools, 
camps  and  farm  schools.  Where  the  proper 
agency  does  not  exist  it  Is  established. 

BIG-HORN,  the  wild  sheep  of  the  moun- 
tains of  western  North  America,  so  called  on 
account  of  the  massive,  spiral  horns  of  the  ram, 
which  resemble  those  of  the  Asiatic  atvali. 
They  originally  raided  throuf^out  the  whole 
mountain  system  from  New  Mexico  to  north- 
cm  Alaslo,  and  as  far  down  the  valley  of  the 
Uistouri  lUver  as  the  rough  country  extended. 
They  are  still  to  be  found  in  the  loftier  and 
wilder  ports  of  this  territory,  but  ronain  nu- 
merous only  about  the  head-waters  of  the  Yel- 
lowstone and  thence  northward.  Their  home 
is  upon  the  loftiest  parts  of  the  ranges,  where 
they  find  plentiful  pasturage  between  the  lii^- 
est  growt^  of  timber  and  the  snow  or  ice  of 
the  summits,  and  upon  the  elevated  and  rocky 
pbteaus  of  ibe  Bad  Lands  of  Dakota.  In  sum- 
mer they  wander  about  a  good  deal  in  small 
flocks,  climbtng  to  the  hi^est  points,  where  a 
wide  outlook  enables  them  to  see  qnicUy  the 
approach  of  an  enemy  and  where  they  are  least 
troubled  by  flies.  In  winter  tbey  are  forced 
to  descend  somewhat,  but  rarely  enter  the 
forest,  finding  shelter  against  the  storm  in  the 
mountain  gorges  and  sufficient  dried  grass  upon 
the  wind-swept  ridges.  Its  principal  enemy, 
in  the  old  ibtys,  were  the  pumas  and  Indian 
hnniers,  whose  constant  pursuit  taui^t  it  an 
alCrtnes»  and  wariness  which  now  mdces  it  one 


of  the  most  difficult  aoimali  for  the  sportsman 
to  approach.     The  s^eed,  ^lity  and  endu^ 


regarded  as  the  best  of  all  Western 
game. 

The  common  Rocky  Mountain  hig-horit 
{Ovis  cerviMa)  is  a  strot^y  built  sheep,  stand- 
ing up  to  40  inches  high.  In  color,  in  its  sum- 
mer coat,  it  is  tawjiy  yellow,  and  in  winter  gray- 
ish brown,  with  the  face  ashy  and  a  dark  line 
along  the  spine.  The  under  parts  and  a  con- 
spicuous roundish  patch  on  the  buttocks  are 
whitish.  The  horns  of  the  ram  arc  of  large 
circumference  at  the  base  and  thick  and  rugged, 
with  a  distinct  keel  at  the  outer  edge,  and  sweep 
around  backward  into  a  ^ral,  which  is  cotn- 
plete  in  the  largest  specimens  and  will  measure 
40  to  42  inches  ak>ng  the  outer  curve.  A 
smaller  and  pnkr  varied  of  Utah  and  Idaho  la 
called  Nelson's  big-bom.  In  the  mountains  of 
British  Columbia  is  found  Stone's  big-horn, 
which  is  larger  in  stie  and  much  darker  in 
color  (almost  black,  indeed),  with  comnata- 
tively  slender  horns.  A  third  species,  Dall's 
sheep,  belonging  to  the  mountains  of  central 
AlasIOj  i>  perfectly  white,  with  horns  of  mod- 
erate sue  and  of  a  clear  amber  color.  A  fourth 
species,  also  Alaskan,  may  prove  to  be  a  variety 
of  Dall's,  which  it  resembles,  aeatpt  that  a 
mantle  of  brownish-gray  covers  the  body,  as  if 
a  blanket  were  laid  across  its  back.  This. hist 
Miecies  has  been  named  Fannin's  sheep.  All 
these  sheep  breed  once  a  year,  at  the  beginning 
of  warm  weather,  usually  producing  two  \a& 
at  a  birth.  They  are  hardly  separable  from  the 
argalis  of  northeastern  Asia,  and  doubtless  aU 
are  descendants  from  the  same  primitive  stock. 
Consult  fiaillie-Grohman,  'Fifteen  Years'  Sport 
and  Life  in  the  Hunting  Grounds  of  Western 
America'  f  1900)  ;  Mayer,  'Sport  with  Rod  and 
Gun*  (1892) ;  Roosevelt.  'Hunting  Trips  of  a 
Ranchman'   (1883).    See  also  Sheep. 

BIG  HORN  MOUNTAINS.  This  out- 
lying range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  extends 
north  through  the  north-central  oart  of  Wyo- 
ming and  terminates  in  southern  Montana.  Its 
length  is  about  120  miles  and  width  varies 
from  30  to  SO  miles.  It  is  a  rugged  barrier 
between  the  Great  Plains  on  the  east  and  Big- 
horn Basin  on  the  west,  above  both  of  whioi 
its  higher  portions  rise  7,000  to  9,000  feet.  Its 
highest  summit,  Qoud  Peak,  is  13,!6S_feet 
above  sea-level.  Several  small  glaciers  lie  in 
the  shadow  of  the  higher  peaks  and  formerly 
these  ice  masses  were  of  considerably  greater 
extent.  The  mountains  are  due  to  a  gjeat  up- 
lift in  the  earth's  crust,  an  arch  whose  crest 
has  been  truncated  by  erosion,  leaving  an  ele-, 
vated  central  area  of  Archxan  granite  with 
flanking  ridges  of  Cambrian,  Oroovician  and 
Carboniferous  sandstone  and  limestone.  The 
central  area  of  granite  presents  remarkably 
fine  Alpine  scenery,  and  all  through  the  moun- 
tains are  large  running  streams  teeming  with 
trout  Most  of  the  higher  region  is  heavily 
forested  and  is  embraced  in  the  Bif^om  For- 
est Reservation.  No  important  mineral  re- 
sources have  been  developed.  For  description, 
coasilt  United  States  Geolo^^cal  Survey,  foliok 


gle 


BIO  HORN  RIVER— BIGAMY 


BIG  HORH  RIVER,  a  river  of  Montana 
and  Wyoming.  It  rises  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains near  Fremont's  Peak,  and  flows  northeast 
into  the  Yellowstone.  Along  its  course  is  some 
of  the  grandest  mountain  scenery  in  the  world. 
It  is  navigable  in  its  lower  course,  has  a  total 
length  of  about  450  miles  and  drains  an  area 
of  approximately  20,000  square  miles.  At  its 
junction    with    uie    IJttle    Big   Horn    is    Fort 

BIG  JAW,  or  LUMPY  JAW.  See  Acri- 
NOM  y  costs. 


the  Pere  Marquette  and  other  importaat 
roads,  56  miles  north  of  Grand  Rapida.  The 
river  is  here  dammed  in  two  places,  providing 
a  very  valuable  water-power.  The  city  has  the 
Holly  system  of  waterworks  and  an  extensive 
trade  in  lumber  and  manufactures  of  furni- 
ture, sash,  doors  and  blinds,  coiled  elm  hoops, 
shingles,  veneer,  etc  Among  the  noteworOiv 
thstitutions  is  the  Ferris  Industrial  School. 
There  are  daily  and  weekly  newspapers,  a  pri- 
vate bank,  several  hotels,  a  pubhc  hbraiy,  hos- 
pital, theatre  and  courthouse,  fi^  Rapids  was 
settled  in  1859  and  incorporated  as  a  city  in 
1869.  It  is  now  governed  under  the  commis- 
sion-manager plan.    Pop.  5,000, 

BIG  SANDY  RIVER,  a  stream  forming 
the  boundarv  between  West  Vir^nia  and  Ken- 
tucl^  and  fjowing  into  the  Ohio,  having  two 
confluent  forks,  Tug  Fork  that  rises  in  West 
Virginia,  and  West  Fork  that  rises  in  Kentucky. 
For  small  or  flat-bottomed  boats  100  miles  of 
its  lower  course  are  navigable.  Portions  of 
die  area  which  it  drains  (over  4,000  square 
miles)  have  long  been  regarded  as  of  special 
interest  on  account  of  their  mineral  products. 
BIG  SIOUX,  soo,  a  stream  of  South  Da- 
kota, uniting  with  the  Missouri  about  two  miles 
above  Sioux  City,  after  a  course  of  300  miles. 
BIG  SISTERS,  The.  This  movement  was 
incorporated  on  12  June  1912.  It  was  organ- 
ized about  three  years  prior  to  this  date  by 
Mrs.  Wm.  K.  Vanderbilt.  It  is  a  movement 
to  enlist  the  personal  interest  in  behalf  of  un- 
fortunate girls  (particularly  those  coming  be- 
fore the  Qiildren's  Court)  and  also  small  chil- 
dren brought  before  the  court  because  of  im- 
proper guardianship.  There  is  a  stalT  of  three 
Slid  workers,  supplemented  by  the  volunteer 
ig  Sisters  who,  throi^h  their  personal  inter- 
est, try  to  give  to  the  Little  Sisters  friendship 
and  opportunities  which  are  their  due,  thereby 
laying  the  foundation  for  better  citizenship. 
When  a  ^rl  is  brought  before  the  court  an 
endeavor  is  made  to  find  the  cause  of  the  dif- 
ficulty and  then,  with  the  co-operation  oE  the 
parents  or  of  an^  possible  social  or  religious 
agenc];,  the  Big  Sister  endeavors  so  to  change 
conditions  as  to  make  them  constructive  and 
not  destructive.  The  organization  is  supported 
entirely  by  voluntary  contributions. 


road  being  situated  here.  It  carries  on  an 
active  trade  in  live-stock,  hides,  fruit,  lumber, 
cotton  and  agricultural  products.  Extensive 
deposits  of  salt  are  found  underlyii^  the  region 
and  in  the  neighborhood  is  the  great  spring  for 
which  the  town  is  named.  The  dty  contains 
cotton  gins,  an  ice  plant,  fine  school  haildinKs, 
a  hospital  and  public  library.  The  waterwoncs 
are  the  property  of  the  dty.    Pop.  4,102. 

BIG  STONE  GAP,  Va.,  town  in  Wise 
County,  175  miles  southwest  of  Cbarlestoti,  on 
the  Louisville  and  Nashville  and  the  Vir^nia 
and  Southwestern  railroads.     The  I 


BIO  SPRING,  Texas,  town  and  county- 
seat  of  Howard  Counhr.  270  miles  west  of  Fort 
Worth,  on  the  Texas  &  Pacific  Railroad.  It  is 
of  importance  as  a  rxilroad  town,  the  division 
^ops  and  offices  of  the  Teaus  &  Paci£c  Rail- 


Itmber  and  mining  interests  but  is  chiefly  a 
place  of  residence.    Pop.  2,590. 

BIG  STONE  LAKE,  a  body  of  water  on 
the  boundary  between  South  Dakota  and  Min- 
nesota, drained  by  the  Minnesota  River.  It  is 
about  25  miles  long. 

BIG  TREES.    See  Seqdoia. 

BIG  WOODS,  a  wooded  tract  m  the 
southeast  part  of  Minnesota,  extending  south 
from  Saint  Cloud  to  Le  Sueur,  where  it  crosses 
the  Minnesota  and  sends  branches  toward  Fari- 
bault and  Uanhato.  It  is  100  miles  long  and 
from  10  to  40  miles  wide,  covering  5,000  square 
miles,  four-fifths  of  which  lie  north  of  the 
Minnesota.  This  great  belt  of  hardwood  tim- 
ber is  one  of  the  most  valuable  forests  in  the 
West 

BIGAHY,  in  the  canon  law,  means  being 
twice  married;  in  the  common  acceptation  of 
the  word,  as  a  term  of  ordinary  law,  it  means 
the  being  married  to  two  wives  or  husbands  at 
the  same  time.  The  laws  relating  to  plurality 
of  wives  or  husbands  mi^t  be  supposed  to 
come  strictly  under  the  head  of  polygamy;  but, 
as  it  constitutes  an  offense  against  these  laws 
to  have  more  than  one  husband  or  wife,  they 
are  usually  brought  under  that  of  bigamy.  The 
laws  of  every  civilized  society  make  some  pro- 
vision respecting  this  subject.  By  the  statute 
of  4  Edward  I,  stat.  3,  cap.  5,  the  marrying  of 
a  second  husband  or  wife,  the  first  bdng  :Jive, 
was  made  felony;  and  by  that  of  2  James  I, 
cap.  11,  this  crime  was  made  punishable  by 
death.  But  the  same  statute  provided  that, 
where  dther  party  was  absent  beyond  seas  for 
seven  years,  whether  known  or  not  known  to 
the  other  party  to  be  alive,  or  was  absent, 
though  not  bej^ud  seas,  for  the  same  period 
and  not  known  by  the  other  party  to  be  alive, 
the  other  party  was  at  liberty  to  marry  again. 
Now,  however,  one  of  the  parries  is  not  neld 
guiltless  unless  the  other  was  absent  continu- 
ously for  seven  years  and  was  not  Icnown  to 
be  aUve.  The  penalty  has  been  lessened  l^ 
subsequent  enactments,  and  the  guilty  party  is 
now  hable  to  penal  servitude  for  seven  years 
or  not  less  than  five,  or  to  be  imprisoned,  with 
or  without  hard  labor,  for  not  more  than  two. 
Every  person  aiding  or  abetring  the  bigamist  is 
held  to  be  equally  guilty  and  may  recdve  the 
same  punishment  Bv  a  Scotrish  statute  of 
1551  bi^my  was  made  punishable  as  perjury 
—  that  IS,  with  confiscation  of  ^oods,  imprison- 
ment and  infamy;  now  impnsonment  is  the 
usual  sentence,  bnt  in  some  cases  penal  servp- 
tude  is  inflicted.  If  the  accused  had  reasonable 
ground  for  bdieving  the  first  spome  dead,  be 


is  not  guiify  oi  the  crime;  and  if  (he  first 
raarriaBc  was  void, for  any  reasou  or  dissolved 
by  divorce,  the  aacond  is  not  bigamous.  In 
Scottish  law,  too,  it  is  not  necessary  that  either 
marriage  should  be  regular  for  bigamy  to  be 
committed.  The  statute  of  James  I  has  been 
adopted  in  most  of  the  United  States  as  to  the 
description  of  the  crime,  but  ttie  State  laws 
pcneF^ty  differ  from  it  as  to  the  penalty,  hav- 
ing assioned,  heretofore,  instead  of  death,  as 
provided  by  the  En^isn  statute,  the  punish- 
ment of  imprisonment  and  hard  labor  for  a 
number  of  yi:ars,  according  to  the  discretion  o£ 
others  leaving  it  to  the  verdict  of 


thejury  to  fix  the  period  of  imsnisonmest. 

The  New  York  statutes  against  bigamy  a 

subsiantially  similar  to   those  in  nearly  aU  t 


States  of  the  Union.  These  statutes  provide 
that  any  person  who,  having  a  husband  or  wife 
living,  marries  another  person,  is  guilty  of  big- 
amj;  and  is  punishable  in  State's  prison  or  a 
penitentiary  for  not  more  than  five  years.  The 
statute  does  not  extend  to  a  person  whose 
former  husband  or  wife  has  been  absent  for 
five  years  successively,  without  being  known  to 
him  or  her  within  that  time  to  be  living  and 
believed  by  him  or  her  to  be  dead,  or  to  a 
person  whose  former  marriage  has  been  pro- 
nounced void  or  annulled  or  dissolved  by  the 
i'udgment  of  a  court  of  competent  jurisdiction 
or  a  cause  other  than  his  ot  her  adultery,  or  to 
a  person  who,  being  divorced  for  his  or  her 
adultery,  has  received  from  the  court  which 
pronounced  the  divorce  permission  to  marry 
a^ain,  or  to  a  person  whosefonner  husband  or 
wife  has  been  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for 
life.  A  person  who  knowingly  enters  into  a 
marriage  with  another  which  is  prohibited  to 
the  Utter  by  the  statute  is  punishable  by  im- 
prisonment for  not  more  than  five  years,  or  by 
a  fine  of  not  more  than  Jl.OOO.  or  both.  Consult 
Stephen,  'Digest  of  the  Criminal  Law*  (5th 
ed.,  London  1894)  ;  Phillmore.  'Ecclesiastical 
Law  of  the  Church  of  England*  (London, 
1895);  Eversley,  'Law  of  the  Domestic  Rela- 
tions*  (London  1896). 

BIGELOW,  Edith  Evelyn  (Taffray), 
American  novelist:  b.  New  York,  23  Dec,  1861; 
married  Poultney  Bigelow  (q.v.)  1884.  She 
has  published  'Kplomatic  Enchantments*  and 
several  novelettes. 

BIGBLOW,  Edward  Fuller,  American 
editor  and  naturalist:  b.  Colchester,  Omih,  14 
Jan,  1860.  He  received  his  preparatory  education 
at  Bacon  Academy,  Colchester;  was  a  special 
student  at  the  Biological  Laboratory,  Yale  Uni- 
versity. 1896-97;  student  at  the  Biological  Lab- 
oratory, Cold  Spring  Harbor,  I-  I,,  1899;  also 
studied  at  Nature  Study  School,  Cornell  Univer- 
sity; A.M.,  Ph.D.,  Taylor  Uoiversi(y,  1899.  Ho 
was  editor  of  nature  and  science  departments  of 
SainI  Nicholas  Magaxiru  1900-14;  is  now  edi- 
tor of  The  Guide  to  Nature;  was  editor  of 
Popular  Science  for  three  years,  of  the  Ob- 
server eight  years  and  of  weekly  and  daily 
newspapers  in  Connecticut  for  eight  years. 
For  10  years  he  was  a  teachei*  in  pubfic  schools, 
most  of  that  time  as  principal  of  graded 
schools.  For  the  past  25  years  he  has  taken 
,iral 


diana,  Iowa,  etc.;  is  the  inventor  of  chemicai 
tablets  for  the  artificial  nutriment  of  plants 
(1901)  and  of  an  echicaticmal  bee-hive  (1905); 
was  elected  president  of  the  Agassiz  Associa- 
tion (1907).  Pnblicatitms,  <Bigelow's  Descrip- 
tive Plant  Analysis' ;  'How  Nature  Study 
Should  Be  Taught';  "Walking,  A  Fine  Art'; 
■The  Spirit  of  Nature  Study*  (1907). 

BIGBLOW,  Braatos  Brigham,  American 
inventor:  b.  West  Boylston,  Mass.,  2  April 
1814;  d.  Boston,  6  Dec.  1879.  His  name  ts 
prominent  in  the  early  development  of  the 
American  tcxdle  industries,-  his  inventions  in- 
cluding looms  for  suspender  weblnng,  pipping 
cord,  knotted  counterpanes,  carpets,  coach 
laces,  etc.  He  was  also  Mie  of  the  orifpnal 
incorporators  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology.  He  wrote  'The  Tariff  Questions 
Considered  in  Regard  to  the  Policy  ot  England- 
and  the  Interest  of  the  United  States'  (1863). 

BIGELOW,  Frank  Hagar  American 
clergyman  and  meteorologist :  b.  Concord, 
Mass.,  28  Aw  1851.  He  was  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1873  and  at  the  Episcopal  Theo- 
logical School  at  Cambridge  in  1880;  was  or- 
dained in  1880.  He  was  assistant  astronomer 
at  the  observatory  in  C6rdoba,  Argentina 
(1873-76  and  1881-83)  and  afterward  was  suc- 
cessively professor  or  mathematics  in  Racine 
Cxjllege  (Wisconsin)  (1849-89)  and  assistant 
in  the  Nautical  Almanac  ofiice,  Washington,  D. 
C.  In  1891  he  was  appointed  a  professor  of 
meteorology  in  the  United  Stales  Weather 
Bureau,  and  in  1894  professor  of  solar  physics 
at  the  Columbia  University.  He  also  became, 
in  1891,  assistant  rector  of  Saint  John's  Church, 
Washington,  and  in  1898  was  president  of  the 
Washington  Phitosophical  Society.  In  1904  he 
was  made  a  member  of  the  International  Com- 
mission on  Solar  Physics  and  Meteorology. 
He  became  professor  of  meteorology  at  the' 
Argentine  Meteorological  Office  in  1910,  and 
■      1915  director  of  the  Pilar  Solar  and  Mag- 


yearly,  about  4.500  boys  and  girls 
oistory  excursions.     He  has  been  i: 


transits  and  endeavored  to  prove  a  connection 
betwrtn  terrestrial  magnetism,  the  aurora  and 
the  solar  corona.  ■  He  published  an  important 
monograph  on  the  'Solar  Corona*  (1899); 
'Studies  on  the  TTiermodynamics  of  the  At- 
mosphere* n907) ;  and  bulletins  on  evapora- 
tion, the  raoiation  of  the  atmosphere  and  syn- 
chronism between  solar  phenomena  and  terres- 
trial meteorology  (1911-13);  'The  Daily  Nor- 
mal Temperature  and  the  Daily  Normal  Pre- 
dpitation  of  the  United  States'  (I90S)  ;  'Treat- 
ise on  Atmospheric  Circulation  and  Radiation' 
(1915). 

BIGELOW,  Jacob,  American  physician ; 
b.  Sudbury,  Mass.,  27  Feb.  1787;  d.  Boston,  10 
Jan.  1879.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege 1806  and  began  medical  practice  in  Boston 
in  1810.  He  early  became  known  as  a  botanist, 
and  a  number  of  plants  were  named  for  him 
by  Sir  E.  J.  Smith  in  the  supplement  to  'Rees* 
Cyclopaedia,*  by  Schradcr,  in  Germany,  and  De 
CandoUe  in  France.     He  founded  Mount  Au- 


I  1816-27.     His  works  include   'Useful  Arts 


Considered  in  Connection  with  the  Apidications 
of  Science'  (1840);  'Flonila  Bostoniensis' 
(1824);  "American  Medical  Botany'  (1817-20); 
•Nature  in  EHsease'  (1854)  ;  <A  Brief  Exposi- 
tion of  Rational  Medidne';  'The  Paradise  of 
Doctors,  a  Fable'  (1858)  ;  'History  of  Mount 
Aubnrn'  (I860}  ;  'Modern  Inquiries,'  and  <Re- 
marks  on  Classical  Studies'  (1867). 

BIGBLOW,  John,  American  author:  b. 
Maiden,  N.  Y.,  25  Nov.  1817;  d.  1911.  He  was. 
graduated  at  Union  College  in  1835,  and  became 
first  a  lawyer  and  afterward  a  journalisL  In 
1845-46  he  was  inspector  of  Sing  Sing  prison; 
in  1849-61  one  of  the  editors  of  the  New  York 
Evening  Post;  in  1861-64  United  States  consul- 

feneral  at  Paris,  and  in  1864-^  Minister  to 
lance.  He  was  secretary  of  State  of  New 
York  1875-77.  From  August  1886  he  was  one 
of  the  three  trustees  and  on  27  May  1895  was 
elected  president  of  the  consolidated  board  of 
trustees,  and  acpoiatcd  chainnari  of  the  execu- 
tive committee  of  the  New  York  Public 
Library,  Astor,  Lenox  and  Tilden  FouudationG. 
His  works  include  'Molinos  the  Quietist'- 
'France  and  the  Confederate  Navy';  'Life  of 
William  Cullen  Bryant' ;  'Life  of  Samuel  J. 
Tilden';  'Some  Recollections  of  Edouard  La- 
boulaye';  'The  Mystery  of  Sleep';  'A  Life  of 
Franklin.'  In  1885  he  published  'The  Writ-' 
ings  and  Speeches  of  Samuel  J.  Tilden,'  and 
in  1888,  'The  Complete  Works  of  Benjamin 
Franklin.'  Consult  Bigelow,  J.,  'Retrospec- 
tions of  An  Active  Life*  (2  vols..  New  York 
1909), 

BIGELOW,  John,  American  military  of- 


BIGZLOW,  Hatufee  Alpbeiu,  Amerkao 
Nologist:  b.  Milford  Centre.  Ohio,  8  Dec  1872. 
Graduating  from  Harvard  University,  he  be- 
came instructor  in  biolo^  at  Ohio  Wesleyan 
continuing  in  this  t^^ition  at  Northwestern 
University  the  following  year.  In  1899  he  was 
appointed  instructor  in  biology  at  Columbia 
University,  becoming  professor  in  1907.  Be- 
sides being  editor  of  the  Nature  Study  Reviem, 
from  1905  until  1911,  he  has  written  'The  ' 
Early  DevelMiment  of  Lepas'  (1902);  'The 
Teaching  of  Zoology  in  the  Secondary  School' 
(1904);  'Applied  Bioli^'  (1911);  T'eacher's 
Manual  of  Biology'  (1911);  'Introduction  to 
Biology'    (1913). 

BIQELOW,  Helvllle  Uadiwn,  American 
lawyer:  b;  Eaton  Rapids,  Mich.,  2  Aug.  1846. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan 1866  and  in  1870  removed  to  Boston.  He 
received  the  degrte  of  Ph.D.  at  Harvard  1879, 
and  LL.D.  Northwestern  University  1896.  He 
was  lecturer  in  the  law  department  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  and  in  Northwestern  Uni- 
versity Law  School;  was  professor  in  and 
sometime  dean  of  Boston  University  Law 
School,  is  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  His- 
torical Society,  and  of  Harvard  Chapter  Phi 
Beta  Kappa ;  fellow  of  the  American  Academy 
of  Arts  and  Sciences.  His  works  include  'The 
Law  of  Estoppel'    (1872) ;   'Leading  Cases  in 


(8th  ed„   1907) ;    'PtadW  Anglo- Normannica' 
(1879) ;      'History     of     English     Procedure' 
(1880)  ;  'The  Law  of  Fraudulent  Conveyances' 
_       _     „    _     _  (2d  ed.,  1911);  'The  Law  of  Bills.  Notes  and 

ficer  and  author,  son  o'f  the  preceding;  b.'New      Cheques*  (2d  ed.,  1900) ;  'The  Law  of  Wills' 
York.  12  May  1854.    He  was  educated  in  Paris.      (1898);   joint  author   'Centralization   and  the 
T>___    „__,=_    r.__.L___    __.  „_     :,.         ^    ,-•      La^)   i\90ty.  'A  False  Equation— The  Prob- 
lem of  the  Great  Trust'    (1911).     His  works 


Bonn,  Berlin,  Freiberg,  and  Providence,  R.  1.; 


Academy  in  1877;  and  was  assigned  to  the  lOth 
United  States  Cavalry.  In  1887-89  was 
adjutant-general  of  militia  in  the  District  of 
Columbia;  and  in  1894-^98,  professor  of  miUtary 
science  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology. During  the  war  with  Spain  he  was 
wounded  in  the  attack  on  San  Juan,  Cuba,  I 

July  1898.  He  retired  from  active  service  at 
is  own  request  in  1904.  From  1904  to  1910  he 
was  professor  of  Frefich  at  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology,  and  from  1906  to  1910, 
in  active  militaiy  service  on  the  staff  of  the 
governor  of  Massachusetts.  He  published 
'Mars-la-Tour  and  Gravelotte'  (1884);  'Prin- 
ciples of  Stfate^,  Illustrated  Mainly  from 
American  Campaigns'  (rev.  ed,  1894);  'Rem- 
iniscences of  the  Sanliago  Campaien'  (1899)  ; 
'The  Campaign  of  Chancellorsville'  (1910); 
'American  Policy,  the  Western  Hemispnere  in 
Its  Relation  to  the  Eastern'  (1914) ;  'World 
Peace,  How  War  Cannot  Be  Abolished,  How 
It  Possibly  May  Be  Abolished'   (1915). 

BIGELOW.    Marshall    Train.    American 

G inter  and  proofreader:  b.  South  Nalick, 
ass.,  S  Oct.  1822;  d.  Cambridge,  Mass..  28 
Dee.  1902.  In  1843  he  became  associated  with 
the  University  Press  in  Cambridge,  the  firm 
name  of  which  from  1859  to  1879  was  Welch. 
Bigelow  &  Company.  He  was  long  classed  as 
one  of  the  most  competent  <>{  American  proof- 
readers. He  published  'Punctuation  and  Other 
Typoirraphic  Matters'  (1881);  'Mistakes  in 
Writing  English  and  How  to  Avoid  Them* 
(1886). 


BIGELOW,  Poultney,  American  author: 
b.  New  York  (son  of  John  Bigelow)  10  Sept 
1855.  After  a  cosmopolitan  training  in  die 
United.  States  France  and  (^nnany  where 
Emperor  William  II  was  his  fellow  pupil  in 
1871-7Z  their  friendship  persisting  until  1896, 
when  the  Jameson  raid  ranged  Mr.  Biselow  in 
political  opposition  to  the  anti-Englisn  poficv 
of  Germany,  he  was  graduated  at  me  Norwicn 
Academy  1873.  at  Yale  University  1879.  and 
from  the  Columbia  Law  School  1882.  In  1875- 
76  he  made  a  voyage  around  the  world  in  a 
sailing-^p  which  was  wrecked  on  the  coast 
of  Japan.  Admitted  to  the  bar  in  1882,  be 
abandoned  the  law,  after  a  few  years,  for 
journalism  and  travel  in  Cliina,  Africa,  the 
West  Indies,  Borneo,  Australia,  New  Guinea, 
Russia  and  India,  the  while  collecting  material 
for  studies  on  colonisation.  He  was  the  first 
to  take  a  canoe  through  the  Iron  Gates  of  the 
Danube  and  was  the  founder  and  first  editor  of 
Outing,  the  first  American  magazine  of 
amateur  outdoor  sport  1885-87;  was  lecturer  at 
principal  universities  on  modem  history  and 
colomal  administration ;  was  correspondent  of 
the  London  Times  in  the  Spanish- American  . 
War  1898.  In  1906  he  returned  from  his  4th 
voyage  round  the  world  and  retired  to  Malden- 
on-Hudson,  the  birthplace  of  his  father,  where 
he  devotes  his  time  to  rural  and  literary  mir- 
suits.     He  has  pnbUshed    'The  (icraian    Em- 


BXOSLOW — BtGOB- 


Politics  <k)wn  tfae  Danube*  ()8<)2);  <Tbe  Boi 
derland  of  Czar  and  Kaiser'  (1894),  in  gatber- 
tng  the  materials  for  which,  he  was  expelled 
from  the  Rusnan  Etnpird:  'History  of  the 
rL Ct 1-  I—  t  :i 1..I    lA :i.     laofL. 


__, .     s  Africa'   (1898), 

aod  <PnUMan  Memories'  (1915). 

BIGBLOW,  Robert  Payne,  American 
zoologist;  b.  BaldwlttsTille,  N.  V.,  10  Jt^tfi63. 
He  was  gradtiBted  at  Harvard  in  \w  and 
studied  at  Johns  Ho^ns  1889-93.  In  1893  he 
became  instructor  in  biology  at  the  Massa- 
chasetts  Institute  of  Technology;  was  made 
librarian  in  1805,  assistant  prDfessor  in  1912, 
and  associate  professor  in  191S.  He  has  writ- 
ten a  number  of  i»pers  on  zoological  subjects 
and  contributed  articles  to  the  Referenee  Hand- 
book of  the  Medical  Sciences  190(W>*,  and  1913. 

BIGBLOW,  Samuel  Lawrence,  American 
chemist:  b.  Boston,  23  Feb.  1870.  Graduating 
from  Harvard  and  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology,  he  took  a  post  graduate  course 
at  Leipiig.  After  serving  as  instructor  at  the 
University  of  Michigan  from  1898  until  1901,  he 
became  acting  director  of  the  laboratory  of  gen- 
eral chemistry.  In  1907  be  was  made  professor 
of  chemistry  in  the  same  institution.  Among 
his  works  axe  'Denatured  Alcohol'  (1907); 
'Theoretical  and  Physical  Chemistry'  (1912). 

BIGBLOW,  Timothy,  American  military 
officer:  b.  Worcester,  Uass,  12  Aug.  1739;  a. 
there,  31  Uarch  1790.  He  was  a  blacksmith  by 
trade,  was  a  member  of  the  Provincial  Congress 
of  1774-75  and  on  23  May  1775  he  led  a  com- 
pany of  minute-men  to  Cambridge,  and  became 
major  in  Ward's  regimeRt.  He  was  under  Ar- 
nold in  the  expedition  to  Quebec  in  1775,  and 


a  the  capture  of  Burgoyne.  He  also  saw  serv- 
ice at  Valley  Forge,  Monmouth,  West  Point 
and  Yorktown.  ■ 

BIGBLOW,  Timothy,  American  hiwyer 
(son  of  the  preceding)  :  b.  Worcester,  Mass..  30 
April  1767;  d.  18  May  1821.  He  was  gradnated 
at  Harvard  College  in  1786,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  and  settled  in  practice  at  Grolon,  Mass., 
in  1789.  He  took  an  active  part  in  politics  as 
a  Federalist,  was  for  20  years  a  member  of  the 
State  legislature,  and  II  years  speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives,  and  a  member  of  the 
Hartford  Convention.  In  1807  he  removed  to 
Medford,  and  kept  an  office  in  Boston.  His 
legal  standing  and  practice  were  at  the  head  of 
his  profession  in  his  time;  and  in  the  course  of 
32  years,  he  was  supposed  to  have  ai^iued  10,000 


pointed  assistant  professor  of  chemistry 
Oregon  State  College.  In  1891  be  became 
chemist  in  the  Bureau  of  Chemistry  io  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture;  10 
years  later  he  was  chief  of  the  Division  of 
Foods  and  in  1903  he  was  assistant  chief  of  the 
BureatL  On  account  of  the  resignation  of  his 
chief,  Harvey  W.  Wiley,  he  resigned  from  this 
position  in  1913.  Since  then  he  has  been  chief 
chemist  of  the  National  Cannera'  Assoctaiion. 


Of  the  btdletiBB  issued  by  the  Bmrau  he  has 

written  'Pure  Food  Laws  of  European  Coun- 
tries affecting  American  Exports'  (.\Wl); 
'Preserved  Meats'  (190Z) ;  'Foods  and  Food 
Control'  (1902-04);  'Tin  Salts  in  Canned 
Foods  of  Low  Add  Content'   (1911). 

BIGOAR,  Hamflton  Fiak,  Can  atKan  physi- 
cian: b,  OJtville,  Ontario,  15  March  1839.  He 
was  educated  at  Victoria  University,  and  pur- 
sued his  medical  studies  at  the  University  of 
Medicine  and  Surgery,  Oeveland,  Ohio.  In 
1856  he  began  practice  in  Oeveland,  and  in 
1867  was  made  orofcssor  of  anatomy  and  clini- 
cal snrgery  in  tne  Homceopathic  Hospital  Col- 
lege there.  Later  he  was  for  10  years  professor 
of  clinical  sureery.  with  operations  in  the  same 
college.  In  1900  he  held  the  chair  of  surgical 
diseases  of  woRKn  and  clinical  surgery.  Dr. 
Biggar  founded  the  Cleveland  Training  School 
for  Nurses,  where  he  was  dean  for  10  years. 
He  wrote  'Twelve  Months  of  Surgery' ; 
'Loiterings  in  Europe,'  etc. 

BIGGAR,  Hcnij  Perceval.  Canadian  his- 
torical writer;  b.  Carrying  Place,  Ontario,  9 
Aug.  187Z  He  was  educated  at  BelleviUe  Public 
School,  and  the  universities  of  Toronto   (B,A. 


versity  1900-02.  In  1907  he  was  appointed 
Earopean  representative  of  the  Canadian 
Archives.  He  is  the  author  of  'Hie  Early 
Trading  Companies  of  New  France'  (Toronto 


1497-1503'  (Paris  1903):  'The  Precursors  of 
Jacques  C:artier,  1497~lSi4';  <A  Collection  of 
Documents  relating  to  the  Early  History  of 
Canada'    (Ottawa  1911). 

BIGGS,  Ask,  American  jurist:  b.  Williams- 
ton.  N.  C,  4Peb.  1811;  d.  Norfolk,  Va.,  6 
March  1878.  He  received  an  academical  educa- 
tion, and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1S31,  He 
was  a  member  of  the  North  Carolina  Constitu- 
tional Convention  in  1835 ;  was  elected  to  the 
State  legislature  in  1840^  1842  and  1844;  was  a 
member  of  the  commission  appointed  to  revise 
the  State  statutes  in  1850,  ana  was  again  sent 
to  the  legislature  in  IS54.  In  1854  he  was 
elected  United  States  senator;  resiened  in  1858, 
and  was  appointed  judge  of  the  United  States 
District  Court  of  Norm  Carolina. 

BIQG8,  Henaaim  Michael,  American  phy^ 
stctan :  b.  Trtmiansburg^  N.  V.,  29  Sejit.  18J9. 
Ha  was  educated  at  Cornell  University  and 
fiellevue  Hospital  Medical  College.  In  1885  be 
was  appMnted  professor  of  patbolonral  anat- 
otny  in  the  latter  institution.  In  lw2  he  he- 
ctor of  the  bacterio- 

3rcart  later  he  was 

appointed  general  medical  officer  of  the  de- 
partment of  hc«M]  of  New  York.  In  1907  be 
became  associate  professor  of  medicine  at  the 
Belle  vue  Hospital  Meihcal  College.  Aside 
from  this  he  Was  also  director  of  the  Rocke- 
feller Institute  for  Medical  Research,  In  1913 
he  was  made  chief  of  a  board  of  experts  formed 
to  investigate  health  conditions  in  the  State  of 
New  Yoix  and  the  following  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed State  Commissioner  of  Health.  He 
has  written  'The  Administrative  Control  of 
Tnbercukisi*'    (19W);    <An  Ideal  Healttj)*. 


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BIGLOW — BIOHON 


BIGLOW,  WillUm,  American  educator 
and  poet:  b.  Natick,  Mass.,  22  Sept.  1773;  d. 
Boston,  12  Jan.  1S44.  He  was  first  established 
as  a  teacher  in  Salem,  and  in  1799  delivered  a 
poem  on  education  before  the  Phi  Beta  Ka.ppa 
Society  at  Cambridge.  He  then  took  charge  of 
the  Latin  school,  Boston,  preaching  occasionally, 
writing  for  dtRcrent  periodicals,  and  publish- 
ing eoucational  textbooks.  Here  he  fell  a  vic' 
tim  to  intemperate  habits  and  was  compelled  to 
retire  to  his  home  in  NaticL  In  this  state  of 
his  fortunes  it  was  bis  habit  to  lounge  about 
the  newspaper  offices  at  Boston,  write  poetiy 
for  his  friends,  the  editors,  while  the  humor 
lasted,  and  then  return  to  his  rural  retreat.  He 
taught,  also,  a  village  school  in  Maine,  and  in 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  was  em;)Ioyed  as  a 
proofreader  in  the  university  printing  office  at 
Cambridge.  He  had  a  genial  ana  pleasant 
humor,  and  was  a  ready  versifier,  as  well  as  an 
agreeable  prose-writer.  His  'Cheerful  Parson* 
and  others  of  has  songs  were  much  admired 
by  his  contemporaries  and  are  well  worthy  of 
remembrance.  He  also  published,  in  1830,  a 
•History  of  the  Town  of  Natick,'  and  one  of 
Sherburne,  Mass.  But  his  best  and  most 
numerous  writings  were  in  periodicals,  the  VU~ 
iage  Mestenger,  of  Amherst,  N.  H.,  which  he 
edited  in  1796,  the  Federal  Orrery,  and  Massa- 
chusetts Magasine. 

BIGLOW  PAPERS,  The.  Lowell's  mas- 
terpiece, 'The  Bigiow  Papers,'  one  of  the  most 
delightful  books  ever  written  by  an  American, 
embodies  the  best  humorous  and  satirical  verse 
since  Byron.  The  papers,  first  and  second 
series,  are  made  up  ot  one  prose  paper  and  of 
19  poems  in  a  variety  of  metres,  aggre- 
gating about  3,800  lines,  and  Ireat  to^KS  sug- 
gested by  the  Mexican  and  the  Civil  Wars. 
They  are  written  in  Yankee  dialect,  and  pur- 
port to  be  the  spontaneous  effusions  of  a  cer- 
tain Hosea  Billow,  a  rustic  political  philosopher 
and  an  astonishingly  ready  versifier,  and  are 
edited  for  publication  by  his  friend  and  pastor, 
Uie  Rev.  Homer  Wilbur.  Though  the  papers 
vary  greatly  in  length,  subject  matter  and  tone, 
they  produce  a  remarkablv  uniform  impres- 
sion. The  first  series  was  inspired  by  Lowell's 
indignation  over  the  Mexican  War,  white  he 
was  in  the  midst  of  his  labors  on  the  National 
Anti-Siavery  Standard.  Five  numbers  were 
printed  in  the  BostMi  Courier,  beginning  June 
1846,  and  ihe  four  remaining  numbers  were 
printed  in  the  Atiti-Slavery  Standard,  ending 
September  1847.  All  were  anonymous.  Lowell 
himself  was  astonished  at  .the  success  of  his 
verses,  which  he  had  regarded  as  mere  }e»x 
ifesprit.  Hosea  Bigiow  became  a  household 
name,  and  it  was  evident  that  the  despised  anti- 
davery  cause  had  found  a  powerful  champion. 
When  the  iirsi  series  was  published  in  book 
form  in  184^  with  the  name  of  the  author, 
Lowell  became  famous.  Fourteen  years  later, 
urged  by  his  friends  and  in  response  (o  a  wide- 
spread public  demand,  he  began  the  second 
series,  the  It  numbers  of  which  were  pub- 
lished in  the  Allanlie  Monlhly  between  January 
1862  and  May  1S66.  These  dealt  with  staven'. 
States'  rights,  the  Civil  War  and  national  pon- 
tics in  general.  Though  the  second  series  ex- 
hilnts  the  same  moral  earnestness,  and  though 


it  cpntains  the  best  single  number  of  all  die 
"Papers'  ('Sunthin  in  the  Pastoral  Lime,"  VI>, 
it  is  perhaps  an  the  whole  not  quite  so  sponta- 
neous and  convincing  as  the  first. 

Ajurt  from  their  humor,  wit,  wisdom  and 
metrical  facility,  'The  Bigiow  Papers'  are  re- 
marlable  ambng  satires  tor  their  creation  of 
real  characters.  Hosea  B^low,  thc'  shrewd, 
humorous,  (rank  critic  of  political  conditions, 
who  together  with  moral  eamestness  possesses 
a  vein  of  sentiment  and  poetry,  is  a  genuine 
Yankee  t^rpe.  Birdofreedom  Samn,  the  clown 
of  the  piece,  an  amusing  and  likaUe  rascal, 
represents  the  same  Yankee  shrewdness,  but 
uncontrolled  by  moral  sense.  The  Rev.  Homer 
Wilbur  emtxMues  the  cautious  element  of  the 
New  England  character,  with  something  of 
*the  harmless  vanity  and  amiable  pedantry  of 
a  certain  type  of  New  &igland  Clergyman.* 
His  elatmrate  introductions  and  notes,  for  all 
their  pedantry  and  verbosity,  are  no  less  delight- 
ful in  their  way,  and  often  no  less  trenciiani, 
than  the  wingid  words  of  the  versifier.  Though 
inconsistently  portrayed,  he  is  not  unworthy  the 
companionsmp  of  the  immortal  Adams  and 
Primrose. 

Lowell's  justification  tor  his  use  of  dialect 
in  'The  Bigiow  Papers'  by  the  pica  that  he 
needed  a  speech  more  racy  than  'literary' 
language,  was  unnecessary;  for  thc  dialect  adds 
meaning  and  point  to  his  satire;  it  is  redolent 
of  the  soil:  it  helps  to  express  both  Hosea  and 
his  race.  Though  Lowell  follows  «Sam  Slick* 
and  other  satirists  in  his  use  of  the  New  Eng- 
land rustic  who  discusses  politics  in  dialect,  he 
so  far  surpasses  his  predecessors  that  he  actually 
now  seems  the  first  to  have  given  to  literature 
the  Yankee  dialect  and  the  Yankee  rustic. 
Again,  'The  Bigiow  Papers'  reveal  Lowell 
himself,  a  great  personality,  fun- loving  and 
fun-nuidn^,  witty,  wise,  fearless  and  patriotic; 
and  also  his  race,  for  he  is  here  the  spokesman 
for  New  England.  With  such  qualities,  the 
'Papers'  have  as  a  whole  lost  little  with  the 
years.  Their  relation  to  their  times  is  plain 
enough  to  the  reader  with  any  knowledge  of 
American  history;  while  theif  satire  on  peren- 
nial political  follies  and  human  foibles  and  their 
essential  poetry  and  humanity,  are  as  fresh  as 
ever.  From  the  first  series,  however,  the  reader 
is  apt  to  prefer  Hosea's  views  on  'recrutin* 
(I).  'B.  Sawin's  first  letter*  (11),  'What  Mr. 
Robinson  Thinks,*  with  its  facile  refrain, 
worthy  of  Gilbert  at  bis  best  (III),  and  *The 
Pious  Editor's  Creed*  <VI)  ;  and  from  the 
second  series,  '"The  Courtin,"  prefixed  to  the 
series  and  independent  of  it;  'Jonathan  to 
John*  (conuined  in  II)  ;  that  most  delightful 
of  New  England  pastorals,  'Sunthin  in  the 
Pastoral  Line*  (Vl),  in  which  sentiment  and 
imagination  have  free  play,  with  little  regard  to 
satire  or  the  general  purtKise  of  die  series;  and 
the  poignant  verses  on  the  price  that  we  pay 
for  liberty  and  peace  (.K).  The  best  edition 
of  'The  Bigiow  Papers'  is  that  contained  U 
the  Cambridge  edition  of  Lowell's  complete 
poetical  works,  edited  by  H.  E.  Scudder, 

Mabion  Tucker, 
Polytechnic  Institute  of  Brooklyn. 

BIGNON,  beti-yoA,  Lonis  Pierre  BdonanL 
French  historian  and  statesman :  b.  La  UeiUe- 
raye,  3  Jan.  1771 ;  d.  Paris.  S  Jan.  1841.  He 
entered  the  Natioiia]  AssemEdy  in  1817;  b 


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BIOHONIA  —  BIJAPUR 


a  peer  of  France  in  1837,  and  wrote  •  'History 
of  France'  (7  vols.,  1827-38).  He  received 
from  Napoleon  1.  a  bequest  of  $20,000. 

BIGNONIA,  the  type  genus  of  tfae  famiW 
Bignomacea,  consisting  of  more  than  100 
spedes  of  mostly  South  American  tropical 
dimbing  shrubs,  many  of  which  are  raised  in 
greenhoases  for  their  ornamental  foliage  and 
handsome  tubular  flowers  of  various  colors. 
Some  species  are  used  as  cordage  in  South 
America  and  are  said  to  be  employed  in  making 
mats,  baskets,  etc.  The  cultivated  species  are 
geneially  of  easy  management  if  given  good 
soil,  pleniy  of  light,  and  space  for  both  roots 
and  tops.  B.  capreolala,  which  has  numerous 
orange-red  flowers,  is  a  common  climber 
throughout  tfae  Soudi  and  as  far  north  as  Mary- 
land. Jn  favorable  soils  and  situations  it  often, 
attains  heights  exceeding  50  feet.  It  is  known 
as  'trumpet-flower*  from  the  shape  of  its  blos- 
soms, and  'cross-vine*  and  ■quarter-vine*  from 
the  appearance  of  the  cross-section  of  its  stem. 
It  is  somoiimes  confounded  with  its  near  rela- 
tion, Tecoma  radUans,  trumpet-vine. 

BIGORDI,  be-gor'-de,  Domenico,  Italian 
painter:  b.  Florence  1146:  d  11  Jan.  1494.  He 
was  nicknamed  Ghirlandajo,  a  name  already 
borne  by  his  father,  Tommaso.  He  studied 
painting  and  mosaics  under  Alesso  Baldovinetti. 
At  the  same  time  he  studied  Uosaccio's  fres- 
coes. After  1480  he  painted  a  'Last  Supper* 
for  the  church  of  Ognisanti,  and  soon  after  he 
undertook  a  series  of  frescoes  in  the  Sasseti 
cfaapet  in  La  Trinita.  Here  he  depicted  the 
principal  scenes  of  the  legend  of  SainI  Francis, 
mtroaucing  manv  iigures  which  the  Florentine 
public  recogniiea  as  some  of  their  well-known 
contemporaries.  He  also  painted  at  this  time 
'The  Adoration  of  the  Shepherds,'  now  in  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts.  His  fame  soon  reached 
Rome  and  he  was  summoned  thither  in  1483,  to 
work  on  the  Sistine  chapel.  Here  he  painted 
'The  Vocation  of  SS.  Peter  and  Andrew*  and 
another  work  now  lost.  At  Rome  he  met 
Francisco  Tomabuoni  who  became  his  patron. 
From  1485  to  1490  he  was  employed  in  repaint- 
ing tfae  choir  chapel  of  Santa  Maria  Novella  at 
Florence.  Here  Michelangelo  was  the  ap- 
prentice of  Bigordi  and  aided  his  master  m 
the  woric  on  the  choir  cbapel,  which  Temains 
one  of  the  most  venerable  monuments  of 
Florence.  The  Ufe  of  this  great  artist,  one  of 
die  most  notable  precursors  of  the  development 
which  was  to  follow,  was  short.  He  died  in 
1494  leaving  several  works  unfinished.  His  two 
brothers  and  his  pupils  undertook  to  finish 
them.  In  fact  several  of  his  paintings  show 
traces  of  a  strange  hand.  Independent  of  the 
works  mentioned  above  there  are  others  de- 
serving of  mention,  such  as  the  'Visitation*  in 
the  Louvre  and  the  'Old  Man  and  Child'  in 
the  Paris  Museum.  Florence  has  several 
works ;  the  convent  of  Saint  Marc's,  now  a 
museum,  contains  a  'Last  Supper';  and  in  the 
church  of  Ognisanti  there  is  a  Saint  Jerome. 
Ghirlandajo's  art  represents  the  highest  tedini- 
cal  development  in  his  century.  As  a  technician 
be  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Florentines. 
He  excelled  in  composition  and  draftsmanship 
and  was  a  good  colonist  but  was  deficient  in 
originality.  Consult  Vasari,  'Lives  of  the 
Pamters'  (10  viJs.,  New  York  1913);  Crowe 
and    Cavalcaselle,     'Histocy    of    Paintaig    in 


Italy'  (London  19Q3) ;  and  the  inonogra.ph  by 
Dkvies  (London  1908). 

BIGOT,  be-g6,  ChariM  Jnlea,  French 
critic:  b.  Paris.  14  Sept.  1840;  d.  1893.  After 
finishing  his  studies  at  the  Ecole  Normale 
and  the  Art  School  at  Athens,  he  entered 
journalism  and  soon  became  known  as  a 
critic.  His  articles  appeared  in  XIX'  SiicU 
and  the  Rniue  Bleu.  Among  his  larger 
works  are  'Les  classes  dirigeantes'  (1876) ; 
'Le  clergi  frangais  devant  la  loi  fran^atse* 
(1877)  ;  <Le  petit  Francais'  (1882)  ;  'Raphael 
et  la  Famesine*  (1884);  'Grice,  Turquie,  le 
Danube'  (1886);  'De  Paris  an  Magara'  (1887). 
His  wife,  Mary  Healey  Bigot,  an  American,  il 
also  well  known  as  a  writer  under  the  pen 
name  of  'Jeaime  Mairet.* 

BIGOT,  Frangois,  French  colonial  admin- 
istrator: b.  Bordeaux,  30  J.an.  1703.  He  be- 
came  commissary  of  marine  at  Rochefort, 
1731 ;  ordonnaieur  at  Louisbourg_  in  1739,  where 
he  began  that  career  of  peculation  which  only 
ended  with  the  ruin  of  French  Canadi.  After 
the  capture  of  Louisbourg  by  the  English,  he 
returned  to  France,  and  was  appointed  intend- 
ant  of  Canada  in  1748.  His  administration  ot 
the  finances  was  marked  by  the  grossest  cor- 
ruption, the  colony  being  exploited  in  the  most 
shameless  way  for  the  benefit  of  himself  and 
bis  associates.  On  his  return  to  France  after 
die  coitquest,  he  was  brought  to  trial,  sentenced 
to  make  restitution  and  to  suffer  banishment; 
but  the  sentence  of  banishment  was  not  carried 
out,  and  he  was  permitted  to  end  his  days  in 
Bordeaux.    The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

BIHAC8,or  BIHATCH,b£-hatch' Bosnia, 
fortress  and  town  on  an  island  of  the  Una, 
about  50  miles  east  of  the  Adriatic.  It 
has  a  low  and  unhealthful  site,  but  is  remark- 
able for  its  strei^.  In  1592  the  Turks  con- 
verted its  (Gothic  church  into  the  Fethija 
Mosque.  The  possession  of  it  has  often  been 
keenly  contested  during  the  Turldsh  wars.  In 
the  autumn  of  1878  tfae  Bosnian  insurgents 
successfully  defended  the  town  against  tho 
Austrians.    Pop.  4,70a 

BIHAR  AND  ORISSA.  India,  a  north- 
eastern province  reconstituted  in  1912  from  tha 
native  states  of  Bihar,  Orissa  and  Chota 
Nagpnr,  formerly  feudatory  to  the  presidency 
of  Bei^  (q.v.).  Total  area  83,181  square 
miles;  population  34,490,184,  comprising  Bihar, 
42,361  square  mile^  23,752,969  population; 
Orissa,  lJ,743  square  miles,  5,131,753  popula- 
tion :  Chota  NagBur,  27,077  square  miles, 
5,605,362  population. 

BIH^  be-ba',  Portuguese  West  Africa,  a 
fruitful  district  lying  east  of  Benguela,  in  the 
colony  of  Angola.  It  is  an  important  caravan 
centre,  as  the  only  route  across  the  continent 
passes  through  it.  Area,  3,900  squares.  Pop. 
95,000. 

BIJAPUR,  bS-ja-n5r',  India,  a  decayed  city 
in  the  Bombay  presidency,  160  miles  soudteast 
of  Poona.  It  was  for  centuries  the  flourishing' 
capital  of  a  powerful  kingdom,  but  fell  there- 
with under  various  dynasties  in  succession, 
Hindu  and  Mussulman,  till  in  16%  It  was  cap- 
tured Tq"  Aurung»ebe.  It  passed,  during  the 
early  part  of  the  18th  century,  into  the  hands 
of  the  Mahrattas,  and  became  British  in  1848. 
Now  that  a.  gradual  decay  has  done  its  worst, 


BIJNa  — BILB1LI8 


.1  the  world.  Lofty  walls  of  hewn  stone,  stfl! 
entire,  enclose  the  sUent  and  desolate  frag- 
ments of  a  once  vast  and  populous  city  With 
the  exception  of  an  ancient  temple,  the  sole 
relic  of  aboriginal  domination,  the  ruins  are 
Mohammedan,  and  consist  of  beautiful 
nxisques,  colossal  tombs,  a  fort,  with  an  inner 
citadel,  a  mile  in  circuit.  The  British  govern- 
ment has  done  everything  to  prevent  further 

BIJNS,  blDz,  Adiu,  Flemish  poet:  b.  Ant- 
werp 1494;  d;  there,  10  April  1575.  She  was 
the  first  Flemish  writer  of  the  16th  centaiy. 
Uuch  admired  for  her  melodious  verses,  full 
of  metaphors  and  showing  ^eat  technical  sldll, 
she  was  styled  the  °Brabantine  Sappfao'  by  her 
contemporaries.  Many  of  her  iKiems  were 
directed  against  Luther  and  his  followers.  The 
first  of  her  volumes  of  collected  verse-  bore  the 
tide  'This  Is  a  Beautiful  and  Truthful  (or 
Sincere)  Little  Book*  while  a  second  is 
known  as  'Spiritual  Refrains.'  Consult  her 
'Schoone  Refereynen  Schruftueren  ende 
Leeringen  teghen  Tall  Kettereyen>  (1528;  with 
commentaries  by  Van  Helten  and  jonckbloct 
1876).  In  1886,  Van  Helten  published  a  collec- 
tion of  94  of  her  other  poems, 

SIKANIR,  be-ka-ner',  India,  a  native  state 
of  Rijput&na,  under  the  superintendence  of  a 
political  agent  and  the  governor-general's  agent 
tor  Rijputina,  lying  between  lat.  27*  12*  and 
30*  12'  N.  and  long.  72'  12'  and  75*  41'  E. ;  area, 
23.311  square  miles;  pop.  (1911)  700,893.  The 
surface  is  for  the  most  part  undulating  sand- 
hills; there  are  no  forests,  and  for  want  of  wa- 
ter trees  are  scarce.  Two  canals  form  the  only 
irrigation  -works.  The  climate  is  generally  dry 
aocTiiealthful,  but  is  characteriied  by  great  ex- 
tremes of  temperature.  Coal  is  the  principal 
mineral;  woolen  fabrics,  pottery  and  lacquer 
woit  form  the  chief  native  industries.  Famine 
took  nearly  half  of  (he  population  in  1868-49, 
and  there  were  visitations  in  1891-92  and  1899- 
1900. 

BIKANIR,  India,  capital  of  the  above  state, 
250  miles  west-southwest  of  Delhi,  an  irregu- 
larly built  city  surrounded  by  a  fine  battlo- 
mented  wall  four  and  a  half  miles  in  circuit, 
six  feet  thick  and  from  20  to  30  feet  high.  It 
has  a  fort,  containing  the  Rajah's  palace,  and 
mamifactures  blankets,  sugar  candy,  potteiy, 
etc.  It  contains  10  Jam  monasteries,  160  tem- 
ples and  nearly  30  mosques.    Pop.  55,826. 

BIKSLAS,  b^-Mlas,  IMmitrioa,  modern 
Greek  poet  and  historian :  b.  Memopolis,  island 
of  Syra^  1835;  d.  Athens,  2!  July  1908,  After 
completing  his  studies'  he  went  to  London, 
where  his  parents  bad  settled,  and  after  1874 
lived  in  Paris.  After  publishing  a  collection  of 
his  poems  in  1862,  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
task  of  making  Shakespeare's  dramas  known  in 
Greece  through  excellent  metrical  translations. 
As  a  prose-writer  he  has  won  wide  refnitation 
with  his  tale,  'Lukis  Laras'  (1879),  which  was 
translated  into  13  languages.  His  historical 
writings  include  'The  Greeks  of  the  Middle 
A^>  0878) ;  'The  Role  and  the  Aspirations 
of  Greece  in  the  Eastern  Question*  (1885)  ; 
'Greece,  Byzantine  and  Modem'  (1893). 

BIKU*KULLA  (Greek  for  'douWe- 
hooded*),  a  genns  of  plants  of  the  fumitory 


family  iFwrnanQcta) .  The  genus  numbers  about 
IS  specie s>  natives  of  North  America  and 
western  Asia.  The  best-known  American 
species  are  the  Dutchman's  breeches  {B,  aiful-  I 

laria),  and  wild  bleeding-heart  (fi.  eximia). 
The  common  squirrel-com  (£,  canadftttii)  is 
also  a  member  of  the  geuus.    The  Dutchman's  ! 

breeches  grows  in  woods  from  Nova  Scotia  to 
I.ake  Huron  and  Washington,  south  to  North 
Carolina  and  Missouri    Wild  bleeding-heart  is  i 

found  in  rocky  places  from  the  western  part  I 

of  New  York,  south  to  Georgia  and  Tennessee,  ' 

along  the  mountain  ranges.  The  best-known 
Asiatic  species  is  B.  spectabilis,  bleeding-heart, 
a  native  of  northern  China  and  the  neighborii^ 
parts  of  Siberia,  which  was  discovered  in  18l_ft  , 

and  is   now  everywhere  common   as  a '  garden  | 

Iilant  It  blossoms  in  April  and  May,  and  its 
ong  drooping  racemes  of  purplish-red  blossoms 
present  a  very  graceful  appearance. 

BILASPUR,    British    India,   town    of   the 
Central  Provinces  and  capital  of  the  adminis-  , 

trative  district  of  Bilaspur.     It  is   situated  on  i 

the  Bengal  and  Nagpur  Railroad  and  the  Arpa 
River.  It  is  in  the  centre  of  one  of  those  poorer 
districts  in  which  the  irrigation  canal  system  has 
been  as  yet  least  developed  and  famines  are 
frequent.  The  chief  crop  is  rice.  Pop.  includ- 
ing the  entire  administrative  district,  1,146,223. 


:apital   of   the 


BILBAO,  bel-ba'o,  Spain,  LuuiLdi  ui  uw 
province  of  Vtscaya  (q.v,)  or  Bilbao,  situated 
on  the  navigable  Nervion,  in  a  plain  surrounded 
with  high  mountains,  a  few  miles  from  the  sea. 
The  river  is  crossed  by  five  bridges.  The  town 
is  picturesque  and  well  built  and  contains  sev- 
eral good  churches,  two  fine  promenades,  a 
theatre,  a  marine  school,  etc.  Bilbao  carries  on 
important  trade  and  manu  f actures  ( the  lat- 
ter consisting  chiefly  of  sailcloth,  ropes  and 
leather,  hats,  tobacco  and  earthenware)  and 
possesses  large  shipyards  and  iron-foundries, 
iion  and  steel  works,  etc.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  seaports  of  Spain,  though  its  ac- 
commodation for  shipping  is  defective,  and 
it  is  the  seat  of  a  Utuled  States  consul.  Various 
harbor  improvements,  however,  have  recently 
been  carried  out,  including  a  breakwater  and 
mole.  Bilbao  exports  much  Iron  ore  (espcdalh' 
to  the  United  Kingdom),  also  piK-iron,  wool, 
wine,  fruits,  oil,  flour,  grains,  madder,  licorice, 
etc. ;  the  imports  are  manufactured  goods,  dried 
fish,  timber,  coal,  hardware,  etc.  Its  supply  of 
water  and  sanitarv  arrangements  are  not  good. 
Its  prosperity  is  one  to  the  valuable  iron  mines 
nearby.  The  dty  was  founded  in  1300  by 
Diego  Lopet  de  Haro  as  'Belvao,*  or  fine 
ford,*  It  was  an  important  commercial  centre 
in  the  14th  and  ISth  centuries  but  suffeied  in 
tfae  wars  with  France  in  1795  and  1808,  It  was 
besieged  by  the  Carlists  in  1833-35  and  1872-76. 
Pop,  92,514.  Consult  Guiard  Larrauri,  'Hisloria 
de  Bilbao'  (Bilbao  1905). 

BILBERRY.    See  Hucxlebesby. 

BILBILIS,  Spain,  an  old  Celtiberian  city, 
two  miles  east  of  the  modern  town  of  Cala- 
ta}^d,  in  the  province  of  Saragossa,  chiefly 
celebrated  as  the  Urthplace  of  the  poet  Martial, 
but  also  famed  for  its  hi^ly-tempered  steel 
blades.  In  the  Roman  period  it  was  a  munic- 
ipium  with  the  surname  of  Augusta  and  had 
the  right  to  coin  monej. 


Google 


BILDAD^BILOB 


BILDAD,  *the  tiaditionaUst* :  one  of  the 
lea(fing  characters  in  the  bocdc  of  Job.    See  Job. 

BILDERDIJK,  bil'der-dek,  Wfflem, 
Dutch  poet;  b.  Amsterdam,  7  Sept.  1756;  d. 
Haarlem,  18  Dec.  1831.  Graduating  from  the 
Univenity  at  Ley  den  where  he  had  studied  law, 
he  began  a  piivate  practice,  devoting  himself 
also  to  the  writing  of  verse.  While  still  TCty 
young  he  became  famous  as  a  poet.  On  ac- 
cotmt  of  political  activities  objectionable  to  the 
govemtnent  he  was  exiled  from  Holland  in 
1795,  after  he  lived  for  a  while  in  England  and 
later  in  Brunswick.  In  the  latter  place  he 
p^ned  some  notoriety  on  account  of  a  scandal 
in  which  the  name  of  Katherina  Schweikhardt 
was  involved,  herself  an  author  of  some  r^mtc. 
They  were  later  married.  Bilderdijk  returned 
to  Holland  in  1806  and  became  state  librarian, 
under  the  patronage  of  King  Louis  Napoleon. 
In  1817  he  went  to  Leyden,  where  he  lectured 
for  10  years  on  history.  In  1827  he  settled  in 
Haailcra,  where  he  remained  for  the  rest  of 
his  life.  His  poetic  masterpiece  is  'The  De- 
stniction  of  the  First  World'  (1820),  but  he 
has  written  a  voluminous  mass  of  other  matter. 
Among  bis  other  works  are  'Dood  van  Edipns' 
<17S9);  <Mijn  veriustiging>  (1781);  'De 
geesten  wereld>  ([Amsterdam  1643).  On  ac- 
count of  his  politics,  which  were  uhra  con- 
servative, he  was  for  a  time  very  uinopaUr 
among  his  countrymen.  Consult  Gorter's 
<BIIderdijk>  (Amsterdam  1871). 

BILE,  the  most  important  secretion  of  tlic 
liver.  It  is  formed  directly  by  the  Hver  cells, 
largely  from  the  blood,  is  collected  by  the  WIe 
ducts,  and  di^char^ed  through  the  hepatic  ducts. 
Most  of  the  bite  is  stored  in  the  gall-bladder, 
from  which  it  is  discharged  in  man  by  the 
cystic  duct  and  the  common  dtiet  !nto  the  upper 
portion  of  the  duodenum,  four  inches  below 
the  lower  end  of  the  stomach.    As  first  secreted 


darker,  varying  from  dark  brown  to  greenish, 
according  to  the  amount  of  oxidation  of  the  bile 
ingments.  The  bile  of  the  camivora  is  usually 
yellowish  in  tint,  that  of  the  grass-eaters  green- 
ish, but  the  colors  vary  widely,  dependent  on 
the  oxidation. 

Bile  is  an  alkaKne  fluid  with  a  Utter  taste, 
and  contains  water,  bile  acids,  bile  pigments, 
traces  of  lecithin,  cholestcrin,  soaps  and  fats, 
and  mineral  salts.  The  proportions  of  these 
are  very  variable.  The  acids  are  known  as 
glycocholic  acid,  yielding  gl3rcocoll  and  cholalic 
acid,  and  taurocholic  acid,  yielding  taurine  and 
(iolaKc  acid.  The  pigments  are  two,  bilirubin 
and  biliverdin,  and  the  color  is  a  compound  of 
the  colors  of  Uiese  two  and  varies  with  the  pro- 
portion of  each  from  reddish-brown  to  grass- 
green.  They  are  thought  to  be  derived  from 
the  hemoglobin  of  the  blood.  The  functions 
of  bile  are  not  clearly  understood,  but  it 
seems  to  aid  in  the  digestion  of  fats ;  it  is  an 
important  organ  of  excretion,  getting  rid  of 
many  broken  down  products  of  metabolism, 
notably  the  cholestcrin  and  lecithin.  It  is  an 
efficient  antiseptic,  reducing  the  amount  of  ex- 
cessive fermentation  in  the  intestines,  it  aids  in 
peristalsis  and  thus  overcomes  constipation,  and 
perhaps  has  other  functions  connected  with  pro- 
teid  digestion.  The  amount  of  bile  secreted 
^tily  varies  from  25  to  35  ounces,  its  secredonis 


more  or  less  unifocm,  but  at  die  dtgesttve 
periods  the  stored  bile  of  the  gall-bladder  is 
added  to  the  intestinal  contents.  Gall-stcOies  re- 
sult from  concentration  of  the  iKie  in  the  gall- 
bladder. They  are  also  formed  as  a  process  of 
infection  of  the  gall-bladder  that  creeps  up 
from  the  duodenum.  Ciall-stones  foUowit%  ty- 
phoid fev«r  are  very  coouaon,  and  are  proraUy 
lormed  in  this  manner.  As  a  result  of  inflam- 
mation of  the  stomach  and  duodenum  the  com- 
mon duct  sometimes  is  inflamed  and  its  walls 
swollen.  This  prevents  the  escape  of  bile  into 
the  intestines,  and  the  bile  pigments  are  taken 
up  by  the  blood  and  cause  the  familiar  symptom 
01  jaundice  (q.v.J.  The  specific  gravity  of  bile 
is  1.026.  The  bile  of  salt-water  fish  contains 
potash;  that  of  land  and  fresh-water  animals 
contains  soda.  Biliousness,  so  called,  is  rarely 
an  affection  of  the  liver,  but  much  more  often 
a  mild  inflaqimation  of  the  stomach  and  in- 
testines, with  catarrhal  obstruction  of  the  com- 
mon duct  that  b  not  severe  enough  to  dam  back 
the  bile  entirely.  Gayey  stools  ate  usually 
indicative  of  deficient  bile-eliminalion.  The 
best-known  stimulants  of  bile- formation  and 
bile-elimination  are  heat  and  the  biliary  acids 
themselves.  The  vast  majority  of  the  number- 
less patent  liver-pilIs  on  the  market  have  i 


Glycogen;  Jaundice;  Liver. 

BJLFINGBR,  Gcorg,  (ga-orH')..  Bcmhard, 


18  Feb.  1750.  He  was  bom  with  12  fingers  a 
12  toes,  and  submitted  to  an  operation  which 
removed  the  defortnity.  He  stutfied  with  Wolff 
at  Halle  and  became  a  disciple  of  the  school  of 
Wolff  and  Leibnitz.  He  was  made  professor  of 
philosophy  in  1721  and  of  mathematics  also  in 
1724.  In  1725  he  received  an  invitation  from 
Peter  the  Great  to  the  chair  of  logic  and 
metaphysics  in  the  college  at  St  Petersburg. 
He  now  solved  the  problem  of  the  cause  of 
gravit)^  proposed  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
at  Paris,  and  gained  the  prize.  Being  recalled 
in  1731  by  Diie  Charies  Edward  of  Wurtem- 
bcrg  he  returned  to  Tubin^n  and  proceeded  ti 


.  .  appointed  a  privy  councillor.    Here  he 

displayed  great  administrative  abili^  and  hy 
severe  stu(&  soon  became  as  celebrated  for  his 
political  and  statistical  knowledge  as  for  his 
scientific  attainments.  He  afterward  paid  par- 
ticular attention  to  agriculture  and  promoted 
-the  culture  of  the  vine.  He  was  the  author  of 
numerous  theolo^cal  and  philosophical  worka, 
including  'Dihxsdationes  philosophicae  de  deo, 
anima  humanai,  mnndo^  0725;  3d  ed.,  1746), 
an  able  defense  of  Wolff's  division  of 
metaphysics. 

BILOB,  a  term  in  naval  construction,  the 
very  bottom  of  a  ship,  inside  the  vessel  and 
above  the  keel.  Bilge  Blocks,  those  blocks  on 
which  a  ship  rests  in  dry  dock  and  which  main- 
tain its  upri^t  position.  Bacc  Keel,  strips 
which  are  fastened  to  the  side  of  a  ?hip  below 
the  water  line  to  check  her  rolGng.  BU£E  Keel- 
son, a  stiffening  plate  or  tin^r  fastened  inside 


:,  Google 


708 


BILGUBR— BILL 


skip's  bottom,  especially  wooden  ships,  and  col- 
lects under  the  flooring.  Unless  constantly 
pumped  dry,  the  water  here  collected  becomes 
stagnant  and  acquires  a  bad  odor,  Bilgewavs, 
those  timbers  on  the  launching  ways  on  which 
rests  the  structure  which  supports  the  ship 
being  built. 

BILGUBR,  bn'gwer,  Paul  Rudolf  von, 
German  chess-player;  b.  Schwerin  1808;  d. 
Berlinj  6  Oct.  1840.  He  entered  the  Prussian 
army  in  1833,  and  shortly  afterward  was  pro- 
moted lieutenant.  On  18  March  1840,  he  per- 
formed at  Berlin  the  curious  feat  oi  playing 
three  games  at  once  with  as  many  di^erent  op- 
ponents, conducting  two  of  the  contests  without 
seeing  the  boards  and  men.  This  intense  men- 
tal ettort  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  primary 
cause  of  the  Illness  which  resulted  in  his  death. 
His  'Chess  Handbook>  (Berlin  1841  and  1852), 
completed  after  his  death  by  lus  friend  T, 
Heydebrandt  von  der  Lasa,  made  an  epoch  in 
the  history  of  chess,  and  is  still  the  best  prac- 
tical work  on  that  game.  Another  work  from 
his  hand  is  'Das  Zwei  springer  spiel  im  Nach- 
zuge.' 

BILHAH,  in  Biblical  history;  (1)  A 
Simeonite  city  the  position  of  which  is  un- 
biown;  also  referred  to  as  Batah,  Baalah  and 
Baalath.  (2)  According  to  Gen.  xxix,  29,  a 
slave  girl  given  to  Rachel  W  Lahan  and  by  her 
to  Jacob  as  a  concubine.  She  was  the  mother 
of  Dan  and  Naphtali. 

BILHARZIA,  a  disease  caused  by  a 
parasitic  worm  of  which  two  species  are  known, 
the  African  blood  flake.  Schistosoma  hama- 
tobium  and  S.  japonicum,  very  common  in 
Egypt  and  south  Africa,  but  rare  in  the  United 
States.  The  symptoms  are  usually  those  of 
cystis,  or  inflammation  of  the  bladder,  with 
bloody  urine.  The  diagnosis  is  usually  made 
by  finding  the  ova  of  the  worm  in  the  blood,  by 
the  microscope.  (See  Parasites).  Consult 
Blanchard,  R.,  'Traiti  de  Zoologie  m*dicale* 
(Paris  1888). 

B I  LI  MB  I,  Cucnmbor-trM  {^Averrhoa 
bilimbi),  a  tropical  tree  of  the  family  Oxaii- 
dacta,  native  of  southern  Asia,  where  it  is 
largely  cultivated  and  whence  it  has  been  intro- 
duced in  other  tropical  countries.  It  is  ex- 
tensively grown  in  South  America.  The  tree 
attains  a  height  of  60  feet,  bears  racemes  of  red 
flowers  followed  by  smooth  cucumber -shaped 
green  fruits  as  large  as  hen's  eggs,  which  are 
Highly  esteemed  for  their  acid  pulp.  The  ca- 
rambola  is  a  close  relative. 

BILIN,  be-len',  Bohemia,  town  and  health 
resort  seven  miles  south-southwest  of  Teplitz.- 
It  contains  a  fine  old  castle  built  in  1680,  and 
one  of  more  modem  date;  several  churches, 
chapels,  mills,  etc.  Within  one  mile  of  the  town 
are  much- frequented  mineral  springs,  from 
which  much  water  is  exported.  "The  salts  and 
magnesia  obtained  from  the  water  form  import- 
ant articles  of  commerce.  It  is  an  allaline 
water,  and  is  used  with  advantage  in  certain 
concretionary  disorders.  Here  is  also  the  singu- 
lar basaltic  rock  called  Biliner  Stein.  Pop. 
about  7.800. 

BILIOUS  FEVER,  an  old  name  given  to 
a  variety  of  conditions,  but  in  all  of  which  there 
was  characteristic  low-grade  fever  associated 
with  a  certain  amount  of  jaundice,  clayey  stools, 


.headache,  foul  tongue,  etc.  It  probably  repre- 
sents no  one  disease,  but  a  complicatioii  of 
many  diseases.  See  Biliousness;  Fevee;  Gas- 
tritis ;  Influenza;  Malaria. 

BILIOUSNESS,  a  popular  term  to  expresi 
some  affection  of  the  liver,  hut  in  all  prob- 
ability it  is  frequently  a  condition  of  disturbed 
gastric  and  duodenal  digestion,  and  having 
nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  liver.  In  the 
article  on  bile  (q.v.)  the  pass^e  of  this  Uver 
secretion  into  the  hepatic  duct  and  storage  in 
the  gall-bladder  and  subsequent  emptying  into 
the  duodenum  is  described.  When  tne  stomach 
is  inflamed,  the  inflammation  usually  extends  a 
certain  distance  into  the  intestines  and  as  a  con- 
sequence the  mucous  membrane  of  the  cc«amoD 
ducts  also  becomes  inflamed  and  swollen.  This 
prevents  the  free  passage  of  bile  into  the  in- 
testines and  therefore  its  important  function  in 
digestion  is  stopped  or  diminished.  This  re- 
sults in  further  indigestion,  and  causes  con- 
stipation, and  increased  putrefaction  of  the  in- 
testinal contents  results.  "Thus  there  is  a  ch^n 
of  many  links  formed  that  results  in  headachy 
heaviness,  bloating,  constipation,  foul  tongue, 
foul  breath,  dark  urine,  and  in  severe  cases 
mild  jaundice.  The  entire  series  mav  have 
been  set  in  motion  by  over-eating,  or  drinking 
alcoholic  liquors,  or  deficient  exercise,  eating 
excessively  of  fatty  (so-called  rich)  food,  or 
other  hygienic  misbehavior.  Any  or  all  have 
started  the  mild  inflammation  of  the  stomach  or 
intestines,  and  the  biliary  flow  has  been  dimin- 
ished. But.  diminished  functional  activity  of 
the  biliary  and  pancreatic  secretion  due  to 
congestion  of  the  Uver  and  pancreas  produces 
umilar  symptoms  as  well  as  sometimes  nervous 
prostration  or,  if  prolorwed,  interference  with 
action  of  the  heart  and  arteries.  The  treat- 
ment should  take  into  consideration  the  cause, 
and  if  the  condition  is  obstinate  a  physician 
should  be  consulted.  Rest,  careful  dieting, 
plenty  of  water,  some  mild  laxatives,  heat  over 
the  pit  of  the  stomach,  and  hot  water  enemas, 
will  usually  right  the  condhion.  The  free  wash- 
ing of  the  bowels  and  the  laxative  will  usually 
cure  the  symptoms  of  poisoning,  headache,  and 
heaviness.  Dosing  wiui  patent  pills  and  teas 
and  even  so-called '  "home  remedies*  are  to  be 
condemned.  Violent  cathartics  irritate  the 
stomach,  intestines  and  even  the  liver.  While 
they  empty  the  bowels  and  thus  get  rid  of  the 
poisoning  symptoms,  they  leave  behind  or  in- 
crease the  conditions  which  permit  of  further 
trouble.  See  Auto-intox i cation ;  Bile;  Con- 
stipation/ Digestion;  Lives. 

BILL,         BROWNBILL,  GLAIVE, 

VOULGB,  or  GISARHE,  all  names  for 
nearly  the  same  instrument,  which,  with  some 
sli^t  modification,  was  the  standing  weapon  of 
the  English  infantry  at  close  quarters,  as  was 
the  long-bow  their  weapon  at  distant  range, 
from  the  days  of  the  battle  of  Hastings,  at 
which  the  Saxons  used  the  bill  and  the  Nor- 
mans the  bow,  until  those  of  Queen  Eliiabeth. 
The  original  brownhill  was  a  ponderous  cutting 
weapon  with  two  edges,  that  forward  of  the 
shaft  having  a  concave  or  sickle  blad^  that  to 
the  back,  a  sort  of  angular  cutting  face,  the 
upper  part  projecting  before  the  'hose,  so  as  to 
give  a  drawing  blow.  This  terrible  instrument 
was  nearly  three  feet  Icoig.  and  10  or  12  pounds 
in  weight,  set  erect  on  a  shaft  of  three  or  foor 


v  Google 


T08 


feet.  It  was  wielded  with  both  bands,  and 
could  sever  a  horse's  head  or  a  man's  thigh  or 
shoulder,  through  the  strongest  mail  or  plate 
armor,  as  a  modem  woodman's  bill-hook  slices 
ofF  a  hazel  sapling.  The  weapon  was  afterward 
lengthened  and  lightened,  and  provided  whh  a 


tor  severing  bridles  or  pulling  men  out  of  their 

Also  a  cutting  instrument,  hook-shaped  to- 
ward the  point,  or  with  a  concave  cutting  edge; 
used  by  plumbers,  basket-makers,  gardeners, 
etc. ;  made  in  various  forms  and  fitted  with  a 
handle.  Such  instrnmenta,  when  used  by  gar- 
deners for  pruning  hedges,  irees,  etc.,  are  c^led 
hedge-Ulls  or  bill'hooks. 

BILL,  a  paper,  written  or  printed,  giving  a 
statement  of  the  iarticulars  of  an  account  or 
action.  A  printed  proclamation,  an  advertise- 
ment, an  act  of  Congress  or  Parliament,  or  a 
tradesman's  account  is  a  bill. 

In  Ltegialatioii.—  A  term  used  to  signify  & 
special  act  passed  by  the  legislature  in  the 
exercise  of  a  QHOn'-judirial  power.  Thus,  bills 
of  attainder,  bills  of  pains  and  penalties  are 
spoken  of.  The  draft  of  a  law  submitted  to  the 
consideration  of  a  les»slative  body  for  its  adot>- 
tion  or  rejection.  The  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  provides  that  all  bills  for  railing 
revenue  must  originate  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  con- 
cur with  amendments  a>  on  other  bills.  Every 
bill  before  it  becomes  a  law  most  be  approved 
t^  the  President  of  the  United  States,  or  within 
10  fcys  returned,  -with  his  objections,  to  the 
House  in  which  it  originated.  Two'thirds  of 
each  House  may  then  enact  it  into  a  law.  These 
provisions  are  copied  in  the  Constitutions  of  a 
majority  of  the  States. 

Bill  of  Adventore.—  A  writing  sigtied  by  a 
merchant,  in  which  he  states  that  certain  goods 
shipped  in  his  name  really  belong  to  another 
person,  at  whose  risk  the  adventure  is  made. 

Bill  of  Attainder.— A  bili  declaring  that  the 
person  named  in  it  is  attainted  and  his  property 
confiscated.  The  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  declares  that  no  State  shall  pass  any 
bill  of  attainder.  During  the  Revolutionary 
War,  bills  of  attainder  and  ^4"  post  facto  acts  of 
confiscation  were  passed  to  a  wide  extent.  The 
evils  resulting  from  them,  in  times  of  cooler 
reflection,  were  discovered  to  have  far  out- 
weighed any  imaginary  good. 

Bill  of  CoBtB. — A  statement  of  the  items 
which  form  the  total  amount  of  the  costs  of  a 
suit  or  action.  This  is  demandable  as  a  matter 
of  right  before  the  payment  of  the  costs. 

Bill  of  Credit. — A  letter  sent  by  an  agent 
or  other  person  to  a  merchant,  desiring  him 
to  give  the  bearer  credit  for  goods  or  money. 
It  IS  frequently  given  to  one  about  to  travel 
and  empowers  him  to  take  up  money  from  the 
foreign  correspondents  of  the  person  from 
whom  the  bill  or  letter  of  credit  was  received. 

BUI  of  Entry. — A  written  account  of  goods 
entered  at  the  custom-house,  whether  imported 
or  designed  for  exportation. 

Bill  of  Biceptiotis.— A  bill  of  the  nature  of 
an  appeal  from  a  judge  who  is  held  to  have 
misstated  the  law,  whetner  Iw  ipiorance,  by  in- 
advertence or  by  design.  This  the  judge  is 
bound  to  seal  if  he  be  requested  by  the  counsel 


on  either  side  so  to  do.  The  exceptions  noted 
are  reviewed  by  the  court  to  which  appeal  is 
taken,  and  if  the  objections  made  to  the  rulings 
of  the  trial  judge  are  well  founded,  the  finding 
in  the  case  is  reversed,  and  usually  the  cause  is 
remanded  for  a  new  trial. 

Bill  of  Sxchonge. — A  bill  or  securiw  ori^- 
nally  introduced  for  enabling  a  merchant  in 
one  country  to  remit  money  to  a  correspondent 
in  the  other.  It  is  an  open  letter  of  request 
from  one  man  to  another,  desiring  him  to  pay 
to  a  third  party  a  specified  sum  and  put  it  to 
the  account  of  the  first 

Bm  of  Health. — A  certificate  given  to  the 
master  of  a  ship  clearing  out  of  a  port  in 
which  contagious  disease  is  epidemic,  or  is  sus- 
pected to  be  so,  certifying  to  the  state  of  health 
of  the  crew  and  passengers  on  board. 

Bill  of  Indictment — A  written  accusation 
made  against  one  or  more  persons  having  com- 
mitted a  specified  crime  or  misdemeanor.  It  is 
preferred  to  and  presented  on  oath  by  a  grand 
jury.  If  the  grand  jury  find  the  allegations 
unproved,  they  ignore  the  bill,  giving  as  their 
verdict,  'Not  a  true  bill';  if,  on  the  contrary, 
they  consider  tiie  indictment  proved,  their  ver- 


dict i: 


e  bill.* 


Bill  of  Lrading, — A  document  by  which  the 
master  of  a  ship  acknowledges  to  have  received 
on  board  his  vessel,  in  good  order  and  condition 
(or  the  reverse),  certain  specified  goods  con- 
signed to  him  by  some  particular  shipper,  and 
binds  himself  to  deliver  them  in  similar  condi- 
tion,—  unless  the  dangers  of  the  sea,  fire  or 
enemies  prevent  him, —  to  the  assignees  of  the 
shipper  at  the  point  of  destination,  on  their 
paying  him  the  stipulated  freight. 

The  bill  of  lading  should  contain  the  name 
of  the  shipper  or  consignor;  the  name  of  the 
consignee;  the  name  of  the  vessel  and  her 
master;  the  places  of  shipment  and  destination; 
the  price  of  the  freight,  and  in  the  margin, 
the  marks  and  numbers  of  the  things  shipped. 
It  is  usually  made  in  three  or  more  original 
parts,  one  of  which  is  sent  to  the  consignee  with 
the  goods,  one  or  more  others  are  sent  to 
him  by  different  conveyances,  one  is  retained  by 
the  merchant  or  shipper,  and  one  should  be 
retained  by  the  roaster.  It  is  assignable  by  en- 
dorsement, and  the  assignee  is  entitled  to  the 
goods,  subject  to  the  shipper's  right  of  stop- 
page in  transitu  in  some  cases,  and  to  various 
Ikns.  It  is  considered  to  partake  of  the  char- 
acter of  a  written  contract,  and  also  that  of  a 
receipt.     In  so  far  as  it  admits  the  character, 

Suality  or  condition  of  the  goods  at  the  time 
ley  were  received  by  the  carrier,  it  is  a  mere 
receipt,  and  the  carrier  may  explain  or  contra- 
dict It  by  parol ;  but  as  respects  the  contract  to 
carry  and  deliver,  it  is  a  contract,  and  must  be 
construed  according  to  its  terms.  3  N.  Y.  322; 
6  Mass,  422.  Under  the  Admiralty  Law  of  the 
United  States,  contracts  of  affreightment  en- 
tered into  with  the  master  in  good  faith  and 
within  the  apparent  scope  of  his  authority  as 
master  Wnd  the  vessel  to  the  merchandise  for 
the  performance  of  such  contracts  in  respect  to 
the  propertv  shipped  on  board,  irrespective  of 
the  ownership  of  the  vessel,  and  wiiether  the 
master  be  the  agent  of  the  genera!  or  special 
owner;  but  bills  of  lading  for  property  not 
shipped,  and  designed  to  he  instruments  of 
fraud,  create  no  lien  on  the  interest  of  the  gcn- 


t,zcd=y  Google 


TM 


BILLAUD-V  ARBHNB  —  BILLET 


eral  owner,  altbouf^  the  special  owner  was  the 
perjwtrator  of  the  fraud  Under  a  bill  of  lad- 
ing in  the  ordinary  form,  having  no  stipulation 
that  the  goods  shipped  are  to  be  carried  on  deck, 
there  is  a,  contract  implied  that  the  goods  shall 
be  carried  under  the  deck,  and  parol  evidence 
to  the  contrary,  will  not  be  received.  14  Wend. 
26.  But  evidence  of  a  well-kaown  and  long- 
established  usage  is  admissible,  and  will  justify 
the  carriage  of  goods  in  that  manner. 

BUI  ol  RisbtB, — A  bill  which  gave  legal 
validity,  to  the  claim  of  rights,  that  is,  the 
declaration  presented  by  the  Lords  and  Com- 
mons to  the  Prince  and  Piincess  of  Orange  on 
13  Feb.  168a  and  afterward  enacted  in  Parlia- 
ment when  they  became  king  and  gueen.  It  de^ 
clared  it  illegal,  without  the  sanction  of  Parlia- 
ment, to  suspend  or  dispense  with  laws,  to  erect 
cotmnission  courts,  to  levy  money  for  the  use 
of  the  Crown  on  pretense  of  prerogative,  and 
to  raise  and  maintain  a  standmg  army  in  the 
time  of  peace.  It  also  declared  that  subjects 
have  a  right  to  petition  the  king,  and^  if 
Protestants,  to  carry  arms  for  defense;  also 
that  members  of  Parliament  ought. to  be  freely 
elected  and  that  their  proceedings  ought  not  to 
be  impeached  or  questioned  in  any  place  out  of 
Parliament.  It  further  enacted  that  excessive 
bail  ought  not  to  be  required,  or  excessive  fines 
impose^  or  unusual  punishment  inflicted;  that 
juries  should  be  chosen  without  partiality;  that 
all  grants  and  promises  of  fines  or  forfeitures 
before  conviction  arc  illegal ;  and,  that,  for 
redress  of  grievances  and  preserving  of  the 
laws,  Parliament  ought  to  b«  held  frequently. 
Finally  it  provided  for  the  settlement  of  the 
Crown.  In  the  United  States,  a  bill  of  rights, 
or,  as  it  is  more  commonly  termeid  in  this  coun- 
try, a  declaration  of  rights,  is  prefixed  to  the 
Constitutions  of  most  otthe  States.  See  United 
States  —  State  Constitutions  of  the. 

BQI  of  Sale.— A  deed  of  writing,  under  seal, 
designed  to  furnish  evidence  qi  the  sale  of  per< 
sonal  property.  It  is  necessary  to  have  such  an 
instrument  when  the  sale  of  property  is  not  to 
be  immediately  followed  W  its  transference  to 
the  purchaser.  It  is  used  in  the  transfer  of 
property  in  ships,  in  that  of  stock  in  trade,  or 
the  goodwill  of  a  business.  It  is  employed  also 
in  the  sale  of  furniture,  the  femoval  of  which 
from  the  house  would  call  altcntion  to  the  em- 
barrassed circumstances  of  its  owner;  hence  the 
Statistics  of  the  Bills  of  Sale  Act  as  an  index  to 
measure  the  amount  of  secret  distress  existing 
in  times  of  commercial  depression.  In  not  a 
few  cases  bills  of  sale  are  used  to  defeat  just 
'        ■'  '     '  or  real  vendor  of 

t  Sight. — A  form  of  entry  at  the  cus- 
tom-house by  which  one  can  land  for  inspec- 
tion, in  presence  of  the  officers,  such  goods  as 
he  has  not  had  the  opportunity  of  previously 
examining,  and  which,  consequently,  he  cannot 
accurately  describe. 

BILLAUD-VARENNE,  be-y&-va-T«n, 
Jacqncs-NlcolM,  French  revolutionist:  b. 
Rochelle,  23  April  1756;  d.  Port-au-Prince, 
Haiti,  3  June  1819.  He  was  bred  to  the  legal 
profession,  and  having  come  in  178S  to  Paris, 
political  events  soon  began  to  occupy  his  atten- 
tion, and  in  1789  three  treatises  appeared  from 
his  pea,  entitled  respectiveljr  'Dcspotisme  dea 
mimstrcs  de  France' ;  'Dernier  coup  port£  aus 


prejugis  et  a  la  superstition' ;  and  'Le  Peintre 
politique.'  Another  piiUication,  'Ac^halo- 
cratie,'  which  appeared  in  1791,  subjected  him  . 
to  a  judicial  prosecution,  and  he  was  obliged  to 
conceal  himself  for  a  time.  He  emerged  from 
his  retreat  on  the  triutnt^  of  his  party  in  Sep- 
tember 1791j  and  in  1792  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  National  Convention.  On  the  trial  of 
the  King  he  voted  for  execution  within  24  hours. 
He  contributed  to  the  overthrow  of  the 
Girondists,  and  was  lubsequentty  chosen  presi- 
dent of  the  convention,  and  member  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Public  Safety,  and  in  that  capacity 
framed  the  Bulletin  des  Lois  and  assisted  in 
organixing  the  revolutionary  government  In 
1795,  on  a  reaction  having  taken  place  against 
the  ultra  party,  he  was  arrested,  and  atot^  with 
Collot  d'Herbois,  banished  to  Cityenne.  On  the 
overthrow  of  the  Directorate  he  refused  the 
amnesty  offered  by  Bonaparte.  In  1816^  he 
visited  New  York  but  was  coldly  received  and 
in  the  same  year,  on  the  restoration  of  Cayenne 
to  France,  he  was  obliged  to  take  ' 
Port-au-Princ^  in  the  island  of  Sar 
Here  he  died  in  poverty. 

BILLAUT,  be-yd,  Adam,  or  Maltrs  Adam, 
French  poet;  b.  Ncvcrs,  31  Jan.  1602;  d.  ther^ 
19  Uay  1662.    A  carpenter  by  trade,  he  wrote 


;  was  a  protest  of  the  Ehike  of  Ncvers 
and  visited  Paris  in  1637,  where  he  vraa  feted 
by  the  frand  moode.  He  received  «  pensioa 
from  Richeliea  Displeased  with  Pariaan  life 
he  returned  to  Nevers,  where  he  followed  his 
trade  and  continued  to  write  verses.  Voltaire  . 
called  him  "Viigjl  with  the  Plane.*  The  three 
colieotiona  of  his  poems  were  entitled  'The 
Pegs';  'The  Centre-Bit';  and  'The  Plane.' 
His  'CEuvres  choiaies'  were  pnbhshed  at  Paris 
(18D6)  and  his  'Ponies'  (Nevcrs  1842).  Con- 
sult Laporte,  'Hisioire  litteraire'  <Pani  1884). 
BILLBBROIA,    a    genus     of     about    40 

Siecies  of  evergreen  epiphytes  of  the  family 
romtliacea,  natives  of  tropical  America  and 
often  cultivated  in  greenhouses  for  their  showy 
flowers. 

BILUC,  bele^  Steen  AnderMo,  Danish 
naval  officer:  b.  Copenhagen,  S  Dec.  1797;  d. 
Copenhagen,  7  May  1883.  He  served  in  the 
French  navy  from  1820  to  1825  and  took  part 
in  the  expedition  to  Spaia  For  five  years  he 
was  professor  of  French  at  the  naval  school, 
Copenhagen.  He  was  a  member  of  the  expe- 
dition that  went  to  South  America  in  18W, 
and  had  command  of  a  scientific  expedition 
round  the  world  in  the  corvette  Gaiatea,  1845- 
47.  In  bis  'Beretning  om  Corvetten  Galathcas 
Reise  Omknmg  Jordcn,  1845-46  os  47'  (184^ 
51)  he  has  given  an  account  of  this  expedi- 
tion. In  1852-54  he  was  Minister  of  Marine 
and  agMn  in  1860-63.  In  1864  he  was  made 
vice-admiral  and  retired  in  1868.  He  was  sent 
to  conclude  a  treaty  with  China  and  has  left 
a  description  of  the  voyage  in  'Min  Reise  til 
China'  (Copenhagen  1865).  Consult  Bille, 
Martha,  'Steen  Andersen  Bille'  (Copenhagen 
1885). 

BILLET,  be-ir.  Paix,  French  phyadst: 
b.  Fismes,  Marne,  1808;  d.  26  Jan.  1882.  From 
1845  he  was  professor  of  phyrics  at  the  Univer- 


tizcdbyGoOl^Ie 


BILLin'  —  BILLIARDS 


«ity  of  Djlon ;  in  1873  he  became  deui  of  the 
faculty.  The  apparatus  kno^vn  as  the  'Bileti- 
tilles  de  Billet*  was  named  from  him.  He  has 
written  numerous  important  works,  among 
which  are  *Sur  les  changements  de  votume  des 
corps  par  te  passage  de  I'ftat  solide  i  I'ttat 
liquide'  (1845);  'Condensations  ilectiiques  de 
deuxi^me  et  de  troistoie  eapiee'  (18S1) ;  'Traitt 
d'optique  physique'  (2  vols.,  18S9) ;  Mfanoire 
sur  les  demi-lentilles  d'interf£rences>  (1862). 

BILLET,  the  term  given  to  a  molding 
frequently  introduced  in  mediseval  architecture, 
consisting  of  a  torus  ornamented  by  alternate 
checkers,  like  a  staff  cut  into  short  lengths  and 
disposed  boriiontally  or  around  a  molding,  and 
of  another  molding,  composed  of  a  series  of 
smalt  projections,  arranged  around  a  curve  in 
alternate     directions,     but     in 


BILLETING  OP  SOLDIERS,  the  com- 
pulsory lodging  of  soldiers  with  the  Inhabitants 
of  a  town,  formerly  a  frequent  practice  when- 
ever there  was  a  deficiency  of  accommodation 
in  barracks  or  regular  quarters.  The  billeting 
of  soldiers  on  private  householders  is  now 
abandoned  generally,  and  billeting  is  reduced 
a^  much  as  possible  by  camping  out  and  other 
arrangements.  In  theUnitea  States  the  practice 
is  regulated  by  the  third  constitutional  amend- 
ment. In  England  it  is  confined  to  troops  on 
the  march  and  individual  soldiers  on  special 
duty.  Innkeepers  or  others,  on  whom  troops 
are  billeted,  are  paid  according  to  a  scale  fixed 
by  the  government 

BILLFISH,  an/  of  several  fishes  havii^ 
notably  long,  beak-like  snouts,  as  a  gar,  needle- 
fish, or  spearfksh  (qq.v.). 

BILLIARDS,  the  generic  name  of  a  group 
of  games ;  is  played  in  the  United  States  usuaify 
on  a  5x10  table,  fitted  on  each  side  and  at  the 
ends  with  rubber  acting  as  cushions.  Ivoiy 
balls  driven  W  a  wooden  cue  and  yaivtng  in 
size  from  2  b-l6  inches  to  2  7-16  inches  are 


covered,  as  ts  also  the  rubber,  with  green  cloth. 
The  body  of  the  table  and  legs,  and  the  rails, 
are  made  from  various  desiRns  of  wood. 

The  origin  of  the  game  of  billiards  is  shrouded 
in  mystery,  but  is  known  to  have  been  pjajred 
in  a  crude  way  since  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 
It  is  mentioned  in  Shakespeare's  'Antony  and 
Cleopatra|  (1607),«nditisnowgenerallyaKrced 
that  the  immortal  bard,  in  his  researches  for 
facts,  had  read  of  billiards  before  the  birth  of 
our  Saviour.  Cathire  More,  a  sub-king  of  Ir^ 
land,  as  early  as  148  a.d.,  speaks  of  billiards 
and  billiard  balls  of  brass.  In  the  'Con^sions* 
of  Saint  Augustine  (b.  430  a.o.)  mention  is 
made  of  the  game  of  billiards.  From  this  time 
until  the  end  of  the  14th  century  very  little  is 
known  of  the  game.  It  is  mentioned  in 
Spencer's  'Mother  Hubbard  Tales'  (1591). 
About  this  time  the  French  made  it  an  indoor 
taUe  game  by  playing  it  on  a  square  table  with 
pockets  at  each  comer,  and  one  in  the  centre  of 
each  ride,  a  little  cone  in  the  centre  of  the  table 
called  the  "fcing^*  and  an  arch  of  ivoty,  known 
as  the  "port.*  Certain  scores  depended  on  pass- 
ii^  the  'port*  and  touching  the  "king.*  As 
early  as  1734,  as  stated  in  Seymour's  »G)urt 
Gamester'  these  foatures  of  the  pime  had  dii- 

WH-  J  — *s 


appeared,  and  cues  had  begun  to  replace  the 
*mast*  or  'mace*  first  used.  Billiards  came 
into  fashion  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV,  whose 
physicians  recommoided  him  this  land  of  exer- 
cise after  eating.  Some  profeSs  to  believe  the 
game  of  Enf^sh  origin  as  the  earliest  and  full-  ' 
est  description  of  billiards  is  found  in  Cotton's 
'Complete  (Gamester*  (1674).  The  bed  of  the 
table  was  then  made  of  oak,  sometimes  marble. 
Slate  beds  were  first  used  about  1827.  The 
pockets  of  the  tables  at  that  time,  called  'haz- 
ards,* were  at  first  made  of  wooden  boxes,  nets 
being  employed  soon  afterward. 

'The  billiard  table  is  said  to  have  found  its 
way  into  America  through  the  Spaniards  about 
1570.  At  this  time  it  was  played  in  England, 
France,  Germany  and  other  cpuntries,  but  the 
size  of  the  table  and  style  of  the  game  difiered. 
The  English  style  of  table  and  game  was  first 
adonted  by  the  Americans.  Six  by  twelve,  six- 
podcet  tables  and  four  balls  (two  reds  and  two 
whites)  were  used.  Soon  the  tables  were  re- 
duced in  size  from  6x12  to  5^xlh  then' to  about 
5  feet  wide  by  10  feet  long.  Tables  vary  in 
measurements.  All  match  and  tournament  games 
are  now  played  on  5x10  tables,  and  are  very 
popular  in  all  leadii^  public  rooms  and  clubs 
throng^iout  the  United  States,  while  the  so- 
called  4^x9  tables  are  almost  exclusively  nsed 
in  private  residences  and  in  smalt  cities  and 

It  is  only  in  the  last  50  years  that  billiard 
tables  and  their  paraphernalia,  and  billiard  play- 
ing itself,  have  made  giant  strides.  Until  the 
year  1855,  when  Michael  Phelan,  the  father  of 
billiards,  first  introduced  the  celebrated  com- 
bination cushions,  made  of  rubber  chiefly,  die 
tools  were  necessarily  crude  and  imperfect,  and 
greatly  retarded  the  progress  of  the  players  up 
to  that  period.  Then  was  pl^ed  the  fonr-ball 
game  on  a  6x12,  six-podcet  table.  Two  red  balls 
and  two  white  balls  were  used.  In  the  'sixties 
the  tables  were  reduced  in  size  to  5^x11,  but 
so  fast  did  the  professionals  and  amateurs  im- 
t>rovc  their  games  under  the  improved  condi- 
tion of  the  table  and  loots,  and  in  order  to  avoid 
the  seeming  monotony  of  long  mns,  itwas  found 
necessary  to  again  reduce  the  site  of  the  table, 
from  pockets  to  carrom,  to  about  5  feet  wide 
and  10  feet  long,  and  change  the  style  of  game 
from  four-ball  to  three-bat]  game.  This  was 
done  early  in  the  'seventies.  Experts  soon  be- 
came so  proficient  at  this  style  of  game  as  to 
render  it  necessary  to  place  restrictions  on  the 
bed  of  the  table  1^  drawing  Knes  first  8  inches, 
then  10,  12,  14  and  finally  IS  inches  from  the 
edge  of  the  cuuiions  the  entire  length  and  width 
of  the  table  — called  balk-line  game.  This 
method  of  restricting  the  professionals  and  lead- 
ing amateurs  in  no  wise  does  away  with  the 
beauties  of  the  game,  at  the  Mass^  draw,  fol- 
low, and  combination  cushion  shots  are  left  in- 
tact The  superb  play  of  the  professionals  in  this 
country  and  in  France,  where  the  same  style 
of  ^me  is  played,  is  due  in  a  great  measure  to 
the  improvwl  construction  of  the  beveled  table, 
slabs,  match  rubber  cushions,  and  to  the  ivory 
balls,  cue,  cue  tips  and  chalk. 

Various  are  the  styles  of  billiards  played 
now,  such  as  ■three-cushion  carroms  •  *cu»hion 
carroBis,*  ■champions'  game,*  ■batk-line  game,* 
and  die  regular  three-ball  game. 

Pool  may  be  said  to  be,  broadly  spealdng. 


.Google 


a  bianch  of  lulltards,  and  ii  very  popular  with 
the  masses.  It  lacks  the  skill  and  variety  of 
iMlliards.  Fool  is  played  on  a  5x10  or  a  4'Ax9. 
six-pocket  table,  and  generally  with  gully  at- 
tacmnents  —  a  new  device  that  rather  adds  to 
the  popularity  of  the  game.  This  gully  is  so 
placed  under  the  table  that  all  the  balls,  when 
pocketed,  will  drop  into  a  basket  at  the  foot  of 
the  Uble.  The  most  popular  of  the  various 
pool  games  is  'continuous  pool,*  played  with  15 
numbered  balls  and  one  plain  white  one  —  the 
cue  ball.  These  15  balls  are  arranged  in  a  tri- 
angle form  at  the  foot  of  the  table.  The  play- 
er's object  b  to  drive  as  many  of  the  numbered 
balls  successively  into  one  or  other  of  the 
pockets  as  he  can,  subject  to  certain  rules  and 
regulations,  lliere  are  various  other  kinds  of 
pool  games —"American,*  "pyramid,"  "Chi- 
cago," *forly-one,»  and  others.  For  a  complete 
Ust  of  these  various  styles  of  games,  also  all 
styles  of  billiards,  witt  the  rules  governing: 
them,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  'Handbook 
of  Standard  Rules  of  Billiards  and  Pool.'  This 
handbook  also  gives  valuable  hints  on  the  care 
of  tables,  balls,  cues,  etc. 

One  of  the  most  important  parts  that  go  to 
make  billiard  playing  complete  is  the  cue  and 
cue-tip.  The  size  and  weight  of  the  cue  is  a 
matter  of  individual  judgment,  but  nearly  all 
professionals  and  the  best  amateurs  prefer  one 
that  weighs  from  19  to  22  ounces,  with  the 
tig  of  the  cue  about  a  half  inch  full  in  diameter. 
:  of  the  leading,  if  ] 

Manj 

_.._  5  of  the 

perfect  quality  of  the  cue-tip.  and  many  playere 
are  wont  to  ascribe  their  defeat  or  bad  play 
to  the  tip  itself,  Uuch  depends  on  the  manner 
of  tipping  the  cue.  Cue-tips  are  made  in  France 
and  are  of  comparatively  recent  origin.  They 
consist  of  two  qualities  of  leather  united,  the 
under  leather  being  very  hard  and  flat,  while 
the  upper  or  top  leather  is  somewhat  porous, 
spon^^  and  springy.  Selecting  a  ^ood  leather 
and  the  tipping  of  billiard  cues  is  an  art  in 
itself,  and  has  become  so  important  an  adjunct 
to  the  success  of  the  business  that  the  leading 
billiard  halls  in  this  country  find  it  necessary 
to  employ  a  man  to  exclusively  attend  to  that 
branch  of  the  trade.  It  is  an  art,  for  instance, 
to  hammer  a  tip  down  to  the  requisite  firmness 
before  it  is  ready  to  be  glued  to  the  top  of  the 
cue,  over  which  the  tip  generally  projects  (if  a 
new  one),  on  all  sides.  Inside  of  an  hour's 
time  in  dry  weather,  if  the  quality  of  the  glue 
is  good,  the  tip  may  be  finisned  off  ready  for 
use.  Turn  the  cue  bottom  side  up,  firmly  press 
the  leather  onto  a  table,  then  using  a  sharp 
knife,  cut  the  leather  even  with  the  top  of  the 
cue  itself,  and  pare  the  upper  leather  as  one 
would  an  apple,  nnish  with  sandpaper,  size  about 
lyi,  and  smooth  off  with  single  O  sandpaper. 
A  cue-tip,  when  ready  for  playing,  should  be 
about  half-moon  shape,  but  many  and  various 
are  the  shapes  of  tips.  Never  use  sandpaper  on 
a  cue-tip  after  it  has  been  played  with  for  a 
while.  If  the  tip  becomes  hard  and  greasy  from 
frequent  use  of  chalk,  roll  it  lightly  with  a 
French  file. 

Billiards  is  without  doubt  far  superior  in 
point  of  skill  and  science  to  any  game  played, 
either  indoors  or  outdoors.  Chess  and  check- 
ers are  purely  mental  and  yield 


the  body.  Golf  and  other  out-of-door  games 
arc  dependent  chiefly  on  execution,  whereas  bil- 
liard playing  requires  and  combines  both  knowl- 
edge and  execution.  As  a  health-giving  exer- 
cise and  recreation,  restful  to  the  mind,  physi- 
cians are  now  a^eed  that  bilUards  leads  all 
other  games,  while  divines,  politicians,  artiste 
men  of   letters  and  women  reconunend  it  and 

flay^  it  at  home,  in  the  clubs  and  public  rooms. 
t  b  steadily  gaining  in  popuUri^  among 
merchants,  bankers  and  brokers  as  a  relief  to 
the  turmoil  of  a  busy  life.  No  residence  is 
thought  complete  without  a  billiard  table. 

Bibliography.—  Thatcher,  'Championship 
Billiards,  Old  and  New'  (1898);  Daly  and 
Harris.  'Daly's  Billiard  Book*  (1913),  and  for 
the  English  game,  Ritchie,  'Useful  Strokes  for 
Billiard  Players'  (1910). 

George  F,  Slosson, 
American  Billiard  Expert. 
BILLINGS,  Frmk,  American  i^ysician: 
b.  Highland,  Wis-,  2  April  1854.  He  was 
graduated  M.D.  at  Northwestern  University 
Medical  School  1881;  honorary  S.M.  ibid 
1891;  was  interne  at  Cook  County  Hospital 
1881-^;  and  studied  in  Vienna  188S-S6-  was 
appointed  professor  of  medicine  at  North- 
western University  Medical  School  1891 ;  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  and  dean  of  faculty  of  Rush 
Medical  College  1898;  professor  of  medicine 
Universi^  of  Chicago  190S;  president  Ameri- 
can Medical  Association  1902-04 ;  president 
American  Association  of  Physicians  1907; 
president  National  Association  for  the  Study 
and  Prevention  of  Tuberculosis  1908-  Shat- 
tuck  lecturer,  Boston  1902;  Doctor  of  Science, 
Harvard  University  191S:  Lane  Medical  Lec- 
turer, San  Francisco  1915.  He  became  editor 
of  the  'Year  Book  of  General  Uedidne*  in 
1901. 

BILLINGS,  John  Shaw,  American  sur- 
geon and  librarian :  b.  Switzerland  County, 
Ind.,  12  April  1839;  d.  1913,  He  was  graduated 
at  Miami  Universifr;  in  1857,  and  at  the  Ohio 
Medical  College,  1860;  was  demonstrator  of 
anatomy  in  the  last  institution.  1860^1 ;  entered 
the  Union  army  as  an  assistant  surgeon.  1861; 
was  promoted  to  lieutenant-colonel  and  depuW 
surgeon-general,  6  June  1B94;  and  was  retired 
1  Oct.  1895.  Dr,  Billings  became  curator  of 
the  Army  Medical  Museum  and  Library  and 
made  the  latter  die  third  and  one  of  the  most 
valuable  medical  libraries  in  the  world.  The 
'Index  Catalogue'  of  the  library  in  16  quarto 
volumes,  which  he  prepared,  is  among  the 
foremost  of  its  kind.  He  was  professor  of 
hygiene  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
1893-96;  and  in  the  last  year  was  awointcd 
director  of  the  New  York  Public  Library 
(Astor,  Lenox  and  Tilden  Foundations).  After 
the  close  of  the  war  Dr,  Billings  reoivanized 
the  United  States  Marine  Hospital  Service; 
was  vice-president  of  the  National  Board  of 
Health,  1879-82;  and  had  charge  of  the  com- 
pilation of  vital  and  social  statistics  in  the 
11th  Census.     He  was  a  member  of  a  large 


'Principles  of  Ventilation  and  Heating* 
(I884J;  'Ittd«s(  Catalogue  of  the  Library  of 
the  Surgeon-Cjeneral's  Office.  United  States 
Army';  'National  Medical  Dictionary'  (2 
vols.,   1889);  'Description  at  the  Johns  Hop- 


t,zcd=y  Google 


BILLINGS  —  BILLOT 


TOT 


i'. 


ktns  Ho»itsP  (1890);  ^Social  Statistics  of 
Cities'  (6  vols.,  for  the  11th  Census);  'Some 
Libraiy  Problems  o£  Tomorrow'  (1902); 
'Physiological  Aspects  of  the  Liquor  Prob- 
lem'   (1903). 

BILLINGS,  Joifa.    See  Sraw,  Henky  W. 

BILLINGS,  Robert  WillUm,  Eaglish 
architect  and  author;  b.  1813;  d.  1874.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  John  Britton,  and  illustrated 
such  imporlant  works  as  'The  History  and 
Description  of  Saint  Paul's  Cathedral'  (1837)  ; 
and  'The  Churches  of  London>  (1839);  and 
made  notable  additions  to  the  literature  of 
architecture  in  'Illustrations  of  Architecture 
and  Antiquities  of  the  County  of  Durham' 
1846)  ;  and  'Baronial  and  Ecclesiastical 
.ntiquities  of  Scotland'  (4  vols,  I845-S2).  He 
was  employed  in  the  restoration  of  many  im- 

Krtant  old  buildings  in  Scotland  and  Ene- 
id,  including  the  cnapel  of  Edinburgh  Castik 
Douglas  Room,  Stirling  Castle,  Gosfora 
House,  and  Crosby- upon -Eden  Church,  Cum- 
berland, 

BILLINGS,  Willitm,  American  composer: 
b  Boston,  7  Oct.  1746;  d.  there,  26  Seijt.  1800. 
He  published  no  less  than  six  collections  of 
tunes,  which,  with  a  few  e»:eptions,  were  of 
his  own  composition.  They  were  founded  uiwn 
the  new  style  of  church  music,  then  first  in- 
troduced by  English  composers,  and  their  con- 
trast to  the  dismal  old  tunes  previously  in  use 
naturally  gave  them  immense  popularity.  Yet 
they  were  far  from  being  perfect  in  the  requi- 
sites of  good  melodv  and  harmony,  and  their 
author,  in  a  quaintly  worded  preface  to  his 
second  work,  entitled  'The  Singing  Master's 
Assistant'  and  commonly  known  as  'Billings' 
Best,*  apologizes  for  the  errors  which  his  first 
collection  contains.  Billings  was  a  firm 
patriot,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Samuel 
Adams,  who  frequently  sat  with  him  at  church 
in  the  singing-choir.  Many  of  his  tunes,  com- 
posed dunn^  the  war  of  independence,  breathe 
the  true  spirit  of  patriotism,  and  were  sung 
and  played  wherever  New  England  troops  were 
stationed.  Billings  may  fairly  claim  tne  title 
of  the  first  Amencan  composer,  for  before  his 
time  there  is  no  record  of  any  musical  com- 
position by  a  native  of  this  country.  He  is 
also  known  as  "the  father  of  New  England 
psahnody,* 

BILLINGS,  Mont,  city  and  county-seat 
of  Yellowstone  County,  on  the  Yellowstone 
River  and  the  Northern  Pacific,  the  Great 
Northern  and  the  Burlington  and  Missouri 
River  railroads,  238  miles  east  of  Helena. 
The  city  is  a  very  important  wool  exporting 
market,  being  in  the  centre  of  an  extensive 
sheep-raising  region.  Its  industrial  establish- 
ments include  machine  shops,  a  beet  su^r 
factory,  flour  and  lumber  mills  and  extensive 
brick  yards.  Coal,  marble  and  limestone  are 
found  in  the  neighborhood.  Pop.  (1910) 
ia031. 

BILLINGSGATE,  the  proper  name  (pre- 
sumably, though  not  quite  certainly,  from  a 
Grsonal  name  Billing)  of  one  of  the  gates  of 
indon  and  of  the  fish-markM  long  established 
there,  which  became  a  free  mancct  in  16Q9, 
was  extended  in  1849.  rebuilt  in  1852,  and 
nnally  exposed  to  the  rivalry  of  another  rnarket 
built  1874-76.    The  word  is  also  used  to  indi- 


cate foul,  abusive  language,  such  as  is  |>op- 
ularly  supposed  to  be  employed  by  tish-wives 
who  are  unable  to  come  to  an  amicable  under- 
standing as  to  the  proper  price  of  die  fish 
about  which  they  are  negotiating.  Billingsgate 
is  used  as  a  synonym  of  coarse,  vulgar  abuse, 

BILLINGTON,  Elizabeth,  English  singer: 
b.  London  1768;  d.  Venice  1818.  Her  father 
was  a  German  oboe-player  named  Weichsel, 
her  mother  an  English  singer.  She  made  her 
appearance  as  a  singer  at  the  age  of  14,  and  at 
16  married  Mr.  Billmgton,  a  double-bass  player. 
She  made  her  d^but  as  an  operatic  singer  in 
Dublin,  and  afterward  appeared  at  Covent 
Garden,  where  she  secured  an  engagement  tor 
the  remainder  of  the  season  of  1786  for  $5,000, 
the  manager  giving  her  tivo  benefits.  She 
finished  her  musical  education  under  Sacchini, 
and  sang  in  Venice  and  Home  with  great  suc- 
cess. Bianchi  composed  the  opera  of  'Inez 
de  Castro'  expressly  for  her  performance  at 
Naples.  After  Billington's  death,  in  1799,  she 
married  a  Frenchman  named  Fehssent  and  re- 
turned to  London  in  1801,  where  she  filled  a 
six 'months' engagement  for  $20,000.  She  retired 
In  1811  and  thereafter  lived  at  her  villa  near 
Venice.  Her  domestic  life  was  unhappy.  Her 
voice  was  of  wonderful  compass  ana  was  en- 
hanced by  her  great  personal  charms.  Consult 
Ferris,  G.  F,  'Great  Singers'  (Vol.  I.  New 
Yorir  1892). 

BILLION,  in  Great  Britain  and  Germany, 
the  term  used  to  denote  a  million  millions.  In 
France,  America  and  elsewhere  it  denotes  a 
thousand  millions.  A  similar  difference  is 
found  in  the  use  of  the  terms  trillion,  quad- 

BILLITON,  or  BLITONG,  East  Indies, 
an  island  belonging  to  Holland,  lying  between 
Banca  and  the  southwest  of  Borneo,  of  an  ir- 
regular sub-quadrangular  form,  about  40  miles 
across ;  area,  1,863  square  miles.  There  are  large 
deposits  of  tin  and  other  minerals.  It  is  divided 
administratively  into  five  districts,  under  the 
governor- gen  era!  of  the  east  coast  of  Sumatra. 
Tlicre  are  many  {^nese  among  the  population 
but  f«w  Europeans.  Coral  reefs  surround  the 
island.  Padang  is  the  capital.  Pop.  (1912) 
58,480. 

BILLON,  an  alloy  of  copper  and  silver, 
in  which  the  former  predominates,  formerly 
used  in  Austria  and  Germany  for  coins  of  low 
value,  the  object  being  to  avoid  the  bulkiness 
of  pure  copper  coin. 

BILLOT,  be'lo',  Jean  Bsptiate,  French 
soldier:  b.  Chaumeil,  Correze,  15  Aug.  1828; 
d,  31  May  1907.  Graduating  from  Saint-Cyr 
Military  Academy,  he  entered  the  army,  becom- 
ing a  colonel  in  1870.  He  was  with  the  French 
army  of  invasion  in  Mexico  and  later  served  in 
Algeria.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco-Prus' 
sian  War  he  was  commanding  general  of  the 
2d  Anny  Corps,  on  the  Rhine,  and  was  one 
of  the  defenders  of  Metz.  Later,  while  com- 
manding the  18tb  Army  Corps,  he  participated 
in  the  fighting  at  Baune  la  Rolande  and  VtUer- 
sexel,  where  the  French  gained  one  of  their 
few  victories  during  the  war.  During  all  of 
1882  and  part  of  1883  he  was  Minister  of  War 
in  the  Cabinet  of  Fr^ctnet,  and  again  under 
Meline  from  1896  to  1898. 


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BILLROTH— BILLS 


BILLROTH,  bil'rat,  Theodor,  German 
surgeon :  b.  Bergen,  on  the  island  of  Rugen, 
26  April  1329:  d.  6  Feb.  1894.  He  was  educated 
at  Greifswald,  Gottii^en,  Berlin  and  Vienna; 
was  assistant  to  Langenbeck  at  Berlin  and  be- 
came professor  of  surgery  at  tbe  University  of 
Zurich  in  1860,  and  at  Vienna  in  1867;  in  the 
war  of  1870-71,  he  worked  in  German  hospitals 
on  the  Rhine.  He  was  one  of  the  foremost 
surgeons  of  the  da^,  not  0n1y_  as  an  operator, 
but  as  an  aothonty  on  microscopic  work, 
pathology  and  military  surgery.  He  made  many 
valuable  contributions  to  medical  literature,  in- 
cluding "Die  allgemeinc  chirurgische  Palholo^e 
und  Therapie.'  translated  into  all  European 
languages  ana  into  Japanese  (1863;  16th  ed^ 
■  1906)  ;  'Chirurgische  Briefe  aus  den  Kriegs- 
lazaretten  in  Weissenburg  und  Mannheim  > 
(1872);  <Ueber  den  Transport  der  im  Felde 
Verwundeten  und  Kranlcen'  (^1874);  'Die 
KrankenpUege  im  Haus  und  im  Hospital*  (6tb 
ed.,  1899),  Billroth  was  a  good  amateur  musi- 
cian and  after  his  death  appeared  his  'Wer  ist 
Musikalisch?>    (3d  ed.,  1898). 

BILLS,  Cotme  of.  Public  bills  are  those 
which  affect  the  interests  of  the  people  at  large 
and  private  bills  are  those  which  atiect  the  in- 
terests of  a  person  or  persons  whether  they  be 
private  individnals  or  corpoiations  (see  Bills, 
Private).    The  term  'bill*  is  appKed  to  a  pro- 

eised  law  until  it  has  passed  tnrough  alt  its 
gisiative  stages  and  has  been  signed  by  the 
proper  ol^cial,  when  it  becomes  an  act  or  stat- 
ute (see  Acts  of  Congress).  Jn  the  United 
States,  even  after  they  have  become  law,  some 
bills  are  popularly  known  by  the  name  of  the 
member  or  members  of  the  legislative  body  in- 
troducing them,  as  the  McKinley  Bill,  or  the 
Gorman-Wilson  Bill,  though  the  words  bill,  act 
Uid  law  are  used  interchangeably  in  designating 
them.  The  British  government  provides  that 
the  preparation  of  all  public  bills  must  be  super- 
vised by  an  expert,  the  clerk  of  the  House  of 
Conunons,  and  even  private  bills  must  pass  his 
scrutiny  before  introduction.  In  the  United 
States  House  of  Representatives,  however, 
since  there  is  no  check  on  the  right  of  an  indi- 
vidual member  to  introduce  a  bill  on  any  con- 
ceivable subject  upon  any  legislative  day,  and 
since  the  form  and  scope  of  the  bill  are  deter- 
mined by  its  introducer,  there  is  much  laxity 
and  variation  in  the  methods  pursued  in  the 
preparation  of  bills. 

In  the  House,  private  bills  are  left  in  the 
clerk's  box  while  public  bills  are  left  on  the 
speaker's  tabic;  in  the  Senate,  after  a  member 
is  recognised  he  asks  permission  to  introduce  a 
bill,  but  unless  the  other  members  give  unani- 
mous consent  (which,  however,  is  seldom  re- 
fused) he  roust  wait  the  customary  period  of 
one  day.  After  bills  have  been  introduced  they 
are  referred  to  the  committees  having  jurisdic- 
tion, and  are  then  printed ;  when  the  committee 
reports  they  are  placed  upon  the  calendar  in 
tbe  order-  m  which  they  are  reported.  The 
Senate  has  a  single  calendar  and  consideration 
is  given  to  bills  in  order,  but  the  House  has 
three  calendars:  the  private  calendar,  the 
Union  calendar  for  money  bills,  and  the  House 
calendar  for  other  public  bills.  Hence  con- 
sideration is  not  given  to  bills  in  the  order  in 
which  they  are  reported  but  they  are  brought 
up  either  at  the  instance  of  the  committee  r^ 


porting  them,  or  by  unanimous  consent,  or  by 
suspending  the  rules,  or  b^  adopting  a  special 
rule  reported  by  the  committee  on  riilcs.  While 
threQ  readings  of  a  bill  are  required  and  the 
rule  is  followed  technically,  the  committee  sys- 
tem has  divested  the  rule  of  much  of  its  sig- 
nificance. By  unanimous  consent  the  first  and 
second  readings  in  the  Senate  take  place  before 
a  bill  is  referred  to  the  proper  committee,  but 
in  tbe  House  a  bill  is  first  read  by  title  and 
then  in  full  when  taken  up  from  the  calendar 
for  consideration.  After  finishing  discussion  of 
a  bill  on  its  second  reading  and  disposing  of 
sn^ested  amendments,  the  final  stage  (if  no 
objection  be  made)  is  entered  upon,  consisting 
of  three  operations,  thou^  only  one  vote  is 
taken ;    the  order  for  engrossment,  the  third 


only,  though  if  a  question  be  raised  it  must  be 
of  the  entire  engrossed  bill;  upon  final  passage 
the  bill  is  engrossed,  now  by  printing.  After 
this  has  been  done  it  is  signed  by  the  clerk  or 
secretary  and  forwarded  to  the  other  bouse,  in 
which  it  pursues  the  course  of  a  bill  orieinatinp 
therein.  It  it  be  passed  by  the  second  house 
without  amendment,  it  is  returned  to  tbe  first 
house  for  enrolment  on  parchment,  is  next 
signed  by  the  speaker  of  the  House  and  the 
president  of  the  Senate  (upon  renort  by  tfie 
committee  on  enrolled  bills  that  it  nas  actually 
been  enrolled)  and  then  presented  by  this  com- 
mittee to  the  President  for  his  signature  or 
rejection  by  veto.  But  if  the  bill  be  amended 
by  the  second  house  it  must  again  be  considered 
by  the  first  house,  either  to  accept  the  amend- 
ments (in  which  case  the  bill  is  enrolled)  or 
to  reject  them  and  request  the  other  house  to 
appoint  a  conference  committee.  In  this  case 
the  other  house  either  eliminates  its  amend- 
ments or  insists  and  appoints  such  committee 
After  conferring},  the  committees  report  simul- 
taneously to  their  respective  bouses  and  if  the 
report  be  adopted  hy  both  the  bill  is  enrolled 
as  above.  When  bills  have  been  signed  by  the 
President  (hut  see  Veto)  they  become  Acts  of 
Congress  (q.v.)  and  are  filed  in  die  State  De- 
partment '  and  the  house  in  which  the  bill 
originated  is  notified  of  the  signature  which 
fact  is  recorded  in  its  journal. 

In  the  main  the  State  legislatures  follow  the 
proceedings  of  Congress  but  there  are  many 
minor  variations.  Some  Slate  Constitutions 
provide  that  no  bill  shall  receive  consideration 
for  passage  unless  previously  referred  to  and 
reported  by  a  committee.  Several  States  pro- 
hibit the  mt reduction  of  bills  after  a  certain 
period  of  time  has  elapsed  or  within  a  certain 
number  of  days  prior  to  the  termination  of  the 
session ;  and  two  States  forbid  the  passage  of 
bills  on  the  last  day  or  two.  The  majority  of 
the  States  require  that  a  bill  be  read  three 
times,  usually  in  full  on  separate  days,  Ibou^ 
this  requirement  may  be  overruled  by  unani- 
mous consent  or  a  special  message  from  the 
governor.  If  the  legislature  fail  to  conform 
to  the  rules  strictly,  there  is  no  outside  power 
that  can  compel  such  observance.  Consult 
Gushing,  L.  S.,  'Law  and  Practice  of  Legis- 
lative Assemblies>  (1907)  ;  Hinds,  A.  C.  'Rules 
of  the  House  of  Representatives'  (1909): 
Reinsch,  P.  S.,  'American  Legislatures  and 
Legislative  Metliods>  (1907). 


t,zcd=y  Google 


BILLS  — BILBON 


__'  all  persona  in  a  class.  Private  bills  _. . 
usually  designed  to  benefit  some  particular  per* 
son,  corporation  or  place,  and  the  proceedings 
with  reference  to  them  are  not  only  legislative 
but  to  a  certain  extent  judicial.  Among  pri- 
vate bills  arc  those  to  incorporate  gas,  water, 
railway  and  other  companies ;  to  incorporate 
cities  or  towns  or  to  increase  their  powers;  to 
naturalize  particular  individuals  or  to  change 
their   names;   to   grant   pensions   to   particular 


a  private  member's  bill  in  the  British  Parlia- 
ment, the  latter  being  a  bill  which  is  introduced 
by  a  private  member  o£  Parliament  as  distin- 

fiished  from  a  member  of  the  government.  In 
ngland  private  bills  are  initiated  by  "petition* 
and  may  be  introduced  only  if  they  have  been 
advertised  publicly  for  three  months  prior  to 
the  assembling  of  Parliament.  Being  regarded 
as  a  privilege,  fees  are  required  to  be  paid  by 
the  promoters  of  such  bills  at  the  various  stages 
of  their  passage.  They  are  required  to  be  de- 
posited before  31  December  in  the  ■private  bill 
office*  where  thw  may  be  subjected  to  public 
inspection  and  the  inspection  of  two  exam- 
iners appointed  to  ascertain  it  they  have  fol- 
lowed the  prescribed  preliminaries.  A  com- 
mittee on  private  bills  then  listens  to  arguments 
on  their  merits  and  reports  to  the  House, 
where  they  are  either  passed  or  rejected.  See 
Great  BatXAiN  —  Paruament. 

In  the  United  States  House  of  Representa- 
tives there  is  a  separate  private  bill  calendar 
but  the  legislative  stages  through  which-  private 
and  public  bills  must  cass  do  not  differ  in  any 
essential  particular.  However,  the  House  of 
Representatives  does  set  aside  Friday  of  each 
week  for  the  consideration  of  private  bills,  such 
as  pension  bills,  relief  measures,  claims  against 
the  government,  etc.,  though  by  a  majority  vote 
this  day  may  be  devoted  to  other  business. 
Some  Stales  observe  the  English  distinction 
between  public  and  private  bills,  using  a  differ- 
ent procedure  in  their  passage.  Pennsylvania 
and  some  other  States  require  at  least  30  days' 
notice  of  the  intention  to  introduce  such  a  bill, 
which  notice  must  be  published  in  the  locality 
in  which  the  thing  to  be  affected  is  situated 
Massachusetts  requires  a  petition  and  notice  b/ 
advertisement  or  otherwise  to  all  parties  affected 
or  interested  before  a  private  local  bill  can  be 
introduced  and  considered.  Consult  Bryce, 
James,  'The  American  Commonwealth'  (4th 
ed,  1910)  ;  Oifford,  W.  K..  'History  of  Private 
BUI  Legislation'  (1885);  Gushing,!.  S.,  'Law 
and  Practice  of  Legislative  Assemblies'  (1907)  j 
Hinds,  A.  C,  'Precedents  of  the  House  of 
Representatives'  (1907-08),  and  "Rules  of  the 
House  of  Representatives^  (1909);  Ilbert,  Sir 
C,  'The  Mechanics  of  Law  Making'  (1914)  : 
Reinsch.  P.  S^  'American  Legislatures  and 
Legislative  Methods'  (1907). 

BILLY-BOY,  a  flat-bottomed,  bluff-bowed 
vessel  ngged  as  a  sloop,  with  a  mast  that  can 
be  lowered  so  as  to  admit  of  passing  under 
bridges.  They  generally  belong  to  the  Humber 
ports. 


BILNEY,  ThomM,  *LirrLE  Bilnev,* 
English  martyr:  b.  probably  at  Norwich,  about 
1495;  d  Norwiek^  19  Aug.  1531.  He  studied 
at  Trinity  Hall,  (Cambridge,  and  was  ordained 
in  1519.  He  was  opposed  to  the  formal  "good 
works*  of  the  Schoolmen  and  denounced 
saint'  and  relic-worship ;  and  to  these  plain 
Protestant  views  he  converted  Hugh  Latimer 
and  other  young  Cambridge  men.  In  1527  he 
was  arraigned  before  Wolsey  and,  on  recant- 
ing, absolved,  but  was  confined  in  the  Tower 
for  over  a  year.  Stung  l^  remorse,  after  two 
years  of  suffering,  hcliegan  to  preach  in  the 
fields  of  Norfolk,  but  was  soon  apprehended 
and  condemned;  and  although  reconciled  once 
more  to  the  Church,  he  had  to  suffer  the  pen- 
al^ of  a  relapsed  heretic  and  was  burned  to 
death,, 

BILOXI,  bIl-oks%  Miss.,  a  city  m  Harri- 
son County,  on  Biloxi  Bay,  opening  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Louisville  &  Nash- 
ville Railroad,  80  miles  northeast  of  New  Or- 
leans. It  is  principally  engaged  in  the  can- 
ning of  oysters,  fish,  fruit  and  vegetables  and 
has  also  considerable  manufacturing  and  ship- 
ping interests.  The  waterworks  are  the  prop- 
erty of  the  municipality.  Biloxi  is  near 
the  site  of  the  first  settlement  made  upon  the 
Mississippi  by  white  men,  under  the  direction 
of  Pierre  Le  Moyne  dlberville,  in  1699.  In 
1701  this  settlement  (now  Old  Biloxi)  was 
abandoned  after  a  destructive  tire  and  in 
1712  a  permanent  settlement  was  made  on  the 
present  site  across  the  river  from  the  old.  It 
was  long  the  capital  of  the  French  territory 
in  that  part  of  America,  was  incorporated  in 
1872  and  chartered  as  a  city  in  1896.  It  is 
governed  by  a  mayor  and  council.  The  mod- 
em town  is  a  popular  resort,  has  a  fine  beach, 
paved  streets  and  beautiful  surroundings. 
Consult  French,  'Historical  Collections  of 
Louisiana'    (New  York  1846-50).     Pop.  8,0«. 

BILOXI  INDIANS,  one  of  the  groups  of 
tribes  into  which  the  Siouan  stock  of  North 
American  Indians  is  divided.  In  1669  they  had 
one  village  on  Bikuii  Bay  near  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  Thirty  years  later  there  were  three 
villages,  Biloxi,  Paskagula  and  Moctobi  Prob- 
ably early  in  the  18th  century  they  removed  to 
Louisiana,  it  was  long  assumed  that  they  were 
related  to  the  Choctaws  but  Gatschet's  rt- 
searches  have  shown  that  their  language  is  a 
dialect  of  the  Siouan  stock.  He  discovered  a 
few  SDrvtvors  of  the  group  near  Lecompte, 
Rapides  Parish,  La.,  who  still  spoke  their  lin- 
lliage.  Consult  Darscy  and  Swanton,  'Dic- 
tionary of  the  Biloxi  Language'  (Washington 
1912),  and  Swanton,  J.  R.,  'Bulletin  43,  Bu- 
reau of  American  Ethnology.' 

BILSON,  Thomas,  English  divine :  b. 
Winchester  1547;  d  18  Tune  1616.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Winchester  School,  and  after  complet- 
ing his  studies  at  New  College,  Oxford,  became 
sucesslvly  warden  of  the  school  and  preben- 
dary of  the  cathedral  of  Winchester.  In  1585  he 
published  a  work,  entitled  'The  True  Differ- 
ence Between  Christian  Submission  and  Anti- 
Christian  Rebellion,'  intended  mainly  to  defend 
the  government  and  policy  of  Elizabeth ;  it  was 
swiftly  perceived  by  Nonconformists  that  Bil- 
son  *gave  strange  liberty  in  many  cases,  for 
subjects  to  cast  off  their  obe<Kencc.*    Histori-         i 

Ciooglc 


BILSTBD  —  BIHETALLISH 


death  of  Charles  I.  In  1593 
entitkd  'The  Perpetual  Governinent  of  Christ's 
Church,'  is  still  considered  one  of  the  ablest  de- 
fenses of  episcopacy.  In  1596  he  was  made 
bishop  of  Worcester,  and  was  transferred  in 
the  following  year  to  Winchester.  In  1603  Bil- 
son  preached  the  coronation  sermon  before 
James  I,  and  in  1604  he  took  a  promiaetit  part 
in  the  celebrated  conference  at  Hampton  Court, 
The  translation  of  the  Bible,  executed  during 
the  reign  of  James,  was  partly  submitted  to  his 
revision.    He  was  buried  in  W'estminster  Abbey, 

BILSTED.    See  Liquidambar. 

BILSTON,  England,  town  in  StafFordshire, 
three  miles  southeast  from  Wolverhampton. 
It  is  a  part  of  the  parUamentary  borough  of 
Wolverhampton,  It  has  extensive  coal  and 
iron  mines ;  the  other  chief  industries  consist 
of  iron  smelting  works,  foundries,  manufac- 
tories of  tin-plate  goods,  enameled  wares,  nails, 
wire  and  pottery.  The  waterworks  are  mu- 
nicipal property.  Nearby  is  found  a  fine  grade 
of  sand  much  used  for  metal  casting.  Pop. 
2S,681. 

BIMETALLISM.  A  monetary  system 
wherein  gold  and  silver  are  tx>th  used  as  stand- 
ard money  and  coined  without  limit  at  a  fixed 
ratio  imposed  by  legislation.  Eimetallism 
proper  implies,  first,  that  the  money  unit  shall 
be  represented  in  two  metats;  second,  that  these 
metals  shall  enjoy  equal  and  unlimited  coinage 
privileges;  third,  that  they  shall  be  equalized 
by  law  in  a  fixed  and  definite  ratio;  and  fourth, 
that  the  coins  made  from  either  of  them  shall 
be  a  full  legal  tender. 

The  term  "limping  bimetallism"  has  been 
applied  to  systems  wherein  gold  and  silver  .were 
both  recognized  as  standard  money,  but  in 
which  one^  of  the  metals  was  not  coined  at  all, 
or  not  coined  on  equal  terms  with  the  other. 
The  term  "free  coinage"  has  sometimes  been 
used  to  mean  unlimited  coinage  and  sometimes 
to  mean  gratuitous  coinage.  Unlimited  coinage 
b  necessary  to  a  complete  bimetallic  system. 
When  coinage  is  limited  the  volume  of  stand- 
ard money  is  to  that  extent  regulated  by  law ; 
when  coinage  is  unlimited  the  volume  depends, 
first,  upon  the  total  accumulation  of  coin,  and, 
second,  upon  the  annual  production  of  the 
money  metals.  This  sum  is  further  augmented 
by  the  coinage  of  gold  and  silver  plate  when 
money  becomes  scarce,  or  lessened  by  an  in- 
creased demand  for  gold  and  silver  in  the  arts 
when  money  becomes  plentiful. 

Bimetallism  does  not  rest  upon  any  natural 
particular  ratio ;  the  coinage  ratio  is  arbitrarily 
fixed  by  law,  and  can  be  changed  by  law.  The 
ratio  states  tiie  proportion  existing  between  the 
silver  dollar  and  the  gold  dollar  when  measured 
by  weight  — thai  is.  at  the  ratio  of  16  lo  1,  the 
silver  dollar  weighs  16  times  as  much  as  the 
gold  dollar.  While  the  legal  and  commercial 
ratios  between  the  metals  have  fluctuated  from 
time  to  time  the  commercial  ratio  has,  as  a  rule, 
followed  the  legal  ratio,  and  from  the  begin- 
ning of  history  down  to  1873  the  fluctuations  in 
the  commercial  ralio  were  never  as  sudden  or 
as  great  as  ihey  have  been  since  1873.  During 
the  400  years  which  elapsed  between  1473  and 
1873  the  extreme  variation  in  the  commercial 
ratio  was  from  14  to  I  to  16  to  1,  although 


during  that  period  there  were  greater  changes 
in  the  relative  production  of  ttie  metals  than 
have  occurred  since.  For  instance,  between 
1800  and  1840  the  world's  production  of  silver 
was  about  4  to  1  in  value,  compared  with  the 
production  of  gold;  after  the  new  discoveries 
of  gold  in  1849  the  production  of  that  metal  so 
increased  that  the  annual  output  of  gold  was 
soon  more  than  3  to  1  in  value,  compared  with 
the  output  of  silver,  and  yet  during  this  tre- 
mendous change  in  relative  production  the  com- 
mercial ratio  was  comparatively  staUe,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  all  the  gold  and  all  the  silver 
could  go  through  the  mints  into  the  world's 
currency. 

The  ratio  of  16  lo  1  was  advocated  by 
American  bimetallists,  first,  because  it  was  the 
ratio  existing  between  the  silver  and  gold  coins 
in  circulation  in  the  United  States;  and,  second, 
because  an  increase  in  the  r^tio,  made  by  in- 
creasing the  size  of  the  silver  dollar,  would  to 
the  extent  that  it  was  joined  in  bj^  other  nations 
require  the  recoinage  of  silver  coins  into  larger 
coins,  and  thus  reduce  the  world's  volume  oj 
stamhrd  money.  If,  for  instancy  the  ratio 
were  changed  to  32  to  1  by  international  agree- 
ment, and  the  silver  money  of  the  world,  ap- 
proximating $4,000,000,000,  were  recoined  into 
$2,000,000,000,  it  would  cause  a  shrinkage  of 
about  25  per  cent  in  the  total  volume  of  metallic 
money  and,  as  contracts  would  still  call  for  the 
same  number  of  dollars,  such  a  change  in  the 
ratio  would  transfer  billions  of  dollars  in  vahie 
from  the  wealth  producers  to  the  holders  of 
fixed  investments. 

Bimetallism,  therefore,  relates  to  the  legal 
status  of  the  metals  rather  than  to  their  com- 
mercial value,  and  does  not  necessarily  imply 
the  simultaneous  or  concurrent  circulation  of 
both  metals. 

The  Gresham  law  has  often  been  quoted 
against  tumetallism.  That  law  is  a  statement, 
made  by  a  master  of  the  EngUsh  mint  of  that 
name,  who  announced  as  his  observation  that 
the  worn,  light-weight  coins  ran  the  full- weight 
coins  out  of  the  country  — the  explanation  be- 
in§  that  while,  to  a  majority  of  the  people,  one 
com  was  as  good  as  another  so  long  as  it 
would  pass  current,  the  jewelers  would  melt 
and  the  dealers  in  money  would  collect  and 
export  the  heaviest  coins  (coins  passing  by 
weight  rather  than  by  legal  tender  value  out- 
side of  their  own  country).  It  can  readily  be 
seen  ihat  the  Gresham  law  can  apply  not  only 
to  the  use  of  two  metals  when  there  b  differ- 
ence between  government  ratios,  but  also  when 
the  commodity  values  of  the  two  metals  differ. 
When,  for  instance,  we  had  a  ratio  of  15  to  1 
in  this  country,  anti  the  French  ratio  was  15!4 
to  I,  there  was  a  tendency  to  send  American 
gold  to  France  and  bring  French  silver  to  the 
United  States,  and  ycl  this  tendency  did  not 
cause  the  exportation  of  all  American  gold  to 
France  or  of  all  French  silver  to  the  United 
States.  France,  being  at  that  time  the  stronger 
nation  commercially,  fixed  the  ratio  and  our 
gold  rose  to  a  premium.  In  the  payment  of 
debts  silver  was  the  money  employed,  Mid  gold, 
when  it  was  used,  was  used  at  its  commodity 
price,  which  was  expressed  as  a  'premium.* 
After  1834  the  situation  was  reversed  and  sUvcr 
went  to  a  premium.  Gold  was  then  used  for 
the  payment  of  debts  and  for  general  tranui^ 


de 


BIMETALLISM 


Til 


tions,  and  silver,  when  it  was  used,  brought  a 
premium.  When  the  ratio  was  I5  to  1  in  this 
country  gold  went  to  a  premium  of  about  3 
per  cent,  because  the  French  ratio  was  ISji  to  1 : 
-^en  our  ratio  was  changed  to  16  to  1  silver 
rose  to  a  premium  of  about  3  per  cent. 

In  bimetallism  the  debtor  always  has  the 
option.  This  is  true,  not  because  of  a  desire  on 
the  part  of  the  government  to  favor  the  debtor, 
but  Decause  the  parity  can  be  maintained  in  no 
other  way.  The  desire  of  all  debtors  to  secure 
diat  metal  which  is  the  cheaper  will,  in  itself, 
^  increasing  the  demand  for  the  cheaper  metal, 
tend  to  equalize  the  commercial  value  of  the 
inetals  widi  the  legal  value. 

Bimetallism  has  been  declared  to  be  theoreti- 
cally better  than  monometallism  (either  of  gold 
or  silver),  because  under  the  double  or  bi- 
metallic standard  the  volume  of  money  changes 
less  rapidly  and  less  suddenly  than  under  the 
single  standard.  As  a  rule  the  increase  in  the 
production  of  one  metal  has  spread  itself  over 
the  entire  volume  of  money  and  has,  therefore, 
caused  ft  less  proportionate  increase  than  it 
would  hare  causea  had  the  world  been  using 
but  one  metal,  either  gold  or  silver,  as  standard 


"??. 


t  practical  argument  advanced  in  favor 
of  bimetallism  is  that  neither  metal  alone  fur- 
nishes a  sufficient  quantity  of  money  to  support 
the  world's  commerce.  This  phase  of  the  ques- 
tion was  not  much  considered  until  after  1873 
because,  prior  to  thai  date,  there  were  sufficient 
mints  open  to  the  coinage  of  both  metals  to 
furnish  a  monetary  use  for  every  ounce  pro- 
duced. When  all  of  the  gold  ana  silver  avail- 
able for  coinage  could  go  through  the  mints 
into  the  currency,  each  nation  could  consider 
the  question   from  a  purely   theoretical   stand- 

Kint,  because  so  long  as  the  commercial  world 
d  the  benefit  of  the  entire  volume  of  gold 
and  silver,  it  did  not  make  so  much  difference 
how  many  nations  used  one  metal,  or  the  Dthei\ 
or  both.  When,  however,  the  gold  standard 
foi  money  systems  came  into  favor  and  enough 
nations  joined  in  it  to  reduce  the  demand  for 
silver  below  the  supply  available  for  coinage, 
then  each  nation  was  compelled  to  consider  not 
only  its  preference  as  to  a  standard,  but  whether 
—  and  it  was  a  vital  question  —  it  was  always 
sure  of  having  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the 
chosen  metal. 

The  advocates  of  bimetallism  contended 
not  only  that  the  law  of  supply  and  demand 
regulates  the  value  of  the  dollar  ^ — an  increase 
in  the  demand,  the  supply  remaining  the  same, 
raising  the  purchasing  power  of  the  dollar,  and 
an  increase  in  the  supply,  the  demand  remain- 
ing the  same,  decreasmg  the  purchasing  power 
of  the  dollar,  but  they  ^so  asserted  that  supply 
and  demand  regulate  the  market  price  of  the 

The  coDtention  of  monometal lists  that  it  is 
impossible  to  fix  a  relation  between  two  metals 
was  met  with  the  reply  that  the  relation  be- 
tween two  things  of  limited  production,  such 
as  gold  and  silver,  can  be  fixed  by  any  nation 
or  group  of  nations  which  can  furnish  a  use 
for  so  much  of  both  metals  as  is  available  for 
coinage. 


surplus  over  and  above  what  the  arts  require, 
the  commercial  value  can  be  kept  up  to  the 
coinage  value  for  the  reason  that  each  owner 
will  seek  the  highest  passible  price,  and  so 
long  as  the  government  stands  ready  to  con- 
vert a  given  amount  of  metal  into  a  given 
amount  of  money,  he  will  not  have  to  dispose 
of  the  metal  to  any  one  else  for  less  than  the 
government  price.  If  the  government,  in- 
stead of  standing  ready  to  convert  one  metal 
into  money,  stands  ready  to  convert  two  met- 
als into  money,  it  can  make  the  commercial 
ratio  and  the  coinage  ratio  identical,  if  there 
is  a  use  for  the  money.  The  changes  in  rela- 
tive production  would  not  affect  this  condition 
50  long  as  the  government  was  able  to  utilize 
all  of  the  surplus  of  both  metals. 

Independent  bimetal  lists  and  international 
bimetaUists,  though  agreeing  as  to  the  theoret- 
ical and  practical  benefits  of  the  double  stand- 
ard, differed  as  to  the  ability  of  the  United 
States  alone  to  maintain  the  parity,  the  former 
contending,  and  the  latter  denying,  that  under 
conditions  as  they  then  existed  the  nation  was 
able  to  utilize  all  the  silver  that  could  come 

The  fear  that,  under  bimetallism,  our 
counhy  would  be  flooded  with  the  coined  sil- 
ver of  the  world  was  declared  to  be  without 
foundation,  for  the  reason  that  our  ratio,  16 
to  1,  was  more  favorable  to  gold  than  the 
ratio  existing  between  gold  and  silver  in  the 
nations  that  have  a  large  quantity  of  silver 
coin.  France,  for  instance,  was  the  largest 
European  holder  of  silver,  but  as  her  silver 
circulates  on  a  parity  with  gold  at  a  ratio  of 
15j^  to  1,  it  could  only  come  here  at  a  loss 
equivalent  to  about  three  cents  on  the  dollar. 

Whether  the  mines  would  furnish  an  exces- 
sive amount  of  silver  was  a  question  about 
which  no  one  could  speak  positively,  because 
no  one  can  foresee  new  discoveries  or  estimate 
the  possible  exhaustion  of  mines. 

Raising  the  government  price  of  a  precious 
metal  does  not  necessarily  increase  the  pro- 
duction of  i^  neither  does  the  lowering  of  the 
price  necessarily  reduce  the  production.  The 
use  of  gold  and  silver  as  money  is  the  dom- 
inating factor  in  its  value.  If,  by  agreement 
among  all  the  nations,  the  legal  tender  func- 
tion was  withdrawn  from  both  gold  and  sil- 
ver, and  other  money  substituted  for  them, 
both  would  fall  in  value,  as  expressed  in  the 
new  money,  just  how  much  no  one  knows, 
because  a  fall  in  the  price  of  either  of  the 
metals  would  develop  new  uses  and  thus  in- 
crease the  demand,  which,  in  its  turn,  would 
react  with  the  supply  in  determining  the  ulti- 
mate price.  The  arguments  pro  and  contra 
as  to  the  desirability  of  bimetallism  as  a 
monetary  system  belong  properly  in  the  arti- 
cle MONEV. 

The  United  States  established  the  double 
standard  in  1792.  France  followed  in  1803. 
England  adopted  the  gold  standard  in  1816 
and  since  then  has  exerted  a  controlling  in- 
fluence on  other  European  nations  whose  coin- 
age, however,  remained  silver  for  many  years. 
About  18S0,  France  went  over  to  the  gold 
basis  and  in  1865  the  Latin  Union  adopted  the 
French  standard.  In  1867  the  international 
money  conference  at  Paris  unanimously  ac- 
cepted the  single  standard  for  co-ordinating 
the  currencies  of  the  countries  taking  part  in 


gle 


Tia 


BIMETALLISM 


that  conference.  In  - 1871,  after  the  Franco- 
German  War,  Germany  established  the  gold 
standard  and  demonetized  silver.  In  1873  the 
United  States  formally  adopted  the  gold 
standard,  but  in  1878  initiated  a  monetary 
convention  at  Paris  to  discuss  the  question 
of  a  return  to  bimetallism.  The  proposition 
was  rejected.  Again,  in  18S1,  with  the  co- 
operation of  France,  the  United  States  invited 
the  nations  to  another  conference  on  bimetal- 
lism. England  and  Germany  opposed  the 
change  and  the  movement  failed.  In  1892  the 
United  States  made  another  attempt  at  Brus- 
sels to  discuss  bimetallism,  but  without  result. 
In  1893  India  closed  its  mints  to  the  free 
coinage  of  silver.  The  elections  in  1900  in  the 
United  States  finally  disposed  of  the  question 
of  a  double  standard  and  bimetallism  disap- 
peared   from    political    controversy. 

Bimetidlism  in  the  United  SUtea.— The 
bimetallic  standard  was  recommended  by  Jef- 
ferson and  Hamilton  and  adopted  by  our  gov- 
ernment by  a  statutd  approved  bv  Washmg- 
ton  in   1792.     This  law   provided  lor   the  free 


the 


id   unlimited   coinage   of    silver   and   gold    ... 
of    15   to   I,   the   coins  being  equally 


a  legal  tender  for  all  debts  public  and  private. 
The  Spanish  milled  dollar  Oica  in  use  in  this 
country  contained  the  same  amount  of  pure 
silver  as  our  present  silver  dollar  and,  tbe 
ratio  of  15  to  I  having  been  adopted,  the  gold 
dollar  was  made  to  weigh  one-fifteenth  as 
much.  The  stiver  dollars  then  coined  are 
sometimes  called  the  "unit  dollars,"  because 
they  have  on  the  edge  the  inscription:  'Hun- 
dred Cents,  One  Dollar,  or  Unit* 

In  1&34  the  ratio  was  changed  from  15  to  1 
to  15.988  + to  1.  which  for  convenience  has 
been  called  16  to  1.  The  change  was  made 
for  the  purpose  of  checking  the  exportation  of 
gold,  but  as  the  new  ratio  undervalued  silver 
It  made  ^old  the  money  in  general  use.  This 
law  provided  for  the  free  and  unlimited  coin- 
age of  gold  and  silver  into  full  legal  tender 
money  at  the  new  ratio.  In  1837  the  alloy  in 
the  dollar,  both  gold  and  silver,  was  changed 
from  one-twelfth  to  ore-tenth,  making  the 
weight  of  the  standard  silver  dollar  41 2 V^ 
grams,  nine-tenths  fine,  and  the  weight  of  tne 
standard  gold  dollar  25  8-10  grains,  nine-tenths 

As  the  law  of  1834  undervalued  silver  and 
led  to  the  exportation  of  considerable  quanti- 
ties of  it,  it  became  difficult  to  keep  fractional 
currency  in  circulation,  and  to  remedy  this 
the  law  of  1853  was  enacted.  By  the  terms 
of  this  law  subsidiary  silver  (that  is,  coins  of 
less  denomination  than  $1),  were  reduced 
from  full  weight  to  light  weight  and  made 
token  money,  with  limited  legal  tender,  in- 
stead of  standard  money.  This  law,  however, 
did  not  change  the  provision  in  regard  to  the 
standard  silver  dollar,  the  free  and  unlimited 
coinage  of  that  dollar  still  continjuig.  The 
subsidiary  silver  coins  were  redeemable  in 
(he  standard  money,  either  gold  or  silver. 
Sometimes  the  Act  of  1834  has  been  referred 
to  as  establishing  the  gold  standard,  but  this 
is  erroneous.  It  merely  changed  the  ratio  and 
that,  too,  by  reducing  the  weight  of  the  dearer 
dollar,   not   by   increasing   that   of   the   cheaper 


lating  to  the  standard  moaef,  either  gold  or 

On  12  July  1873  the  demonetintion  of  sil- 
ver was  effected  by  an  act  entitled  'An  Act 
Revisit^  and  Amending  the  Laws  Relative  to 
the  Mints,  Assay  Offices  and  Coinage  of  the 
United  States.* 

When  this  law  was  -passed  the  btisiness  of 


mium  —  silver  at  a  greater  premium  than  gold. 
In  making  provision  for  silver  coinage  it 
omitted  the  coinage  of  the  standard  silver  dol- 
lar and  substituted  for  it  a  trade  dollar  of  420 
§-ains  which  was  intended  for  use  in  the 
rient,  it  being  thought  that  the  trade  dollar 
would  compete  with  the  Mexican  dollar  in 
China  and  other  Eastern  countries.  In  1874 
the  Federal  statutes  were  revised  and  in  this 
revision  a  clause  was  inserted  limiting  the 
legal  tender  of  silver  coins  to  amounts  not  ex- 
ceeding $5. 

The  suspension  of  silver  coinage  by  the 
United  States  alone  would  not  have  caused  a 
fall  in  the  price  of  silver  as  measured  with 
gold,  but  other  nations  joining  in  the  demon- 
etization of  silver  it  soon  oecsmie  apparent 
that  the  mints  of  the  world  still  open  could  not 
utilize  all  the  silver  available  for  coinage,  and 
the  gold  price  of  silver  began  to  decline.  An 
effort  made  lo  reopen  the  United  States  mints 
to  silver  resulted  m  the  passage  of  what  was 
known  as  the  Bland-Allison  Act.  The  bill,  as 
it  passed  the  House,  under  the  leadership  of 
Richard  P.  Bland,  of  Missouri,  restored  the 
free  and  nnlimited  coinage  of  gold  and  silver 
at  the  ratio  of  16  to  1.  The  opposition  in  the 
Senate  was  sufficient,  however,  to  defeat  the 
bill  in  its  original  form,  and  to  cotnpel  the  ac- 
Dsptance  of  a  substitute  framed  by  Senator  Al- 
lison, whose  name  was  thus  connected  with 
the  law.  This  compromise  measure  provided 
that  there  should  be  'coined  at  the  several 
mints  of  the  United  Stales  silver  dollars  of 
the  weight  of  412^  grains  troy  of  stand^d 
silver  as  provided  by  the  Act  of  January  183/,* 
and  also  provided  that  such  silver  dollars 
'together  with  all  silver  dollars  heretofore 
coined  by  the  United  States  of  like  wei^t 
and  Bneness*  should  be  *a  legal  tender  at 
their  face  value  for  all  debts  and  dues  public 
and  private,  except  where  otherwise  stipulated 
in  the  contract' 

In  order  to  secure  the  bullion  out  of  which 
to  coin  the  dollars  mentioned  in  the  Act  of 
1878,  the  law  provided  'that  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  is  authorized  and  directed  to  pui^ 
chase,  from  time  to  time,  silver  bullion,  at  the 
market  price  thereof,  not  less  than  $2,000,000 
worth  per  month  nor  more  than  $4,000,000 
worth,  andcause  the  same  to  be  coined  monthly, 
as  fast  as  so  purchased,  into  such  dollars.* 

The  purchase  of  silver  for  coinage  under 
this  act  retarded  the  fall  in  the  price  of  silver, 
but  as  it  did  not  consume  the  entire  surplus 
it  was  not  sufficient  to  restore  the  price  of 
bullion  to  the  coinage  value  of  $129  an  ounce. 
The  Bland- All! son  Act  remaned  on  the 
statute  books  until  1890,  when  it  was  repealed 
by  what  was  known  as  the  Sherman  Purchase 
Act,  which  provided  for  the  purchase  of 
4,500.000  ounces  of  silver  per  month,  or  so 
much  thereof  as  might  be  offered  at  a  price  not 
exceeding  the  coinage  value,  the  bullion  to  be 


G^vogle 


BIK  — BINASY  THBOaV 


Mid  for  by  the  issue  of  treasury  notes,  re- 
deemable m  coin;  and  after  1  July  1891 
ooly  so  much  of  the  silver  wai  to  be'  coined 
as  was  necessary  to  redeem  the  treasury  notes 
presented. 

This  act  immediately  increased  the  demand 
for  silver  and  the  price  of  silver  bullion,  not 
only  in  the  United  States,  but  all  over  the 
world,  rose  to  abotit  $1^1  an  ounce.  But  when 
it  was  found  tlut  even  this  demand  was  not 
sufficient  to  utilize  all  the  surplus  silver,  the 
price  again   began  to   fall. 

The  treasury  notes  issued  in  the  purchase 
of  silver  were  made  a  legal  tender  for  the  pay- 
ment of  all  debts  public  and  private,  except 
where  excluded  by  contract,  and  were  redeem- 
able by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  'in  gold 
or  silver  coin  at  his  discretion.'  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  option  as  to  the  coin  of  pay- 
ment was  reserved  to  the  government,  but  an- 
other clause  in  the  measure  which  declared  it 
to  be  "the  established  policy  of  the  United 
States  to  maintain  the  twQ  metals  on  a  parity 
with  ead)  other  upon  the  present  legal  ratio  or 
such  ratio  as  may  be  provided  by  the  law,* 
was  afterward  construed  by  the  Treasury  De- 
partment to  deprive  the  Secretary  of  the  option.  - 

This  ruling  of  the  Treasury  Department 
was  followed  by  the  presentation  of  treasury 
notes  and  a  demand  for  gold,  and  the  drain 
upon  gold  which  followed  was  used  as  an 
argument  in  favor  of  the  repeal  of  the  pur- 
chase clause  of  the  law. 

What  has  sometimes  been  called  ^the  silver 
movement*  began  with  the  discovery  of  the 
effect  of  the  law  of  1873.  and  has  continued 
with  vaiying  ^orcc  ever  since^ 

It  might  better  be  designated  as  the  lu- 
metallic  movement,  because  it  was  an  effort 
to  restore  bimetallism,  and  the  supporters  of 
the  movement  asked  for  silver  notfiing  more 
than   was  already  granted  to  gold. 

During  the  period  following  1873  three 
intemadona!  conferences  have  been  held  with 
a  view  to  the  restoration  of  silver  (at  Paris 
in  1878  and  in  1881,  and  at  Brussels  in  1892), 
but  they  have  been  unsuccessful,  largely  because 
other  European  countries  have  hesitated  to  act 
without  England,  and  England,  being  largely  a 
creditor  nation,  has  been  unwilling  to  surrender 
the  advantage  which  a  rising  dollar  has  given 
her  in  the  mcrcased  purc^asmg  power  of  her 
credits. 

In  the  summer  of  1893,  the  President,  giv- 
ing as  bis  reason  the  suspension  of  the  coinage 
of  silver  in  India,  called  Congress  together  in 
extraordinary  session  and  recommended  the  un- 
conditional repeal  of  the  purchase  clause  of  the 
Sherman  Law.  Congressman  Wilson,  chairman 
of  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means,  and 
leader  of  the  administration  forces  in  the  House, 
introduced  a  bill  identical  in  purpose  and  almost 
repealing  the  purchase  clause  of  the  Sherman 
Law  without  substituting  any  provision  for 
the  further  coinage  of  silver.  After  a  pro- 
longed contest  this  bill  became  a  law  in  Novem- 
ber 1893. 

The  campaign  of  1896  resulted  in  the  elec- 
tion of  the  Republican  ticket  by  a  targe  major- 
ity, and  as  that  party  had  committed  itself  to 
international  bimetallism,  the  verdict  at  the 
polls  was  considered  a  victory  for  the  double 
standard  rather  tbiit  for  the  single  gold 
standard 


In  the  pursuance  of  the  promise  contained 
in  the  Republican  platform,  President  McKin- 
ley,  immediately  upon  taking  his  seat,  sent  a 
conunission  to  Europe  to  solicit  co-operation 
in  the  restoration  of  silver  to  its  former  place 
by  the  side  of  gold,  but  this  commission  failed 
to  secure  any  concessions  from  ^^and  and 
no  formal  conference  was  arranged-  See  Dem- 
ocratic Paity;  Repubucan   Party. 

Bibliography.— Andrew,  'An  Honest  Dol- 
lar' (1894) ;  Barclay,  'The  Silver  Question 
and  the  Gold  Question'  (1890) ;  Darwin,  'Bi- 
metallism' (1837);  Giffen,  'The  Case  Against 
Bimetallism*  (1896);  Laughlin,  'History  of 
Bimetallism  in  the  United  States'  (1897); 
Miller,  'Gold  or  Silver'  (1896)  ;  Stokes,  'Bi- 
metallism* (1895);  Taussig,  'The  Silver  Situa- 
tion in  the  United  States*  (1893);  Walker, 
'International  Bimetallism'  (1896).  Also  the 
reports  of  the  three  international  monetary 
conferences  in  1878.  1581  and  1892. 


Honor,  and  in  1881  was  conspicuous  as  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Society  of  French  Artists, 
His  'Prometheus  Chained'  is  in  the  Museum 
at  Marsdlles.  Among  his  portraits  are  those 
of  MM.  Clemenceau  and  de  Marcere. 

BINALONAN,  b£-ni-15'nan,  Philippines,  % 
town  of  the  province  of  Pangasin^n,  Luzon,  sit- 
uated in  the  western  part  of  the  island  of 
Luzon,  about  20  miles  from  the  coast,  at  the 
junction  of  several  highroads.    Pop.  10,295. 

BINANG,  be-nang,  Philippines,  a  town  of 
the  province  of  Lagum,  Luion,  situated  on  the 
Bay  Luzon,  about  15  miles  south  of  Manila,  on 
highroads  connecting  it  with  Cavite,  Manila 
and  other  important  towns.    Pop.  19,^. 

BINARY  LOGARITHHB,  a  system  of 
logarithms  devised  by  Euler  for  facilitating 
muskal  calculations.  Instead  of  having,  like 
the  common  system  of  logarithms,  1  as  the  log- 
arithm of  10^  It  had  1  as  the  logarithm  of  2. 

BINARY  NOTATION,  a  method  of  no- 
tation invented  by  Leibnitz,  but  which  appears 
to  have  been  in  use  in  C^ina  about  4,000  years 
ago.  As  the  term  binary  imphes,  there  are  only 
two  characters  in  this  notation ;  these  are  1  and 
0.  By  it,  our  1  is  denoted  by  1,  2  by  10,  3  by 
11,  4  by  100,  S  by  10!,  6  by  110,  7  by  111,  8  by 
1000,  9  by  1001,  10  by  1010,  etc.  The  principle 
is  that  the  postposition  of  0  multiplies  by  2  in 
place  of  by  10,  as  in  the  common  system.  Some 
properties  of  numbers  may_  be  more  simply  pre- 
sented on  this  plan  than  in  the  common  one; 
but  the  number  of  places  of  figures  required  to 
express  a  sum  of  any  magnitude  is  a  fatal  ob- 
jection to  its  use.  Indeed,  Leibmt2  himself  did 
not  recommend  it  for  practical  adoption, 

BINARY  STAR.    See  Double  Stars, 

BINARY  THEORY,  in  chemistry,  a  hy- 
pothesis proposed  by  Davy  to  reduce  the  haloid 
salts  (as  NaCl)  and  the  oxyjfen  salts  fas  Na 
NO.)  to  the  same  type,  the  monad  CI  being 
replaced  by  the  monad  radical  containing  oxy- 
gen (NOi)'.  Acids  are  hydrogen  salts,  as  HCI, 
or  H(NO,)',  A  radical  is  only  part  of  a  mole- 
cule, which  can  tuiile  whh  or  replace  an-  de-       j 

Google 


BIHBIR-KILI&8BH  —  BINOEH 


■nent  or  another  radical,  valence  for  valence. 
Thus  the  dyad  radical  (SO.)'  can  replace  two 
monad  radicals,  (NO()'t,  as  in  the  equation 
Pb"Na).+  Mg"{SO.)"  =  Pb"(SO.)''+  Mg" 
(NO(}'i.  A  radical  cannot  exist  in  a  separate 
state. 

BINBIR-KILISSBH,  bei/ber-Ve-le-si' 
some  ruins  of  ancient  tombs  in  the  pashalic  ot 
Karamania,  Asia  Minor,  20  miles  north-north- 
west of  Karaman,  supposed  to  occDpy  the  site 
of  Lystra,  where  the  cripple  was  healed  by 
Paul. 

BINCHOIS,  be'shwa'  Gillei,  composer 
of  Gallo-Belgic  music  :!>.  Bins,  Hainaut,  1400; 
d.  Lille  1460.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  a 
soldier  during  his  earlier  years,  after  which  he 
became  a  choir  singer  in  the  chapel  of  Philip 
the  Good  of  Burgundy.  Recently  some  of  the 
manuscripts  of  his  masses  have  been  found, 
containing  some  50  songs  in  rondeau  form  with 
instrumental  accompaniment,  which  have  added 
considerably  to  a  knowledge  of  the  music  of 
that  period 

BINDING,  Kul,  German  jurist,  criminol- 
ogist and  historian :  b.  Frank fort-oti' Che-Main. 
4  June  1S41.  He  studied  law  at  Gottingen  ana 
Heidelberg  and  in  1873  was  appointed  professor 
of  criminal  law  at  the  University  of  Leipzig. 
During  1908-09  he  was  rector  of  that  institu- 
tion. Among  his  leading  works  are  'Der 
Entwurf  eines  Strafgesetzbuchs  fiir  den  Nord- 
deulschen  Bund'  (Leipzig  1870)  ;  'Die  Normen 
und  ihre  Uebertretung'  (2  vols..  Leipzig  1872- 
77);  'Die  rechtliche  stellung  des  Kaisers  im 
heutigen  deutschen  Reiche'  (1898);  'Grundriss 
des  deutschen  Strafprozcssrechts'  (1899,  Sth 
ed.,  1905) ;  *Lehrbuch  des  gemdnen  deutschen 
Strafrechts>   (3  vols.,  1902-05). 

BINDWEED.     See  Convolvuuts. 

BINET,  be'-na',  Alfred!,  director  of  the 
laboratory  of  research  at  the  Sorbonne,  Paris : 
b.  Nice,  4  July  1857;  d.  1911.  He  went  to  Paris 
in  Wl,  where  he  made  a  study  of  medicine 
and  law.  For  a  time  he  was  uncertain  which 
career  he  should  follow;  but  his  deep  interest 
in  research  work  won  the  day  for  medicine. 
He  became  a  frequent  and  noted  contributor  to 
the  medical  and  other  journals  of  Parisinter- 
ested  in  the  special  line  of  work  to  which  he 
had  decided  to  devote  himself.  He  attracted 
attention  by  a  book  on  the  psychology  of 
thou{^t  as  arolied  to  hypnotism  (1886).  This 
was  followed  by  'Sub-conscious  TTtourfit' 
(1887);  'Studies  in  Psychology'  (1868); 
'Conges  in  Personality'  (1892)  ;  'Introduc- 
tion to  Experimental  Psychology'  (1894) : 
'Double  Consciousness'  (1896);  'Intellectual 
Weariness'  {1856} ;  'Suggestibility'  (1900) ; 
'Thoughts  upon  Children'  (1900)  ;  'An  Exper- 
imental Study  of  the  Intelligence'  (1903) ; 
'Soul  and  Body'  (1905)  :  'Revelations  made 
by  writing  under  Scientific  Control'  (1906) ; 
'Abnormal    Children'    (1907).     In    several   of 


Simon,  and        __    ..   .  -      , 

these  writers  is  acknowledged  as  joint  author, 
in  some  others  as  helper  or  adviser.  Beaunis 
and  Ribot  were  joint  editors  with  Th.  Ribot  of 
L'annie  psychologtque,  a  yearly  publication  de- 
voted, as  its  name  implies,  to  the  progress  of 
psychology.     In  1906  this  journal  confined  its 


efforts  to  the  study  of  practical  and  social 
questions  along  the  lines  of  Binet's  favorite 
studies.'  Previous  to  this,  Binet  had  been  mak- 
ing deep  researches,  together  with  Simon,  into 
the  working  of  the  human  intelligence.  In 
1905  the  joint  authors  published  the  first  s 


of   the   Binel-Simon   tests. 


I   attempt   to   find 


some  exact  standard  hy  which  to  measure  de- 
grees of  intelligence.  This  was  followed  by  a 
second  series  along  the  same  Une  in  1906.  Bmet 
and  his  co-workers  taught,  contrary  to  the  (Jer- 
man  thinkers  along  the  same  lines,  that  the 
higber  functions  of  mankind,  such  as  intelli- 
gence, comprehension,  imagination,  sentiment 
—id  suggestion,  varied  r  '     ' "    " 


work  to  invent  and  develop  new  tests  such  as 
would  make  it  possible  to  make  use  of  these 
higher  functions  in  the  tests  for  mentality.  He 
and  Simon  constructed  a  series  of  graded  tests 
based  upon  continuous  experiments  under  dif- 
ferent conditions  and  surroundings.  By  these 
tests  it  is  possible  to  determine  the  deforce  of 
intelligence  of  a  child  and  to  classify  his  nor- 
maUly  or  abnormaUty  with  considerable  exact- 
ness. These  tests,  as  issued  in  190a  are  56  in 
number  and  cover  the  ages  from  three  to  12. 
They  are  simple  tasks  such  as  the  child  might 
be  expected  to  perform  and  they  are  giaoed 
and  grouped  to  suit  the  age  of  the  child.  A 
subject  wno  performs  the  tests  assigned  to  his 
age  in  a  satisfactory  manner  is  classed  as  nor- 
mal; if  he  can  perform  only  tasks  of  a  child 
several  years  younger  than  his  age,  he  is  looked 
Upon  as  sub-normal;  but  if  he>  can  perform 
those  of  a  child  several  years  older  than  his 
a^e  he  is  classified  as  supernormal.  Under  the 
title  'A  Method  of  Measuring  the  Development 
of  Young  Children,'  the  Binet-Simon  work  of 
most  importance  was  published  in  Chicago  in 
1913,  and  the  'Psychological  Method  of  Test- 
ing Intelligence'  appeared  in  Boston  the  fol- 
lowing year. 

BINGEN,  Germany,  town  of  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Hesse,  17  miles  west  of  Main^  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  and  the  right  of  the 
Nahe^  opposite  Rudesheim.  It "  contains  a 
Gothic  church  dating  from  the  15th  century. 
The  castle  of  Klopp  and  the  sanctuary  of  Saint 
Roch  are  situated  nearby  an  the  Rochusberg. 
A  dangerous  passage  on  the  Rhine,  called  the 
Bingerloch,  has  been  opened  up  by  the  blasting 
of  sunken  rocks,  leaving  a  channel  of  210  feet 
wide.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  rises 
the  Niederwald  Denlonal,  raised  to  commemo- 
rate the  victories  of  1870-71.  In  a  nei^bot^ 
ing  castle  the  Emperor  Henry  IV  was  detained 
a  prisoner  in  II05,  and  on  a  rock  in  the  middle 
of  the  river  stands  the  Mausethurm  or  Mouse- 
tower,  the  scene  of  the  ancient  legend  of  Arch- 
bishop Hatto,  who  was  devoured  by  rats  in 
969.  Drusus  Bridge  over  the  Nahe  near  its 
mouth  was  first  built  by  Drusus  in  13  bxi 
Bingen  was  a  town  of  the  BelgK  and  here  a 
battle  took  place  in  70  A.D.  in  which  the  Ro- 
mans inflicted  a  defeat  on  the  Gauls.  Bingen 
came  under  the  rule  of  the  see  of  Maim  in 
1281,  was  taken  and  retaken  several  times  dur- 
ing the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  in  1689  was 
burned  by  the  French,  who. blew  up  the  castlt 
From  1797  to  1814  it  belonged  to  Fnmce  and 

,11-  .1   Goo^^lc 


BINGBR BINGHAMTOH 


after  1815  was  incorporated  with  Hesse,    Bin- 

Sen  is  the  market  for  die  sale  of  wines  pro- 
uced  in  the  neighborhood.  The  principal  io- 
diulries  are  the  manufacture  of  leather,  hquors, 
tobacco,  starch,  and  there  is  abo  considerable 
trade  in  cattle,  grain,  coal  and  iron.  The  Rhen- 
ish Technical  College  is  situated  here.  Pop. 
9,950. 

BINQER,  biA-zhi,  Lows  Gnatan,  French 
soldier  and  African  explorer;  b.  14  Oct  1856. 
He  made  his  way  from  the  upper  Niger  to 
Grand  Bassam  in  1887-89,  thus  connecting  the 
French  possessions  with  the  Ivory  Coast.  In 
1892  he  was  commissioner  of  the  French  gov- 
ernment to  settle  the  Ashanti  boundaries  with 
England. 

BINGHAM,  AmelU  (family  name  Smil- 
lev),  American  actress:  b.  Hicksville,  Ohio, 
IS(&.  After  studying  at  the  Ohio  Wesleyan 
University,  she  married  Lloyd  M.  Bingham, 
who  died  22  Dec.  1915.  Her  6r5t  appearance 
was  in  the  People's  Theatre,  New  York  city, 
in  'The  Power  of  Gold'  After  sijc  vears  she 
became  leading  lady  at  the  New  York  Empire 
liieatre  in  "His  Excellency  the  Governor,' 
playing  leading  roles  continually  thereafter.  In 
1901  she  appeared  with  her  own  company  in 
'The  Chrabers,'  <A  Modern  Maffdalen^  and 
'The  Frisky  Mrs.  Johnson.'  Dunng  the  sea- 
son of  1914  she  niayed  Mrs.  Opdyke  in  Bron- 
son  Howard's  'The  New  Henrietta,'  a  revision 
of  'The  Henrietta.' 

BINGHAH,  HinuD,  Americui  Congrega- 
tional clergyman ;  b.  Bennington,  Vt,  30  Oct 
1789:  d.  II  Nov.  1869.  He  was  graduated  from 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1819,  and 
was  one  of  the  first  missionaries  of  the  Con- 
gregational Church  to  be  sent  to  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  where  he  acquired  much  influence  with 
the  natives. 


ford.  Conn.,  18  Oct.  1914.  He  entered  the 
Congregational  ministry,  but  in  1871  exchanged 
it  for  mat  of  the  Episcopal  Church.  He  has 
written  'The  Christian  Marriage  Ceremony' ; 
'Fraocesca  da  Rimini'  (1897-1904),  and  'Sa- 
cred Hymns  and  Napoleonic  Ode  of  Alexander 
Manzoni'  (1904),  transbtions. 

BINGHAH,  John  Arende,  American  poli- 
tician: b.  Merger,  Pa.,  1815;  d.  Cadii,  Ohio,  20 
March  1900.  He  studied  at  Franklin  College, 
Ohio,  and  became  a  lawyer  in  1840,  He  was 
dected  to  Congress  as  a  Republican  in  1854 
and  retained  his  seat  1855-63.  He  was  chair- 
man of  the  managers  of  the  House  in  the 
impeachment  of  Judge  Humphreys  for  high 
treason,  in  1862.  President  Lincoln  appointed 
Utn  military  judge-advocate  in  1864  and,  later 
in  the  same  year,  solicitor  of  the  United  States 
Court  of  Gaims.  He  was  special  judge-advo- 
cate in  the  trial  of  the  assiissins  of  President 
Lincoln.  He  sat  in  Congress  again  1866-73. 
He  was  one  of  the  managers  of  the  impeach- 
ment trial  of  President  Johnson.  From  1873 
'to  1885  he  was  United  States  Minister  to  Japan. 
Consult  Foraker,  J.  B.,  <Ji^n  A.  Bingham*  in 
'Publications'  of  the  OIuo  Historical  Society 
(Vol.  X,  1902). 

BINGHAH,  Joseph,  English  clergyman 
and  antiquarian :  b.  Wakefield,  Yorkshire,  1668; 
d.  Havaut,  17  Aug.  1723.    He  distinguished  him- 


self as  ,a  student  at  Univeruty  College,  Ox- 
ford, and  devoted  his  attention  particularly  to 
ecclesiastical  antiquities.  He  was  graduated  in 
1688  and  became  a  fellow  the  following  year, 
but  had  to  withdraw  from  the  university  on  the 
charge  of  preaching  unsound  doctrines.  He 
now  became  curate  of  Headboum- Worthy. 
near  Winchester,  and  there,  while  possessea 
of  a  scanty  living  on  which  his  ni  ' 

ily  could  barely  subsist,  had  the  n 


posing  one  of  the  most  learned  works  of  which 
his  Qiurch  can  boast.  This  work,  'Ongines 
&clesiasticK,  or  The  Antiquities  of  the  Chris- 


tian Church,'  was  published  in  10  volumes 
ocUvo  (1708-22)  and  is  still  a  standard  on  the 
subjects  of  which  it  treats.  The  best  modem 
edition  is  that  published  at  the  Clarendon  Press 
(1855,  10  vols.).  It  was  soon  translated  into 
Latin  and  published  in  (jermany,  and  has  since 
ai»>eared  in  various  langtugei.  In  1712  he  was 
collated  to  the  living  of  Havant,  near  Ports- 
moudL  He  lost  his  savings  in  the  South  Sea 
Bubble  of  1720. 

BINGHAH,  Theodore  Alfred,  American 
public  official :  b.  Andover,  Mass.,  14  May  1858 
Graduating  from  the  United  States  Military 
Academy  at  West  Point  in  1879,  he  served  in 
the  engineer  corps  of  the  army  until  1890,  after 
which  ne  became  United  States  military  attach^ 
at  Berlin  and  Rome.  In  1897,  when  he  had 
attained  the  rank  of  colonel,  he  was  put  in 
charge  of  the  public  building  and  grounds  at 
Washington,  in  which  capacity  he  served  until 
1903.  He  then  undertook  the  supervision  of  the 
engineering  district  of  Lake  Ontario  and  Lake 
Erie  for  a  whole  year,  after  wluch  he  was  re- 
tired with  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  In 
1906  he  was  appointed  police  commissioner  of 
New  York  city,  where  he  served  until  1911, 
when  he  was  removed  by  Mayor  Gaynor  on 
the  charge  of  insubordination.  Later  in  the 
same  year  he  was  appointed  chief  engineer  of 
highways  of  New  York  city  hut  retired  after 
two  months'  service.  He  was  then  appointed 
consulting  en^neer  in  the  department  of 
bridges  but  resigned  again  in  1915! 

BINGHAH,  WUIlatn,  American  educator: 
b.  North  Carolina  1835.  He  was  graduated  at 
the  University  of  North  CaroHna  in  1856  and 
succeeded  to  the  management  of  a  classical 
school  at  Mebanesville,  Alamance  Co.,  N.  C, 
which  had  been  conducted  with  success  by 
his  father  and  grandfather.  He  published  'A 
Grammar  of  the  Latin  Language,'  'A  Gram- 
mar of  the  Ejiglish  Language'  and  'Caesar's 
Commentaries,'  with  notes  and  a  vocabulary. 

BINGHAH,  Utah,  town  of  Salt  Lake 
Coun^,  20  miles  southwest  of  Salt  Lake  Gty, 
on  the  Bini^am  and  Garfield,  and  the  Denver 
and  Rio  Grande  railroads.  It  contains  a  hos* 
pital    and    has   large   copper-mining    ! 


BIHGHAHTON,  N.  Y.  city  and  counhr. 
seat  of  Broome  County,  at  itie  junction  of  the 
Chenango  and  Susquehanna  rivers  and  on  sev- 
eral railroads,  50  miles  cast  of  Elmira.  It 
stands  more  than  867  feet  above  tidewater,  and 
both  rivers  are  here  spanned  by  several  bridges. 
The  city  is  supplied  with  water  by  the  Holly 
system,  which  cost  over  $1,500,000;  has  nearly 
100  nriles  of  streets  lighted  by  electricity,  and 
contains  over  30  chnrdies  and  chapels,  public 


Tie 


BmGLBY  —  UHHIB 


sdiool  property  valued  at  over  $1,17^,000,  a 
public  library,  two  national  banks  and  assessed 
property  valuation  (1910)  exceeding  $31,486^554. 
Among  the  attractions  of  Bingfaamton,  which 
has  been  named  the  'Parlor  City,*  are  Ross 


biul<fi„ — .     

sane.  United  States  government  building.  State 
armory,  courthouse,  city  hall,  two  orphan 
asylums,  an  opera  house  and  the  Casino  ana  the 
home  office  building  of  the  Security  Mutual 
Life  Insurance  Company.  Binghamton  ranks 
as  the  third  cigar-manufacturing  city  in  the 
United  States,  and  according  to  the  census  of 
manufactures  for  1914,  it  then  had  245  indus- 
trial establishments  of  facloiv  grade,  employ- 
ing 8,4U  persons,  of  whom  7,428  were  wage- 
earners,  receiving  annually  (3,653,000  in  wages. 
The  capital  invested  aggregated  $18,237,00a  and 
the  value  of  the  year's  output  was  $18^360,000; 
of  this,  $7,976,000  was  the  value  added  by  manu- 
facture. Other  important  manufactures  are 
valves,  cigars,  silks,  scales,  chemicals,  furniture, 
sheet-metal  work,  glass,  gloves  and  refined  oils. 
An  interesting  feature  of  the  city  ts  the  large 
number  of  cottages  owned  by  ibe  working  peo- 
ple. Binghamton  received  a  ciw  charter  in  1867. 
Pop.  (1900)  39.647;   (1915)  53,668. 

BINGLEY,  England,  town  of  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  Aire,  five  and  one- 
^If  miles  northwest  of  Bt^dford,  15  miles 
northwest  of  Leeds  and  oij  the  Leeds-Liverpoot 
Canal.  The  town  contains  the  interesting 
church  of  All  Saints  (restored  1871)  in  the  Per- 
pendicular style,  several  other  places  of  wor- 
ship, an  endowed  grammar  school  and  a  me- 
dian ics'  institute.  The  chief  industries  are 
worsted- spinning,  cotton  and  paper  manufac' 
tures.  The  town  has  a  public  library,  free  pub- 
lic baths  and  owns  its  water  and  gas  works. 
Pop.  18,759. 

BINHALEY.  bln-m^-la'e.  Philippines,  a 
town  of  the  province  of  Pangasinen,  Luzon, 
situated  on  the  Gult  of  Lingayen,  in  the  west- 
em  part  of  the  island  of  Lozon,  only  a  few 
miles  east   of   the   town  of    Lingayen.     Pop. 

I3,re7. 

BINNACLE,  a  brass  or  wooden  stand  sui^- 
porting  a  helmet-shaped  hood  in  which  is  placed 
a  ship  s  compass.  In  the  front  of  the  hood  is 
a  glass-covered  aperture  through  which  the 
helmsman  may  observe  the  compass,  and  on 
each  side  is  an  opening  into  which  are  fitted 
the  lights  illuminating  the  compass  at  night. 

BINNEY,  Amos,  American  merchant  and 
naturalist:  b.  Boston,  Mass.,  18  Oct  1803;  d. 
Rome,  Italy,  18  Feb.  1847.  He  was  graduated 
at  Brown  University  in  1821,  engaged  in  busi- 
ness with  success  and  devoted  his  leisure  to 
natural  science.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
and,  at  the  time  of  his  death,  president  of  the 
Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  His  writ- 
itigs  on  the  land  shells  of  Ameiica  are  in  the 
'Journal'  and  'Proceedings'  of  that  Society. 
His  chief  work.  'Terrestrial  and  Air-Breath- 
ing  Motlusks  of  the  United  States  and  Adja- 
cent Territories  of  North  America'  <3  vols., 
1847-51),  was  issued  under  the  direction  of 
Dr,  A.  A  Gould.  Binnnr  was  a  patron  of 
artists  and  scientists  and  did  much  to  advance 
the  study  o£  natural  histoi;  in  America.    The 


Httseum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  Harvard 
Univeruty,  contains  the  collection  of  land  and 
fresh-water  shells  of  North  America  and  prep- 
arations of  their  anatomy  made  by  Ataos  Bin- 
ney  and  bis  son. 

filHHBY,  Hibbert,  Canadian  clergymanT 
b.  Cape  Breton  Island,  12  Aug.  1819;  i  1887. 
He  was  graduated  at  Oxford  University  in  184Z 
He  became  bishop  (Anglican)  of  Nova  Scotia 
in  1851. 

BINNEY,  Horace,  American  Uwyer:  b. 
Philadelphia,  4  Jan,  1780;  d.  12  Aug.  1875.  He 
was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1797,  and  for 
many  years  was  at  the  head  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania bar.  He  had  a  number  of  distinguished 
cases  in  his  career,  the  most  noted  one  being 
the  defense  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia  against 
the  oxecutors  of  Stg)hen  Girard.  He  was -a 
member  of  the  23d  (Tongrcss,  in  which  he  op- 
posed the  Administration  in  the  question  of 
removing  public  funds  from  the  United  States 
Bank,  and  a  director  in  the  United  States  Bank. 
He  withdrew  from  active  practice  and  confined 
himself  to  the  preparation  of  written  opinions. 
In  1850  he  retired  altogether.  He  was  fre- 
quently called  upon  to  address  great  public 
gatherings.  He  wrote  many  valuable  papers 
and  was  the  author  of  'The  Leaders  of  the 
Old  Bar  of  Philadelphia'  (1858);  'The  Privi- 
lege of  the  Writ  of  Habeas  Corpus  Under  the 
Constitution,'  in  which  he  supjiorted  Lincoln's 
policy  of  suspending  the  right  of  habeas  corptu 
during  the  (jvil  War;  and  'Reports  of  Cases 
in  the  Supreme  Court  of  Pennsylvania'  (6  vols., 
1814)  ;  'Life  and  Character  of  Chief  Justice 
Tilghman'  (1827);  'Life  and  Character  of 
Chief  Justice  Marshall'  (1835) ;  'Sketch  of  die 
Life  and  Character  of  Justice  Bush  rod  Wash- 
ington' (1858).  Consult  Binney,  C  C,  'Life 
of  Horace  Binney'    (Philadelphia  1903). 

BINNEY,  Thomu,  English  theologian:  b. 
Newcastle-on-Tyne  1798;  d.  24  Feb,  1874.  A 
bookseller's  apprentice  in  his  youth,  he  woriced 
from  7  in  the  morning  till  9  at  night.  He  waJ 
trained  for  the  Congregationahst  ministry  at 
Wymondley  Seminary,  Hertfordshire;  served 
after  ordination  (1824)  at  Bedford  and  New- 
port, Isle  of  Wight,  and  in  1829  was  called  to 
the  Weigh  House  Chapel,  London,  w^ere  he 
ministered  for  40  years.  He  was  a  votumioous 
writer  on  polemical  subjects,  vehemently  anti- 
Ritualistic;  raised  a  storm  of  controversy  over 
a  statement  he  made  that  "the  Church  of  Eng- 
land damned  more  souls  than  she  saved,*  but 
regarded  with  regret  the  baldness  of  Noncon- 
formist Church  services  and  was  the  first  to 
cause  the  prose  Psalms  to  be  chanted  in  public 
worship.  He  was  the  author  of  'Is  It  Po»- 
uble  to  Make  the  Best  of  Bodi  Worlds?'  and 
the  hymn  'Eternal  Ligiit  1  Eternal  Light  P 
Consult  H,  Alton's  'Memoir'  prefixed  to  his 
sermons,  and  'Lives'  by  Paxton  Hood  and  I. 
Stoughton  (1874). 

BINNIB,  SiK  Alexander  R.,  Englidi  civil 
engineer:  b,  London,  26  March  1839.  He  was 
educated  at  private  schools.  He  worked  on 
Welsh  railways  1862-66  and  for  the  Indian  Pub- 
lic Works  E>epartment  1868-74;  was  engineer 
of  the  city  of  Bradford  1875-W;  constructed 
the  Nagpore  waterworks,  the  Blackwall  ttm- 
nel,  the  Bradford  waterworks,  the  Parking 
Road  Bridge,  etc    In  1897  he  was  made  diiei 


BINNS  —  BIOOBNSSIS 


71» 


r  of  the  London  comity  council  and  in 
the  same  year  he  wa.s  knighted.  His  publica- 
tions inclnde  articles  and  reports  on  profes- 
sional subjects,  lectures  on  waterworks,  papers 
on  rainfall,  etc. 

BINNS,  Charles  FerEUS,  ceramic  expert: 
b.  Worcester,  England,  4  Oct.  1857.  A  son  of 
the  director  of  the  Royal  Porcelain  Works  in 
hi&  native  city,  he  was  superintendent  of  vari- 
ous departments  there  18/2-97.  Leaving  Eng- 
land in  the  last-named  year,  he  became  prin- 
cipal of  the  Technical  School  of  Science  and 
Art,  Trenton.  N.  J.,  1897-1900.  and  since  June 
1900  has  been  director  of  the  New  York  State 
School  of  Clay  Working  and  Ceramics,  Alfred, 
N.  y.  He  has  written  'Ceramic  Technolofty' 
(1896);  'The  Stofy  of  the  Potter'  <18W); 
'The  Potter's  Craft*  (1910),  and  has  contrib- 
uted extensively  to  the  'Transactions'  of  the 
American  Ceramic  Society. 


sistinf;  of  tw 

the   sign   -f- 

thc  celebrated   formula  which  shows  how  to 

obtain    any   power    of    a    given    binomial,    as 

a  +  b,  from  the  two  terms,  a  and  b,  and  the 

exponent  of  the  power.    It  gives  as  the  value 

for  (a -(-6)- 

a*  6  n— tat 
Ai  («-*)! 
for  all  integral  values  of  k  for  which  the  ex- 
pression has  a  meaning.  This  theorem,  fre- 
quently called  the  Newtonian  theorem,  was 
known,  as  far  as  relates  to  int^ral  positive 
exponents,  to  several  mathematicians  before 
Newton.  But  Newton  was  the  first  who  taught 
its  application  to  fractional  and  negative  ex- 
ponents; and  this  discovery,  one  of  the  most 
important  of  those  made  by  that  great  man,  is 
engraved  upon  his  tombstone.  The  discovery 
of  the  correct  understanding  of  the  limitations 
under  which  this  theorem  is  valid,  however,  be- 
longs to  the  last  century. 

BIHONDO,  Pfailimnes,  a  native  town  near 
Manila,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Pasig,  now 
a  suburb  of  the  walled  European  city,  having 
been  annexed  to  it  by  a  magnificent  stone  bridge 
411  feet  in  length.  The  bridge  of  Binondo  is 
regarded  as  the  most  remarkable  structure  ever 
erected  by  Europeans  in  the  Indian  archipelago. 

BINTURONQ,  a  large  civet  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula  and  islands  (ArclilU  binlwong'f, 
which  spends  its  life  in  the  trees,  where  it  is 
assisted  in  climbing  about  by  its  long,  bushy, 
prehensile  tail.  It  passes  the  day  asleep  in  the 
top  of  a  tree  and  travels  about  at  night  in 
search  of  smalt  mammals,  birds,  etc.,  but  also 
eats  leaves  and  fruit.  It  is  dir^  yellow  when 
young,  hut  black  when  fully  grown,  and  reaches 
a  length  of  two  and  a  half  feet,  exclusive  of 
its  lon^  tail,  which  may  measure  six  feet  10 
inches  m  length. 

BINUX,  bin'wi,  or  BENUB,  Africa,  the 
largest  and  most  important  tributary  of  the 
river  Niger."  See  Benue. 


ant  in  the  British  Museum  from  1893  and 
assistant  keq>er  from  1909.  Besides  editing 
the  'Shining  Garland*  (1895-98)  he  has  pub- 
lished 'Lyric  Poems'  (1894) ;  'Poems'  (1895): 
'London  Visions'  (1895^98);  'The  Praise  of 
Life*  (1896);  'PorT*yrion  and  Other  Poems> 
(1898) ;  'Western  Flanders'  (1898) ;  'Odes' 
(1900) ;  ^Catalogue  of  English  Drawings  in 
Oie  Briti^  Museum'  (189&-1907) ;  'Attila* 
(1907);  'England  and  Other  Poems'  (1909); 
<The  Flight  of  the  Dragon*  <19nj;  'Botti- 
celU'  (1913);  'Auguries'  (poems,  1913);  'The 
Winnowing  Fan'  (1915);  'Bombastes  in  the 
Shades'  (1915).  Consult  Streatfield,  'Two 
Poets  of  the  New  Century.' 

BINZ,  Karl,  German  physician  and  phar- 
macologist: b.  BemkasteC  1  July  1832;  d. 
1913.  After  studying  at  Wuriburg,  Bonn 
and  Berlin  he  became,  in  1868,  professor  at 
Bonn.  In  the  following  year  he  founded  the 
Pharmacological  Institute  of  Bonn.  He  was 
the  first  to  demonstrate  the  action  of  quinine 
and  be  has  done  much  important  research  in 
pharmacology  and  pathologv.  He  has  written 
many  works,  among  which  are  'Ueber  den 
Traum'  (18/8);  'Vorlcsungen  iiber  Pharma- 
kolcgie'  (1891);  'Aether  gegen  den  Schmeri> 
(18%)  ;  'Rezeptsiinden  und  ihre  Folgen' 
(1899). 

BINZBR,  Anciut  Daniel  von,  German 
author:  b.  Kiel,  30  May  1793 1  d.  Reisze,  20 
March  1868.  He  studied  law  at  the  universi- 
ties of  Kiel  and  Jena,  after  which  he  was  both 
teacher  and  newspaper  editor  for  some  years. 
Among  his  works  are  'Die  Dammerungsstun- 
den  der  Familie  Abert'  (Altona  1833);  'Vcne- 
dijf  im  Jahr  1844'  (Pest  1845) ;  a  German  trans- 
lation of  Benjamin  Franklins'  'Autobiography 
and  Writings'  (Kiel  18Z9)  ;  'Erziihiuiigen  und 
Novellen'  (in  colUbotation  with  his  wife, 
under  the  nseudonj'm  'A.  T.  Beer,'  3  vols., 
Leipsig  1836).  He  is  also  the  author  of  several 
songs  still  popular  in  Germany,  among  them 
one  beginning  with  the  line  *Wir  hatten 
gebauet  ein  stattliches  Haus." 

BIO-BIO,  be'S-be'a,  Chile,  an  eastern  prtxr- 
ince  with  Concepd6n  on  the  north,  the  Argen- 
tine territory  of  Neuquen  on  the  east,  Malleco 
and  Cautin  on  the  south,  and  Arauco  on  the 
we;t.  Its  area  is  4,158  square  miles.  The 
rainfall  is  rather  excessive  and  the  variations 
in  temperature  are  somewhat  extreme.  There 
are  three  departments.  La  Taja.  Mulchen  and 
Nadmiento.  The  cap^ital  of  tne  province  is 
Los  Angeles,  situated  m  the  Central  or  Longi- 
tudinal Valley  (see  Chile)  on  the  banks  of 
a  tributary  of  the  Bio-Bio  River.  It  is  a 
mountainous  province,  with  moderately  faigh 
peaks  and  good  valleys.  Viticulture  is  carried 
on  in  the  north;  there  are  herds  of  cattle  on 
the  pastures;  the  cereals  are  cultivated  and 
the  forests  exptoited.     Pop.  over  100,000. 

BIO-BIO,  the  largest  river  of  Chile.  It 
has  a  west -northwesterly  course  of  about  200  - 
miles,  from  near  the  volcano  of  Antuco  in  the 
Andes  to  Conce]ici6n  on  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
It  is  two  miles  wide  at  its  mouth,  and  is  navi- 
gable for  100  miles. 

BIOOENSSIS,  (i;  the  theory  of  die  gene- 
sis or  origin  of  all  living  beings  from  living 
beings.    It  is  opposed  to  aUogcnesis,  which  im- 


,  Google 


plies  tlul  at  tbf  present  time  the  simplest, 
lowest  forms  of  life  may  arise  by  spontaneous 
generation  (q.v.)  The  principle  of  biogenesis 
was  first  placed  on  a  sctentinc  basis  by  Har- 
vcy,  who  demonstrated  that  living  beings  arise 
from  egf^s,  as  stated  in  his  famous  aphorism, 
ommt  vivum  ex  ovo.  As  now  modified  all 
organisms  are  known  to  arise  from  living  mat- 
ter, that  is,  either  from  germs,  spores,  seeds 
or  eggs.  (2)  The  history  of  a  living  organism 
biogenesis,  or  biogeny,  is  divided  into  ontogewj, 
or  the  development  oi  any  individual  organism, 
and  phytogeny,  or  the  development  of  the  class 


interpreted  as  meaning  the  different  modes  of 
reproduction  (q.v.)  whether  sexual,  or  asexual 
or  by  fission  or  budding.  See  Botany;  Evolu- 
tion; Embryology;  Zoology,  etc. 

BIOGENETIC  LAW.  See  Recapitula- 
tion Theory. 

BIOORAPH,  an  apparatus  that  displays  in 
rapid  sequence  a  long  series  of  photographs. 
It  belongs  to  a  class  of  apparatus  which  fol- 
lowed the  invention  of  the  kineto scope,  and 
includes  the  vitascope,  cinematograph,  phan- 
toscopc,  etc.  It  differs  from  the  kmetoscope 
in  that  instead  of  showing  small  pictures 
throu^  an  enlarging  lense  by  reflected  light, 
it  projects  them  on  a  screen.  The  biograph 
may  be  described  as  a  stercopticon  combined 
with  such  mechanism  as  is  requisite  for  the 
precise  manipulation  of  the  celluloid  picture 
film.  When  the  apparatus  is  set  in  motion  the 
long  band  of  celluloid  passes  quickly^  though 
not  continuously,  behind  the  projecting  lens, 
between  spools  or  bobbins  which  revolve  at  a 
uniform  rate.  While  thus  passing  from  its 
original  spool  to  the  winding  reel  the  film  en- 
counters certain  pulleys  and  too  died  rollers 
that  serve  to  direct  its  movements  accurately. 
Along  its  edges  are  numerous  small  perfora- 
tions into  which  the  teeth  of  the  rollers  fit 
with  precision,  and  by  this  means  the  small 
transparencies  arc  made  to  occupy  exactly  simi- 
lar positions  when  their  ima^s  are  projected 
Upon  the  canvas.  As  each  picture  in  its  turn 
attains  this  critical  position  it  is  momentarily 
brought  to  a  standstill.  At  the  same  time  a 
shutter  is  opened  and  an  image  of  the  picture 
flashes   for  an  instant  upon  the  screeiL     The 


BI6GBNBTIC  LAW  — BIOORAPHT 


suming  Its 

series  is  brought  into  a  similar  fixed  situation. 
This  temporary  stoppage  of  the  film  (or  rather 
of  a  portion  thereof),  as  each  ^picture  attains 
its  proper  place  behind  the  projecting  lens,  is 
a  very  essentia)  feature  of  toe  process. 

At  the  instant  of  its  arrival  a  portion  of 
the  film  on  the  preceding  side  of  (he  picture 
will  be  in  an  unstrained  or  slack  condition. 
The  "slack*  is  then  taken  up  fay  a  continu- 
ously moving  sprocket  pulley,  whereupon  a 
rod  or  roller  is  quickly  brought  to  bear  against 
■  the  now  listened  film,  pressing  it  to  one  side 
and  as  quickly  releasing  it.  By  this  move- 
ment the  next  picture  is  pulled  into  its  fixed 
position,  while  the  film  is  made  taut  (or 
nearly  so)  on  ihe  following  side  of  this  pic- 
ture. These  operations  are  repeated  contin- 
uously until  the  entire  film  has  passed  through 
the  holding  device  in  rear  of  the  lens. 


The  camera  used  in  taking  the  negative 
from  which  motion  pictures  are  made  is  pro- 
vided with  a  similar  mechanism  to  that  em- 
ployed in  showing  the  finished  photographs. 
The  picture  roll  is  replaced  by  a  roll  of  sen- 
sitized film,  upon  which  the  exposures  are 
made  at  the  rate  of  from  25  to  50  per  second. 
The  films  range  in  length  from  50  to  200  feet, 
and  contain,  when  finished,  from  800  to 
3,000  negatives.  After  the  film  has  been  sub- 
jected to  the  usual  lAotographic  operations 
it  is  made  to  pass,  in  contact  with  a  second 
sensitized  film,  beneath  an  incandescent  lamp, 
and  by  this  means  the  photographs  are 
printed  upon  the  sensitized  surface.  This 
second  film  is  then  in  turn  passed  througli 
the  various  photographic  processes,  and  when 
complete  it  is  wo^nd  on  a  spool  which  may 
then  be  placed  in  the  machine  used  for  efchih- 
iting  the  pictures. 

BIOGRAPHIA  LITERARIA.  Samuel 
Taylor  Coleridge's  'Biographia  Literaria>  was 
originally  intended  as  a  mere  preface  to  a  ccA- 
lected  volume  of  his  poems,  explaining  and 
justifying  his  own  style  and  practice  in  poetry. 
The  work  grew  under  Coleridge's  hands  to  a 
literary  autobiography,  including,  together  with 
man^  facts  concerning  his  education  and 
studies  and  his  early  literary  adventures,  an 
extended  criticism  of  Wordsworth's  theory  of 
poetry  as  given  in  the  preface  (o  the  'Lyrical 
Ballads'  and  a  statement  of  Coleridge's  philo- 
sophical views.  The  work  was  published  in 
two  volumes  in  1817.  In  spite  of  its  miscel- 
laneous character,  the  'Biographia*  remains 
one  of  the  few  prose  works  of  Coleridge  which 
continues  to  be  read,  and  it  is  valuable  as  being 
the  chief  vehicle  of  his  veiy  important  contri- 
butions to  critical  theory.  In  the  first  part  of 
the  work  Coleridge  is  mainly  concerned  with 
showing  the  evolution  of  his  philosophic  creed. 
At  first  an  adherent  of  the  associational  psy- 
diology  of  Hartley,  he  came  to  discard  this 
mechanical  system  for  the  belief  that  the  mind 
is  not  a  passive  but  an  active  a^ncy  in  the 
apprehension  of  reality.  The  discussion  in- 
volves his  definition  of  the  imagination  or 
"emplasticpower.J*  the  faculty^  by  which  the 
soul  perceives  the  spiritual  unity  of  the  uni- 
verse, as  distinguished  from  the  fancy  or  merely 
associative  function.  The  later  chapters  deal 
with  the  nature  of  poetry  and  with  the  ques- 
tion of  diction  raised  by  Wordsworth.  While 
maintaining  a  general  agreement  with  Words- 
worth's point  of  view,  Coleridge  elaborately 
refutes  his  principle  that  the  language  of  poetry 
should  be  one  taken  with  due  exceptions  from 
the  mouths  of  men  in  real  life,  and  that  there 
can  be  no  essential  difference  between  the  lan- 
guage of  prose  and  of  metrical  composition. 
A  keen  and  appreciative  critique  on  the  quali- 
ties of  Wordsworth's  poetry  concludes  the  vol- 
ume. Consult  'Biographia  Literaria,'  edited  Inr 
J.  Shawcross  (London  1907),  and  Elton,  Oli- 
ver, 'A  Survey  of  English  Literature,'  con- 
taining! fhe  best  discussion  of  the  issue  between 
Colendge  and  Words wortK 

James  H.  Hamfobd. 

BIOGRAPHY,  in  its  general  sense,  litera- 
ture treating  of  the  lives  of  individuals;  in  its 
restricted  meaning  the  history  of  a  person's 
life.     When  composed  by  the  subject  of  ibe 


IJigilizcd6,G00<^Ie 


BIOLOGICAL  SURVEY 


TX9 


narrative  it  is  called  an  autobiograidiy.  Biog' 
raphy  has  existed  in  one  form  or  another  from 
the  most  ancient  times.  In  the  book  of  Genesis 
there  are  biographies,  or  at  least  memoirs,  of 
Adam,  Noah,  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  Joseph 
and  others.  Homer's  'Odyssey'  may  be  con- 
sidered as  an  extended  biotcraphy  of  Ulysses, 
limited,  however,  to  the  most  interesting  period 
of  his  life,  that  of  his  wanderings.  Though  the 
'Iliad'  may  be  loosely  called  a  history  of  the 
Trojan  War,  yet,  accurately,  it  is  a  chapter 
from  the  biography  of  Achilles,  describing 
calamities  be  brought  npon  the  Greeks  by  the 
revenge  which  be  took  on  Agamemnon  for 
carrying  off  his  female  captive  Brisets.  The 
most  elaborate  Greek  iHography  was  Plutarch's 
'Parallel  Lives'  (*Bioi  Paralleloi'),  consisting 
of  46  memoirs  of  Greek,  Roman  and  other 
celebrities;  it  was  published  about  80  a.k.  In 
44  B.C.  Cornelius  Nepos  had  sent  forth  a  bio- 
graphical work,  his  <VttK  Imperatorum* 
('Lives  of  G>mmanders>).  Under  the  Greek 
and  Roman  civiliiation,  however,  the  individ- 
ual was  absorbed  in  the  state.  When  Cincin- 
natus  or  Coriolanus  is  mentioned,  we  recall 
rather  an  act  than  a  person.  The  elder  Cato 
wrote  a  history  of  the  Roman  republic,  in  which 
there  was  not  found  a  single  proper  name.  He 
said  simply:  'The  consul  proposed  such  a  law, 
the  general  gained  such  a  battle.* 

Biography  differs  from  history,  properly  so 
called,  in  considering  public  and  national 
events,  if  at  all,  only  in  their  relations  to  a 
single  personage.  It  assumes  various  forms, 
being  sometimes  most  interested  in  the  circum- 
stances and  external  career,  the  curriculum 
vita,  of  its  subject;  sometimes  regarding  chiefly 
intellectual  and  moral  qualities  and  develop- 
ment; sometimes  being  hardly  more  than  a 
catalogue  of  a  man's  positions  and  changes  of 
position:  and  sometimes,  like  the  autobiography 
of  Goethe,  fit  to  be  entitled  truth  and  poetij; 
sometimes  being  formally  narrative  tnrougii- 
out,  but  often  presenting  the  hero  also  by  nis 
letters  and  notes  of  his  conversation.  A  biog- 
raphy may  be  a  panegyric  or  a  diatribe,  or  the 
life  of  a  man  may  be  used  as  only  a  frame  on 
which  to  attach  moral  reflections.  Its  (me  aim, 
however,  is  to  reveal  the  personal  significance 
of  those  men  who  have  played  a  distmeuished 
part  in  the  world,  either  by  action  or  by  thought. 
History  has  reference  to  the  development  of 
principles,  biography  to  that  of  character.  To 
observe  tne  growth  of  a  nation  or  of  any  in- 
stitution from  the  idea  on  which  it  was 
{[rounded,  through  its  vicissitudes  and  conflicts, 
IS  the  part  of  history.  To  trace  a  human  life, 
to  remark  the  manifold  efforts,  defeats,  tri- 
umphs, perplexities,  attainments,  sorrows  and 
joys  which  fill  the  space  between  the  cradle  and 
the  grave  is  the  province  of  biography.  In 
history,  Scipio  at  the  head  of  the  Roman  lemons 
subdued  Africa,  and  Agesilaus  struggled  against 
the  misfortunes  of  his  country;  in  biograf^y, 
the  former  is  seen  not  only  gaining-  victories, 
but  also  gathering  cockle-sheUs  on  the  shore, 
and  the  latter  not  only  fighting  after  defeat, 
but  also  riding  on  a  hobby-horse  among  his 
children.  Plutarch  saj^  it  does  not  follow  be- 
cause an  action  is  great  that  it  therefore  mani- 
fests the  greatness  and  virtue  of  him  who  did 
it,  but,  on  the  contrary,  sometimes  a  word  or 
a  casual  jest  betrays  a  man  more  to  our  knowl- 


edge of  him  than  a  battle  fought  wherein  10,000 
men  were  slain,  or  sacking  of  cities,  or  a 
course  of  victories.  Xenopbon  remarks  that 
the  sayings  of  ^eat  men  in  their  familiar  dis- 
courses and  amid  their  wine  have  somewhat 
in  them  which  is  worthy  to  be  transmitted  to 
posterity. 

Modern  biographical  literature  -may  be  con- 
sidered to  date  from  the  l?th  century  since 
which  time  individual  biographies  have  multi- 

{lied  enormously.  Dictionanes  of  biography 
ave  proved  extrcmelj;  useful,  Moreri's  'His- 
torical and  Critical  Kctionary'  (1671)  bein^ 
perhaps,  the  first  of  this  class.  During  the 
19th  century  there  were  published  the  'Univer- 
sal Biography'  (8S  vols..  1811-62)  ;  .'New  (gen- 
eral Biography'  (■to  volS;.  1852-66)  ;  Chalmer's 
•General  Biographical  Dictionary'  (32  vols,, 
1812-17) ;  Rose's  'Biographical  Dictionary' 
(12  vols..  1848-50)  ;  Leslie  Stephen's  'Diction- 
ary of  National  Biography'  (completed  in  63 
volumes,  the  first  of  which  appeared  in  Janu- 
ary 1885  and  the  last  in  September  1901); 
Appleton's  'Cyclopaedia  of  American  Biog- 
raphy' (7  vols.,  1887-1900)  ;  White's  'National 


don)  ;  'Who's  Who'   (London) ;  'Who's  Who 
America'    (Chicago);  Adams'    'Dictionaty 


Among  works  of  more  limited  aim  may  be 
noted  various  'Lives  of  the  Saints' ;  Fox's 
'Book  of  Martyrs' ;  various  'Lives  of  the 
Poets';  BoswelVs  'Life  of  Johnson*  (1791). 
the  most  noted  of  all  English  biogra^es; 
Lockhart's  'Scott'  (1836-38)  ■  Forster's  'Dick- 
ens' (1872-74);  Gaskell's  'Qiarlotte  Bronte'; 
Cross'  "George  Eliot'  (1884);  Lonsdale's  'Sis- 
ter Dorothea'  (1878)  ;  'Life  of  Tennyson,'  by 
his  son  (1897);  'Ufe  of  Huxley,'  by  his  son 
(1901);  'The  Life  of  Gladstone,'  by  John 
(afterward  Lord)  Morjey  (1903)  ;  <The  Life 
of  Benjamin  Disraeli,  Lord  Beaconsfield,'  by 
E.  Monypenny'  (1910-16).  Among  notable 
autobiographies  are  the  first  Lord  Herbert  of 
Cherbury's  'Autobiography'' ;  Benvenuto  (^ili- 
ni's  'Vita  da  lui  medesimo  scritta' ;  Pepys' 
'Diary' ;  Rousseau's  'Confessions' ;  Gibbon's 
'Memoirs' ;  Franklin's  'Autobiography' ;  New- 
man's 'Apologia  Pro  Vita  Sua'  (1864;  new 
ed,  New  York  1913)  ;  Bismarck's  'Autobiog- 
raphy' (2  vols.,  trans,  by  Butler,  New  York  1899). 
BIOLOGICAL  SURVEY,  Bnrean  of.  A 
Bureau  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  The 
bureau  has  charge  of  game  preservation  and 
protection  and  the  importation  of  foreign  Irirds 
and  animals,  studies  the  economic  relations  of 
birds  and  mammals  to  agriculture  and  investi- 


of  the  life  and  crop  belts  of  the  country.  The 
bureau  has  also  tnade  a  particular  study  of 
noxious  mammals  and  turds  with  the  object 
of  exterminatinK  diem  if  necessary.  It  co- 
operates with  the  Slate  fish  and  game  com- 
missions and  other  departments  regarding  the 
interstate  commerce  in  game  and  plumage  for 
the  encouragement  of  game- fanner*.    See  Ao- 

aiCULTUR^   DCPAHTMCHT  (W, 


t,zcd=y  Google 


BIOLOGY.  The  study  or  sctence  of  living 
organisms,  and  the  phenomena  of  life.  Its  field 
is  the  whole  brcadui  of  the  organic  world,  and 
it  seeks  to  mark  the  boundaries  which  separate 
living  from  inorganic  nature, —  to  discover  the 
principles  that  unify  it,  the  processes  by  which 
living  things  have  developed,  the  nature  of  life 
itBelf  and  the  future  in  store  for  it.  Biology, 
then,  is  the  sum  of  all  the  special  departments 
of  study  which  deal  with  plants,  animals  and 
man  in  his  animal  relations,  such  as  botany, 
loolo^,  anthropology,  and  their  subordinate  or 
associated  sciences;  uiat  is,  bacteriology,  — ' — 


»  and  principles  undci^ 
lying  its  phenomena,  the  philosophical  biologist 
must  therefore  understand  organic  chemistry, 
and  the  laws  of  electricity,  Tight,  heat,  and 
mechanics,  as  they  relate  to  animal  needs ;  and 
at  the  other  extreme  he  must  consider  psychol- 
ogy as  an  integral  part  of  his  domain. 

This  array  of  responsibilities  and  of  objects 
for  investigation  seems  too  formidable  for  any 
one  mind  to  undertake  or  a  lifetime  to  encom- 

fiass,  and  it  would  be  were  not  the  realm  of 
iving  nature  capable  of  resolution  into  simple 
elements;  unified  in  its  fundamental  structure; 
and  controlled  in  its  developmental  growth  by 
definite  "laws  of  being,*  which  have  come  more 
and  more  clearly  into  view  as  knowledge  of 
details  has  increased.  The  classification  and 
co-ordination  of  the  enormous  mass  of  facts  in- 
cessantly poured  into  his  laboratory  and  library 
by  experimenters  and  observers,  to  illuminate 
the  truth  by  some  generalization,  or  to  exhibit 
a  plan,  law,  type  of  structure  or  growth,  is  the 
high  purpose  of  the  thoughtful  biologist;  and 
the  greatest  names  in  the  science,— Aristotle, 
Leibnitz.  Harvey,  Malpighi,  Linn  6,  Buff  on, 
Lamarck,  Treviranus  (who  in  1802  first  used 
the  term  biology),  Cuvier,  Galvani,  Goethe, 
Lye!!,  Von  Baer,  Owen,  De  BlainviUe,  Leuckart, 
Agassiz,  Darwin,  Wallace,  Kowalensky,  Miiller- 
Haeekel,  Marsh,  Cope,  Hyatt,  Weismann  and 
many  otners, —  have  been  those  of  men  who  had 
these  large  aims  in  view,  and  have  contributed 
toward  a  solution  of  the  great  problem  of  lift 
The  living  world  may  be  pictured  as  an  enor- 
mous bundle  of  tangled  and  interlaced  cords  of 
phenomena,  which,  moreover,  are  never  quite 
stationary  and  fixed,  but  are  always  slowly,  in- 
visibly, altering  and  forming  new  entangle- 
ments. Every  naturalist  is  at  work  upon  some 
part  of  this  bundle,  endeavoring  to  extricate 
his  particular  part.  In  more  cases  he  pa^s  so 
little  attention  to  anything  else,  and  is  so 
fascinated  with  the  beauty  of  his  single  strand, 
that  he  draws  but  little  out  In  other  cases 
men  of  larger  view  or  more  serious  purpose, 
or  societies  of  them  co-operating,  disentangle 
more.  The  grtal  biologist  is  he  who  can  pcf^ 
ceive  those  who  have  found  a  clue,  and  is  able 
to  teach  them  and  the  others  how  still  more 
surely  to  unravel  the  intricate  threads  of  phe- 
nomena that  entwine  and  conceal  the  great 
fact  of  life  at  the  centre  of  the  puiile. 

To  drop  the  fi^re,  the  science  of  biology 
jn  its  more  restncted  and  ordinary  meaning 
is  the  co-ordination  of  the  observed  facts  and 
manifestations  of  the  organic  world  into  laws, 
and  the  discovery  of  the  principle  from  which 
all  proceed;  that  is,  its  object  is  to  find  an 
answer  to  ihe  ever-present  question  of  exist- 


ence—What it  Life?  To  this  end  goes  on 
the  incessant  collection  of  facts  in  natural  his- 
tory, and  it  ^oes  on  joyously  because  any 
moment  the  biologist  may  come  upon  some 
fact  or  suggestion  which  shall  contribute  to 
the  grand  result. 

Progress  has  been  made.    The  study  at  first 


a  crude  sorting  out  b^an.  Men  at  first  failed 
to  distinguish  between  what  was  animate  and 
what  was  inert  The  winds,  the  lightning,  vol- 
canoes, springs  were  thit^s  of  life.  Later  the 
broad  distinction  of  organic  from  inorganic 
was  perceived,  but  even  now  it  is  not  known 
whetber  some  of  the  tnanifcBtations  of  move- 
ment and  response  in  certain  'slimes*  are 
purely  chemical,  or  due  to  the  presence  of  ac- 
tual life. 

The  next  itep  wbs  the  separation  of  the 
two  grest  btanciics  of  the  organic  world  — 
plants  and  animals.  The  broad  features  of 
these  groups  must  have  been  apparent  to  primi- 
tive man,  but  it  is  only  within  comparatively 
recent  years  that  such  groups  as  the  sponges, 
the  branching  forms  of  the  corals,  the  spread- 
ing growths  of  Che  polyioans,  have  been  def- 
initely placed  among  the  animals.  The  names, 
'sea-anemone,*  'moss-animal,*  'zoophyte,* 
and  the  like,  show  the  popular  error  or  doubt 
as  to  these  forms.  Tne  relationship  of  the 
minute  or  even  microscopic  hydroids  and  pro- 
tozoans were  still  loneer  in  doubt ;  and  to  this 
a  bordcriand  in  this  great  group 
la)   of  minute,  unicellular  objects 


»=' 


where  no  one  is  able  to  draw  a  certain  line 
between  what  should  be  called  a  plant  and  what 
an  animal,  or  even  whether  some  of  the  ob- 
jects are  organic  at  alL 

As  men  perceived  certain  likenesses  and 
unlikenesses  tne  sorting  of  plants  and  animals 
went  on  crudely  at  first,  on  purely  superficial 
or  even  fanciful  grounds.  This  sufficed  fairly 
well  for  some  large  and  well-marked  groups, 
as  beasts,  birds,  fishes,  insects,  hardwood  trees 
and  the  like,  yet  led  to  many  mistakes,  sudi  as 
placing  whales  with  the  fish  and  the  bats  with 
birds.  Meanwhile  students  here  and  there  had 
become  interested  In  special  groups,  and  each 
called  his  pursuit  a  science.  Thus  arose  Orni- 
thology—  the  study  of  birds;  Conchology,  the 
study  of  shells  (in  which  for  a  long  time  little 
attention  was  paid  to  the  animal  thai  made 
them!);  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  the  study 
of  structure,  at  first  confined  wholly  to  the 
human  form,  and  only  lately  to  animals  in 
general,  when  it  was  distinguished  as  Compara- 
tive Anatomy;  Botany,  the  study  of  plants: 
and  so  on.  In  each,  men  gathered  and  recorded 
specimens  and  facts,  as  a  rule  from  a  single 
neighborhood.  Nevertheless,  curiosity  began  to 
inquire  beneath  the  surface.  Plants  were  pulled 
apart,  animals  dissected  and  resemblances  and 
contrasts  of  structure  were  noted.  Naturalists 
traveled,  and  found  that  the  creatures  of  the 
world  w^re  more  numerous  than  had  been  sus- 
Tiected.  and  varied  with  climate,  soil,  height 
above  the  sea  and  diverse  conditions,  and  when 
records  and  specimens  from  many  localities  were 
gradually  accumulated  in  great  museums,  like- 
nesses and  contrasts  appeared  that  had  not  been 
visible  in  the  small  local  cabinet.  Materials 
were  thus  obtained  for  more  inteffigcnt  ar- 
rangement,   and  classification    became   one  of 


Google 


BION  OF  ABDBRA  — BION  OF  BORYSTHENES 


the  most  important  sciences  in  the  scope  of 
biology.  The  great  service  an  accurate  arran^ 
ment  of  living  things  would  render  to  an  in- 
quirer 35  to  their  nature  was  perceived,  and. 
scie otitic  men  everywhere  searched  for  facts 
which  should  fili  the  gaps  in  their  knowledge. 
The  criteria  were  madTe  more  and  more  exact, 
and  as  classification  was  perfected  it  became 
increasingly  evident  that  the  criteria  for  all 
hranches  were  substantially  similar,  and  there 
came  "to  be  perceived  certain  plans  of  stntctwe. 
One  of  the  latest  and  most  powerful  aids  to 
investi^tion,  the  result  of  tne  perfecting  of 
Uie  mKroscope,  was  the  science  of  Embry- 
ology, or  the  study  of  the  development  of  a 
plant  from  the  seed  or  of  an  animal  from  the 
egg.  It  went  hand  in  hand  with  Histology,  (he 
study  of  tissues,  and  both  disclosed  the  new 
truth  that  the  structure  of  both  animals  and 
plants  was  at  its  basis  the  same —  a  cell  filled 
with  'life  substance"  (protoplasm)  ;  and  that 
the  multiplication  of  these  cells  constituted  the 
growth,  and  tiieir  arrangement  and  limit  the 
form  and  bulk,  of  every  animal  and  plant.  It 
was  furthermore  ascertained  that  an  egg  or  a 
seed  (in  which  it  is  believed  that  every  animal 
plant  begins,  in  spite  of  some  apparent  excep- 
tions) was  simply  a  cell  differing,  so  far  as  we 
can  yet  see,  from  other  cells  in  the  body  only 
by  its  possession  of  the  potentiality  of  indc- 
pendeni  life  under  the  fostering  of  suitable 
conditions.  Classification  had  alread/  shown 
that  its  groups  might  be  arranged  m  some- 
thi:^  like  a  series  from  those  very  simply 
organized  (ihe  one-celled  protozoa  at  the  foot 
of  the  list)  up  to  the  highly  complex.  Now 
embryolf^y  showed  that  the  changes  each  indi- 
vidual passed  through  from  egg  to  birth  were 
a  series  of  changes  from  simplicity  to  com- 
plexity and  furthermore  that  they  suggested 
a  parallel  to  the  features  of  the  successive 
groups  in  classiiication,  especially  to  those  of 
the  subordinate  ranks  of  the  subject's  own 
class.  Paheontology  enforced  this  by  a  similar 
parallel,  finding  that  the  most  ancient  animals 
fossil  in  the  rocks  were  of  simple  and  general- 
ized structure  as  compared  with  those  of  more 
modern  geological  formations:  in  other  words, 
that  structural  development  has  also  been  his- 
toric development. 

All  these  facts  changed  the  point  of  view  of 
the  biologist.  Instead  of  lookit^  at  separate 
animals  and  seeking  to  find  differences  upon 
which  to  make  new  sfjecies  and  subdivide 
groups,  he  is  now  seeking  for  likenesses  — 
points  of  unity.  It  was  long  ago  suggested  to 
thoughtful  minds  thai  the  world  was  not  al- 
ways as  we  found  it,  but  that  for  a  vast  period 
there  had  been  a  slow,  persistent  growth  and 
unfolding.  The  phenomena  oE  the  inot^nic 
world  pointed  the  same  way,  and  hence  arose 
the  'nebular  hypothesis*— -the  explanatory 
theory  that  the  universe  developed  from  a  gase- 
ous state,  and  the  earth,  as  one  of  its  parts, 
was  slowly  perfected  in  pursuance  of  the  forces 
inherent  in  its  origin.  Biologists  are  only 
carrying  this  theory  out  in  a  detail  when  they 
argue  that  the  facts  in  their  hands  can  he  ac- 
counted for  only  by  the  supposition  that  the 
living  beings  on  the  earth  have  been  slowly 
developed  from  a  primitive  source,  comparable 
■  to  the  germ-cell,  along  unequal  and  ramifying 
lines  of  progress  under  the  influences  of  their 


changeable 


This  is  only  a  de- 


tail,—  a  flower, —  of  the  general  unfolding  of 
the  universe  which  is  well  called  its  evolution; 

it  is  an  organic  evolution. 

in  the  light  of  this  grand  generalization 
biology  is  now  progressing  with  an  organized. 
force  for  investigation  of  the  great  question  as 
to  the  origin  and  nature  of  life.  This  has  not. 
been  answered  by  any  of  the  fruitful  hypoth- 
eses, like  those  of  Darwin  or  Lamarck,  which, 
have  placed  such  effective  tools  in  the  biologist's 
hands.  Toward  the  solution  of  this  problem 
all  scientific  men  are  working,  consciously  or 
unconsciously.  In  aid  of  this  purpose  are 
pushed  forward  the  incessant  and  world-wide 
collection  and  preservation  of  preserved  ani- 
mals and  plants  —  museum  specimens;  and  the 
systematic  and  accurate  observation  and  rec- 
ord of  local  species  and  their  habits  and  in- 
stincts. Much  of  this  seems  trivial  and  dry  as 
dust  in  the  eyes  of  the  ignorant  or  of  those 
whose  minds,  being  occupied  with  other 
thoughts,  forget  the  reason  and  tendency  for 
these  ever-multiplied  details  of  natural  history. 
Patient  students  toil  to  the  same  end  in  labora- 
tories of  anatomy  and  microscopy,  laboriously 
gather  statistics  of  variation,  compile  lists  of 
geographical  distribution,  chisel  out  of  the 
rocks  remains  of  extinct  races,  and  sort  and 
re-sort  in  experimental  classifications  —  all  this 
in  order  to  provide  the  generalizcrs  of  the 
science  with  more  and  better  factors  for  the 
solution  of  the  great  focal  problem.  What  is 
Life,  and  how  came  it  to  be?  What  has  been 
the  net  result  so  far?  In  one  direction  the 
conviction  of  the  universal  eminence  and  force 
of  the  principle  of  evolution ;  in  another  the 
realization  of  the  independent  life  and  action 
of  each  separate  cell.  To  the  stutfy  of  the 
constitution,  qualities  and  behavior  of  the  cell, 
whether  standing  alone  in  the  unfertilized 
egg,  or  as  a  naked  monad,  or  one  in  an  inter- 
dependent association  of  millions  building  up 
a  complex  organism,  has  biology  come  at  last; 
and  not  until  it  has  vanquished  the  difficulties 
presented  by  this  atom  oi  living  and  potential 
protoplasm,  the  cell,  will  it  accomplish  its  full 
purpose. 

Ernest  Incersoll, 
Author  of  'The  Life  of  AnimaU? 

BION  OF  ABDERA,  Greek  mathemati- 
cian :  lived  about  400  B.C.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Democritus  and  is  said  by  Diogenes  Laertius 
to  have  been  the  first  who  taught  that  there 
were  countries  in  the  world  where  the  year , 
consists  only  of  a  single  day  and  a  single  night, 
each  lasting  for  »x  months  (Diog.  Laertius, 
iv,  58).  He  must  therefore  have  been  ac- 
quainted both  with  the  spherical  form  of  the 
globe  and  the  obUquity  of^the  ecliptic.  Unfor- 
tunately nothing  more  is  known  of  his  history. 
He  is  probably  the  same  one  whom  Strabo 
(i,  p.  29)  calls  an  astrologer. 

BION  OF  BORYSTHENES,  Greek  i^i- 
losopher  contemporary  with  Eratosthenes 
(bom  about  275  B.C.)  and  with  Zeno  the  Stoic, 
Laertius  has  preserved  an  account  which  Bion 
gives  of  his  ancestry  (iv,  46).  His  family  was 
sold  as  slaves  and  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  a 
rhetorician  who  made  him  his  heir.  He  studied 
philosophy  at  Athens,  first  under  Crates  of  the 
Cynic  school,  then  took  lessons  of  Theodohu, 


tizcri.v  Google 


TB8 


BION  OF  SMYRNA— BIOT 


snmamed  the  Atheist;  and  at  last,  consider- 
ing his  studies  completed,  set  up  for  himself. 
It  is  not  «asy  to  ascertain  what  his  opinions 
were,  as  only  a  few  fragments  of  his  numerous 
writings  have  been  preserved,  but  he  was  ac- 
cused of  Atheism,  and  apparently  on  good 
grounds,  as  he  is  said  to  have  regarded  all 
questions  relative  to  the  nature  of  the  gods 
and  divine  Providence  as  indifferent.  He  died 
at  Chalcis  in  EubtBa  about  241  b,c.  His  habits 
of  life  were  avowedly  infamous.  Matyr  of  his 
witticisms  have  been  preserved  by  Laertius. 
Horace  ranks  him  as  a  brilliant  satirist  (Episi. 
ii,  2,  60),  and  Gcero  preserves  one  of  his  say- 
ings (Tusc.  iii,  26),  He  is  also  referred  to  by 
Athenteus  (xii".  P-  59],  f.  592). 

BION  OF  SMYRNA,  Greek  pastoral  poet, 
who  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the  3d  cen- 
tury B.C.  He  was  a  contemporary  of  Theocri- 
tus whose  manner  he  imitated.  On  attaining 
manhood,  Bion  emigrated  to  Sicily,  where  a 
conspiracy^  was  formed  against  him  and  he  was 
basely  poisoned.  The  poems  of  Bion  were 
chieffy  pastoral,  occasionally  erotic.  The  frag- 
ments of  them  that  are  extant  fully  justify  the 
eulogies  of  his  admirer,  Moscfaus.  Tlieir  senti- 
ments are  tender  and  delicate;  their  style  is 
cdpious,  graceful  and  polished.  Seventeen  short 
poems  and  the  famous  'Lament  for  Adonis' 
are  preserved  to  us,  the  last-named  furnishing 
the  model  for  Shelley's  'Adonais,'  edited  by 
Ahrens  (1855)  ;  Meineke  (1856)  ;  Ziegler 
(1868);  Williamowitz-Moellendorf,  'Adonis> 
(1900).  Consult  Smyth,  'Greek  Melic  Poets' 
(1900)  ;  Susemihl,  'Geschichte  der  griechischer 
Lilteratar  in  der  Alcxandrinerieit*  (Leipzig 
1891);  Edmonds,  'The  Greek  BucoUc  Poets' 
(London   1912). 

BIONDO,  Flavio,  byon'do  fla'vy^  Italian 
archEeoIogist :  b.  1388  ;d.  1463.  He  was  sec- 
retary to  the  Popes  Eugene  IV,  Nicholas  V, 
CalixCus  III  and  Pius  II.  His  encyclopedias 
have  served  as  the  foundation  for  all  subse- 
quent collections  of  ardueological  knowledge. 
They  were  called  *Roma  instaurata,'  'Roma 
triumphans'  and  'Italia  illustrata.'  His  works 
and  manuscripts  are  preserved  in  the  Vatican, 
at  Dresden  and  at  Oxford. 

BIONOMICS,  in  biology',  the  study  of  the 
habits  and  modes  of  life  of  animals  or  plants 
and  their  relations  to  each  other,  to  alt  living 
beings  and  to  the  world  around  them.  It  cor- 
responds to  •ecology*  and  to  'biology' 


It  therefore,  he  says,  embraces  in  its  restricted 


-.._  -_.e  of  oHspcinc  ind  their  devHoimtoU  a 
tboe  pnant  cxWrmil  nwnifeautioiwi  hencs  ■] 
B  loiQwIfldBe  of  the  life-relationi  t>»»t  AVitn™  h* 

vidmli  of  the  Hmt  and  different  _, „  _. 

pheni>Tiieru  of  parutivm.  lymbiDsifi,  etc.),  and  hence 
"-^'    -  1 — irlBdae  of  th«  caoditiaa  of  euateni 
the  life  end  uieintanuice  of  uuBWlt  i 


fresh  or  brackish ;  currents  of  air  and  of  water ; 
elevation  above  the  sea,  also  any  other  ^d^si- 
cal  and  biological  agents  in  causing  variation 
in  or  modification  of  organisms.  As  Wbeeler 
states : 


icludms  all  the 


By  conditions  of  existence  are  meant  the  action 
on  plants  and  animals  of  climate,  soil,  light, 
gravity,  heat,  the  dryness  or  moisture  in  the  air 
and  soil ;  the  nature  of  the  water,  whether  salt. 


"Whenever    wv    undertake  the   drtaiied  c 


tsxoaomj,  or  chorolo^y, 

Uany  of  these  subjects,  falline  under  the 
head  of  bionomics,  are  treated  under  the  head 
of  evolution  (q.v.),  as  the  struggle  for  exist- 
ence, mimicry,  etc.  Another  department  of  bio- 
nomics is  geographical  distrihudon  and  distri- 
bution in  time,  together  with  migration,  hered- 
ity, hibernation  and  seasonal  dimorphism.  The 
word  'bionomics'  seems  preferable  to  'ethol- 
ogy,' which  has  been  used  as  the  name  of  the 
science  of  ethics;  it  is  also  the  more  compre- 
hensive term.  Consult  papers  by  Bessey  (Sci- 
ence. XV,  p.  593) ;  Bather  (Science.  XV.  p. 
748) ;  Wheeler  (Science.  XV,  20  June  1902). 
The  writings  of  R&umur,  Audubon,  Huber, 
Lubbock,  Plateau,  Fab  re.  Ford.  Wasmann. 
Riley,  Wheeler  and  others  deal  especially  with 
the  habits  and  economy  or  bionomics  ,of  insects 
(bees  and  ants^  and  birds.  Consult  also 
Waether,  'Einleitimg  in  die  Geologie,*  parts 
i,  ii;  'Bionomie  der  Meeresthiere*  and  'Lebens- 
weise  der  Meeresthiere.'    See  EcoijOGV. 

BIOPLASM,  that  portion  of  the  proto- 
plasm in  living  bodies  that  possesses  the  ptiysio- 
logical  qualities  of  life.  This  term  was  first 
used  by  Prof,  L.  S.  Beale,  an  English  scientist ; 
the  word  protoplasm  had  formerly  been  used 
in  an  analogous  sense,  but  Professor  Beale  con- 
sidered that  a  much  wider  meaning  had  been 
given  to  this  latter  term  by  Huxley  and  others 
and  therefore  introduced  the  use  of  the  word 
bioplasm  with  its  narrower  signification, 

BIOT,  h«-o,  Edouard  ConsUttt,  French 
authority  on  Ctuna,  son  of  Jean  Baptiste  Biot 
(q,v.)  :  b.  Paris,  2  JuK  1803;  d.  12  ilarch  1850. 
After  accompanying  bis  father  on  a  scientific 
tour  to  Italy  in  1825-26,  be  undertook  the  ccmi- 
struction  of  a  railway  from  Lyons  to  Saint 
fitienne,  the  first  in  France,  In  1833  he  retired 
from  active  life  and  devoted  his  leisure  to  the 
study  of  the  Chinese,  He  was  the  author  of 
numerous  articles  in  the  Journal  lUt 
Savantt  and  Journal  Asiaiitme,  as  well 
as  of  the  'Dictioanaire  des  Noms,  Andens 
et  Modernes,  des  Villes  et  Arrondissements 
compris  dans  I'Empire  Oiinois'  (1842)  and 
'Essai  sur  I'Hisloire  de  I'lnslruction  Publique 
en  Chine>  (1847).  Besides  translations  of 
Chinese  works  —  for  example,  the  historico- 
chronological  'Tcheou-chon-ni-lden'  (Paris 
1842)  and  the  'Astronomical  Tcheou-pei,'  —  he 
wrote  a  'Notice  sur  quelques  procMes  indtis- 
triels  connus  en  Chine,  au  17me  Siccle';  an 
'Ejtamen  de  diverses  series  de  faits  relatifs 
au  climat  de  la  Chine,'  and  'Chine  et  Indo- 
Chine,'  The  printing  of  his  translation  of  the 
Chinese  Imperial  (geography,  'Tcheou-li,'  was 
interrupted  for  some  time  1^  his  death. 


April  1774;  d,  there,  3  Feb,  1862,  He  v  _  . 
cated  at  the  College  Louis- le-Grand  and  in 
1793  entered  the  artiflety  service.    Shortly  after- 


v  Google 


BIOTITK— SntBHUH 


ward  be  entered  the  fic^  Pofytechniqtic  and 
theneefarth  devoted  himself  to  the  stn^  of 
mathematics  and  the  natural  sciences.  After 
teaching  ^lysics  for  some  jem  at  BeaUTsis, 
he  tiecame  professor  of  the  same  nihject  in  the 
Coll^  de  France  in  1800,  and  in  18Q3  was 
elected  a  member  of  the'  Institute.  He  stood 
neutral  on  the  question  of  the  founding  of  an 
empire.  In  1804  he  made  a  balloon  ascent  with 
Gay-Lossac,  and  in  1806  was  made  a  member  of 
the  Bureau  des  Longitudes.  In  1809  he  became 
also  professor  of  physical  astronomy  in  the 
University  of  Paris.  With  the  exception  of 
three  journeys,  undertaken  in  connection  with 
the  measurement  of  3  degree  of  the  meridian, 
—  namely,  to  Spain  in  1806-08,  to  Scotland, 
Orknevs  and  Shetland  in  1817,  and  to  Spain  and 
Italy  m  1824-25,— his  whole  life  was  quietly 
passed  in  study  and  teaching.  He  published 
some  excel! mt  text-books,  which  became  widely 
known  bevond  France.  Important  works  by 
him  are  the  'Traiti  elfmentaire  d' Astronomic 
Physique'  {3  vols.,  Paris  180S,  and  3d  ed.,  6 
vols.,  1850);  'Melanges  srientifiques  et  littir- 
aires'  (1858) ;  as  well  as  works  on  the  astronomy 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Indians  and  Qiinese. 
His  most  valuable  contributions  to  science,  how- 
ever, are  chiefly  contained  in  communications  to 
learned  societies  and  periodicals.  There  are 
few  branches  of  physics  which  were  not  ad- 
vanced by  his  labors;  and  in  optics  especially 
he  made  some  valuable  investigations,  particu- 
larly in  connection  with  refraction  and  polariza- 
tion.   See  Curves. 

BIOTITB,  a  mineral  of  the  mka  group, 
having  its  characteristic  monocKoic  crystalliza- 
tion and  very  perfect  cleavage.  Its  chemical 
composition  varies  widely,  but  in '  general  it 
may  be  said  to  be  a  silicate  of  aluminum,  mag- 
nesium, iron,  potassium;  with  hydrogen.  On  ac- 
count of  the  presence  of  magnesium,  it  is  some- 
times called  'magnesia  mica.*  In  color,  biotite 
varies  from  green  to  black.  It  has  a  hardness 
of  from  2.5  to  3,  and  a  specific  gravity  of  about 
2.9.  It  is  a  common  constituent  of  granite 
and  gneiss,  and  of  many  eruptive  rocks,  such  as 
andesite  and  trachyte.  Biotite  was  named  for 
the  French  physicist,  J.  B.  Biot  (q.v.). 

BIPELTATA.  a  name  given  by  Cuvier  to 
a  family  of  Crustacea,  so  called  because  the  car- 
apace is  divided  into  two  parts  or  shields ;  the 
anterior  shield  is  large,  oval  in  shape,  and  cor- 
responds to  the  head ;  the  posterior  is  aneulated 
in  outline,  corresponds  to  the  thorax,  and  bears 
the  foot-jaws  and  ordinal?  feet  This  family 
is  one  of  those  making  up  the  order  of  Stomo- 
poda,  and  is  now  very  generally  tcnown  under 
the  name  of  Fhyl]osomid». 

BIPENNIS,  a  double-headed  battle-axe, 
mentioned  in  Homer.  The  Greek  literature  at- 
tributes its  use  to  the  barbarians,  most  espe- 
cially to  the  Amaions.  Such  axes  have  been 
found  in  stone. 

BIPES.  bfpei,  (1)  a  gcRQs  of  reptiles 
belonging  to  the  order  Sauria,  in  which  the  pos- 
terior feet  only  are  visible,  though  the  nidi- 
ments  of  the  anterior  extremities  appear  under 
the  sldn.  This  genus  is  the  connecting  Hnk  be- 
tween the  lizards  and  the  snakes.  (2)  The 
name  given  to  a  Utard  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
HmM  which  is  called  Angvit  hipti  r>y  linnxns 
and  Sctlotts  bifet  by  Gray. 


BIPOHT  BDITIONS,  famous  editions  of 
the  Latin  classics,  pnbhthed  in  Bavaria  in  the 
city  oi  Deux  Fonts,  whose  name  in  German  is 
Zwei-briidcen,  and  in  Latin  Bipontium.  The 
publication  was  begun  in  1779,  but  after  the 
French  conquest  was  finished  in  Strasstiurg. 
The  collection  forms  50  volumes  octavo. 

BIQUADRATIC  EQUATIONS,  in  alge- 
bra, equations  containing  but  one  unknown 
quantity,  of  which,  in  the  equation,  the  highest 
power  IS  the  fourtn.  An  equation  of  this  kind, 
when  complete,  is  of  the  form  x.'^Axr^Bxx 
+  C*-|-D  — 0;  where  ABC  and  D  denote 
any  known  quantities  whatever.     See  EIqua- 

BIR,  ber,  or  BIEBJIK,  town  in  Asiatic 
Turkey,  80  miles  nonheast  of  Aleppo,  on  the 
side  ot  a  steep  hill  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, which  is .  here  about  600  yards  wide, 
and  10  to  12  feet  deep.  The  town  is  sur- 
rounded on  the  land  side  by  a  wall,  with  towers 
at  the  angles,  and  pierced  with  loopholes.  The 
streets  are  narrow  but  clean.  In  the  centre, 
(HI  a  steep  rock,  is  an  old  ruined  fortification. 
Bir  has  long  been  the  point  where  caravans  and 
travelers  from  Aleppo  to  Orfah,  Diarbekir, 
Bagdad  and  Fenia,  cross  the  Euphrates.    Pop. 

_  BIRAOO,  bC-r3'g6,  Kirl,  Binm  ▼on.  Aus- 
trian military  engineer :  b,  Cascina,  d'Olmo, 
24  April  ITffi;  d.  Vienna,  29  Dec.  1845.  He 
studied  mathematics  at  Pavia;  was  a  teacher 
in  a  military  school  in  Milan,  and  in  1S25 
invented  die  military  bridge  which  is  named 
for  him.  He  assisted  at  the  building  of  the 
fortifications  of  Ltni,  the  fortifications  of  the 
Fo  near  Brescello,  and  in  1839  built  a  military 
bridge  across  the  Po  which  was  especially  suc- 
cess fnl.  Nearly  all  the  Continental  armies 
have  since  adopted  his  system  of  bridge  con- 
struction. In  1844  he  was  in  command  of  the 
newly  organiied  Pioneer  and  Fcmtonier  Corps 
and  became  commander  of  a  bri^de.  He 
wrote  'Researches  in  European  Bridge  Con- 
struction.* 

BIRAGUB,  bf-rag,  Ken6  de,  Italian  poli- 
tician: b.  Milan  1507  (or  1506);  d.  1588.  He 
incurred  the  hostility  of  Louis  Sforza,  the 
duke,  but  was  received  favorably  by  the 
French  King,  Francis  I,  who  made  him  coun- 
cillor of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  governor  ot 
Lyonnais^  and  sent  him  to  the  Council  of 
Trent.  Under  Charles  IX  his  advancement 
was  still  more  rapid,  and  in  1570  he  was  made 
keeper  of  the  seals.  In  this  capacity  he  was 
a  party  in  the  secret  council  at  which  the 
massacre  of  Saint  Bartholomew  was  organized. 
He  zealously  defended  the  Catholic  cause 
against  the  inroads  of  French  Calvinism,  both 
in  its  religious  and  its  political  aspects.  He  was 
Wtterly  hated  by  the  Huguenots,  who  in  con- 
sequence made  many  derogatory  accusations 
against  him.  He  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1578, 
and  held  the  bishopric  of  Lavaur  and  sev- 
eral rich  abbeys.    He  died  chancellor  of  France. 

BIRBHUH,  ber'boom,  a  district  of  the 
Division  Bardwan  in  Bengal.  It  is  crossed  by 
a  few  unimportant  rivers;  has  hot  springs,  iron 
mines  and  limestone  deposits.  The  chief  agri- 
cultural product  is  rice ;  there  is  also  a  large 
silk-worm  industry.    For  over  2,000  years  Bir- 


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bhum  wai  the  scene  of  the  conflicts  of  the  Ary- 
ans advancing  into  Bengal  from  Hindustan. 

BIRCH,  Hwcy,  the  principal  Jiguie  in 
Cooper's  novel,  'The  Spy'  a  romance  of  the 
American   Revolution. 

BIRCH,  John,  English  soldier:  b.  7  April 
1616;  d.  10  May  1691.  A  Presbyterian  in  re- 
ligion, he  took  the  side  of  the  Parliament, 
acting  as  a  captain  of  volunteers  at  the  si^e 
of  Bristol  by  the  Royalists.  On  the  institution 
of  "the  "New  Model"  he  was  ordered  to  join 
the  army  of  Fairfax  and  Cromwell  in  the  west 
of  England,  and  had  Bath  entrusted  to  his 
care.  He  commanded  a  body  of  horse  and 
foot  at  the  storming  of  Bristol,  an  affair  in 
which  he  50  highly  distinguished  himself  as  to 
receive  special  commendation  from  Cromwell 
in  fais  report  to  the  Parliament  In  1645  he 
was  sent  a^inst  Hereford,  and  by  a  stratagem 
succeeded  in  gaining  possession  of  the  city, 
and  with  this  the  special  thanks  of  Parliament. 
He  objected  to  many  of  the  proceedings  of  the 
party  of  Cromwell,  and  was  repeatedly  thrown 
into  prison.  He  took  an  active  part  in  bring- 
ing about  the  restoration  of  Charles  II,  and  in 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  was  a  prominent 
member  of  Parliament  He  was  a  man  of 
great  personal  strength  and  stature,  a  rou^ 
but  most  effective  public  speaker,  and  had 
remarkable  talents  for  business  and  practical 
affairs.  Consult  Roe,  'Military  Memoir  of 
Colonel  John  Birch*  (in  Camden  Society  Pub- 
lications  1873). 

BIRCH,  Sanmel,  English  ^Tptologist:  b. 
London,  3  Nov.  1813;  d.  there,  27  Dec.  1885. 
At  the  age  of  23  he  was  apt>ointcd  an  assistant 
in  the  department  of  antiquities  in  the  Briti^ 
Museum  and  latterly  be^me  keeper  of  the 
dep*rUnent  devoted  to  Egyptian  and  Oriental 
antiquities,  a  post  which  he  retained  till  hii 
death.  His  labors  did  mudi  to  advance  the 
stud^  of  Oriental  arclueology,  and  his  eminence 
in  fais  own  province  was  duly  recognized  by 
learned  bodies  and  institutions.  In  1870  he 
assisted  in  founding  the  Society  of  Bibhcal 
Archzology,  of  which  he  was  president  till 
his  death.  In  1S74  he  successfully  presided 
over  the  International  Congress  of  Orientalists 
that  met  in  London  in  tfial  year.  His  studies 
ranged  over  a  wide  field,  hut  it  is  on  his 
eminence  as  an  Egyptologist  that  his  reputation 
chieHy  rests.  His  work  was  invaluable  alike 
to  the  expert  and  the  beginner :  the  first  dic- 
tionary of  hieroglyphics,  the  first  elementary 
grammar  of  Egyptian,  the  first  set  of  popular 
translations  into  English,  and  the  first  treatise 
on  Egyptian  archaeology,  came  from  his  hand 
Among  his  works  arc  'Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  the  Egyptian  Hieroglyphs'  (to  ac- 
company Gardiner  Wilkinson's  work  on  Egypt; 
1857)  I  'History  of  Ancient  Pottery,  Egyptian, 
Assyrian,  Greek,  Etruscan  and  Roman'  (1858); 
'Himj-aritic  Inscriptions  of  Southern  Arabia' 
(1863) ;  'Dictionary  of  Hieroglyphics  and 
Grammar*  of  the  same  in  the  fifth  volume  of 
the  English  edition  of  Bunsen's  'Egypt's  Place 
m  the  Universal  History'  (1867);  'Guide  to 
the  Egyptian  Galleries  of  the  British  Mustiim* 
(1874)  ;  'New  Edition  of  Wilkinson's  Manners 
and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians'  (1878). 
For  full  account  of  his  life  and  work,  consult 
'Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Biblical 
Archeology'   (Vol,  IX,  1893). 


_._  --ily  taste  for  reading  induced  him  lo 
prefer  a  literary  lif^  which  he  was  permitted 
to  choose  on  condition  of  suimortine  himself 
by  his  own  exertioni.  He  toMc  orders  in  the 
Qiurch  in  1730,  and  obtained  in  1733  a  living 
in  Elssex.  .  In  1734  he  enngcd  with  some 
coadjutors  in  writbg  the  'G^erat  Historical 
and  Critical  Dictionary^'  founded  on  that  of 
Bayle,  and  completed,  m  10  volumes  folio^  in 
1741.  He  subsequenUy  obtained  various  pre- 
ferments in  the  Qiurch,  and  for  about  20  years 
before  his  death  held  the  rectories  of  Saint 
Margaret  Pattens,  London,  and  Depden,  in 
Suffolk.  Birch  had  formed  very  extensive 
manuscript  collections,  which  together  with  his 
librarv  of  printed  books,  he  bequeathed  to  the 
British  Museum.  He  produced  a  large  number 
of  historical  and  biographical  works  in  the 
course  of  his  laborious  life  and  served  as  one 
of  the  pioneers  of  literature.  He  collected 
fully    and    faithfully,    but    without    much    dis- 


illy.   but   without    mue 
rials  relating  to  the  ' 


to  afford  important  assistance  to  writers  pos- 
sessed of  more  taste  and  judgment  Amoi^ 
his  works  arc  'Life  of  the  Ri^t  Honorable 
Robert  Boyle';  'Historical  View  of  the  Nt«o- 
tlations  Between  the  Courts  of  Enel^d 
France  and  Brussels,  1592-1617';  'Life  of 
Archbishop  Tillotson' ;  'Memoirs  of  the  Reign 
of  pueen  Elizabeth,  frcwn  1581  till  Her  Death'  ; 
'History  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London'  (of 
which  he  was  secretary)  ;  and  he  edited  the 
works  of  Raleigh  and  Bacon, 


-  n.  1851.  Coming  to  the  United  States  in 
1793,  he  settled  in  Philadelphia,  and  painted 
chiefly  portraits  until  1807,  when  he  took  up 
marine  painting,  in  which  he  achieved  a  hi^ 
reputafion.  A  number  of  his  works  represent 
naval  battles  of  the  War  of  1812,  and  of  these 


and  between  the  Constilution  and  the  Guerriire, 
are  the  best  known.  Both  are  In  the  Harrison 
collection  at  Philadelphia. 

BIRCH  {Bciula),  a  genus  of  trees  belong- 
ing to  the  family  Betulacta.  The  principal 
habitats  of  the  trees  of  this  genus  are  North 
America,  Europe,  northern  Asia  and  the 
Himalayas.  The  common  European  birch  is 
indigenous  throughout  the  north,  and  on  hig^ 
situations  In  the  south  of  Europe.  It  is  ex- 
tremely hardy,  and  only  one  or  two  other 
species  of  trees  approach  so  near  to  the  North 
Pole.  There  are  two  species  natives  of  Great 
Britain,  Betula  pvbeseens,  and  B.  pettdvia,  or 
weeping-birch ;  the  latter  by  far  the  more 
valuable  and  ornamental.  When  young  it  may 
readily  be  distinguished  by  the  touch,  its  bark 
being  covered  over  with  rou^  exudations, 
while  that  of  the  common  tret  is  soft  and  vel- 
vety. Each  species  is  fotmd  exclusively  in 
some  districts,  hut  frequently  tiiey  are  inter- 
spersed. Throughout  the  most  remote  parts  of 
the  Highlands  of  Scotland  the  birch  is  often 
found  covering  extensive  tracts  or  rocky  eleva- 
tions, where  no  other  ligneous  plant  is  to  be 
met  with.  It  also  grows  in  glcna  and  ravines, 
adorning    the    margins   of    lakes    and    rivers. 


:,  Google 


BIKCM-PPBIPFER 


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where  the  silvery  whiteness  of  its  trunk  and  the 
li^t  and  airy  habit  of  its  spray  form  beaDtffuI 
and  interestilig  pictares,  even  in  the  absence  of 
ev«t7  other  tree.  Though  often  found  asso- 
ciatM  with  the  alder  on  swampy  ground,  yet 
few  trees  more  successful Ijr  resist  drou^t. 
Adapting  itself  to  various  soils  and  situations, 
it  iKtssesEes  a  wider  range  than  any  other  tree. 
It  is  well  suited  to  form  a  cover  on  ground 
from  which  Scotch  pine  timber  has  been  re- 
cently removed'  the  exuvix;  which  always 
overspread  such  places,  though  hostile  to 
plants  in  general,  are  favorable  to  the  birch, 
which  commonly  springs  up  and  becomes  the 
successor  of  the  pine.  The  common  tree, 
where  it  grows  wild,  attains  a  height  of  about 
30  feet,  and  the  weeping  variety  about  40  feet ; 
but  both  sorts  rise  to  a  much  greater  height 
when  formed  into  plantations,  particularlv 
when  interspersed  with  other  trees.  Although 
the  birch  is  considered  by  no  means  a  valuable 
tree,  yet  its  wood,  which  ts  light  in  color  and 
firm  and  tough  in  texlure,  is  used  for  a  variety 
of  purposes.  Not  long  ago,  in  man;'  parts  of 
the  Highlands,  the  birch  mav  be  said  to  have 
been  the  universal  wood,  ana  was  used  by  the 
Hi^landers  for  every  purpose.  They  made 
tfaeir  beds,  chairs,  tables,  dishes  and  spoons  of 
it,  and  even  manufactured  ropes  and  horse- 
harness  by  heating  and  twisting  its  spray.  The 
brushwood  is  used  in  forming  wicker  fences  to 
prevent  the  inroads  of  cattle  and  sheep,  in 
thatching  cottages  and  in  forming  brooms  or 
besoms.     The   wood   is   largely   used   for   fish- 


tadles  and  other  wooden  ware.  Ox-yokes,  small 
screws,  women's  shoe-heeis,  pattens  and  in 
France  wooden  shoes  are  made  of  it  Birch- 
trees  are  not  infrequently  planted  along  with 
hazels,  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  wood  to 
be  converted  into  charcoal  for  forges.  This 
charcoal  is  much  esteemed,  and  the  soot  which 
is  formed  on  burning  the  wood  constitutes  a 
good  black  substance  for  printers'  ink.  Nearly 
all  the  other  parts  are  applicable  to  useful  pur- 
poses. The  bark  is  employed  in  the  tanning  of 
leather;  and  by  fishermen  for  preserving  their 
nets  and  cordage.  In  America,  northern 
Europe  and  Asia  the  birch  is  utilized  for  a 
great  variety  of  |iurpases.  The  North  Ameri- 
can Indians  use  it  for  canoes,  boxes,  buckets, 
baskets,  kettles,  and  dishes,  curiously  joining 
it  together  with  threads  made  of  roots  of  the 
cedar-tree.  It  is  serviceable  in  dyeing  a  yel- 
low color.  In  Norway  it  is  dried,  ground,  mixed 
with  meal,  and  boiled  with  other  food  for 
swine.  The  houses  or  huts  in  many  parts  of  the 
north  of  Europe  are  covered  with  the  outward 
and  thicker  part  of  the  bark,  instead  of  slates 
or  tiles.  It  is  spun  into  a  coarse  kind  of 
cordage,  woven  into  shoes  and  hats,  and  in 
some  places  even  made  into  drinking  cups. 
The  Laplanders  fasten  together  large  pieces  of 
it  to  keep  off  the  rain.  Abounding  in  resinous 
matter,  slices  of  the  bark  are  sometimes  tied 
together  to  make  torches.  During  a  scarcity  of 
com  it  has,  in  several  instances,  been  groun  i 
with  bread  com,  and  successfully  used  as  food 
tor  men.  The  leaves  afford  a  yellow  dye.  The 
sap,  from  the  amount  of  su^r  it  contains, 
affords  a  kind  of  agreeable  wine.  Birch-wine 
is  produced  by  the  tree  being  tapped  by  boring 
a  hole  in  the  trunk,  during  warm  weather,  in 


the  end  of  spring,  or  beginning  of  ; 

when  the  sap  runs  most  copiously.  It  i_  .  _ 
corded  that  during  the  siege  of  Hamburg,  in 
1814,  tnany  birch-trees  in  that  vicinity  were 
destroyed  in  this  manner  by  the  Russian 
soldiers.  The  dwarf  birch,  Betula  nana,  is  a 
low  shmb,  a  native  of  parts  of  the  Highlands 
of  Scotland  and  of  Arctic  regions  general^. 
It  is  never  more  than  two  or  three  feet  high, 
and  is  generally  much  less ;  a  full-grown  plant 
being  thus  a  very  tiny  example  of  a  tree.  It 
is  used  as  fud,  and  as  stuffing  for  beds,  and  its 
seeds  fnrnish  food  for  ptarmigan  and  other 
birds,  A  similar  species  is  a  native  of  the 
Antarctic  regions.  Among  others  the  red  or 
river  birch  of  North  America  (B,  nigra) 
grows  to  the  hdght  of  90  feet,  and  procfuces 
hard  and  valuable  timber.  It  is  known  as  the 
red  birch  from  the  redness  of  the  bark  in  the 
young  trees.  Another  American  spedes,  the 
cheriy  birch  or  sweet  birch  {B.  lento),  is  also 
called  the  black  birch.  It  grows  to  a  similar 
height  with  the  preceding,  and  yields  even  more 
valuable  timber,  used  in  making  furniture,  etc., 
.  being  tou;^  line-grained  and  taking  on  a  good 
polish.  The  paper  birch  (fl.  papyriftra)  is 
another  American  species  which  also  attains  a 
large  size.  Its  habitat  extends  within  the 
Arctic  Circle,  but  it  becomes  rare  and  stunted 
in  the  extreme  north.  It  receives  its  name 
from  the  fact  that  thin  strips  of  the  brUltant 
white  bark  are  somdimes  used  as  a  substitute 
for  paper.  The  bark  of  this  species  is  put  to 
perhaps  a  ^eater  variety  of  uses  than  that  of 
any  other,  its  wood  and  sap  being  also  utilized. 
Another  American  birch  is  the  yellow  birch 
(B.  lutta),  so  named  from  the  golden  cokr  of 
the  outer  bark.  It  is  a  large-leaved  spedes, 
jHelding  timber  used  for  shipbuilding,  etc.,  and 
IS  a  native  of  the  eastern  parts  of  Canada  and 
the  northeast  of  the  United  States.  Of 
Himalayan  species  may  be  mentioned  B.  utilis, 
the  Indian  paper  birch.  Its  thin  papery  bark 
has  been  used  as  paper  from  a  remote  period, 
and  is  still  commonly  used  for  packing  pur- 
poses, for  lining  the  flexible  lubes  of  hookahs, 
and  in  other  ways,  while  the  wood  is  lough, 
and  is  employed  in  making  articles  of  various 
kinds.  In  its  native  mountains  it  may  be 
found  at  an  altitude  of  10,000  to  13.000  feet 
Several  of  thepigmy  species  deserve  mention.  B. 
pumila,  which  is  generally  less  than  dght  feet 
tall,  but  sometimes  reaches  a  hei^  of  15  feet, 
is  found  from  Newfoundland  to  Iftnnesota, 
and  south  to  Ohio.  B.  glaadtdosa,  which  ex- 
tends from  Labrador  to  Alaska  and  south  to 
Michigan  and  in  the  mountains  to  Colorado, 
seldom  exceeds  four  feet.  Other  species,  natives 
of  Europe  and  Asia,  resemble  me  preceding 
more  or  less  in  appearance  and  uses.  Consult 
Bailey,   ^Standard  Cyclopedia  of  Horticulture' 

il9I4) ;  Regel,  'Monographische  Bearbdtung 
er  Betuiaces'  (1861);  DeCandolle,  'Prodro- 
mus  I6>    (18®). 

BIRCH-PFEIPFBR,  bera'pflf-er,  Char- 
lotte, German  actress  and  playwright:  b.  Stutt- 
gart, 23  June  1800;  d.  24  Aug  1868,  her  maiden 
name  being  Pfdffer.  She  first  appeared  on  the 
stage  in  her  13th  year  al  Munich,  and  soon  ac- 
quired a  great  reputation,  her  special  role  be- 
ing that  of  the  heroines  of  tragedy.  In  182S 
she  married  Christian  Birch,  a  writer  of  some 
note.     After  playing'  with  success  at  places  as 


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far  apart  as  Saint  Petersburg,  Anuterdam  and 
Budapest,  in  1837  she  took  the  management  of 
the  theatre  at  Ziirich.  and  remaioed  in  this 
capacity  till  1843.  Next  year  she  was  eneaged 
for  the  Theatre  Royal,  Berlin,  and  here  sbe  re- 
mained till  her  death.  Her  plavs,  mostly 
founded  on  novels,  became  well  known  on 
almost  every  stage  in  Germany,  and  give  evi- 
dence of  real  dramatic  talent,  as  well  as  of  a 
knowledge  of  stage  effects  and  what  would  suit 
the  taste  of  the  theatrc-goinff  public.  Victor 
Hugo's  ^Notre  Dame'  and  Charlotte  Bronte's 
<Jane  Eyre'  furnished  her  with  materials  for 
two  of  her  dramas.  She  also  wrote  noveb  and 
tales.  Her  collected  dramatic  works  appeared 
at  Leipzig  in  23  volumes  (1863-80) :  her  nar- 
rative writings  in  three  (1863-65).  Her 
daughter  has  become  well  known  as  a  novelist 
under  the  name  Wilhelmine  von  Hillern. 

BIRD,  Arthar,  American  musician :  b. 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  23  July  1856.  After  study- 
ing music  in  Berlin  under  Rohde,  Loeschhom, 
Haupt  and  Urban,  he  went  to  Catiada.  In 
1886  he  conducted  at  the  Milwaukee  Musical 
Festival  and  soon  after  returned  to  Berlin.  He 
studied  two  summers  with  Liszt  in  Weimar. 
His  compositions  comprise  a  symphony, 
carnival,  three  suites  tor  orchestra  and  various 
other  compositions  for  the  piano  and  organ; 
the  comic  opera  'Daphne'  (1897) ;  the  ballet 
'Rubeiahl'  ;  and  a  decimet  for  wind  instru- 
ments, which  won  the  Paderewski  prize  in  19CC 
He  is  a  member  of  the  National  Institute  of 
Arts  and  Letters. 

BIRD,  Charles,  American  military  officer: 
b.  Delaware.  17  June  1838.  He  entered  the 
volunteer  service  in  1861,  as  first  lieutenant,  lit 
Delaware  Infantry;  was  promoted  lieutenant- 
colonel,  9th  Delaware  Infantry,  in  1864:  and 
was  commissioned  colonel  of  the  1st  United 
Stales  Veteran  Infantry,  24  Dec.  1865.  On 
2  March  1867  he  was  brevetted  first  lieutenant 
and  caiJtain  in  the  United  States  army  for  gal- 
lantry in  the  battle  of  Fredericksburg,  major 
for  Spottsylvania,  and  lieutenant-colonel  for 
Petersburg,  Va.  He  was  appointed  a  second 
lieutenarrt,  14th  United  States  Infantry,  in 
1886;  promoted  to  major  and  quartermaster  in 
1895 ;  and  commissioned  a  colonel  and  quarter- 
master of  United  Slates  Volunteers  for  the 
war  with  Spain  in  1898.  He  became  brigadier- 
general  in  the  regular  army  16  April  1902  and 
was   retired   17  June  1902. 

BIRD,  Eidward,  English  painter  of  note:  b. 
Wolverhampton,  12  Apnl  1772;  d.  Bristol  1819. 
He  took  up  art  as  a  profession,  without  any 
regular  traming,  and  carried  on  a  school  of 
drawing  at  Bristol.  In  1807  he  exhibited  some 
nctures  at  Bath,  and  had  the  good  fortune  to 
find  purchasers  for  them.  In  1809  he  had  a 
picture,  'Good  News,'  in  the  exhibition  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  and  so  successful  was  this 
work  that  his  name  at  once  became  known.  He 
was  elected  an  associate  of  the  Academy  in 
1812,  and  his  reputation  was  increased  by  such 
paintings  as  the  'Surrender  of  Calais,'  the 
'Dealh  of  Eli,'  and  the  'Field  of  Chevy  Chase' 
—  the  last  considered  his  greatest  work.  The 
'Death  of  Eli'  was  sold  for  500  guineas,  and 
was  awarded  a  premium  o£  300  by  the  British 
Institution.  In  1815  he  became  a  full  member 
oi.  tha    Royal    Academy,    and    he    was    also 


appointed  court  painter  to  Queen  Charlotte 
Among  bis  last  pictures  were  the  'Crucifixion' ; 
'Christ  led  to  be  Crucified':  the  'Death  of 
Ananias  and  Sapphira' ;  and  the  'Burning  of 
Ridley  and  Latimer.'  His  talents,  however, 
were  considered  to  be  rather  for  genre  than  for 
historic  or  sacred  suhjedi.  Consult  Cmming- 
ham.  'Lives  of  Britisa  Painters.*  There  is  a 
catalogue  of  Bird's  works  in  the  British 
Museum. 

BIRD,  Prederlc  Mayer,  American  Episco- 
pal clergyman :  b.  Philadelphia,  28  June  1838 ;  d. 
South  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  3  Apnl  IMS.  He  was 
rector  at  Spotswood,  N.  T.,  1870-74;  chaplain 
and  professor  of  psychology.  Christian  evi- 
dences and  rhetoric,  at  Lehigh  University, 
1881-86;  and  acting  chaplain  there,  1893-98. 
He  was  noted  as  a  hymnologist,  and  collected 
one  of  the  most  complete  and  valuable  musical 
libraries  in  the  United  States.  He  edited 
several  collections  of  hymns ;  was  associate 
editor  of  'Chandler's  Encyclopjedia' ;  editor  of 
Ubpincotfs  Magasme  (1893-98);  and  pub- 
lished 'The  Story  of  Our  Christianity'   (1893). 

BIRD,  Golding,  English  medical  and  scien- 
tific writer:  h,  Downham,  Norfolk,  1814;  d. 
27  Oct  1854.  In  1838  he  took  the  degree  of 
M.D.  at  Saint  Andrew's,  and  in  1840  that  of 
M.A.  In  the  latter  year  he  became  a  licentiate 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  London, 
and  in  1845  was  elected  a  fellow.  In  1843  he 
was  appointed  assistant  physician  at  Guy's  Hos- 
pital, where  he  also  lectured  on  materia 
medica;  and  in  1847  he  entered  on  a  three 
years'  course  of  lectures  on  the  same  subject  at 
the  College  of  Physicians.    He  took  an  active 


nd  his  multifarious  occupalions  overtaxed  his 
strength  and  undermined  his  health,  so  that  be 
died  at  a  comparatively  earlv  age.  He  had  by 
this  time  acquired  a  very  large  practice,  and 
had  made  his  name  well  known  in  his  profes- 


Electricity  and  Galvanism  in  their  Physiologi- 
cal and  Therapeutical  Relations' ;  'Lectures 
on  Oxaluria' ;  etc.  A  biographical  notice  by 
his  brother.  Dr.  Frederic  Bir^  was  published 
in  1855 

BIRD,  Isabdla.  See  Bishop,  Isabelu 
Bird. 

BIRD,  Jolu,  English  mathematical  instru- 
ment maker:  h.  in  the  county  of  Durham  17D9; 
d.  31  March  1776.  He  set  up  in  London  about 
1745  as  a  maker  of  scientific  instruments,  hav- 
ing previously  received  instructions  from  Gra- 
ham, the  greatest  mechanician  of  the  time.  In 
1749  he  received  an  order  to  construct  a  new 
brass  mural  quadrant  of  eirfit  feet  radius  for 
the  Royal  Observatoiv.  This  was  used  by 
Bradley  and  by  Maskelyne,  and  continued  serv- 
iceable for  62  years.  Duplicates  of  it  were 
soon  ordered  for  Saint  Petersburg,  Cadiz  and 
the  Ecole  Militaire,  Paris  — the  last  employed 
by  D'Aselet  and  Lalande  in  determining  the 
declinations  of  50,000  stars.  He  also  furnished 
Bradley  with  a  new  tranut  instrument  and  a 


,  Google 


BIRD  —  BIRD-LIME 


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itO-inch  movable  quadrant  Bird's  marked 
superiority  to  all  other  makers  of  the  day  is 
Strikingly  exemplified  by  the  fact  that  in  1767 
the  Board  o£  Longitude  paid  him  £500  on  his 
agreeing  to  take  an  apprentice  for  seven  years, 
instruct  other  persons  as  desired,  and  furnish 
upon  oath  descriptions  and  plates  of  his 
methods.  A  result  of  this  arrangement  was  the 
publication  of  two  treatises,  named  respectively 
'The  Method  of  Dividing  Astronomical  Instru- 
ments' (1767),  and  'The  Method  of  Construct- 
ing Mural  Quadrants'  (1768),  each  with  a  pref- 
ace by  Ma^elyne,  the  astronomer- royal 

BIRD,    Robert    Hontgomerr,    American 
novelist:  b.  Newcastle,  Del.,  1803;  d.  Philadel- 


Ulerature.  He  first  became  known  as  a  dram- 
atist, having  written  three  tragedies, —  'The 
Gladiator*;  'Oraloosa' ;  and  'The  Broker  of 
Bogota'  — the  first  of  these  often  acted  by  Ed- 
win Forrest.  His  first  novel  was  'CaUvar' 
(1834),  his  second  'The  Infidel  (1835)— both 
of  them  having  their  scene  in  Mexico,  at  the 
time  of  the  Spanish  conquest.  Then  followed 
the  'Hawks  of  Hawk  Hollow' ;  'Sheppard 
Lee';  and  'Nick  of  the  Woods,  or  the  Jib- 
benainosay'  (1837) ;  the  last  probably  the  most 
popular  of  all  his  fictions.  Its  scene  is  laid  in 
Kentucln'  soon  after  the  close  of  the  Revolu- 
tionary War,  and  in  it  we  have  a  hvely  picture 
of  pioneer  life  at  this  dat^  and  the  relehtless 
hostilities  between  the  Indians  and  the  early 
settlers.  He  also  wrote  'Peter  Pilgrim,'  a 
collection  of  tales  and  sketches;  and  'Adven- 
tures of  Robin  Day,'  a  novel 

BIRD,  BIRDE,  or  BYRD,  WUlivn,  Eng- 
lish composer;  b.  1538;  d.  London,  4  July  1623. 
He  was  trained  in  music  under  Thomas  Tallis, 


lopoly  for  21  years  of  printing  and  selling 
music  and  music  paper ;  and  on  the  death  of 
Tallis  in  1585  Bird  became  sole  patentee.  His 
first  work  of  importance  was  'Psalms,  Sonnets 
and  Songs  of  Sadness  »nd  Piety,  Made  into 
Music  of  Five  Parts'  (1588).  In  1589  he  pub- 
lished a  collection  of  songs,  and  also  a  collec- 
tion of  sacred  pieces  for  five  voices;  a  second 
collection  of  similar  pieces  appeared  also  in 
1S91.  In  1607  he  publishecl  two  books  of 
'Gradualia,'  being  a  collection  of  motets  for 
the  ecclesiastical  year  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church;  and  in  1611  'Psalms,  Songs  and  Son- 
nets.' He  continued  alt  his  life  a  Roman 
Catholic,  but  notwithstanding  this  held  a  lease 
from  the  Crown  of  lands  confiscated  from  a 
Roman  Catholic  recusant,  and  never  lost  the 
appointment  which  he  held  in  the  Protestant 
Chapel  Royal.  Bird  was  the  composer  of  die 
first  English  madrigal.  He  wrote  a  larRc  num- 
ber of  pieces  for  the  virginals,  and  also  three 
masses.  He  was  the  author  of  a  celebrated 
canon,  'Non  nobis,  Domtne,'  often  sung  in 
England  by  way  of  grace  after  meat  at  public 
banquets,  and  which  has  never  ceased  to  be 
pcq>ular. 

BIRD-CATCHING.     See  Tf a p-s hooting. 

BIRD-CATCHINQ  SPIDER,  a  name  ap- 
plied to  gigantic  spiders  of  the  genera  Mygtue 
and  Epcira,  which  catch  birds  and  suck  their 
blood.     The  species  to  which  the  name  was 


originally  given  was  iiygale  avicularia,  a  native 
of  Surinam  and  other  parts  of  tropical  South 
America.  The  body  of  this  insect  is  about  two 
inches  long,  very  hain'  and  almost  black;  when 
the  legs  are  stretched  out  it  measures  about  a 
foot  across.  It  lives  in  holes  or  crevices  and 
does  not  spin  a  net  proper,  but  makes  a  tubular 
nest  for  itself  in  which  it  lurks  during  the  day, 
seeking  its  prey  by  night.  Other  species  of 
Mygale  belong  to  the  Malay  Archipelago,  as  M.' 


known  to  die  in  a  few  seconds  after  being 
bitten.  Some  of  the  web-spinning  spiders  make 
webs  strong  enough  to  entangle  small  birds, 
which  thus  become  their  prey. 

BIRD-CHERRY,  in  America,  the  wild,  red, 
pin  or  pigeon  cherry  (Prunw  pennsylvattica) 
of  the  natural  order  Rosacea,  a  tree  20  to  40 
feet  high  of  little  use  except  occasionally  for 
ornamental  purposes,  as  fuel  and  as  a  stock  for 
grafting  garden  cherries  upon.  Its  red,  thin- 
fleshed  fruit  is  sour  and  somewhat  astringent 
The  name  is  also  given  in  Europe,  to  the  hag- 
berry  of  Scotland  (Prunuj  padus),  whose  matiy 
varieties  are  often  cultivated  for  ornament.  It 
sometimes  attains  a  height  of  20  feet,  bears 
racemes  of  flowers  larger  and  a  week  earlier 
than  the  choke-cherry  {Pmnns  virginioMo), 
which  it  somewhat  resembles.  The  fruit,  vihiA 
is  black,  is  smaller  than  the  common  cherry 
and  has  a  disagreeable  taste,  but  is  greedily 
eaten  by  birds.  The  wood,  which  resembles 
mahogany,  and  takes  a  good  polish,  is  used  in 
cabinet-making. 

BIRD  DAY,  a  special  school  holiday  on 
5  May  to  commemorate  the  birthday  of 
Audubon.  The  purpose  of  the  holiday  is  to 
stimulate  interest  in  natural  history  and  nature 
study. 

BIRD  LICE,  minute  wingless  insects  para- 
sitic under  the  feathers  of  birds  and  hair  of 
certain  mammals,  to  which  they  are  very  annoy- 
ing. They  belong  to  the  sub-order  Malhphaga, 
a  group  of  wingless  degraded  insects  allied  to 
the  death-tick  (Psocida),  stone-flics  (,Perlida), 
and  the  white  ants,  altogether  constituting  the 
order  Platyptera.  They  differ  from  true  lice  in 
having  free  jaws  adapted  for  biting  and  not  a 
sucking  beak.  The  flattened  body  is  corneous, 
hard  above,  and  the  head  is  horizontal,  with 
three-  to  five-jointed  antenna;;  the  eyes  are 
small  and  simple,  the  mandibles  are  small,  like 
a  hook,  and  the  maxillary  palpi,  when  present, 
for  Ihey  are  sometimes  wanting,  are  four- 
jointed,  while  ihe  labial  nalpi  arc  two-jointed. 
The  thorax  is  small  ana  but  two-jointed  ap- 
parently, as  the  meso-  and  meta-lhorax  arc 
united.  The  abdomen  is  from  nine-  to  ten- 
joinlcd,  while  the  short,  thick  limbs  have  two- 
jointed  tarsi  and  one  or  two  claws. 

BIRD-LIME,  a  viscous  substance  used 
for  enungling  small  birds  so  as  to  make  them 
easily  caught,  twigs  being  for  this  purpose 
smeared  with  it  at  places  where  the  birds  resort 
or  to  which  they  are  attracted  by  a  call-bird. 
It  is  often  prepared  from  the  middle  bark  of 
the  holly,  which  is  stripped  of!  in  June  or  July, 
boiled  ia  water  for  six  or  eight  hours,  and  the 
water  being  strained  off,  is  then  left  to  ferment. 
This  process  may  take  two  or  three  weeks,  dur- 
ing which  it  is  watered  if  hecessaiy.    At  the  end 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


728 


BIRD  OP  PAKADIS&  FLOWER  — BIRDS 


of  this  time  it  assumes  a  mucilaginous  form, 
and  after  being  pounded  in  a  mortar  and  worked 
with  the  hands  in  water  is  fit  for  use.  This 
substance,  when  prepared,  is  of  a  greenish  color 
and  very  tenacious.  Mice  are  sometimes  caught 
with  it  as  well  as  birds. 

BIRD  OF  PARADISE  FLOWER.  See 
Stbeutzia. 

BIRD  SPIDER,  also  called  Bird-catchbg 
Spider,  gi^nlic  representative  of  the  family 
Theraphostda,  infesting  the  tropical  jungles 
of  South  America.  Its  body  is  two  inches  in 
diameter,  black  and  hairy,  but  with  outspread 
legs  it  baa  a  diameter  of  nearly  12  inches.  Like 
the  tarantula,  which  it  resembles,  it  builds  its 
nest  in  the  ground  in  the  form  of  a  hole  about 
18  inches  deep,  which  it  lines  with  a  silky-white 
substance.  In  spite  of  its  ferocious  appearance, 
it  is  not  dangerous  and  will  not  even  bite  when 
handled.  Its  reputation  as  a  bird  catcher  seems 
to  b^  founded  on  a  travelers'  myth,  for  the 
natural  food  of  this  strange  insect  is  as  yet 

BIRD-TICK,  one  of  the  hor^e-tick  or 
forest'fly  family  {Hippoboscida)  of  the  order 
Diplera.  Like  the  horse-tick  the  body  is  much 
flattened;  unlike  the  Hippobosca,  or  horse-tick, 
it  has  ocelli,  but  in  the  snort  proboscis  it  resem- 
bles the  latter  fly.  In  the  wings  there  are  six 
costal  veins.  There  are  numerous  species,  all 
of  which  are  bird-pa rasiles.  Olfersia  americana 
lives  on  the  owl  and  other  birds.  Certain  spe- 
cies of  Lipopiera  live  on  birds,  but  afterward 
migrate  to  mammals,  finally  losing  their  wings 
through  disuse, 

BIRDS.    The  birds  form  that  class  ^Aves) 

.  of  warm-blooded  vertebrate  animals  most  dis- 
tinctive, most  easily  defined  and  most  popu- 
larly known  and  interesting.  They  are  at  once 
distinguished  by  their  covering  of  feathers, 
which  is  possessed  b^  no  other  sort  of  animal ; 
and  by  the  modification  of  their  fore-limbs  into 
instruments   for   flight    (wings).     Their   aerial 

.  existence,    from   which    few  have   wholly  de- 

Erted,  requiring  great  activity  and  exertion, 
s  called  forth  a  high  perfection  of  organiia- 
.tion.  especially  in  the  respiratory  and  circulatory 
systems  of  the  body,  and  has  led  to  the  charac- 
teristic spindle-shaped  form,  narrowing  from 
.the  full  chest  and  shoulders  toward  a  pointed 
.  head,  which  will  cleave  the  air  easily,  and  dimin- 
ishing  toward  the  rudder-like  tail.  The  graceful 
form,  to  which  the   beauty  of  birds  is   largely 


toral  muscles,  and  by  the  necessity  of 
increased  capacity  of  chest  to  contain  the  com- 
paratively great  heart  and  lungs.  In  birds 
such  as  ostriches,  cassowaries,  moas  and  the 
like,  which  have  ceased  to  Ry  ^""^  have  de- 
veloped very  strong  legs;  or  m  those  like  the 
penguins,  which  have  become  swimmers  and 
divers,  tne  changes  of  structure  are  degenera- 
tions from  the  type,  which  is  a  bird  with  powers 
of  flight. 

ChsrBcter  of  the  Feather  Coat.—  Flight, 
as  well  as  clothinK,  is  due  to  the  presence  of 
the  complicated  horny  appendages  growing 
from  the  skin,  called  feathers,  which  arc 
peculiar  to  the  class.  Their  structure  is  de- 
scribed under  Feathebs.  Those  of  the  body  are 
usually  small,  grow  in  certain  definite  tracts 


(see  pTniifLOGRAPKY),  varying  in  die  different 
groups,  and  form  a  close  jacket,  not  easily  pervi- 
ous to  moisture  and  a  poor  conductor  of  heat, 
thus  conserving  the  vital  warmth  and  protect- 
ing the  body  against  sudden  changes  of 
temperature.  It  is  shed  (molted)  and  renewed 
semi-annually.  This  body-coat  is  ordinarily 
nearly  uniform  in  length  and  character,  but 
often  is  varied  by  ornamental  plumes,  erectile 
crests,  ruffs,  and  other  modifications,  such  as 
are  seen  in  birds  of  paradise,  herons  and  many 
others.  The  feathers  arc  also  variously  colored 
in  patterns  varying  with  the  groups  and  more 
minutely  with  the  species,  whereby  they  may 
recognize  each  odier  and  be  distinguidted 
by  us.  These  ration  arc  usually  those  of  pig- 
ments incorporated  in  the  web  of  the  feather 
itself,  but  may  be  due  to  minute  scales  on  the 
surface,  which  break  up  the  li^t,  giving  it  an 
iridescent  or  metallic  sheoi,  conspicnons  in 
hummingbirds  and  in  certain  pheasants.  The 
plumage  often  varies,  according  to  age,  sex,  sea- 
son, or  all  three  conditions-  and  these  colors 
play  an  important  part  in  bird-life.  See  Couaa- 
TioN,  Photbctive;  Natukal  SELEcnoif. 


feathers,  which,  when  outspread,  support  t 
bird  in  the  air.  and  when  moved  in  the  proper 
manner  carry  it  forward  —  enable  it  to  ny, 
the  mechanism  and  phenomena  of  which  method 
of  locomotion  are  explained  under  Flight.  The 
wing-power  of  most  birds  is  very  great,  but 
the  speed  of  their  fli^t  is  often  exaggerated. 
Few  exact  facts  are  at  hand,  but  it  is  apparent 
that  the  highest  speed  is  nearer  50  than  100 
miles  an  hour,  although  the  latter  speed  is  un- 
doubtedly reached  by  ducks  and  other  swift 
flyers  under  pressure  of  attack  or  escape.  En- 
durance on  the  wing  is  more  remarkable.  Many 
sea-birds  seem  tireless,  and  swallows,  among 
land-birds,  are  almost  incessantly  in  the  air. 
During  migrations  a  large  variety  of  birds,  in- 
cluding some  of  the  smallest  and  feeblest, 
undertake  rapid  and  extensive  journeys,  reach- 
ing in  some  cases  almost  half  around  the  world; 
and  some  rcgnlarly  pass  over  spaces  of  ocean 
as  much  as  2,000  mifcs  in  width,  whUc  a  fli^t 
of  500  miles  from  land  to  land  is  accomplished 
by  many  species.  This  is  the  more  notable  as 
a  feat  because  in  many  cases  they  are  birds 
which  during  nine-tenths  of  the  year  only  flit 
from  bush  to  bush.  In  these  migratory  journeys 
(see  MlCSATiOK)  birds  often  fly  very  high;  but 
diis  is  the  regular  custom  of  certain  ones,  es- 
pecially vultures,  which  soar  b^ond  human 
sight,  yet  will  swoop  to  the  eartn  in  a  swift 
dash,  betraying  great  adaptabili^  to  sudden 
changes  in  atmospheric  density.  Other  notable 
qualities  are  the  power  (largely  reuding  in 
the  tail)  to  suddenly  change  speed  and  directio>, 
helping  them  to  dodge  and  elude  winged  pur- 
suers, and  to  catch  the  agile  aerial  insects. 
upon  which  many  of  the  smaller  species  dcpenti 
for  subsistence.  The  sharpness  and  quick  ad- 
justability of  eyesight  also  involved  in  this  is 
noteworthy. 

These  abiUlies  in  fli^t  have  led  to  the  very 
wide  distribution  of  birds,  which  occur  in  every 
part  of  the  world  yet  seen  by  man ;  and  are  the 
most  numerously  represented  of  all  terrestrial 
branches  of  animal  life  in  the  oceanic  islands. 
Nevertheless  very  few  are  cosmopolitan,  and 


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stricted,  so  far  at  least  as  their  habitat 
breeding  season  is  concerned  Thus  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  birds  bas  been  found 
perhaps  the  best  criterion  for  the  mapping  out  of 
zoogeographical  regions  (see  ZooceocraphyJ  . 
The  greater  number  of  families  of  birds  is 
tropical,  and  both  variety  of  kinds  and  numbers 
of  individuals  decrease  toward  the  poles.  A 
striking  fact  is  the  great  difference  between  the 
birds  of  the  northern  and  the  soathem  hemi- 
spheres—  a  difference  much  more  decided  th«n 
exists  between  those  of  Europe  and  North 
America,  or  of  South  America  and  Australasia. 

Reproduction. —  Birds  in  every  case  repro- 
duce their  kind  by  means  of  eggs  protected  by 
a  calcareous,  often  highly-colored  shell,  laid  by 
the  mother  a  considerable  time  before  they  are 
ready  to  hatch,  which  consummation  is  brought 
about  by  the  application  of  warmth.  This  may 
be  arranged  for  in  two  ways.  A  tew  birds 
bury  their  eggs  in  rotting  vegetation,  or  in  hot 
sand,  and  let  the  chemical  heat  evolved  by  the 
ferment  in  the  former  case,  or  the  sun's  rays  in 
the  latter,  accomplish  the  desired  result.  The 
great  majority,  however,  place  their  eggs  in 
some  sort  of  a  receptacle  (sometimes  a  mere 
hollow  on  the  ground,  or  hole  or  niche  in  a 
cliff  or  tree,  sometimes  in  a  burrow  or  nest  of 
more  or  less  elaborate  construction  (see  Birds, 
Nests  of^,  and  there  brood  upon,  or  "incubate" 
them  until  the  chick  matures  and  emerges.  In 
one  class  of  birds  {Pracoces)  incubation  is  so 
long  continued,  and  the  embryonic  chick 
becomes  so  far  advanced  before  leaving  the 
shell,  that  it  is  well  coated  with  feathers,  and 
can  at  once  begin  to  lake  care  of  itself.  Thesi; 
birds  are  the  sea-birds,  water-birds,  game-birds 
and  their  allies  of  comparatively  low  organiza- 
tion. In  another  class  (AUnces)  of  higher 
organization  as  a  group,  the  chicks  are  per- 
mitted to  break  from  the  shell  before  they  have 
acquired  feathers  or  are  able  to  move  about  or 
obtain  food.  They  must  therefore  be  shielded, 
defendecL  fed  and  cared  tor  by  the  parents  for 
several  days  or  weeks.  Out  of  this  condition 
have  grown  some  of  the  most  interesting,  com- 
plicated and  delightful  features,  habits  and 
instincts  of  bird-life. 

Food  and  Feeding  Methods. —  Birds  as  a 
class  are  omnivorous,  but  each  of  the 


of  evolution,  bas  determined  the  various  t^pes 
of  structure  that  distinguish  their  tnbes, 
and  which  are  indexed,  as  it  were,  by  the  form 
of  the  bill  and  feet.  Those  of  lowest  organiia- 
tion, —  nearest  the  ancestral  type, —  are  Uie  sea- 
birds,  which  live  upon  fish  varied  to  some  ex- 
tent by  mussels  and  other  small  marine  crea- 
tures. Many  of  the  ducks  and  sboce-birds  share 
this  marine  diet,  and  numerous  wading  birds 
eat  fresh-water  fish,  frogs,  crayfish  and  ttie  like. 
The  great  body  of  ratite  and  gallinaceous  birds, 
—  ostriches,  emeus,  partridges,  pheasants,  etc., 
that  run  and  nest  on  the  ground, —  are  vege- 
table-eaters, seeking  green  leaves,  fruits,  seeds, 
lichens,  etc.,  and  picking  up  such  insects  as 
come  in  their  way.  All  the  foregoing  are 
prKcocial  birds,  and  the  young  feed  on  the  same 
things  as  their  parents.  These  classes  have 
little  relation  to  mankind  so  far  as  their  food 


is  concerned  except  that  they  sometimes  devour 
too  much  grain  or  spoil  certain  plants.  Among 
the  hlgjier  class,  or  ahricial  birds,  the  fare  is 
more  varied,  and  while  there  is  a  very  numerous 
group  (the  cone-billed  or  f ringilline  birds ;  see 
Finch;  Sfarsow,  etc.),  which  live  altogether 
upon  seeds,  and  a  few  others,  like  the  king- 
fishers, which  catch  fish,  the  great  majority 
indulge  themselves  in  a  miscellaneous  diet  of 
both  vegetable  and  animal  materials.  Some 
called  "so ft- billed,*  and  including  most  of  our 
song-birds,  except  the  finches,  are  mainly  in- 
sect eaters,  some  catching  them  upon  the  wing, 
others  digging  them  out  of  rotten  wood,  and  the 
greater  number  picking  them  off  the  leaves  of 
trees  or  searching  for  them  among  the  herbage. 
Another  large  class,  embracing  the  birds  of 
prey,  and  a  few  others,  like  the  shrikes,  depend 
tor  food  upon  capturing  and  devouring  other 
smaller  biros,  together  with  such  small  mam- 
mals, reptiles,  amphibians,  fish  and  insects  as 
they  are  able  to  seire  and  kill.  These  are  the 
falcons,  owls  and  their  relatives;  but  a  related 
group,  the  vultures,  varies  this  fare  by  feeding 

UkIuIucm  to  Han.—  In  the  case  of  all  of 
these  altricial  birds,  however,  except  the  birds 
of  prey,  the  young  are  fed  upon  soft  insect 
food,  mainly  worms,  caterpillars  and  maggots ; 
and  the  period  of  their  nesting  coincides  with 
the  time  when  these  larval  insects  abound.  In 
the  feeding  habits  of  these  higher  birds  man 
has  a  great  interest,  for  nearly  all  of  the  in- 
numerable insects  which  they  capture  for  them- 
selves, or  for  the  nourishment  of  their  young, 
are  such  as  are  annoying  or  injurious  to  him; 
and  experience  in  many  localities  has  shown 
that  the  destruction  of  bird-life  is  accompanied 
by  a  distressing  increase  of  noxious  insects. 
In  the  same  way  the  hawks  and  owls,  by  their 
incessant  pursuit  of  mice,  and  other  small 
animals  injurious  to  agriculture,  so  reduce  the 
numbers  of  these  pests,  as  greatly  to  benefit 
the  farmer;  while  the  useful  work  done  bv  the 
vultures,  as  scavengers,  by  removing  offal  and 
dead  animals,  is  recognized  by  everyone  in  the 
tropical  regions  where  these  birds  most  abound 

Nor  does  the  relative  usefulness  of  birds  to 
man  stop  here.  They  not  only  afford  him  great 
pleasure,  by  their  pleasing  colors  and  animated 
behavior,  and  delight  his  ear  by  their  voices, 
but  large  numbers  of  them  furnish  him  with 
excellent  and  even  dainty  food.  Lastly,  this 
group  has  furnished  men  with  several  varieties 
of  domestic  poultry,  such  as  the  turkey,  pea- 
cock, guinea-fowl,  duck,  goose  and  various 
pigeons  and  partridges,  that  are  among  the 
most  valuable  of  his  aiiimal  possessions. 

Distinctive  Character  of  North  American 
Bird-Life.^  In  considering  the  bird-life  of 
North  America,  the  natural  southern  boundary 
is  the  arid  region  between  the  United  States 
and  Mexico,  which  acts  as  an  effective  barrier. 
Our  bird-fauna  is  by  this  means  substantially 
separated  from  that  of  Cetitral  and  South 
America.  On  the  contrary  it  strongly  resembes 
that  of  northern  Europe  and  Asia.  While  a 
large  numbef  of  extensive  tropica!  families  are 
not  known  north  of  central  Mexico,  or  are 
represented  by  only  one  or  two  species,  many 
of  the  families,  the  genera  and  even  a  fair 
number  of  species  —  not  counting  the  seabirds 
common  to  both  oceanic  coasts  —  of  the  United 


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States  and  Canada  are  the  same  as  those  of 
Europe,  and,  to  a  less  degree,  of  Siberia.  This 
is  especially  true  of  the  ducks,  geese,  shore- 
birds  and  birds  of  prey.  When  we  examine 
the  list  of  birds  of  the  interior  fields  and  wood- 
lands the  general  resemblance  to  those  of 
Europe  remains  close,  while  their  divergence 
from  those  of  South  America  is  very  stnldnz. 
In  fact,  Europe  has  only  two  families  of  smaJl 
birds  not  also  represented  in  North  America  — 
the  starlings  and  the  wrynecks. 

The  explanation  of  this  condition,  like  that 
of  so  many  other  facts  in  our  natural  history, 
is  to  be  looked  for  in  the  past.  Geologists  find 
evidence  that  in  the  earlv  ^art  of  the  Tertiary 
period,  and  at  intervals  during  its  progress,  the 
northern  borders  of  this  continent  were  con- 
nected with  both  Europe  and  Asia ;  and  that  at 
times  in  the  past  the  subarctic  climate  was 
comparatively  warm — perhaps' like  that  of  the 
Middle  States  now. 

This  state  of  things  enabled  birds  and  many 
other  animals  of  the  Old  World  (which  there 
is  reason  to  believe  was  provided  with  animal 
hfe  before  this  continent)  to  pass  hither  to  the 
New;  and  abundant  time  has  elaiMed  tince  for 
them  to  spread  all  over  the  continent,  and  to 
undergo  the  changes  promoted  by  the  differ- 
ences in  climate  and  food,  which  have  resulted 
in  the  promotion  of  new  American  species,  all 
derived  from  a  remote,  Old-World  ancestry. 
This  history  gives  %  reasonable  explanation 
of  both  the  likeness  uid  the  diversity  between 
the  two  faunas. 

DistfUHitioB  of  Birds  in  North  America. 
—  One  of  the  most  important  features  in  orni- 
thology is  the  study  of  geographical  distribution 
(q.v.).  Few  species  of  birds  extend  their 
range  over  a  whole  continent,  even  in  their 
seasonal  migrations;  almost  all  are  restricted  to 
a  comparatively  small  area,  the  limits  of  which 
are  set  principally  by  their  requirements  in  each 
case  in  the  matter  of  food  suitable  not  only  for 
themselves  but  for  their  young  in  the  nest. 

The  tards  of  widest  range  are  IJiose  whose 
food  is  widely  distributed,  such  as  swallows, 
seed'eating  sparrows,  river-haunting  sandpipers 
and  ducks,  and  the  predatory  hawks  ana  owls 
diat  feed  on  small  animals.  Even  these  are 
more  or  less  affected  by  local  food-conditions. 

But  the  food  available  to  and  suitable  for 
birds  depends  very  largely  on  climate ;  and 
climates  vary  according  to  geographical  condi' 
tions.  Hence,  climate  is  the  greatest  factor  in 
determining  the  ran^e  of  amy  species  of  birds. 
But  by  climate  in  this  connection  we  mean  the 
climate  of  summer,  ihat  is  the  average  degree 
of  warmth  and  moisture^the  average  kind  of 
weather  during  the  season  when  a  bird  is 
hatching  and   rearing  its  ^oung. 

On  this  continent  the  isotherms,  or  lines  of 
equal  warmth,  do  not  run  straight  across  from 
east  to  west  according  to  the  ^titude,  because 
of  the  interference  made  by  our  two  great 
no  rth-and- south  mountain  systems,  whose 
crests  are  colder  than  are  the  low  countries 
between  tbem.  Therefore  in  the  middle  west 
they  bend  northward  and  run  up  toward 
Alaska.  Thus  a  species  that  is  comfortable  in 
Connecticut,    but    finds    Maine    too    cold,    will 

— :j.  :„   »/:_!,: »»; ^^  halfway  '- 

--_     rth  of  the  la'^ 

-  because  it  finds  there  an  aver- 


age mid-sununer  warmth  like  that  of  southern 
New  England.  Thus  are  constituted  aj^rox- 
imately  east-and-west  districts,  or  ■sones,*  of 
life  inhabited  and  characterized  by  groups  ot 
birds  requiring  similar  conditions. 

Thus  characteristic  Arctic  birds  do  not  come 
much  south  of  the  treeless  region  extending  in 
the  west  from  Great  Bear  Lake  to  a  point  half- 
way down  the  coasts  of  Hudson  Bay  and  into 
northern  Labrador.  These  dwell  in  the 
"Arctic*  Zone.  South  of  it  lies  the  narrow 
'Hudsonian*  Zone,  which  swings  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  along  the  south- 
ern shore  of  Hudson  Bay  and  northwestward 
to  Alaska,  including  all  of  that  peninsula. 
South  of  this  die  'Canadian*  Zone  embraces 
all  the  wooded  parts  of  Canada  except  the 
Saint  Lawrence  Valley,  and  sends  a  long 
tongue  down  the  Mackenzie  River  almost  to  . 
the  Arctic  Circle.  South  of  this  lies  the  "Tran- 
sition' Zone  — a  narrow  strip  running  from 
New  England  and  New  York  through  southern 
Quebec  and  Ontario  west  and  northwest  to  the 
prairies  of  the  Dakotas  and  western  Canada-  it 
also  extends  far  south  along  the  cool  heights 
of  the  Alkghanies  and  the  Rockies.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Rocldes  is  .  included  in  the  'Austral*  Zone, 
which  is  divided  into  an  'Upper*  and  a 
"Lower*  half,  the  •latter  embracing  the  South 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  States.  The  Rocky  Moun- 
tains  form  a  composite  zoological  distnct  where 
altitude  has  much  the  same  effect  on  local 
climate,  and  consequentTy  on  animal  life,  as  has 
latitude  elsewhere.  West  of  them  the  Pacific 
Coast  is  a  'region*  itself,  with  many  exclusive 
birds. 

Each  of  these  zones  has  a  bird- population 
which  is  not  to  be  found  outside  of  it  in  the 
breeding  season ;  and  that  is  true  also  of  the 
vegetation  and  of  other  kinds  of  animals, 
showing  the  interdependence  of  all  forms  of 
life,  and  the  reason  for  the  facts  ntfted  in  the 
distribution  of  North  American  birds. 

Migration  of  American  Birds.— The  gen- 
eral subject  of  migration  Cl-v.)  is  treated  else- 
where ;  but  a  few  words  may  be  pertinently 
added  in  this  connection  as  to  local  peculiari- 
ties. Here,  as  elsewhere,  migratory  habits  are 
adapted  to  local  conditions  especially  as  to 
routes  followed;  and  here  as  elsewhere  most 
of  these  are  far  from  keeping  to  the  precise 
north-and-south  direction  that  many  persons 
suppose  birds  always   take. 

In  the  first  place  many  of  our  birds  make  no 
regular  migration  at  all.  These  are  known  as 
'residents."  They  are  such  as  are  able  to  find 
food  all  the  year  round  in  the  region  where 
they  live ;  but  in  the  case  of  some  of  these  there 
is  a  partial  _  migration,  the  individuals  of  a 
species  moving  a  short  distance  southward 
from  the  northern  border  of  its  range  into  a 
more  favorable  climate,  chiefly  to  escape  deep 
snow.  Then  a  considerable  number  of  species 
of  birds  of  northern  Canada  are  forced  south- 
ward in  the  fall,  and  visit  the  region  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  northern  New  York  and  New 
England  during  the  cold  weather,  but  rarely  go 
farther  south.  These  are  the  true  'winter 
birds,* 

Running  over  the  list  one  will  find  that  of 
about  1.000  species  of  North  American  birds 
only  about  225  depart  in  winter  as  far  south 


tizcdbyGoOl^Ie 


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,..  :    ..iA      ..[    ,1- 


Digitized  by  GOOI^IC 


FAMILIAR  AMERICAN  BIRDS 


■crowne.1  Kinglet.    1 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


M  tbe  Gvii  Slates,  and  of  these  oidv  two-thirds 
entirely  leave  tbe  United  Sutes.  The  fact  that 
the«e  far-travelers  include  almost  alt  of  the 
song-birds,  or  those  most  nottceable  in  sum- 
mer, makes  it  scan  to  the  uninformed  north- 
erner as  if  the  whole  bird-tribe  had  left  the 
coiratry. 

Federal  Protection  of  American  Blrde.— 
TiK  Federal  migratory  bird  regulations 
of  the  United  States  prohibit  throu^- 
out  the  United  States  the  lolling  at  any 
time  of  the  following  birds:  Band-tailed 
pigeon;  little  brown  sandhill  and  whooping 
cranes ;  wood  duck,  swans ;  curlews,  willet, 
upland  plover  and  all  shore  birds  (except  the 
black  bellied  and  golden  plovers,  Wilson  snipe 
or  jacksnipe,  woodcock,  and  the  greater  and 
leaser  yellowlegs)  -  bobolinks,  catbirds,  chicka- 
dees, cudcoo%  flickers,  fly-catchers,  grosbeaks, 
hummingbirds,  kinglets,  martins,  meadowlaiks, 
nighthawks  (or  bull  bats),  nuthatches,  orioles, 
roMns,  shrikes,  swallows,  swifts,  tanagers,  tit- 


other    perching    birds    that    feed    enarely   or 

Book*  abont  North  American  Bird*.— 
Under  ORNiTnouxiY  will  be  found  a  Hst  of 
books  to  be  consulted  by  the  scientific  studenL 
It  is  desirable  here  to  mention  a  few  books  of 
general  interest  and  givinf;  an  account  of  the 
bird-life  of  special  distncts.  For  birds  of 
the  world  generally:  Evans,  'Birds'  (New 
York  1900)  Beebe,  <The  Bird'  (ib.  1906) : 
Knowlfon  and  Ridgway,  "Birds  of  the  World' 
(:b.  1909).  For  the  Eastern  States;  Chapman. 
'Handbook  of  Birds  of  Eastern  North  America' 
(New  York  1912);  Chapman,  'Bird-Ufe'  (New 
York  1901);  Steams  and  Couea,  'New  Eng- 
land Bird  life'  (Boston  1904}  ;  Eaton,  'Birds 
of  New  York'  (2  vols-  col.  plates,  Albam- 
191l)-12)  ;  and  books  by  Thoreau,  Torrey,  Hoff- 
man, Wright,  Abbot,  Knight,  Parkhurst.  Mer- 
riam,  Miller,  Ekstorm,  Sharpe  and  other  popu- 
lar writers.  For  the  Mississippi  Valley 
Whcaton,  'Birds  of  Ohio'  (Columbus  1891) 
Dawson,  'Birds  of  Ohio'  (Columbus  1903) 
Butler,  'Birds  of  Indiana'  (Indianapolis  1890) 
Barrows,  'Michigan  Bird-life'  (Lansing  1912). 
Cory,  'Birds  of  Illinois  and  Wisconsin'  (Chi- 
cago 1910);  Goss,  'Birds  of  Kansas'  (Topeka 
1899):  (>>ues,  'Birds  of  the  Northwest' 
(Washington  1874).  For  the  western  United 
.  States,  besides  many  government  documents : 
Coues,  'Birds  of  the  Colorado  Valley'  (Wash- 
ington 187S) ;  Cooper,  'Ornithology  of  Cali- 
fornia' (Sacramento  1872);  Bailey,  'Handbook 
of  Birds  of  the  Western  United  States'  (Bos- 
ton 1912);  Keyser,  'Birds  of  the  Rockies' 
(Chicago  1902) ;  Wheelock,  'Birds  of  Cali- 
fornia' (San  Francisco  1904)  :  and  writings  of 
Dawson,  Grinnell,  Bryant,  Henshaw,  Kceler, 
Merriam,  etc.  For  the  Southern  Stales :  Bailey, 
'Birds  of  Virginia'  (Richmond  1912)  ;  Wayne, 
'Birds  of  South  Carolina'  (CHiarleston  1910). 
For  Canada :  Dionne,  'Oiseaux  de  la  Province 
dc  Quebec'  (Quebec  1906) ;  Mcllwraith, 
'Birds  of  Ontario'  (Toronto  1894)  ;  Macoun, 
'Catak«nc  of  Birds  of  Onada'  (Ottawa 
1909)  ;  and  several  valuable  documents  of  the 
Canadian  and  United  Slates  government  relat- 
ing to  western  Canada.  The  files  of  the 
omitholo^cal    mapzinea,     Tk*    Auk     (New 


DS  731 

Yotk),  Bird-L»rt  (New  York),  Wilson  Bul- 
Ittin  (Ohio),  and  Tbe  Condor  (California), 
should  also  be  consulted.  Also  the  'Bulletins' 
and  'North  American  Fauna'  (series)  of  the 
United  States  Biological  Survey;  the  'Bul- 
letins' of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture:  and  the  'Proceedings'  of  the 
United  States  National  Museum. 

Eknest  Ingessou. 

BIRDS,  FoBBil.  Birds  are  rare  as  fos- 
sils, compared  with  other  vertebrates,  and  little 
is  known  about  their  early  evolution.  Four  or 
five  hundred  extinct  species  have  been  de- 
scribed, as  against  12,000  living,  and  most  of 
them  are  from  very  fragmentary  remains, 
found  in  widely  scattered  places.  The  explana- 
tion of  this  is  found  in  uieir  small  sine,  thdr 
liability  to,  be  eaten,  dead  as  well  as  alive,  and 
the  slight  construction  of  their  skeletons,  which 
makes  their  bones  less  likely  to  be  buried  in 
sediments  and  preserved  as  fossils.  At  a  few. 
favorable  places,  however,  as  in  the  Oli|ocene 
Strata  of  Uie  department  of  Allter  in  France, 
and  the  Pleistocene  deposits  of  Fossil  Lake  in 
Oregon,  they  occur  abundantly.  Birds  have 
been  found  as  far  back  in  geological  time  as 
the  Jurassic  Period  of  the  Age  of  Reptiles. 
The  supposed  bird-tracks  of  the  more  ancient 
Triassic  sandstones  of  the  Connecticut  Valley 
are  now  believed  to  be  mostly,  if  not  all,  tracks 
of  dinosaurs  (q.v.),  a  group  of  reptiles  having 
many  bird-like  characterr  From  E<Mne  ancient 
offshoot  of  this  group  tbe  birds  are  probably 
descended,  but  the  early  stages  of  their  evolu- 
tion are  not  known. 

The  oldest  fossil  bird  known  is  the 
Archeiopteryx,  of  which  three  specimens,  one  in 
marvelously  complete  condition,  have  been  re- 
covered from  the  upper  Jarassic  lithographic 
slates  at  Solenhofen,  Bavaria;  and  it  is  a  true 
bird  although  its  skeleton  presents  many 
reptilian  features.  It  was  about  tbe  siie  of  a 
crow,  and  had  a  rather  elongated,  narrow  body, 
with  a  small,  somewhat  flattened  nead,  and  very 


and  the  upper  jaw,  and  probably  the  lower  also, 
was  armed  with  many  slender  liiard-like  teeth, 
set  in  a  groove.  The  legs  were  of  normal 
length,  ana  had  four  bird-Uke  toes ;  but  the  two 
bones  of  tbe  shank  (tibia  and  fibula)  were 
separate,  as  in  most  reptiles.  The  wings  were 
short  and  rovnded,  "but  unlike  all  known  birds 
there  were  three  long,  slender  fingers  on  each 
wing,  whidi  was  anned  with  a  booked,  sharp- 
edged  daw.*  The  wing-quills  were  large  and 
strong.  These  feet  and  the  claw-armed  wiags 
indicate  arboreal  habits ;  but  great  powers  of 
fli^l  are  doubtful,  mainly  because  tne  breast- 
bcme  is  poorly  preserved,  so  that  its  adaptation 
to  larp  flight-muscles  cannot  be  determined. 
The  bird  probably  took  short  flights,  and 
scrambled  about  in  tree-tops  by- aid  of  its  wing- 
fingers.  Its  food  can  only  be  guessed  at.  Tbe 
most  remarkable  feature  of  Architopteryx , 
however,  was  its  tail,  which  was  as  long  as  its 
body  and  head  together,  and  consistea  of  23 
free  bones,  as  in  lizards.  Beside  it,  in  tbe  fos- 
sil, arc  many  pairs  of  broad  quill-f eathers ; 
a.nd  it  is  probable  that  each  caudal  bone  sup- 
ported a  pair  of  these,  arranged  horizontally 
mto  a  flat  series  of  tail-fathers.  What  was 
the  covering  of   the  body   is  not   known;   but 


Google 


there  arc  indications  of  feathering  on  the  legs, 
and  around  the  neck,  and  ii  is  certain  that  the 
Itody  was  not  coated  with  scales.  Dr.  Freder- 
ick A.  Lucas  said  of  it :  "It  was,  on  the  whole, 
much  nearer  to  the  birds  than  to  the  reptiles. 
It  is  clearly  a  connecting  link  between  the  two 
classes,  and  yet  we  are  undoubtedly  still  very 
far  front  the  orietnal  point  where  the  branch 
i  made  from  the  reptilian  ; 


In  point  of  time  the  next  bird  known  ap- 
pears ui  the  rocks  of  the  Upper  Cretaceous 
Age,  when  the  dinosaurs  had  about  disap- 
peared, and  the  earliest  known  mammals  are 
faintly  discerned  as  precursors  of  their  class. 
These  are  the  toothed  bird$  of  the  subclass 
Neornilhes,  in  two  typical  forms  ifamed  Het- 
peromis  and  lehthyomif,  both  of  which  are 
.  found  fossil  in  the  Cretaceous  rocks  of  west- 
ern Kansas.  The  true  affinities  of  both  are 
still  in  discussion.  They  were  first  put  to- 
gether in  a  *toothed-bird'  ^oup  called  Odon- 
tomilhet;  then  rurranged  mto  two  groups,  on 
account  of  a  difference  in  dentition :  <  1 ) 
Neornilhes  Odontoica  {HetperortUi,  etc.), 
in  which  the  teeth  are  set  in  a  continuous 
groove  and  (2)  Neomithes  Odontolormcr  (Ith- 
thyornis,  etc.)  having  teeth  set  in  separate  sock- 
ets. Heiperornis  was  a  flightless,  swimming 
and  diving  sea-bird,  nearly  four  feet  long,  with 
I  long  neck  and  strong  legs  ending  iu   four 


and  rarely  came  ashore  except  to  nes^  re- 
sembling in  this  respect  the  habits  of  a  modern 
penguin.  Its  structure,  however,  was  very 
primitive,  and  its  race  soon  became  extinct, 
without  leaving  any  line  of  developing  descent, 
although  several  related  forms  were  contem- 
porary with  it. 

Icklhyomii  was  also  an  aquatic,  fish-eating 
bird,  but  was  only  about  as  large  as  a  pigeon. 
Its  wings  were  wng  and  Uttea  for  powerful 
flight,  and  its  habits  were  apparently  like  those 
of  the  modem  terns ;  but  its  relationship  is 
still  in  doubt  The  tail  in  both  these  Neorni- 
thes  had  become  greatly  shortened  as  com- 
pared with  Archteopteryx,  and  exhibited  the 
condensation  of  bones  completed  in  the 
pygostylc  of  modern  birds. 

In  the  succeeding  epoch,  the  Lower  Eocene, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Tertiary  Period,  or 
*Age  of  Mammals,"  birds  had  begun  to  fore- 
shadow modern  types  with  little  or  no  refer- 
ence to  the  preceding  'toothed*  type.  That 
seems  to  have  come  to  an  end;  and  there  is 
no  evidence  of  any  ancestral  connection  be- 
tween them  and  the  modem  types,  whose 
ancestors,  earlier  than  the  Eocene,  remain  un- 
discovered. These  earliest  Tertiary  birds  are 
also  aquatic,  however,  and  are  to  be  classed 
with  the  cormorants,  cranes,  etc.;  but  there 
were  also  gigantic,  ostrich-like  forms,  such  as 
Datyamis,  Giutomis  and  Diatfyma  —  aot  real 
ostriches,  but  with  afiinrties  v/m  wading  birds. 
Especially  notable  among  theic  was  Dtatryma 
gigantca,  of  the  Wahsatch  formations  of  Utah. 
—  a  fli^lless  bird  standing  12  feet  in  height 
and  the  largest  known  fossil  bird,  hardly  ex- 
ceeded by  the  great  moas  (q.v.)  of  New 
Zealand.     By  the  end  of  the  Eocene  period,  a 


with  groves.  .  .  .  It  is  aa  essentiaUy  tropical 
assemblage  fr^reaenting  birds]  now  for  the 
most  part  innabitants  of  the  equatorial  regioos 
of  Africa  and  Sonth  America.*  In  the  succeed- 
ing epoch,  the  Oligocene,  some  existing  genera 
may  be  recognized,  and  the  fauna  or  that 
time  has  *an  unmistakeable  African  aspect,* 
but  in  the  next,  or  Mkicene,  period  man^  tonus 
t>elan^ng  to  the  North  Temperate  Zone  appear. 
It  is  in  thb  Mioceae  epoch  tiiat  the  plains  of 
Patagonia,  then  warm  and  bearing  abundant 
ve^tation  and  a  crowded  population  of  strange 
.  animab,  were  the  borne  of  certain  great 
ostrich-like  birds  of  which  the  most  remark- 
able, perhaps,  was  Pkororhachot,  several 
species  of  which  arc  known  from  bones  re- 
covered frocD  the  Santa  Cruz  formation,  so 
rkh  in  fossils.  It  stood  eight  or  nine  feet  high, 
was  supported  on  long  legs,  very  thick  and 
strong,  had  a  rather  long  tail,  tully  formed 
win^s,  useless,  however,  for  flight,  and  carried 
an  immense  head  with  a  huge  hooked  beak 
shaped  like  an  eagle's.  A  short-legged  form 
of  these  gigantic  birds,  whose  hafiits  were 
probably  raptorial,  is  named  BrontOTKis. 

From  this  time  on  the  birds  became  well 
fixed  in  modem  types;  and  they  appear  to  have 
changed  but  little,  in  marked  contrast  to  the 
great  evolution  of  the  Mammalia,  since  the 
Middle  Tertiary. 

Consult  books  listed  under  Geougy;  Obni- 

THOUKnr;    PAl-WIItTMAGY. 

Ernest  Im<xr50u. 
BIRDS,  Neata  of.  The  receptacles  pre- 
pared by  birds  for  the  holding  and  security  of 
their  eggs  and  young.  The  eggs  of  birds  are 
few  in  number,  larger  in  proportion  and  more 
advanced  iu  development  than  those  of  fishes, 
amphibians  or  reptiles,  and  are  encased  in 
fragile  shells,  the  rupture  of  which  would  be 
fatal  to  the  enclosed  embryo;  they  are  never 
(with  a  single  exception)  buried  out  of  harm's 
way;  and  they  require  a  comparatively  hi^ 
degree  of  warmth,  continuously  applied,  in 
order  to  mature  successfully  into  living  and 
energetic  yoong.  (See  Ecc).  To  meet  these 
complicated  conditions  of  success  great  care 
is  necessary  on  the  part  of  the  jjarent-birds ; 
and  the  necessity  for  this  care  increases  in 
propoHion  to  the  superiority  of  organiiation 
and  development  of  the  bird, —  a  matter  of 
wide  range  in  the  class.  The  young  of  the 
higher  forms,  as  hawks  and  thmshes.  would 
iueviiably  perish  under  the  limited  care  tbat 
sufl^ces  for  such  lower  forms  as  the  seafowl 
In  this  view  birds  arc  divisible  into  two  classes : 
first,  those  whose  young  are  <fcveIoped  widiin 
the  egg,  that  is  before  hatching,  to  such  a  point 
that  they  are  able  as  soon  as  freed  from  the 
shell  to  run  about,  pick  op  their  food  and  to  a 
great  degree  take  care  of  themselves;  second, 
those  hatched  before  they  have  reached  this 
state  of  advancement,  and  which  hence  must  he 
fed.  protected  and  guarded  by  their  parents 
until  they  have  completed  their  development  to 
the  point  of  self-care.  Parental  preparations 
for  the  former  need  have  regard  ooiy  to  the 
proper  incubation  of  the  eggs;  for  the  latter  it 
must  be  extended  to  the  ufe^  and  (omfort  of 


,  Google 


BIRDS  OF  PREY 


Digitized  by  GOOI^IC 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


the  young  for  a  period  after  the^  have  hatdied, 
greater  or  less  accordinE  to  their  helplessness, 
which  varies  with  the  degree  of  organization. 
It  is  amonR  birds  of  the  highest  organization, 
therefore,  that  complete  and  elaborate  nesis  are 
^ne  to  be  found,  because  there  only  are  they 
required  as  cradles  and  homes  for  the  young. 

The  seafowL  such  as  pen^ins  and  auks, 
make  no  nest  whatever,  depositing;  only  a  single 
egg  on  some  cliff-ledge  or  sea-islet^  almost  in- 
accessible to  enemies,  and  covering  it  with  their 
warm  bodies  until  the  young  one  hatches,  when 
it  is  immediately  ready  to  go  into  the  water  and 
fish  for  itself.  The  great  company  of  shore- 
breeding  birds,  gulls,  sandpipers,  etc.,  need  do 
nothing  more  than  scrape  a  smooth  hollow 
among  the  pebbles  or  sea-wrack  where  iheir 
eggs  may  lie  close  together  and  not  roll  or  be 
blown  away.  The  waterfowl  — rails,  ducks, 
pelicans  and  other,— seeking  the  greater  se- 
clusion of  marshes  and  swamps,  must  do  a  little 
better,  making  a  firm  raised  bed  of  earth  with 
a  rim  around  it,  or  else  a  platform  of  reeds, 
etc.,  to  keep  their  eggs  out  of  the  mud  or 
water.  Some  of  these,  as  the  herons,  cor- 
morants and  the  like,  have  learned  to  make 
their  homes  in  bushes  and  trees,  and  these  are 
likely  to  be  rather  more  substantial  than  those 
on  the  ground,  to  prevent  their  falling  to 
pieces  in  the  swaying  of  the  branches,  or 
dropping  the  e^s  over  the  side  or  through 
the  bottom.  Similarly  the  great  tribe  of  ratite, 
limicoline  and  game-birds,  which  breed  inland 
on  the  ground,  do  not  make  nests  in  such  sense 
as  are  those  of  the  song-birds,  but  mere  beds 
for  the  eggs,  since  these  are  all  Precoces,  or 
Nidifuga,  that  is,  of  those  whose  chicks  run 
about  as  soon  as  they  hatch. 

The  higher  families  of  birds,  however, 
called  Atlriees  or  NidicoltB  (but  more  con- 
venient terms  for  these  classes  are  found  in 
the  words  •independent"  and  ■dependent," 
respectively),     must     safeguard    and     nourish 


which  shall  be  durable  and  of  such  a  form  and 
finish  as  shall  protect  the  helpless  youi^  from 
bad  weaAer,  observation  and  attack,  and  pre- 
vent their  falling  out.  These  objects  are  at- 
tained  with  a  varying  degree  of  success,  but  in 
many  cases  seem  to  be  almost  perfectly  accom- 
plished, and  the  nests  resulting  have  added  to 
them  the  finish  of  great  beauty.  Some  birds' 
nests  are  marvels  of  skill,  ingenuitv  and  adorn- 
ment;  while  others,  perhaps  made  by  nearly 
related  species,  are  rude  or  slovenly. 

ClBBufying  Nests.— Several  of  the  earlier 
writers  on  ornithology  have  attempted  to  class- 
ifj;  birds  according  to  their  modes  of  nest- 
buitding.  Such  attempts  are  not  without  value, 
but  Ihey  are  purely  artificial  and  of  no  use  to 
the  systematic  ornithologist.  The  classification 
of  nests  may  take  account  of  their  situation, 
means  of  support,  shape,  materials  or  other 
characters,  or  of  two  or  more  of  these.  Taking 
the  first-mentioned  consideration  as  a  basis  we 
may  group  birds  into  miners,  such  as  the  king- 
fisher and  the  sand-manin ;  mound -builders, ' 
like  the  brush-turkey  and  scrub- pheasant  of 
Australia ;  masons,  which  use  a  sort  of  mortar 
of  earth  or  ctay,  including  several  swallows 
and  allied  birds,  etc.  One  of  the  most  dis- 
tinctive categories   is  that  of   the   borers,   such 


LDS  7S3 

as  the  woodpeckers  and  their  relatives,  which 
carve  out  tunnels  and  chambers  in  the  trunks 
of  trees  as  breeding-places.  Many  of  the 
terms  employed  in  nest  classification  are  useful 
for  descriptive  purposes.  Such  are  pbtform- 
nests,  basket-nests,  pensile  nests,  etc.,  or,,  as 
names  of  birds,  weavers,  tailors,  felt-makers, 
etc.  As  a  general  rule  birds  of  the  same 
family  or  lesser  group  will  agree  pivtty  well 
in  their  style  of  nidification;  but  there  are 
many  exceptions,  as,  for  example,  the  North 
American  ^rant-flycatchers,  among  which  a  re- 
markable   diversity    of    style    in    architecture 

Methods  of  Constnictian. —  Birds  choose 
for  their  nests  the  material  of  that  kind  to 
which  th^  are  habituated  which  lies  nearest ; 
and  if  it  cannot  be  found  will  seek  a  good 
substitute,  so  that  the  nests  of  birds  whose 
specific  ranee  covers  a  wide  region  will  be 
found  varied  greatly  and  often  much  improved 
in  some  localities.  Similarly  the  builders  are 
lik.tiy_  to  change  the  site  when  necessary,  breed- 
ing In  trees  in  wooded  regions  and  on  the 
ground  or  rocks  where  trees  are  absent  In 
this  way  certain  birds  have  greatly  modified 
their  nesting  habits  since  the  civiliution  of 
their  habitats  ~'  notably  the  swallows  and 
swifts  which  all  over  the  world  abandon,  as  a 
rule,  their  natural  breeding  places  in  hollow 
trees,  or  about  rocky  difts,  and  make  dieir 
nests  under  the  roofs  of  farm  outbuildings  or 
in  bird-boxes.  The  nests  of  closely  related  birds 
may  vary  considerably.  \  In  many,  families,  as, 
notably,  in  the  FringMida,  some  species  nest 
on  the  ground,  others  in  biuhes  or  trees;  and 
it  is  hard  to  say  which  is  to  be  considered  the 
normal  method. 

A  bird's  nest  sometimes  forms  an  immense 
mass,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Urds  of  prey, 
crows,  or  herons,  one  of  which,  the  umbrette 
of  central  Africa,  makes  a  home  large  enough 
to  fill  a  dumping-cart.  Such  great  structures 
are  likely  to  be  used  many  years  in  succession ; 
but  few  small  nests  outlast  the  winter.  The 
hollow  bed  in  the  centre  is  formed  by  a  lining 
of  lesser  and  smoother  substances.  Small  birds 
naturally  use  finer  materials,  and  the  char- 
acter of  the  structures  varies  with  the  char- 
acteristics and  habits  of  the  birds.  Some  are 
made  almost  wholly  of  twigs,  others  of  grass 
blades,  others  of  flexible  ribbons  of  such  bark 
as  that  of  the  grape-vine,  others  of  shreds  of 
hempen  fibre  torn  from  the  milk-weed  and 
similar  plants,  others  of  a  matted  felt  formed 
of  the  down  of  cat-tail  flags  or  of  ferns.'  Some 
are  made  in  whole  or  in  part  of  mud,  and 
plastered    upon    rodcs,    cither    supported   upon 


the  nests  of  many  swifts,  some  of  which  a 
composed  almost  wholly  of  glutinous  saliva, 
as  is  the  case  with  that  of  the  edible  swift 
mentioned  below.  Some  of  the  rudest  nests 
externally  are  beautifully  soft  and  smooth 
within  i  while  others  are  exquisitely  finished 
and  adorned  outside  as  well  as  in ;  or  are 
intricately  woven,  as  are  the  pensile  ham- 
mocks of  the  vireos,  the  pouches  of  the  Balti- 
more orioles,  European  titmice  and  others. 
and  the  leaf- sewn  nests  of  the  tailor-birds  and 
many  humming-birds.  Id  most  cases  the  fe- . 
male  is  the  architect,  while  the  nule  is  per- 


iizodsi  Google 


784  va 

mitted  to  do  Ifttte  but  bfinR  materials  wtiicfa 
are  oftm  rejected  by  the  tastidkius  builder. 
While  most,  especially  of  the  smaller  lands  of 
Irirds,  separate  into  pairs  and  seek  secluded 
places  for  their  homes,  others  breed  gre- 
gariously, as  is  the  custom  of  many  seafowl 
and  moat  herons,  pelicans,  etc.  Some  of  the 
land-birds,  as  the  swallows,  betray  a  tendency 
toward  this;  but  the  most  remarkable  case  is 
thai  of  the  African  social  weaver<birds  <q.v.), 
which  actually  build  a  roof  in  common,  be- 
neath which  each  pair  of  the  Hock  establishes 
its  individual  dwelling.  This  strictly  com- 
munity  life  does  not  occur  elsewhere  among 
birds,    although    cues    of 


Edible  Neats— Few  birds'  nests  serve  TOiy. 
human '  utitil?,  though  many  are  utilized  1:^ 
other  members  of  the  animal  kingdom.  One, 
however,  is  valuable  as  food.  This  is  the  nest 
of  the  selanpane  {CollocaiUi  fucifkaga)  or  of 
related  species  of  swift  or  swiftlet  of  the 
Malay  Archipelago,  used  as  a  delicacy  by  the 
Chinese.  It  nas  tbs  shape  and  size  of  a  half 
teacup,  is  attached  to  the  rock  in  the  interior 
of  a  cave  and  has  the  ap]>earaiKe  of  fibrous 
gelatine  or  isinglass.  It  is  composed  of  a 
mucilaginous  substance  secreted  by  special 
glands,  and  is  not  as  was  formerly  thou^t 
made  from  a  glutinous  seaweed.  The  caves  in 
whidi  these  swifts  dwell  in  crowds  are  numer- 
ous in  northern  Sumatra  and  in  Borneo, 
especially  near  the  north  end  of  the  island, 
and  are  in  most  cases  the  property  of  wealthy 
owners,  who  get  a  large  annual  mcome  from 
the  hazardous  occupation  of  security  the  nests, 
which  can  be  done  only  by  climbing  about  the 
interior  of  the  great  sea-caves,  holding  torches 
and  raking  off  the  nests  into  little  l^s  hung 
upon  the  end  of  the  pike-poles.  The  best, 
which  are  whitish  in  color,  and  almost  free 
from  any  mixture  with  the  pure  glutinc  from 
the  glands  in  the  mouth  of  the  turd,  are  worth 
$10   to  $15   a  pound 

Among  works  dealing  with  the  subject  of 
birds'  nests  are  Rennie,  'Architecture  of  Birds' 
(London  1831);  Wood,  <Homes  Without 
HandR>  (New  York  1865)  ;  Pycraft,  'Infancy 
of  Animals'  (New  York  1913).  Special  books 
for  the  United  Slates  and  Canada  are  Bendire, 
'Life  Histories  of  North  American  Birds' 
(with  oalored  plates  of  ^s,  Washington  1892- 
95)  ;  Davie,  'Nests' and  £ggs  of  North  Ameri- 
can Birds'  (Columbus,  Ohio  1898) ;  Reed, 
•Norih   American    Birds'    Eggs'    (New   Yorit 


Ernest  Imgersou- 
BIRDS,  Plants  Attractive  to.  Certain 
trees,  shrubs  and  herbaceous  plants  bear  fruits 
which  afford  food  for  birds.  These  have  been 
discovered  by  observation,  and  by  the  scientific 
examination  of  the  contents  of  birds'  stomachs. 
By  planting;  those  species,  therefore,  which,  have 
been  proved  most  desirable  and  that  are  suited 
to  the  climate  and  soil  of  the  chosen  location, 
birds  can  be  attracted  to  the  vidnih'  of  dwell- 
ing-houses or  to  any  other  desired  spot  as  a 
copse  or  shrabbery;  or  or  the  other  hand, 
lured  away  from  valuable  orchards,  since  they 
fortunately  appear  to  fike  best  arid,  Intter,  sour 
or  aromatic  fruits,  distasteful  to  human  beings, 
even  better  than  the  cultivated  kinds. 


Moreover,  these  bird-attracting  plants  are 
apt  to  be  omamenta)  as  well,  since  many  have 
pretty  fruits,  red  in  color  and  often  clin^ng 
to  their  branches  far  into  the  winter,  furnish- 
ing grateful  additions  to  the  meagre  fare  of 
the  hard-weather  birds.  Among  the  most  fre- 
quented trees  are  the  various  wild  cherries 
(Prunus);  dogwoods  (Comttr)' ;  pepper-tree 
(Schintts) ;  pepperidge  (Nyna) ;  China-tree 
(Melia);  pines  (Pinus)  ;  oaks  (Qverats); 
ma^ohas  (Magnolia)  ;  apples  (Acer)  ;  man- 
zanita  (ArctotlabhylosS ;  cedars  and  junipers 
(Jimiperus)  ;  hollies  (Ilex)  ;  mountain  ashes 
(Pynu);  hackberries  (Cellts);  sassafras  (Sat- 
safras)  aiid  thorns  (Cratsgut).    The  mulberry 


tivated  fruits. 

For  shrubberies,  one  can  plant  with  success 
all  of  the  ordinary  edible  small  fruits  and 
berries  besides  the  elders  (Sambuctis) ;  service 

( )    or    iuneberries     (Amelanchier) ;     wild 

roses  (Rosa)  ;  snowberries  (Symphoncarput)  ; 
sumachs  (Rhus)  ;  sptcebush  (Bensoin)  ;  poke- 
berry  (Phytolacca)  ;  cornels  (Cornus}  ;  bear- 
berry  (Arctoilaphylos) ;  ailverberry  (EUag- 
nus) ;  buffalo  berry  (Skepherdia)  ;  buckthorn 
(Rhamnus)  ;  bayberries  (Myrica)  ;  bladi-alder 
(Hex)  ;  viburnums  (Viburnum) ;  bluewood 
(Condalva) ;  kitebush  (ZUyphui).  firethom 
(Cotoneasler)  ;  nockaway  (Ehretia)  ;  barberry 
(Berberis)  ;  and  a  number  of  others. 

Gimbing  plants  can  also  be  utilized,  among 
them  the  wild  grapes  (yUis);  Virginia  creeper 
(Psedera);  hittenvieet  (Celastrus)  ;  hog- 
peanut  (Falcala)  and  milk-pea  (Galactia). 

The  many  sparrows  feed  chiefly  on  weed 
seeds,  but  more  acceptable  plants  from  the 
gardener's  point  of  view  can  be  ofiered  to  them, 
such  as  the  various  so-called  millets  (Panieum, 
Setaria,  Eleusine) ;  princes'  feather  (Anuy- 
ranthiu.  Polygonum):  chamomiles,  white  and 
yellow  (Anihemis)  ;  California  poppy  (Eicholt- 
xia)  ;  tarweed  (Madia)  ;  bachdor's  buttons 
(Cenlaurea)  and  the  like.  Wild  ducks  are  at- 
tracted by  several  aquatic  and  semi-aquatic 
plants,  amon^  the  most  important  being  the 
wild  rice  (Zteania) ;  the  wild  celery,  or  tape- 
grass  (yailisneria) ;  various  pondweeds  (Po- 
tomagelou)  and  arrowheads,  also  called  wa^to 
and  the  Delta  duck  potato  (Sagillaria) .  The 
wild  millet  (Echinoehloa)  and  chufa  tubers 
(Cypents)  also  aSord  them  food.  0>nsult 
Kennard,  H.,  'List  of  "trees.  Shrubs,  Vines  and 
Herbaceous  Plants,  native  to  New  Englandi, 
bearing  fruit  or  seeds  attractive  to .  Birds' 
(Rf^rint  from  Bird-Lore,  Vol  XIV,  No.  4, 
1912);   McAtet  W.   L.,    'Plants  useful  t 


pamphlets,  farmers'  bulletins,  circulars  and  re- 
ports published  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  and  Bureau  of  Kological 

HiLEN   InGRKSOU.. 

BIRDS,   Protection    of.     During   all    the 
early  history  of  this  country  little  or  no  atten- 
paid  to  the_  destruction  of  birds 


Google 


2  FMnu  of  FMt  —  a,  uiciBMl  palnule  foot ;  b,  k,  lob«-  bill ;  I,  up  bill ;  m,  imuari ;  a, 
foot;  c,  (,  lataMOCiil  foot;  d,  numsi'i  loot;  e,  Knlchei's  4  FeathHa  ol  ■  Biid  -— i, 

foot;    f,  tatipalnute   fool;     b,  palnule   toot;   i,  piaurlaa  iCal;  d,  bUli  c,  cbaak;  f,  biec 

foot;  J,  m,  acanHtiil  or  Taketwil;   1,  iMff  loot.  i,  ctddp;  j  and  li.  lickle  f» 

a  Ponm  of  Head  and  Bill  —  a,  Oaminca;  b,  •pood  quilli; ^ —  — ■" ' 

bin;  c,  rcUow-banmwi ;  d,  tbnuta:  a,  b«wk;  f,  pcbcan;  dar-pi 


■ickle  (wtbcra:  I,  \aA:  m.  f'^^ 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


until  many  years  Jater  that  any  pfoteclion  was 
.  thrown  over  small  trirds,  even  in  New  England 
About  1860  it  began  to  be  fashionable  for 
women  to  adorn  tneir  bats  and  other  decora- 
tive garments  with  the  feathers  of  birds,  and 
die  whole  world  was  ransacked  for  fine 
feathers.  The  enormous  destruction  of  bird- 
life  large  and  small  that  ensued  pained  bird- 
lovera  and  humane  persons,  and  alarmed  econo- 
mists, who  understood  the  immensely  beneficial 
service  birds  did  in  aiding  to  keep  down  the 
hordes  of  injurious  insects  that  preyed  on  our 

Sain  fields,  orchards  and  gardens.  Societies  for 
rd-protection  were  organized  in  Great  Britain 
and  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  in  the 
United  Stales  Atidubon  societies  came  into 
existence,  and  exerted  a  powerful  and  perman- 
ent influence,  as  described  elsewhere  (see 
AuDUaoK  Societies).  The  result  of  this  was 
to  discourage  the  wearing  of  featber-oinaments, 
and  the  restriction  of  the  local  supply,  by  laws 
passed  in  most  of  the  States  prohibiting  the 
killing  of  game-birds  and  wild  fowl  except  dur- 
ing limited  seasons  of  the  year;  and  the  pro- 
hibition of  the  killing,  or  destruction  of  their 
eggs,  of  all  other  birds,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
such  as  some  hawks,  the  crow,  etc.,  regarded 
as  injurious.  With  these  laws  behind  them  the 
Audubon  societies  and  other  friends  of  the 
birds  were  able  to  punish  wanton  shooting  and 
trapping  guard  breeding-colonies  of  herons 
(especially  the  egrets),  gulls,  terns  and  wild- 
fowl; and  to  carry  out  plans,  now  widely  use- 
ful, for  education  of  the  young  in  the  interest 
and  value  of  birds,  and  regard  for  them  and 
for  other  native  animals.  In  this  way  the  de- 
struction of  birds  for  millinery  use  was  largely 
stopped;  but  in  order  to  complete  the  reform 
greater  co-operation  with  foreign  efforts  in  the 
same  direction  was  needed.  This  was  seen  to 
be  a  matter  of  Federal  action,  and  first  resulted 
in  the  United  States  Statute  of  4  March  19CB, 
known  as  the  Lacey  Act,  This  prohibited  the 
importation  into  the  United  States  of  any  bird 
or  other  animal  declared  by  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  to  be  injurious;  and  forbade  com- 
mon carriers  handling  or  trans[)orting  any  stich 
animals,  or  their  dead  bodies,  or  parts  thereof, 
or  any  animals  killed  in,  or  shipped  from,  any 
State  or  Territory  in  violation  of  the  laws. 
This  prevented  would-be  evaders  taking  ad- 
vantage of  inequalities  between  the  States  as 
to  'open  seasons*  for  game. 

This  inequality  among  State  laws  as  to  the 
periods  when  shooting  was  permitted  was  the 
cause  of  continual  dissatisfaction  and  evil,_  es- 
pecially as  to  ducks,  ^eese  and  shore-birds, 
during  their  annual  migrations  between  the 
tropics  and  iheir  northern  breedinif-places ;  the 
open  season  for  them  began  earlv  in  the  South 
and  extended  late  in  the  N'orth,  so  that  the 
intent  of  various  local  laws  was  practically 
annulled,  and  this  class  of  birds  was  threatened 
with  extinction.  After  a  long  campaign  of 
effort  Congress  came  to  adopt  the  theory  that 
the  migratory  birds,  being  in  most  cases  mere 
travelers  across  States,  were  not  local  residents 
nor  State  property,  but  belonged  to  the  people 
at  lai^;  and  if  they  were  to  be  saved  to  the 
people  the  national  authority  must  intervene. 
Congress,  therefore,  passed  (4  March  1913) 
the  Migratoiy  Bird  Law,  popularly  known  as 
the  McLean  Law  in  compliment  to  its  foremost 


wild  piaeini.  and  a 
■  birds  vliieb  in  tl 


- bewitniB  Ae 

«ik1  vtatteboa  of  th*  "  ...._..- 

•hull   not  ba  fcaCroy -. , 

heanifter  provided  Ifcdrdor.    Tbc  D^rti 


of  A^jcol- 


These  regulations  have  been  issued  in  suc- 
cessive bulletins  by  the  Biological  Bureau  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  with  slight 
changes  from  year  to  year.  The  most  import- 
ant effect  of  this  law  —  and  a  very  far-reaching 
benefit  — is  stoppage  of  the  shooting  of  wild 
fowl  in  the  spnng,  an  evil  especially  prevalent 
in  the  Mississippi  valley. 

The  well-disposed  people  of  Canada  had 
been  equally  active  in  bird- protect! on  with 
those  of  Ihe  United  States,  but  met  with  the 
similar  difficulty  of  inequality  of  laws  between 
their  provinces ;  furthermore  both  countries 
were  hampered  by  gunners  and  dealers  shoot- 
ing and  trafficking  more  or  less  illegally  across 
the  border.  It  was  perceived  after  the  passage 
of  the  Migratoi?  Bird  Law  iu  1913  that  its  full 
purpose  could  not  be  realixed  in  the  United 
States,  or  availed  of  by  the  Canadians,  exc^t  by 
'co-operation.  This  resulted,  after  much  effort, 
in  formulating  a  'convention*  or  treaty  be- 
tween this  country  and  Great  Britain  ( for  Can- 
ada), which  unified  the  protective  laws  of  both 
countries.  This  treaty  was  perfected  in  the 
autumn  of  1916  and  proclaimed  by  the  Presi- 
dent on  8  December;  and  several  months  later 
Congress  passed  an  'enabling  act,*  giving 
power  and  money  to  the  designated  oflicials  to 
enforce  its  observance,  as  Canada  had  pre- 
viously done  for  its  side  of  the  border.  This 
treaty  incorporates  the  substance  of  the  Migra- 
tory Bird  Law ;  declares  that  the  close  season 
on  migratory  game  birds  shall  be  between  10 
March  and  1  September  (except  for  shore-birds 
along  the  northeastern  coast,  for  which  the  close 
season  shall  be  1  February  to  IS  AugustJ ;  pro- 
hibits the  'killing,  capture  or  destruction  of 
eggs  of  all  migratory  song-birds  at  all  times 
(with  certain  special  local  provisions  and  ex- 
ceptions) ;  and  establishes  prohibitory  regula- 
tions in  resard  to  international  commerce  in 
game  or  omer  birds.  Consult  Forbush,  'Use- 
tut  Birds  and  Their  Protection)  (Boston  1908), 
and  publications  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  A^culture  (Biological  Survey),  Re- 
ports of  ^me  Conunisstons  of  the  various 
States  and  provinces  and  r^Kirts  and  publica- 
tions of  the  National  Assoaation  of  Audubon 
Societies  (New  York), 

EkIVBST  InCERSOU- 


Birds  is  flle  establishment  of  Cloud  Cuckoo 
town  or  Nephelococcygia,  a  city  in  mid-air, 
in  order  to  starve  out  the  gods  by  cutting  their 
communications  with  the  earth  and  restore  to 
the  birds  their  rightful  sovereignty.  It  was 
produced  at  the  time  of  the  Sicilian  expedi- 
tion. But  the  traces  which  some  modern 
critics  have  detected  of  admonitory  satire  of 
that  overamUtious  project  arc  very  faint  and 


.Google 


736 


BIRDS  —  BIRD^-FOOT 


nebnious.  The  fleet  tud  sailed,  and  even  an 
Atbenian  audience  would  hardly  have  tolerated 
unpatriotic  and  ill-omened  ridicule  of  an  enter- 
prise to  which  the  entire  power  and  the  future 
of  Athens  were  pledged.  The  comedy  is  then 
in  the  main  a  pure  pbantasia  into  which 
Aristophanes  has  distilled  the  quintessence  of 
all  the  bird  vocabulary,  the  bird  lore,  the  bird 
mythology,   the  bird  poetry  of  the  Greeks. 

Plausible  and  Hopeful  with  a  raven  and  a. 
jackdaw  for  guides  are  wandering  in  quest  of 
some  quieter  city  than  litigious  and  party- 
ridden  Adiens.  Thev  knock  at  the  doors  of 
birdland  and  a  long  beakn]  runner  bird  'opens 
the  wood"  and  admits  ihem  to  the  presence  of 
King  Hoopoe,  rtie  hero  of  Sophocles'  recent 
tragedy.  They  have  so  to  speak  gone  'through 
the  looking  glass.* 

After  some  preliminary  badinage^ the  great 
thou^t  of  the  foundation  of  Bird  City  strikes 
Plausible.  Hoopoe  in  a  lovely  lync  summons 
his  mate,  the  nightingale,  whose  answering  song 
is  represented  by  a  flulc  solo,  and  calls  all  the 
birds  to  council.  The  chorus  of  birds  come 
fluttering,  twittering  and  hopping  in,  amid  the 
scurrilous  comments  of  Plausible  and  Hopeful. 
They  are  at  first  very  angry  with  Hoopoe  tor 
entertaining  their  enemy,  man.  The  threatened 
conflict  is  resolved  by  the  usual  compromise 
and  there  follows  a.  set  debate  on  the  magnifi- 
cent new  project  submitted  to  them  by  the  "two 
strangers  from  wise  Hellas,*  The  birds  are ' 
won  over  by  Plausible's  denunciations  of  the 
usurpations  of  the  Olympians  that  have  robbed 
them  of  their  ancient  prerogatives.  The  birds 
themselves  expand  and  develop  this  theme  in  the 
magnificent  anapaests  amusingly  parai^rased 
t^  Courdiope  in  his  charming  'Paradise  of 
Birds.* 


J]  high  in 


And 


Matthew  Arnold's  Poor  Hathias  draws  its 
inspiration  from  the  same  source. 

"Wu  it  ai  the  Grecian  tings 
Birds  were  bnm  thp  6nt  c^  tilings?" 

Andrew  Lang  transposes  it  into  the  key  of 
savage  ethnology  in  his  'Barbarous  Bird  Gods.' 

wit  thai  on  rast  Ihnnsh  •«  "t  and 
:.  and  are  bkbed  ta  the  pan, 

low  and  made  vor  ere  the  making  of  man." 

Swinburne  translates  it  to  show.how  nearly 
English  anapests  match  the  resonant  harmo' 
nies  of  the  Greek. 

■B  dweneri  tiv  natur*  m  darlnmi  and 
f  mire.  unendur> 


•re  tpikvd  oi 


like  to  ttiF  Icavea'  aeneratioBi 
That  are  little  of  mi^t,  that  at; 


The  plan  once  accepted,  execution  follows 

with   magic   celerity.       The   turds   discover   in 

-  themselves  all  needful  capacities  and  resources. 

"There  came  a  body  of  thirty  thonnnd  crsnaa 
With  sUmn  from  Africa  in  their  crawg  and  giuardi, 
Which  the  stone  ciulewi  and  itonr  chatterers 
Worlnd  into  shape  and  finiihed.     The  aand  martnu 
And  mud  Inks  tco  m.-e  buay  in  their  denartmant. 
Miiinu  the  morUr  wh^r  the  water  bird. 
As  fait  aa  it  was  needed  brought  the  water."  (Frerel 

After  the  realiiation  of  tbe  happy  thought 
the  last  half  of  the  comedy  as  usual  illustrates 
its  consequences  in  a  series  of  farcical  scenes. 


The  new  colony  b  visited  by  every  type  of 
ambitious,  designing  projector  and  fakir  in 
Greece.  And  Plausible's  dealings  with  the  peti- 
tions and  the  pretensions  of  the  poet,  the  priest, 
the  political  sycophant,  the  sophist,  and  designer 
of  the  city  beautiful,  alTorcI  material  for  so 
many  scenes  of  parody,  bulToonerv  and  farce. 
Prometheus  comes  in  camouflageil  by  an  um- 
brella from  the  thunder  bolts  of  Zeus.  Winged 
Iiis,  messenger  of  the  Homeric  gods,  in  the 
role  of  a  saucy  soubretle  is  arrested  and 
brought  in  by  the  guard  for  "flying  about  in 
other  peoples  chaos."  And  her  threats  to  tell 
*Pa  Zpus*  on  them  are  answered  by  Plausible 
in  terrific  strains  of  more  than  .Sschylean 
sublimi^.  Finally  a  deputation  from  the  gods 
headtd  by  Neptune  and  Heracles  appears  to 
treat  for  terms  of  peace.  Heracles,  uie  glut- 
ton, and  shirtsleeve  diplomatisi,  cannot  resist 
the  savor  of  a  dish  of  rebel  squabs  which 
Plausible  is  ostentatiously  preparing  and  he 
concedes  a  peace  that  yields  to  the  birds  the 
beautiful  maiden  Sovereignty  herself.  A 
riotous  celebration  of  the  marriage  of  Plaus- 
ible and  Sovereignty  furnishes  the  motive  of 
the  song  and  dance  and  revelry  of  the  conclud- 
ing scenes. 

There  is  an  interesting  account  of  a  modem 
performance  of  the  play  at  Cambridge,  Eng- 
land, by  Jebb  in  the  Fortnightly  Review  41.88. 

Paul  Skohey, 
Head    of    Greek    Department,     University    of 
Chicago. 


BIRDS  OP  AMERICA,  The,  the  monu- 
mental work  of  John  James  Audubon,  the 
great  American  naturalist,  first  published  in 
England  between  the  years  1827  and  1S30.  It 
contained  colored  illustrations  of  1,06S  species 
of  birds.  The  text  is  descriptive  of  the  habits 
and  manners  of  the  birds  observed  by  Audubon 
himself  in  his  long  wanderings  over  the  North 
American  c " 


BIRD'S-EYE  LIMESTONE,  one  of  the 
subgroup  into  which  the  Lower  Silurian  has 
been  divided  by  New  York  Slate  geologists,  now 
called  Lowville  Limestone,  in  which  the  crys- 
tallized corals  of  the  genus  Tetradium  appear 
as  whiti^  points.  The  maximtim  thickness  is 
30  feet  but  is  generally  not  over  20  feet. 
The  rock  is  a  fine-grained  limestone,  generally 
of  a  dove  color  and  when  free  from  the 
whitish  points,  or  *eyes,*  is  used  as  a  secondary 
grade  of  lithographic  stone.  A  tribolite  (Ba- 
thyunu  extans)  is  a  characteristic  fossil  of  the 
Lowvitte  limestone. 

BIRD'S-FOOT,  {Omithop»s),  a  gwius  of 
about  seven  species  of  stjal)  slender  jHnnate- 
leaved,  white,  pink  or  yellow  flowered  annual 
herbs  of   the  natural  order  Leguminota.     The 


the  shape  of  the  articulated,  cylin 
which  resemble  tbe  bent  daws  of  a  bird.  The 
principal  species,  0.  sativnt,  is  used  as  a  forage 
plant.  It  is  a  member  of  the  sub-family  Papilio- 
nacete  of  the  LeguminosK.    A  small  plant  of  this 

Senus  (0.  perpHsillvs),  having  white  or  yellow 
owers  streaked  with  red,  is  common  in  Great 
Britain  and  on  the  continent. 


t,zcd=y  Google 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


lizcdbyGooi^le 


lizcdbyGooi^le